REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

Introduction
The plants in which the sex organs are carried within the flowers and the seeds are
enclosed in a fruit are called angiosperms. Angiosperms are commonly known as
flowering plants. The flowering plants reproduce by ‘sexual reproduction’ method.
This means that two sexes (male and female) are involved in reproduction in
flowering plants. Like human beings, plants have also male and female sex organs,
though they are different in form from humans. The sex organs (or reproductive
organs) of a plant are in its flowers. In other words, flowers contain the sexual
reproductive organs of a plant. In most of the plants, the same flower contains the
male organ as well as the female organ. In other words, the majority of plants are
bisexual having the male and female reproductive organs in the same plant (or
same flower). In fact, the reproductive part of higher plants is the flower.

Angiosperms
Angiosperm, also called flowering plant, any of about 300,000 species of
flowering plants, the largest and most diverse group within the kingdom Plantae.
Angiosperms represent approximately 80 percent of all the known green plants
now living. The angiosperms are vascular seed plants in which the ovule (egg) is
fertilized and develops into a seed in an enclosed hollow ovary. The ovary itself is
usually enclosed in a flower, that part of the angiospermous plant that contains the
male or female reproductive organs or both. Fruits are derived from the maturing
floral organs of the angiospermous plant and are therefore characteristic of
angiosperms. By contrast, in gymnosperms (e.g., conifers and cycads), the other
large group of vascular seed plants, the seeds do not develop enclosed within an
ovary but are usually borne exposed on the surfaces of reproductive structures,
such as cones.

The angiosperms dominate Earth’s surface and vegetation in more environments.

particularly terrestrial habitats, than any other group of plants. As a result,

1
angiosperms are the most important ultimate source of food for birds
and mammals, including humans. In addition, the flowering plants are the most
economically important group of green plants, serving as a source of
pharmaceuticals, fibre products, timber, ornamentals, and other commercial
products.

A flower typically consists of two parts:

 Essential parts of a flower

 Non- essential parts of a flower

Essential parts of a flower

Androecium: It is the male reproductive organ containing anther and filament,

collectively called Stamen. The anther is the region where pollen grains are
produced for pollination and filament supports the anther. Stamen is the region
in which the microsporangium or pollen sac is present.

Gynoecium: It is the female reproductive organ containing the pistil; which

further includes stigma, style, and ovary. The stigma is the region of contact for
pollen to enter the pistil, post which it goes through the pollen tube within the
style, then fertilizes with egg in the ovary, to form seed and fruit.

Non- essential parts of a flower

Perianth: it is the non-reproductive region in the flower which contains calyx

and corolla, hence preserving the reproductive region in a flower.

Sepals: It is the green part of the flower, which holds the petals and other parts
of a flower. It acts as a support for the attachment of petals. The sepals are
collectively called calyx. They protect the inner parts of a flower in the budding
stage.

Petals: The petals are the colorful part of the flower which attracts bees and
other insects for pollination and they also serve as protection to the reproductive
area in the flower.
2
➤ Sexual reproduction is a process of fertilization of male and female gametes
present in the flower to form a seed.

Gametogenesis
Gametogenesis is a biological process by which diploid or haploid precursor
cells undergo cell division and differentiation to form mature haploid gametes.
Depending on the biological life cycle of the organism, Gametogenesis occurs
by meiotic division of diploid gametocytes into various gametes, or by mitosis. For
example, plants produce gametes through mitosis in gametophytes. The
gametophytes grow from haploid spores after spore meiosis. The existence of a
multicellular, haploid phase in the life cycle between meiosis and Gametogenesis
is also referred to as alternation of generations.
It is the biological process of Gametogenesis; cells that are haploid or diploid
divide to create other cells. Matured haploid gametes. It can take place either
through mitosis or meiotic division of diploid gametocytes into different depending
on an organism's biological life cycle, gametes. For instance, gametophytes in
plants undergo mitosis to produce gametes. Both male and female have different
forms.

