UNIT 13

Periods in European Literature

● European literature is as diverse as the European languages. European literature is
from a common heritage of different countries such as Greece, Rome, France,
Germany, Italy, Russia, Scandinavia, Norway, and Spain. Like any other kind of
literature, it is divided into literary periods that are influenced by the events and
people of a specific time.

Ancient Period 800 BC-500 AD

Medieval Period 500-1500 AD

Renaissance Period 1300-1600

Enlightenment Period 1650-1800

Romantic Period 1798-1870

Modernism 1870-1965

Post-Modernism Period 1965-present

Lesson 1
Ancient Literature and Medieval Literature (800 BC–1500 AD)

Literature during the Ancient Period (800 BC–500 AD)

Literature created in the ancient period (800 BC–500 AD) was mostly influenced by
Greco-Roman culture, which became the basis for the Western literature that we know
today. The intellectual and philosophical studies made by the Greeks and the Romans
are the foundation of European literature.

The Greeks introduced many major kinds of literature: tragedy, comedy, epic, history,
biography, prose narrative, lyric, and satire. The earliest forms of these literature were
oral in nature. The Romans also adapted the literary forms the Greeks produced.

Oral epics became material for Homer’s The Iliad and The Odyssey, which expressed the
values and imagination of Western humanity and were also used by the Greeks as models
for conduct. The Iliad narrates the Trojan War and the siege of Troy. The Odyssey, which
is a sequel to The Iliad, recounts the journey of Odysseus at the end of the war. A
common theme in Homer’s two epics is the quest for glory that is earned through a heroic
battle. The Greeks called this kleos, which means “renown” or “glory.”

Major Writers during the Ancient Period Greeks

• Homer- the author of Iliad and Odyssey
• Aesop-known for writing more than 600 fables
• Plato- Greek philosopher
• Socrates- Plato's teacher founder of western Philosophy
• Aristotle- Plato's student
• Sophocles-ancient Greek tragedians who wrote Oedipus the King Romans
• Horace- lyric poet, satirist, and critic
• Virgil- a classical Roman poet, best known for writing the story Aeneid
• Ovid- His best-known work is the Metamorphoses, a collection of mythological and
legendary stories.

Literature during the Medieval Period (500-1500 AD)

Medieval literature refers to works produced during the Middle Ages (500 AD–1500). This
period marked the emergence of three dominant cultures: Christianity, Islam, and the
Germanic invaders. The literary forms dominant in this period are hymns, epic poems,
elegies, ballads, and narrative poems.

Medieval literature is anchored on the following characteristics:

A. It is focused on different religious beliefs. Religious values were not universal, and
some traditions were in direct conflict with one another.
B. It was concerned with the lives of the commoners in comparison to their feuding
lords. Literature during this period was often associated with war and the life of
commoners who experienced suffering due to their lords’ feuds.
C. It shows the lives of aristocracy. Since the Middle Ages is a time when feudal lords
were showcasing their powers through their armies, literature during this period
showed the lives of aristocrats and knights.
D. It shows the inconsistencies of chivalry, problematizing personal bravery versus
group needs, and the individual working out his or her destiny.
The Middle Ages contributed significantly to literature its memorable characters: the
eponymous Beowulf, Sir Gawain, Roland, Charlemagne, the lost souls of The Inferno, and
the pilgrims of The Canterbury Tales.

The following are examples of medieval literature:

a. Beowulf
Beowulf was set in Denmark, the land of Danes and Sweden, also known as the land of
Geats. It was a supernatural tale inspired by historical events. Beowulf, the hero of the
story, was described as having a hand grip equivalent to the strength of 30 men, which
enabled him to slay monsters.

Just like other heroic poems, Beowulf exhibited brutality, a common characteristic of its
time when raids and bloody battles between tribes are a part of life. The characters of
Beowulf are pagans because it was set in fifth-century Scandinavia, a place that includes
Sweden and Denmark. It was told orally by eighth-century Anglo-Saxons until it was
written down in the 12th century by an unknown English poet. By the time Beowulf was
written down, Christianity was widespread because of the Norman Conquest.

b. La Chanson de Roland (translated as The Song of Roland)

La Chanson de Roland is an Old French epic poem translated as The Song of Roland in
English. The probable author of the poem was Turold, a Norman poet whose name was
introduced in the poem’s last line.

The themes of medieval epics center on deeds of heroic figures. La Chanson de Roland is
considered the earliest and greatest chanson de geste or French heroic poem.

c. Nibelungenlied (translated as The Song of the Nibelungs)

The Nibelungenlied was a German epic poem, probably written in Austria during the early
13th century. The story has disparate elements because of its long history. Among these
elements are the word Nibelung, which was used as the name of Siegfried’s land and
treasure in the first part of the poem, and as an alternate name for the Burgundians in the
second part.

It has themes of murder and revenge. The epic is divided into two parts. The first part
revolves around the life and death of Prince Siegfried of the lower Rhine who fell in love
with Kriemhild, the Burgundian princess of Worms. The second part was about Kriemhild
avenging Siegfried’s death. Their tragic destiny was revealed in Kriemhild’s dream in her
youth.

Literature during the Medieval Period (500-1500 AD)

❖ marked the emergence of three dominant cultures
❖ Christianity,
❖ Islam
❖ Germanic invaders

Major Kinds of Literary Forms during the Medieval Period

1. hymns
2. epic poems
3. elegies
4. Ballads
5. narrative poems

Examples of Medieval Literature

● Beowulf
● The Song of Roland
● The Song of the Nibelungs (Nibelungenlied)
● The Divine Comedy
● Canterbury Tales
● The Divine Comedy

Lesson 2
Renaissance and Enlightenment(1300–1800)
From age of war, famine, and ignorance emerged the light of the Renaissance period. The
emergence of the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment became the foundation of
seeing literature in an intellectual perspective.

Renaissance Literature (1300-1600)

● marked by the rebirth of the Greco-Roman literary tradition
● classical scholars, known as humanists, revived and translated ancient texts
● humanists used the Greek and Latin classics, along with traditional Christian
thought, to teach people about human life
● Humanism is the belief that people could attain earthly perfection.
● Talented and creative individuals sustained themselves through the system of
patronage.
 ● The greatest innovation of the time is the printing press, invented by Johannes
Gutenberg in 1440.

Literature during the Renaissance and Enlightenment Period

The following are examples of Renaissance and Enlightenment literature:

a. Much Ado about Nothing

This was considered as one of Shakespeare's best comedies and was probably written
between 1598 and 1599.

b. Paradise Lost
This is an epic poem about the Fall of Man, where John Milton, the writer, made Adam,
Eve, Satan, and God his characters.

c. Gulliver's Travels
In this novel by Jonathan Swift, Gulliver traveled on four separate voyages and
encountered different types of societies each time.

The Age of Enlightenment (1600-1800)

● byproduct of the Renaissance that birthed humanism
● could be summed up as the celebration of different ideas
● birthplace of many great thinkers who put their ideas into writing and made their
thoughts available to historians of this century

Lesson 3
Romanticism and Realism (1800–1920)
During the 18th century, the focus of individuals have shifted from rationalism to a focus
on feelings and reality. This shift gave rise to a change in the themes of literary texts
during this period.

Romanticism (1800-1850)
● prevalent form of literature: poetry
● focused more on the individuality of a person more than society
● focused more on feelings as the central idea and experience as it is considered as
"the language of the heart" showed more of the individual's innermost thoughts,
dreams, and aspirations

Realism (late 1800s-early 1900s)

● the representation of reality
● presents the truth with all its flaws
● strives to present things as accurate and with the least subjectivity as possible
● focused on the fidelity of facts

Realism (late 1800s-early 1900s)

● draws on the commonplace and the daily struggles of the common man
● focuses on documenting the real events and issues that happen to ordinary people
● makes people realize that ordinary life could also be meaningful
 ● focuses on groups of people in the hope of uncovering who they really are and how
others could relate to them

Literature during the Romanticism and Realism Period

The following are texts from the Romanticism and Realism periods:

a. Debit and Credit

This German novel by Gustav Freytag was translated into almost all of the European
languages. The novel celebrates the different values and interactions among three groups
of people in the modern industrial age. It also tackles the great problem during that time:
the conflicts and contradictions in social life during the modern industrial period.

b. The World Is Too Much with Us

Romanticism is characterized by the appreciation of nature, and this was presented by
William Wordsworth in this poem. He wrote against the consumerism that came with the
industrial revolution during his time because earning and spending made people insensitive
to the beauty of nature.

Lesson 4
Modernism and Postmodernism (1920–Present)
The 20th and 21st centuries started the pursuit of a change in the way people see the
world. They became more open to the importance of social issues and used literature to
express their world view.

Modernism (early 1900s-1965)

● began in the early 20th century through roughly 1965
● marked by sudden changes in man's perspective of the world
● challenged the prevailing order during its time and focused on experimentation
while self-consciously breaking away from traditional forms

Literary Techniques Invented during the Modernist Era

● Imagism refers to the literary movement that focused on clarity and conciseness
by using specific images.
● Stream of consciousness is a technique in which a character’s thoughts and
feelings are written in an uninterrupted flow, for example, foregoing literary
devices such as description and dialogue.
● An unreliable narrator is a technique in point of view in which the speaker may or
may not know that his or her version of events is not entirely true.

Postmodernism (1965-Present)
● shows a crisis of identity of the human being in ethnicity and sexuality, as well as
the struggle for social and cultural acceptance in a hypocritical society
● does not pretend to be new and original; rather, juxtaposes the old and the new to
contextualize the literary text in the readers' minds

Characteristics of postmodern texts include:

 A. use of paradox or self-contradictory statement;
B. use of fragmentation or incompleteness whether in form or in content; and
C. the unreliable narrator.

Following the atrocities committed in World War II, literature produced during this time
also resisted the dogma of the traditions preceding it, particularly the periods of
Enlightenment and Modernism. Postmodern writers tended to avoid “neat” endings and
championed chance
over craft. They also attempted to examine and blur the lines between high and low
cultures. Some of the literary techniques frequently used during this time were pastiche
and metafiction.

Literature during the Modern and Postmodern Period

a. In a Station of the Metro

This poem by Ezra Pound is a perfect example of the use of imagism in poetry. In two lines,
the poem can show a visualization in the reader’s mind on what the poem would like to show
in just a few words.

b. Waiting for Godot

This play by Samuel Beckett is about two hobos waiting for Godot by a sickly-looking tree.
The setting could best be interpreted as the place without Godot. It is also where the
hobos contemplated and argued about hanging themselves.

The hobos could be viewed as a symbolism of the thieves by Jesus’ side on the cross as
well as every person in the world and Godot as a symbolism for God. The main action of the
play could be described as a circle that does not have a beginning nor an end. The tragedy
of the story is in the fact that the hobos are unable to wait for Godot and the fact that
Godot will not arrive.

The play is true to the postmodern style of incorporating past literary movements as well
as other influences from popular culture such as red-nosed circus clowns, traditional farce
routines, and James Joyce’s Finnegan’s Wake.

Unit 14

Lesson 1
Old English and Middle English Literature
English literature pertains to the literary works produced by inhabitants of the British
Isles, which consists of two main islands, Great Britain and Ireland, as well as a multitude
of smaller islands and island groups. In these lands were born the literary works that
would help mold English literature into what it is today.

English Literature is the literature which is distinctly written in the English language, as
opposed to differing languages. English literature includes literature composed in English
by writers not necessarily from England nor primarily English- speaking nations.
Old English Literature
Old English literature spans from around 600 to 1100 AD. It was the soulful and practical
expressions of a people who struggled, lost, and triumphed over and against neighboring
invaders and warring factions. It encompasses Anglo-Saxon written and spoken works from
ancient lands of what is now known as The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern
Ireland. Old English literature also includes Anglo-Latin works.

● spans from around 600 to 1200 AD

● the soulful and practical expressions of a people who struggled, lost, and triumphed
over and against neighboring invaders and warring factions
● encompasses Anglo-Saxon written and spoken works and Anglo-Latin works
● major manuscripts of that period told about the lives of saints, religious poems, and
religious narratives

The Anglo-Saxon Period (449-1066 BC)

The Anglo-Saxons - "Anglo-Saxon" is the term applied to the English speaking inhabitants
of Britain from around the middle of the fifth century until the time of the Norman
Conquest, when the Anglo-Saxon line of English kings came to an end.

Important Personalities in Old English Literature

a. St. Bede or Venerable Bede was a monk who wrote the ecclesiastical history of England.
This became the cornerstone of the literary tradition. A little later, Alfred the Great
came.
b. Alfred the Great was the Father of the English (Old English) language. He was the first
Anglo-Saxon king who unified the Anglo-Saxons. He brought literacy to the people. In 597
AD, Augustine of Canterbury went to England. Because of this, schools and monasteries
were founded. Through these, literary artistic expressions and the greatest books were
written.
c. In 1066, in the Battle of Hastings, William the Duke of Normandy defeated the
Anglo-Saxon king Harold Godwinson. This victory not only made him William I of England
but also ushered in Anglo-Norman dominance in Britain. They made a shift in the
development of English literature.