Microsporogenesis

Microsporogenesis is the process of formation of pollen grains (or microspores)

inside the pollen sacs (or microsporangium) of flowering plants by meiotic or
reduction division. Each microspore is the first cell of the male gametophyte
that produces male gametes. In other words, meiosis, or reduction division,
occurs in the nucleus of each microspore mother cell, resulting in four haploid
nuclei, which is known as Microsporogenesis. During the Microsporogenesis
process, diploid sporogenous cells develop into microsporocyte (pollen mother
cells or meiocytes) that divide to create four haploid microspores during
meiosis. Each diploid meiocyte produces a tetrad of four haploid microspores,
and Microsporogenesis is completed when unique single-celled haploid
microspores appear.

Structure of Microsporangium
Stamen is the male reproductive organ of the flower, which is having a bilobed
anther that is attached to the filament. The anther is bilobed and each lobe
3
encloses two pollen sacs or micro sporangia. The micro sporangia contain
thousands of pollen grains. The pollen sacs or the micro sporangia of a bilobed
anther appear to lie at four corners of the anther. Thus, the anthers in
Angiosperms are tetrasporangiate.

The two lobes of the anther are joined by a connective that contains the
vascular bundle which carries the nutrients. Each microsporangium (or pollen
sac) has two parts, i.e., the outer wall and central homogenous sporogenous
tissue. The wall of Microsporangium has four types of layers, i.e., the
epidermis (common anther covering), endothecium, 1–31–3 layer thick middle
layers and innermost tapetum.
The epidermis, endothecium, and middle layers are protective in function. The
endothecium helps in the dehiscence of ripe anther to release pollen grains. The
middle layer degenerates at maturity. Tapetum is the innermost wall layer that
nourishes the developing pollen grains.

The cells of tapetum have dense cytoplasm and generally possess more than
one nucleus. The centre of microsporangium has compactly arranged
homogenous cells called sporogenous cells or microsporocyte. A
microsporocyte has abundant cytoplasm and a prominent nucleus.

Stamen is the male reproductive organ of the flower, which is having a bilobed
anther that is attached to the filament. The anther is bilobed and each lobe
encloses two pollen sacs or micro sporangia. The micro sporangia contain
thousands of pollen grains. The pollen sacs or the micro sporangia of a bilobed
anther appear to lie at four corners of the anther. Thus, the anther in
Angiosperms is tetrasporangiate.

The two lobes of the anther are joined by a connective that contains the
vascular bundle which carries the nutrients. Each microsporangium (or pollen
sac) has two parts, i.e., the outer wall and central homogenous sporogenous
tissue. The wall of Microsporangium has four types of layers, i.e., the
epidermis (common anther covering), endothecium, 1–31–3 layer thick middle
layers and innermost tapetum.
The epidermis, endothecium, and middle layers are protective in function. The
endothecium helps in the dehiscence of ripe anther to release pollen grains. The
middle layer degenerates at maturity. Tapetum is the innermost wall layer that
nourishes the developing pollen grains.

4
Megasporogenesis
Megasporogenesis it is the process of producing megaspores from megaspore
mother cells. Megaspores are formed in the reproductive organs of females.
The seeds are formed from the ovules and fruits from the ovary after
fertilization. During fertilization, the haploid male gamete (present inside the
pollen grain) and the haploid female gamete (present inside the ovule) fuse
together to form the diploid zygote. Megasporogenesis is defined as the process
of formation of haploid megaspores by the meiotic division of
diploid Megaspore Mother Cells (MMC) inside the mega sporangium (ovule).
The haploid megaspore undergoes repeated mitotic divisions to form the
embryo sac. Megasporogenesis refers to the development of megaspores from the
megasporocyte, the cell that undergoes meiosis. Meiosis of the megasporocyte
nucleus results in the formation of four haploid megaspore nuclei. In most taxa,
meiosis is followed by cytokinesis, resulting in four megaspore cells. This pattern
is termed monosporic Megasporogenesis - sis; because of the four megaspores
produced, only one of them contributes to the female gametophyte (Figures
11.9, 11.10A–D). In some angiosperm taxa, however, cytokinesis occurs after the
first meiotic division, but not the second, resulting in two cells, each of which
contain two haploid nuclei. This developmental pattern is termed bisporic -
megasporogenesis because one of the binucleate cells, containing two megaspore
nuclei, contributes to the female gametophyte.