Germanic in nature, the Old English or Anglo-Saxon language was used for many years in
courts, law, schools, and university. It was the Anglo-Norman dominance that ushered in
Middle English literature that featured Norman and Gallic or ancient French influences in
the tradition.

Old English Poetry and Prose

● Because of the foresight of the various monasteries or abbeys across the centuries
in Britain, most Old English poetry survived through these four manuscripts:
Beowulf, The Exeter Book, The Junius or Caedmon Manuscript, and the Vercelli
Book.
● Poetry is characterized by patterns of four-stress lines and six- stress lines. A
caesura or syntactical break is placed in between the second and third stresses of
the poem.

Old English Poetry and Prose

Because of the foresight of the various monasteries or abbeys across the centuries in
Britain, most Old English poetry survived through these four manuscripts, namely, The
Beowulf Manuscript, The Exeter Book, The Junius or Caedmon Manuscript, and the Vercelli
Book.

Old English poetry is characterized by patterns of four-stress lines and six-stress lines.
In addition, a caesura or syntactical break is placed in between the second and third
stresses of the poem.

Poetry in Old English is known to be formulaic. Poets draw from a common stock of phrase
patterns and have a prescribed description for every kind of character.

A unique feature of this kind of poetry is the use of kennings. Kenning is a type of
figurative language that poets use instead of a noun. It is often made up of two words
separated by a hyphen. They may call the sea as a swan-road or a sword as a wound-hoe.

One example of Old English poetry is “The Dream of the Rood” from the Vercelli Book. It
was the earliest dream poem and one of the greatest religious poems in the English
language. It was about the dream of the rood or the cross as it was used as an instrument
for Jesus’ sacrifice for mankind. The cross, which once symbolized death and punishment,
was now a symbol of the redemption of mankind.

Also, the earliest prose work was written in this period, which is the law code of King
Aethelberht I of Kent, could be dated 597. Other prose that was written in this period
similarly focused on laws, wills, and charters.

Middle English Literature

The term Middle English was first created to mark a period in the development of the
English language. Most of the philologists at that time wanted to divide the history of
language into three periods, Old English, Middle English, and New or Modern English.
Literary historians adopted the name Middle English from the language historians.

Most works of literature in this period are devoted to some aspect of religion. They are
both religious and secular in nature because of the educated members of the church who
reflected in their writings the various educational and social levels of the society.
Examples of these were stories of the saints’ lives, miracle plays, and sermons, among
others.

Middle English Poetry

The early period of the literature of Middle English centralized on poetry adapted from
the Normans. Several of these were still written in Old English and focused on their
linguistic characteristics rather than their aesthetic literary features. From Old English,
they were influenced by the French. Romance was one of their predominant themes.

Middle English poetry, like its predecessor, has its set of rules. During the late Middle
English, alliterative verse is one of the features of Middle English poetry along with the
stress and caesura from the Old English period. Alliterative poetry has no standard but
had a variety of versions that developed as the centuries passed.
One example of alliterative verse is Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, which also exhibits
the style of bob and wheel. The bob is the first line that is shorter than the rest, and the
wheel is the quatrain that follows the bob. The poem is about Sir Gawain, a knight of the
round table, and the Green Knight who challenges Sir Gawain to strike him with his axe in
exchange for a return blow after a year and a day.

Significant Works
Among the most significant works in this period were The Legend of King Arthur written
by Thomas Malory and The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer.

a. Le Morte d’Arthur or Death of Arthur was first published in 1485 by William Caxton.
The tale is divided into two volumes, containing such stories as the tale of King Arthur and
the tale of Sir Launcelot du Lac.

b. The Canterbury Tales is a long poem by Geoffrey Chaucer about a collection of stories
told by 31 pilgrims who went to see St. Thomas Becket’s shrine in Canterbury Cathedral.
These pilgrims started their journey from Tabard Inn in Southwark. The pilgrims were
tasked to tell stories as they embark on their journey and were promised that the best
storyteller will be given a reward.

Lesson 2
Elizabethan Literature

Queen Elizabeth I of England reigned from 1558 to 1603. She was considered the
patroness of literature in the United Kingdom. The literary works during her time were
called Elizabethan literature. The prose, novel, literary criticism, and pamphlet were some
of the notable contributions of this era. Shakespeare’s plays were one of the lasting
influences of this time. It was no surprise that it became considered the golden age of
drama.

Famous Writers during the Elizabethan Period

There were many writers who emerged during the Elizabethan period especially in drama
and poetry. These writers include:

1. Christopher Marlowe
Christopher Marlowe was an Elizabethan poet and playwright who established the use of
blank verse in his poems. His works include the poem “The Passionate Shepherd to His
Love” and the play The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus.

2. William Shakespeare
William Shakespeare is known to be the greatest dramatist of all time. He was a poet,
dramatist, and actor who performed his plays in a small theater troupe during his time. His
works are considered relevant and relatable to audiences until the present time. He is
known for his plays Romeo and Juliet, The Merchant of Venice, and his sonnets, among
others.

3. Edmund Spenser
Edmund Spenser is an English poet who wrote the poem The Faerie Queene, which is also
known as one of the greatest poems in English language. The Spenserian stanza is also
named after him.

4. Sir Philip Sidney

Aside from being a poet, Sir Philip Sidney is also a statesman, soldier, patron of scholars
and poets, and the ideal gentleman. He is the writer of the Elizabethan sonnet sequence
Astrophel and Stella.

Sonnet and Blank Verse

Sonnets, along with the blank verse, were introduced to England by Sir Thomas Wyatt and
Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey. The blank verse is an unrhymed version of the iambic
pentameter. It was used in the first English drama by Thomas Sackville and Thomas
Norton. Christopher Marlowe used it in his plays such as Tamburlaine, Doctor Faustus, and
Edward II. William Shakespeare also utilized it in his plays such as Hamlet, King Lear,
Othello, Macbeth, and The Winter’s Tale.

The Shakespearean Sonnet

England had its own version of the sonnet through the Elizabethan sonnet or the
Shakespearean sonnet. The Shakespearean sonnet has the following characteristics:

a. It is made up of 14 lines in iambic pentameter. An iambic pentameter is made up of five

metrical feet consisting of one unstressed and one stressed syllable.
b. It follows a particular rhyme scheme. The English sonnet follows the rhyme scheme
ABAB CDCD EFEF GG, where the rhyme happens after every other line of the first three
quatrains except for lines 13 and 14 or the couplet.
c. It has a pivot. A pivot is the sudden change in the direction or conclusion found in the
ending couplet.

The Spenserian Sonnet

On the other hand, Spenserian sonnet is an adaptation of the Shakespearean sonnet but
with a change in its variation. This variation in rhyming scheme is called linking couplets
because the rhyme scheme is tangled in a series of weaves. It has the rhyme scheme
ABAB BCBC CDCD EE.

Plays
During the Elizabethan era, plays became part of the people’s social life because of the
queen’s fondness for them. Things changed during this time; subjects of drama shifted
from religious to secular, making the playwrights and poets the most active participants of
this era. Despite its popularity, it roused criticism from the church, which found the
playwrights’ and the actors’ characters questionable. But because of the protection of
Queen Elizabeth, it continued to flourish.

Lesson 3
The Romantic Period and the Victorian Period
The Romantic and Victorian Periods are both reactions to the previous literary movements
and events. Romanticism, which was considered to have taken place from 1780s to 1830s,
was a reaction against the industrial revolution. The writers of romanticism wrote about
nature as a way of reclaiming a life that was threatened by urbanization.

The Romantic Period

The Romantic period focuses on the emotions and expressions of man. William
Wordsworth, one of the metaphysical poets, calls it as “the spontaneous overflow of
powerful feelings.” Praise of nature is the most common subject during this period.

Romantics are obsessed with showing originality and authority; for them, they must create
their own rather than follow another man’s rule. This was in contrast with the previous
rule-bound literary periods such as the Old and Middle English.

Famous Literary Works during the Romantic Period

Some of the literary works during this period are the following:

a. Emma by Jane Austen

Emma is a novel about a self-proclaimed matchmaker, Emma Woodhouse, who is responsible
for matching her friends and other male characters in the story. However, as the novel
progresses, she realizes that she has not been in touch with her own feelings.

b. Frankenstein by Mary Shelley

Frankenstein is considered the first gothic-horror novel of the Romantic period. It tackles
the hunger of Victor Frankenstein to attain knowledge despite having everything. He
experiences regret and horror as he created a monster based on his research and
discovery.

c. Songs of Innocence and Experience by William Blake

This work by William Blake presents two points of view based on two separate books: the
innocence of childhood and the experience of adulthood. It showcases the hopes and
dreams that young people have and how these hopes and dreams are realized as they
become adults.

The Victorian Period

The Victorian period started in the reign of Queen Victoria, which lasted from 1837 to
1901. It was characterized by a decline in religious belief and novelists writing about the
hopeless status of humanity in a modern world. It was seen through the lens of realism,
and writers during this time wanted to chronicle the struggles during this period. Its
language was restrained, unlike the carefree and emotional romantic period.

The Victorian period approaches literature in a deliberate and careful way, using irony to
challenge its readers as well as using long and complicated plots in their novels. Because of
the Victorian period’s intention to show things as realistically as possible, the use of
imagery and figures of speech are lessened in this era.

Famous Literary Works during the Victorian Period

Some of the famous literary works during this period are:
a. A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens
Charles Dickens’s work, A Tale of Two Cities, unabashedly presents the truth about
revolution and poverty and shows how poor people thrive in a tough world. What makes
Dickens’s work popular to both the rich and the poor is that it exposes both the needy and
the mighty in his works.

b. Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontë

The autobiography of Jane Eyre is a story of finding love and at the same time a quest for
a sense of belonging and value. Jane wanted to experience how it was to be accepted as
who she is and be loved without losing her identity as an individual.

Lesson 4
20th Century Literature

As each literary period is created as a reaction to the previous one, 20th century
literature was a response to the restrictions of Victorian literature. Since Edward VII’s
ascension to the throne, a free and uninhibited era for literature began. For many, this
was a start of a new era in which science and technology will move humanity forward.

The Theater in the 20th Century

Many of the writers of the Edwardian era continued the realism of the previous century
while exploring the anti-aestheticism in conflict with the aestheticism started by Oscar
Wilde. The theater has become an avenue for the discussion of the necessity of political
organization, morality of war, function of classes and professions, family and marriage, and
female emancipation.

Novelists of 20th Century Literature

Novelists of this period were eager to reveal the shortcomings of English social circles.
But despite the hardships of their time, they believed that positive change was about to
happen and their writings could help bring about that change.

Literature in 1945 or after the Second World War was characterized by increased
attachment to religion. William Golding and Muriel Spark, the two most innovative novelists
who started writing after the war, are also religious believers. Their novels often touched
the topic of original sin, as according to Golding, “man produces evil as a bee produces
honey.” More specifically:

a. William Golding’s Lord of the Flies reenacts man’s fall from grace in the schoolboys’
innocence that turned into barbarism.
b. George Orwell’s Animal Farm in 1945 explores the ideas of capitalism, rebellion, war, and
communism in the guise of animals.
c. Muriel Spark’s The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie, discusses themes of betrayal, innocence,
as well as cold rationality in contrast with unchecked emotionalism.

These novels expose different issues and boldly write about systems and figures that
should be eradicated.
Unit 15

Lesson 1
American Literature during the Colonial and Revolutionary Periods

The colonial period began when Jamestown, the first English settlement in America, was
founded in 1607 and ended in the beginning of the American Revolution in 1775.

In the 1630s, there was a big wave of British immigration to Boston. This phenomenon
paved the way for the flourishing of American literature during this period.

Religion, Literature, and Technology

It was at this time that the Puritans, Protestants who followed the Bible in the strictest
manner, were dominating England. These ideals had influenced not only British society but
also its colonies. However, because of the criticism from the Anglican Church and the lack
of political support, these Puritans fled to America.

The invention of the printing press in the 15th century quickly changed the literary
landscape not only in England but also in America.

During the colonial period, many places became the key spots of printing literary works.
These places are Cambridge, Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Annapolis.

Because of this breakthrough, the oral literature that was cherished by the Native
American Indians was soon replaced by printed literature. Moreover, it was also through
the violent suppression of the Native Americans that their literary heritage was almost
eradicated in American literary history. Many political and military events happened that
shattered the indigenous American culture. And because of these events, English became
the local language as well as the preferred language for literary writing.