Structure of Mega sporangium

Gynoecium represents the female component of a flower. It may consist of one
or a number of carpels. Each carpel represents a megasporophyll which has
three parts, i.e., stigma, style and ovary. An ovary may contain one or many
ovules, and each ovule encloses an embryo sac. Ovule or mega sporangium
develops from the inner wall of the ovary. As the ovule develops, it gets raised
from the ovary wall by a short stalk called a funicle through which food and
water are transported to the ovule. The body of the ovule fuses with the funicle
in the region called the hilum, which represents the junction between the ovule
and the funicle.

5
 The multilayered body of the ovule is called nucellus which is enclosed by one
or two protective layers called integuments, except for a small pore at one end
called the micropyle. Within the nucellus is present one megaspore mother
cell (or embryo-sac mother cell).
The other end of the ovule, i.e., opposite the micropylar end, where the funicle
joins with the nucellus and integument, is called the chalaza or chalazal end.
It represents the basal part of the ovule.

Fertilization

Fertilization is the process of fusion of haploid male and female gametes to

form a diploid zygote, giving rise to the embryo. In angiosperms, the
fertilization takes place in the ovule, enclosed within the ovary of the flower,
giving rise to seed and fruit respectively.
The mega Gametogenesis gives rise to egg cell and micro Gametogenesis gives
rise to 2 sperm nuclei in the pollen grain, by mitosis. When the pollen grain
encounters the sticky surface of the stigma, the pollen grain develops a pollen
tube from the tube cell. There is a certain region called germ pore, on the pollen
grain which enables the exit of the intine layer and the protrusion of pollen tube
outside the pollen. The pollen tube traverses the style region and reaches the
micropyle, an opening in the embryo sac.
The generative cell forms two male gametes, which travels through the pollen
tube along with the vegetative nucleus. The pollen tube enters micropyle and
synergids guide the pollen tube to the egg by releasing few chemotropic
secretions for fusion or sometimes pollen tube enters synergids and ruptures to
release the vegetative nucleus and 2 sperm nuclei.
The egg cell fuses with one of the sperm nuclei to form a zygote and another
sperm nucleus fuses with polar nuclei to form endosperm. This process is
known as double fertilization. And the fusion of polar nuclei with the sperm
nucleus is called triple fusion. The ovule matures to form seed, the integuments
from the seed coat. The pollen tube enters through chalaza (chalazogamy),
through micropyle (porogamy) or through integuments (monogamy).

Post- Fertilization

The fertilization of haploid male sperm and haploid female egg cell results in a
zygote, which later develops into an embryo. This process is known as
embryogenesis.

6
The embryos in dicot and monocot plants are distinct from each other,
structurally. In a dicot seed, the embryo has an embryonic axis aligned between
the two cotyledons, laterally. The region of the embryonic axis above the
attachment with cotyledons is called epicotyls, the tip of which is called
plumule (embryonic shoot), and the region of the embryonic axis below the
attachment with cotyledons is called hypocotyls, the tip is called radical
(embryonic root). In the monocot seeds, there is a single cotyledon.