Writers and Literary Pieces

The most prominent form of literary piece during this time was the pamphlet that extolled
the European conquerors. Since the Puritans exalted religiosity, many of the early writings
during this period centered on faith, including internal struggles and hypocrisy of the
faithful.

Notable religious writers were:

● John Winthrop – a Puritan who influenced the government and religions of other
colonies through his writings
● Edward Winslow – wrote several works that were of massive value to the historian
of the Plymouth colony
● William Bradford – wrote a journal chronicling the Pilgrim venture
● Anne Bradstreet – one of the first poets to write English verse in the American
colonies
● Edward Taylor – one of the foremost poets of colonial British North America
● Michael Wigglesworth – an author of rhymed treatises expounding Puritan doctrines
● Nicholas Noyes – wrote competent verses in the Puritan metaphysical tradition
Because of the attempt of the British government to impose cultural hegemony (dominance
of a culture over another culture) and to dominate the minority culture, some writings
focused on typifying the contact and conflicts of the Britons with the Indians. Such
themes are very evident in the works of Daniel Gookin, Alexander Whitaker, John Mason,
Benjamin Church, and Mary Rowlandson.

During this era, we can also see the rise of African-American literature as there was an
influx of Africans coming to America as slaves. Two notable African-American writers of
this time were Phillis Weatley, who was a slave brought to America, and Olaudah Equiano,
who was known for his writings that criticized the British Empire and America for its
tolerance of slavery.

The Revolutionary Period in America

The colonists’ realization of the atrocities of their conquerors, such as their lack of
representation in the government, and their desire to have the same rights as the British
subjects, brought about the revolutionary period, which ran from 1765 to 1783.

The literature of this period was political in tone because it was seen as an avenue by the
colonial writers to express their protest against the British Empire. Two key personalities
during this time were Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Paine.

As a subtle condemnation of England, satires came into the limelight. Satire is a kind of
rhetoric that employs an assortment of devices to critique society, expose flaws, and
ridicule politics. The prominent satirists were John Trumbull, Francis Hopkinson, and Philip
Morin Freneau.

In the Norton Anthology for American Literature (2007), the American revolutionary
period was described as, “The enormous scientific, economic, social, and philosophical,
changes of the 18th century, called the Enlightenment, impacted the authority of
clergyman and scripture, making way for democratic principles. The increase in population
helped account for the greater diversity of opinion in religious and political life as seen in
the literature of this time.”

In a sense, the revolution in America was not just a political change but also a radical
change to its culture and society.

Lesson 2
American Renaissance

When we hear the word renaissance, we tend to zoom in on our history lesson of the
Renaissance Period, in 14th century Europe, where the revival of classical art and learning
flourished. The word renaissance is an old French word that literally means “rebirth.”

The American Renaissance period is regarded as the “Golden Era” of American literature
because writers showed the spirit of liberation in their works. It also led to the
popularization of democratic literature.
F.O. Matthiessen coined the term American Renaissance in 1941. He asserted that
American Renaissance literature is “literature for democracy and for the people.” Through
literature, it was expected that people would imbibe the spirit of democracy in their daily
lives.

Purpose
Literary enthusiasts asserted that writers should have their unique styles that are only
seen in American literature. The purpose of this was to create a national identity and to
make American literature known to the world. It was also an initiative to show the
demarcation between American literature and British literature.

Notable writers of this period were Washington Irving, William Cullen Bryant, and James
Fenimore Cooper. These writers explored local color, the American environment, and daily
life to give a distinct texture to the American literary tradition.

It was also during the American Renaissance that American writers had a fresh look
toward their writing and wrote without the influence of the British. Many of the most
famous writers emerged in this era of literature. Also, two groups of writers emerged,
namely the transcendentalists and the Dark Romantics.

Transcendentalists
They believed that knowledge could be obtained through intuition and contemplation of
inner spirits and not merely through the senses.

Major writers of this movement were:

● Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882)
● Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862)
● Margaret Fuller (1810–1850)
● William Henry Channing (1810–1884)
● George Ripley (1802–1880)
● Emily Dickinson (1830–1886)
● Amos Bronson Alcott (1799–1888)
● Elizabeth Peabody (1804–1894)

Dark Romantics
They explored mankind’s darker side through writing subjects that are grotesque, Gothic,
and extremely melancholic. They also explored the conflict between good and evil in their
literary works.

Major writers of this movement were:

● Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804–1864)
● Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849)
● Herman Melville (1819–1891)
During this period, women writers started to become empowered because of gradual
access to education. This paved the way for the rise of feminine writing and aesthetics.

However, although female writers were given opportunities to write, their works were not
that popular since America was still a patriarchal society. Despite this, there were some
women writers who became popular figures of this time, and these were Harriet Beecher
Stowe and Fanny Fern. The impact of Stowe's Uncle Tom’s Cabin was so great that
president Abraham Lincoln was reported to have commented that the novel ignited the
American Civil War.

Lesson 3
Realism in American Literature

Following the rebirth or renaissance of American literature, there came a time when
musicians, artists, and literary writers alike wanted to reflect what it truly means to be
American. These artists aimed to depict a more modern social reality.

This, and a number of other factors, pushed American literary writers, artists, and
musicians to the next era we now call as American Realism, which began in the mid-19th
century.

The literary movement of realism articulates the portrayal of the actualities of life.

Samuel Langhorne Clemens, who is more widely known by his pseudonym Mark Twain, is
regarded as the father of realism in American literature. The most remarkable realist
masterpieces of Twain are The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and The Adventures of
Huckleberry Finn.

According to the Norton Anthology for American Literature (2007), Twain has been a
popular figure of the realism movement because:

“Twain’s style – influenced by journalism, wedded to the vernacular, direct and unadorned
but also highly evocative and irreverently humorous – changed the way Americans write
their language. His characters speak like real people and sound distinctively American,
using local dialects, newly invented words, and regional accents.”

Characteristics of American Realism This new approach to literature shows objectivity and
fidelity to the facts of the matter. It embraced the concept that people were neither
completely good nor completely bad but somewhere in between.

A popular literary device used in this kind of literature was the frame narrative or the
story within a story. In more technical terms, this is called “mise en abyme”. This device is
not new to world literature as it has been used in earlier masterpieces such as Geoffrey
Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales.

To better understand how realism is portrayed in literature, we can best describe it by

referring to the writing style of American writers at that time.

Realist writers utilized the vernacular language in writing. In this light, readers can easily
connect to what they read since the language used was localized. Hence, we can see the
fusion of local languages and regional accents as characters delivered their discourses in
the texts.
Apart from Twain, there were numerous American realist writers who were famous as well.
● They were the following:
● George W. Cable
● Thomas Nelson Page
● Joel Chandler Harris
● Mary Noailles Murfree (Charles Egbert Craddock)
● Sarah Orne Jewett
● Mary E. Wilkins Freeman
● Henry Cuyler Bunner
● William Sydney Porter (O. Henry).

Lesson 4
American Literature in the Modern and Postmodern Periods

During the 1950s, we can see a big and drastic change in the American literary tradition.

That change revolutionized how writers compose their works. This, of course, comes from
the sociopolitical upheavals such as the two World Wars and the Cold War.

Writers challenged the norms and traditional practices of writing. Hence, this phenomenon
led to the beginnings of the modern and postmodern periods.

These eras broke away from the seemingly realist paradigm that already dominated
American literature. Guerin, et. al. (2011) stated in their book that:

“In character development, both modern and postmodern literature explore subjectivism,
turning from external reality to examine inner states of consciousness, in many cases
drawing on modernist examples in the ‘stream of consciousness’ styles. . . or explorative
poems like ‘The Waste Land’ by T. S. Eliot.”

“In addition, both modern and postmodern literature explore fragmentariness in a

narrative and character construction.”

Influential writers of these periods were F. Scott Fitzgerald, Ernest Hemingway, Ezra
Pound, and T. S. Eliot.

Virginia Woolf became popular because of her “stream of consciousness” style of writing.
Her style of writing gives readers a view of what goes on in the characters’ minds. Joyce
and Eliot, on the other hand, were powerhouses of modernism and postmodernism because
of the fragmentariness of their writing. Eliot’s poems are perfect illustrations of the
influences of modernism and postmodernism in American literature. Eliot’s poems are
fragmentary, which means they neither ascribe to a continuous flow of thought nor follow
a coherent set of ideas.

Simply put, modernism and postmodernism underscored that literary writing has to be
“free.” In this essence, writers of these periods are unconventional as they deconstructed
the norms in writing. These distortions for them are not regarded as rebellious acts of
writing. However, such “delineations” are the unique features of modern and postmodern
works. If a writer chooses to bombard his poems with so many exclamation points after
every word, it will not mean that he is not a good writer and that he does not know
anything about the structure of English. Rather, the writer adheres to the style of modern
and postmodern literature.

Modernist and postmodernist writers mimic the dizzying events that unfold in their era.
Other notable writers of these periods were John Ashbery, Rita Dove, Anne Sexton, and
Sylvia Plath.

Unit 16

Lesson 1
Introduction to Latin America Literature

The oral and written literature of South American countries were generally written in
Spanish and Portuguese. These works make up the entirety of Latin American literature as
these countries were former Spanish and Portuguese colonies. The popularity of Latin
American literature can be attributed to the development of “magic realism,” a signature
style of Latin American writers. Furthermore, as more people from this region migrated to
other parts of the world, they also brought their literary traditions with them. This
phenomenon contributed to the proliferation of diaspora literature.

Pre-Columbian Period
This period comprises the oral literature of Latin America, particularly those that came
from the Aztec and Mayan civilizations before the European conquest. The thematic
concerns of literature during this time were mythological and religious. Popol Vuh, a corpus
(body) of mytho-historical narratives of the Mayan people, became the hallmark of this
era. The work narrates the Mayan creation myth, the exploits of the hero twins Hunahpu
and Xbalanque, and the early history of K’iche’ migration.

The Discovery
When the Spanish language was brought to Latin America by its conquerors, there was a
battle between the two cultures as the Spanish colonizers clashed with the aboriginal
culture. As such, the use of Spanish in writing literary texts emerged in this era.
Historical accounts, diaries, letters, and chronicles were the dominant form of literature
of this period.
An early example of a chronicle was the travel logbook of Christopher Columbus, which had
also contained elements of fiction. The Cartas de Relacion of Hernan Cortes was also worth
noting, as this book presented the conquest of Mexico in detail.

Numerous writers also wrote rebellious works to expose the atrocities of the conquerors
in the native land because of the many cases of abuse that permeated the society during
this time. Bartolome de las Casas became well-known for his Procurador y Protector
Universal de Todos los Indios, which led to the creation of the New Law of 1542. These
laws abolished native slavery and prevented the exploitation and mistreatment of the
indigenous people of Americas by their conquerors.

The 19th Century

Since liberation was attained by numerous Latin American countries, this era became
well-known as the period of “foundational fictions” because novels were already finding
their place in society. This led to the concretizing of the national identities of Latin
American countries. Most of the works at this time targeted the dichotomy of “civilization
and barbarism,” as the European conquerors introduced the notion of industrialization,
which clashed with the antiquated and tribal practices of the indigenous people. Influential
writers of this time were Domingo Sarmiento, Jorge Isaac, Juan Leon Mera, and Euclides
da Cunha. Their works were regarded as the canons of Latin American literature.

Resistance Literature
This period of Latin American literature is the “awakening” moment in society. Due to the
spirit of liberation that shaped the nineteenth century, numerous writers fleshed out the
ideas of revolution, nationalism, identity, and freedom in their literary works. The people
have started to cultivate political, economic, and cultural independence, which led more
writers to write for individualism. In this way, the writers showed their pride for Latin
American heritage. What makes this period remarkable was the struggle that writers
endured to face their aggressors or colonial masters, the United States of America and
other imperialist European countries. Popular writers of resistance literature were Jose
Marti and Rubén Darío.

Another significant event in this period was the emergence of women writers. The
resistance period was seen as an avenue for women to become empowered and find a “room
of their own” in literature. These women battled for equal rights and questioned the
conventional patriarchal view of society. Notable women writers of this era were Gertrudis
Gomez de Avellaneda, Clorinda Matto de Turner, and Juana Manuela Gorriti.

Modernismo
Between the 19th century and the 20th century, the literary movement of Modernismo
emerged in the Latin American literary scene. It rebelled against bourgeois or middle class
values and sensibilities. This social resentment comes from the fact that the bourgeois
enjoy privileges at the cost of the masses’ labor. One of the most prominent modernist
writers was Rubén Darío, a Nicaraguan writer.

Many critics viewed Modernismo as the culprit for the deterioration of the purity of a
true Latin American literature, as Modernismo focused on the aesthetics of the form
rather than focusing on the realities of society. This led to the birth of indigenismo. The
indigenismo movement was seen as a response to Modernismo because it highlighted the
portrayal of indigenous culture and the injustices that some people were facing.