Endosperm

Endosperm, tissue that surrounds and nourishes the embryo in the seeds

of angiosperms (flowering plants). In some seeds the endosperm is completely
absorbed at maturity (e.g., pea and bean), and the fleshy food-storing cotyledons
nourish the embryo as it germinates. In others, some of the endosperm is present
until germination (e.g., wheat, castor bean), and the cotyledons are typically thin
and membranous and serve to absorb the stored food from the endosperm upon
germination. In the coconut, the liquid endosperm contains important growth
substances. Endosperm accounts for the economic importance of cereal grains and
oilseeds. The initiation of endosperm is a definitive characteristic of the double
fertilization of angiosperms. Its development requires the fusion of at least one
polar nucleus in the embryo sac with one of the two sperm nuclei from the pollen
grain. In gymnosperms the nutritive material of the seed is present before
fertilization. The endosperm makes the main source of food for the embryo. In
gymnosperms, the endosperm is haploid (n) and forms a continuation of the female
gametophyte. On the other hand, in angiosperms it is formed mostly as the result of
a fusion of the two polar nuclei and one of the male gametes. Since all the three
nuclei taking part in the fusion are haploid, the endosperm becomes triploid (3n).
The food-storing tissue inside the seed is known as endosperm. Endosperm stores
nutrients required for the development of the embryo during seed germination. It is
formed by the triple fusion of the primary endosperm nucleus during double
fertilization of angiosperms. A prominent endosperm can be identified in monocot
seeds. It mainly consists of starch. Hence, the endosperm is the dibble portion of
the seed. Some seeds contain oils in their endosperms. The sugars in the
endosperm can be used for beer production.
Seed Formation

A seed is formed when fertilized ovule divides by mitosis. It stores food and has
the potential to develop into a new plant under optimal conditions.

7
Fertilization is the process of fusion of male gamete and female gamete to form a
zygote. Pollen grains are transferred to stigma by various pollinating agents such as
water, wind, butterflies, insects, animals, birds, etc. After reaching stigma, the male
gamete fuses with the egg in the ovule and forms a zygote. Thus fertilization takes
place and so the formed zygote divides and develops into an embryo.
Following the fertilization, every part of the flower sheds off except the ovary. The
ovary of the flower develops into the fruit while ovules develop into seeds. The
formation of seed completes the process of reproduction in plants. Within the seed,
the growing embryo develops and matures.
The fertilized ovule develops into a seed. It can store reserve food materials
and, in favorable climatic conditions, can grow into a new plant.
Fertilization is the process of a zygote being formed by the union of male and
female gametes. Water, wind, butterflies, insects, animals, birds, and other
pollination agents transfer pollen grains to the stigma. As a result of
fertilization, the zygote divides and develops into an embryo, the primary
endosperm nucleus gives rise to endosperm, and the protective coats are
formed from integuments. Except for the ovary, every part of the flower loses
after fertilization. The development of seeds is the final step in the reproduction
process in plants. The emerging embryo develops and matures within the seed.
The seed thus has a basic structure of an ovule with some parts lost and some
new ones developed. The seed remains attached to the placenta through a small
stalk-like structure called a funicle, a place of detachment from the funicle that
appears as a scar called hilum. In some seeds, a bright colored structure
develops on the surface as an outgrowth called an aril; when it occurs as an
outgrowth of a funicle, it’s called strophioles

Fruit formation

Fruit is the product of fertilization, often eaten as a food and encloses the seed.
The seeds in the fruit can germinate into new plant again. Fruits often attract
animals, birds, and humans with their characteristic smell. This gives way for
plant propagation through seed dispersal. The fruit often contains essential
nutrients and a great source of nourishment.
The parts of fruit include the seed, which encloses endosperm within the
embryo, and pericarp, which has exocarp (fruit coat), mesocarp (pulp), and
endocarp (the inside lining which encloses seed).