The Boom
Latin America experienced economic abundance after World War II, affecting literature
and paving the way to a literary boom. This era saw the flourishing of literature and
criticism in the region during the 1960s and 1970s. Boom writers were regarded as
unconventional because they embraced new ideas in writing. They also put Latin American
literature on a high pedestal because of various literary merits that Latin American
writers received. The eminent writers of this time were Gabriel Garcia Marquez, Julio
Cortazar, Carlos Fuentes, Mario Vargas Llosa, and Isabel Allende. One of the essential
contributions of this era is the magic realism movement, which became the signature style
of Latin American writers. This literary technique emphasizes that unreal and magical
things or events are real and are part of everyday realities.

Lesson 2
Latin American Poetry

Most of the poems from Latin America were written in Spanish. Poetry has been an
important part of primitive people’s lives since the pre-colonial era. This was evident even
with limited or scant poems retrieved from the Mayan civilization. The themes of Latin
American poetry can be considered as a conglomeration of cultures as there was a fusion
of indigenous culture and that of the colonizers.

Although poetry has been an integral part of Latin American literature, it was only in the
period of modernism that Latin American poetry started to be globally recognized. Its
popularity has risen so much that it became a very influential facet of world literary
treasuries. Below are four of the most influential Latin American poets:

Gabriela Mistral (1889–1957)

She was born as Lucila Godoy Alcayaga from Chile. She was a well-known poet-diplomat,
educator, and humanist. One of the empowered women writers of Latin America, she was
born in an era when there were not many women writers. She was the first Latin American
writer to receive the Nobel Prize for Literature award in 1945 for her lyric poetry that
had “powerful emotions that set an idealism for the entire Latin America.” One of her
most famous works is “Bosque del pino,” translated as “Pine Forest.”

Pablo Neruda (1904–1973)

His real name was Ricardo Eliécer Neftalí Reyes Basoalto, and he is also from Chile. He
derived his nom de plume (pen name) from Jan Neruda, a Czech poet. Often considered as
the national poet of Chile, he is considered as one of the pillars of Latin American poetry
as he had won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1971.

His first poem is “Ëntusiasmo y Perseverancia,” which was published in the daily La Mañana
when he was 13 years old. Some of his famous poems are “Tonight I Can Write the
Saddest Lines,” “If You Forget Me,” “Walking Around,” “Cat’s Dream,” and “A Song of
Despair.” The Nobel Prize Commission noted that his poems used familiar and elementary
images, which made the aspirations of his race possible.

Octavio Paz (1914–1998)

Octavio Paz Lozano was a Mexican poet and diplomat who became an important figure of
Latin American literature. According to Ramon Xirau, the poetry of Paz “does not hesitate
between language and silence; it leads into the realm of silence where true language lives.”
He also won the Nobel Prize for Literature award in 1990 for his impassioned writing that
is characterized by “sensuous intelligence and humanistic integrity.” His prominent poetry
collections include Luna Silvestre, Vuelta, Blanco, Topoemas, and Pasado en Claro.

César Vallejo (1892–1938)

César Abraham Vallejo was born in Santiago de Chuco, Peru on March 16, 1892. His father
and two grandfathers wanted him to become a priest, but he expressed no interest in a
religious vocation.

He began writing poetry in 1913. By 1918, he published his first book of poems entitled Los
Heraldos Trilce. In 1920, he was imprisoned for a period of four months. In 1922, he
published Trilce, which contains his most complex and radical works. He was hailed by
Thomas Merton as the best poet after Dante Alighieri, the great Italian epic poet. One of
his most well-known poems is “To My Brother Miguel in Memoriam.”

Lesson 3
Latin American Fiction

Like the poets who brought the world's attention to Latin American literature, the Latin
American novelists produced works which would eventually become literary classics in
themselves. Below are some of the fiction writers and their exemplary works:

Miguel Ángel Asturias (1899–1974)

An award-winning Guatemalan diplomat, novelist, playwright, and journalist, he was
well-remembered because he had emphasized the indigenous cultures of his people in his
works, thus crisscrossing it with the mainstream culture. He won the Nobel Prize for
Literature in 1967 for his poem deeply-rooted in indigenous tradition and vivid imagery. His
valuable novels are El Señor Presidente, Men of Maize, Legends of Guatemala, and Mulata
de tal.

Gabriel García Márquez (1927–2014)

He was born in 1927 in the small town of Aracataca in northern Colombia. He was a
Colombian novelist, short story writer, screenwriter, and journalist. He became a literary
giant because he popularized magic realism, which highlighted the depiction of fantasy and
magic as part of reality. When he died in 2014, he was described by Juan Manuel Santos,
the president of Colombia, as “the greatest Colombian who has ever lived.” He won the
Nobel Prize in Literature in 1982 “for his novels and short stories, in which the fantastic
and the realistic are combined in a richly composed world of imagination, reflecting a
continent’s life and conflicts.” Two of his influential novels are One Hundred Years of
Solitude and Love in the Time of Cholera.

Mario Vargas Llosa (1936–present)

A Peruvian writer, politician, journalist, essayist, and professor, he is regarded as one of
the most influential writers of his time. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2010.
When he won this award, the committee of the award-giving body said that the award was
granted to him “for his cartography of structures of power and his trenchant images of
the individual’s resistance, revolt, and defeat.” His influential novels are The Time of the
Hero, The Feast of the Goat, and Aunt Julia and the Scriptwriter.

Lesson 4
Latin American Drama

The history of theater in Latin America began even before the arrival of European
conquerors. The pre-Columbian people had traditional rites, ceremonies, and practices,
which were then considered as the earliest forms of theatrical presentations. The stage
they used for such activities were made from the branches of trees and other natural
resources.

The Europeans grabbed it as an opportunity for them to spread Christianity to people who
they thought were blinded by their pagan worship of natural objects. Versinyi (1980)
stated that the “theatre became a tool for political hold on Latin America by colonialist
theatre by using indigenous performance practices to manipulate the population.”