Apomixis

8
Apomixis is asexual reproduction without fertilization. Its etymology is Greek for
"away from" + "mixing". This definition notably does not mention meiosis. Thus
"normal asexual reproduction" of plants, such as propagation from cuttings or
leaves, has never been considered to be apomixis, but replacement of the seed by
a plantlet or replacement of the flower by bulbils were categorized as types of
apomixis. Apodictically produced offspring are genetically identical to the parent
plant. Some authors included all forms of asexual reproduction within apomixis,
but that generalization of the term has since died out.
In flowering plants, the term "apomixis" is commonly used in a restricted sense to
mean agamospermy, i.e., cloned reproduction through seeds. Although
agamospermy could theoretically occur in gymnosperms, it appears to be absent in
that group. Apo gamy is a related term that has had various meanings over time. In
plants with independent gametophytes (notably ferns), the term is still used
interchangeably with "apomixis", and both refer to the formation
of saprophytes by parthenogenesis of gametophyte cells. Male apomixis (paternal
apomixis) involves replacement of the genetic material of an egg by the genetic
material of the pollen. It is an asexual means of plant reproduction and is found in
many species especially in fruit crops. Apomixis is the process of identifying and
developing diploid embryos or seeds found in a plant without fertilization or the
term Apomixis can also be explained as a form of asexual reproduction that occurs
via seeds, in which embryos develop without fertilization that occurs naturally in
other plants. The process does not involve the union of male and female gametes
and therefore there is no genetic recombination. Apomixis does not lead to the
generation of variability in a population. Apomixis is also known as asexual seed
formation which is obtained as the result of a plant gaining the ability to the most
important process through bypassing the most fundamental and basic aspects of
sexual reproduction, meiosis, and fertilization. Without the requirement for male
fertilization, the resulting seed germinates a plant that develops which will be as
exactly as a maternal clone. Apomixis does not permit gene flow which means it
does not permit the combination of genes from different sources. It helps in the
rapid development of pure lines and can be achieved by haploid parthenogenesis.
Apomixis can be genetically controlled and is useful in conserving superior
genotypes and hybrid vigor. It has been reported in more than 300 plant species of
35 families.

Polyembryony

9
Polyembryony refers to the development of more than one embryo in a
single ovule, seed, or by complete cleavage of a fertilized ovum. As a result,
supernumeraries of various frequencies, such as duplet, triplet, quadruplet,
quintuplet, sextuplet, and so on, develop. Humans have identical twins because
of Polyembryony. It may be found in both animals and plants. The greatest and
most typical illustration of this feature is a nine-banded Armadillo that gives
birth to identical quadruplets. This phenomenon was originally seen in orange
seeds by Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1719). Polyembryony is so frequent in
gymnosperms that it may be considered a distinguishing feature of this
group. In the majority of gymnosperms with Polyembryony, a female
gametophyte develops two or more archegonia. As each archegonia carries
an egg, the presence of multiple archegonia results in two or more eggs
being fertilized, resulting in the creation of two or more possible embryos.
Polyembryony refers to the formation of several embryos in a single ovule,
seed, or by complete cleavage of a fertilized ovum. Through this article, we
understood the different types of Polyembryony in plants. Polyembryony was
once thought to be an undesirable trait, but it is now seen as a desirable trait in
citrus fruits, rose, mango, apple, Jamun, almond, and other similar fruits to
achieve genuine value items. As a result, it is an essential element of
horticulture, and nucellar adventives Polyembryony is particularly significant
in it. It aids in the preservation of parent-offspring resemblance. Nucellar
seedlings retain their vitality and are disease-free.

 Cleavage Polyembryony: Cleavage Polyembryony occurs when a young

embryo or zygote divides into two or more units. Hence, it is also
called cleavage of zygote or budding. These units eventually develop or
mature into independent embryos. It is common in gymnosperms and
comparatively rare in angiosperms. Pinus is a well-known example of this kind.
The zygote splits twice, resulting in four nuclei.
2. Simple Polyembryony: Simple Polyembryony occurs when more than one
egg or a large number of archegonia (a haploid structure that generates female
gametes) eggs are fertilized. Pinus is a good example of simple Polyembryony
3. Rosette Polyembryony: Additional embryos emerge from the rosette cells in
some gymnosperms (e.g., a few species of Pinus), and this kind of
Polyembryony is known as rosette Polyembryony.

10