As the popularization of plays in Latin America increased in the present time, it has
evolved from its primitive beginnings. Due to the influence of the modernist movement,
Latin American plays in contemporary society emphasized timely themes such as family,
friendship, love, and political issues. There was a rapid boom of Mexican drama series in
the 1990s that became instantly famous across the globe. Thalia, a Mexican actress,
became a prominent figure of Mexican drama series. At present, Latin American dramas
continue to develop as more pressing issues of today’s time are showcased. This is evident
proof that Latin American drama is realistic as it is responsive to social realities. Below
are a few exemplary Latin American playwrights:

Nelson Rodrigues (1912–1980)

He was born on August 23, 1912 in Brazil. His parents are Mario Rodrigues, who was a
journalist, and Esther Falcao. When he was 14 years old, he covered the police beat for his
father’s newspaper. By the age of 16, he was already writing his own column. His first play
was The Woman Without Sin in 1914. He also wrote The Wedding Dress, which is
considered as one of his masterpieces. He wrote seventeen full-length plays, nine novels,
and numerous short stories. His plays All Nudity Shall Be Punished, Doroteia, and The
Asphalt Kiss are considered as classics of the Brazilian stage.

Efrén Orozco Rosales (1903–1979)

He was born in Hidalgo in Central Mexico. Before he became a dramatist, he was a physical
education teacher who later on became a government official in the Ministry of Education.
He was known as the proponent of the Mexican Mass Theater. Most of his works won
different awards and have historical themes.

Some of his works are:

- Liberation (1929)
- Earth and Freedom (1933)
- The Tree of Peace (1952)
- Corrido de la Revolución (1955)
- Run of the Mexican Revolution (1955)
- Under the Wings of the Eagle (1957)

UNIT 17

Lesson 1
Chinese Literature

Chinese literature dates back thousands of years, from the dynastic court poetry to the
fiction novel that blossomed during the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) to entertain the common
literate Chinese. The establishment of woodblock printing during the Tang dynasty
(618–907) and the invention of movable type printing during the Song dynasty (960–1279)
gave rise to written Chinese literature.

Classical Poetry

The Book of Changes is one of the most important classical texts in Chinese literature. It
is a book of divination based on eight trigrams, which existed during the Zhou dynasty.
The writers of the Warring States period attempted to explain the world and its moral
principles through the commentaries found in additional sections of the text.

The Classic of Poetry is the earliest collection of poetry, consisting of 305 poems that
included folk and festival songs, hymns, and eulogies. The collection of documents and
speeches written by rulers and officials of Zhou period is called the Classic of History.
The Classic of Rites is a collection of texts that describes ancient rites and court
ceremonies during the Zhou dynasty. It was written during the Warring States period. The
Spring and Autumn Annals is a chronological history of the state of Lu. It contains monthly
narrations of important events during the rule of the twelve leaders of Lu. The Analects
of Confucius is a book of sayings recorded by his disciples that talks about his teachings
on how to live a harmonious life and how to deal with other people.

Classical poetry reached its peak during the Tang dynasty. The early Tang period was
known for its lushi, consisting of eight lines with five to seven characters in each line. Two
distinguished poets of the period were Li Po (Li Bai), known for the romanticism of his
poems, and Tu Fu, a Confucian moralist.

Another poetic form that became popular was the ci form, which was first developed
during the Tang dynasty. It then flourished during the Song dynasty, as poets based ci
poetry on the tune of popular songs. The development of Chinese sanqu poetry, a freer
form patterned on dramatic arias, led to the development of vernacular Chinese literature.

Classical Prose
The Spring and Autumn periods contributed significantly to Chinese prose style. Works of
Mencius and Zhuang Zi demonstrated well-reasoned and carefully developed ideas and
showed a remarkable improvement in style. Mencius was noted for his elegant diction, while
Zhuang Zi was revered for his use of metaphorical, anecdotal, and allegorical style. The
Tang period saw the emergence of the neoclassical style of prose, which strongly
influenced prose writing for the next years. Han Yu (786–824) was a major essayist who
strongly advocated the return of Confucian orthodoxy. Vernacular fiction became popular
after the 14th century. The greatest 18th century vernacular novel is Dream of the Red
Chamber by Cao Xueqin.

Modern Literature

Modern Chinese literature began in the late Qing period (1895–1911), which was described
as a period of active intellectual pursuits sparked by a nationalistic climate. Translated
Western writings introduced new ideas and cultures, thereby resulting in the flowering of
prose fiction that expressed new social and cultural roles for writers. Chinese fiction
became concerned with social problems, historical upheaval, and changing values. Among
the distinguished writers of the period are:

a. Li Boyuan - He was a writer who used vernacular writing for people who did not receive
classical education. His writings are focused on social and political issues during the late
Qing dynasty as a reflection of the Chinese society of that period.
b. Liu E. - He was a writer, archaeologist, and politician who used symbolism and classical
writing illustrations in his writing. This made his writing more appealing to those who
attained classical education.
c. Zheng Pu - He was a novelist who used symbolism and classical literature illustrations
in his writing. During his time, he was also known as the only author who knew a different
language because he knew the French language.

It was also during the late Qing dynasty that the new “civilized drama” emerged, a hybrid
of Chinese operatic drama and Western-style drama. The New Culture Movement
(1917–1923) saw the vernacular language being widely used and eventually displacing the
classical language in all genres. Among those who popularized vernacular literature was Lu
Xun (1881–1936), considered the founder of modern baihua literature (literature that uses
colloquial language) in China.

With the establishment of the League of Left-Wing writers, Lu Xun and other followers
adopted the ideals of socialist realism, adhering to the principle that art must depict
contemporary events exposing the ills of nonsocialist society. The Maoist Era (1949–1976)
placed the publishing industry and the book distribution system under government control
and implemented strict censorship.

Despite the measures to instill literary uniformity, a great number of novels of excellent
quality were produced. These writings became the textbooks on life of the young
generation, for they reflected the historic changes in the lives of Chinese people. The
Post-Mao Era (1976–present) published a large number of prose fiction. The writers
protested against and bemoaned the abuses but also expressed their eagerness to
contribute in building a new Chinese society. Literary outlets were revived to satisfy the
increasing appetite of the people. Literary magazines publishing translations of foreign
fiction became very popular to the young generation. Writers also became freer to write
about sensitive matters that do not necessarily conform to literary conventions. However,
one of the struggles of modern writers is the censorship imposed by the Chinese
government on both journalism and literature, as evidenced by the blocking of certain
websites and the banning of some books from being sold in China.
Lesson 2
Japanese Literature

The literature of Japan presents a rich source of beauty and new ideas highly significant
to the West. The Western discovery of Japanese literature was aided by William George
Aston’s A History of Japanese Literature first published in New York in 1899.

Chinese elements are regarded as an integral part of Japanese literature, just as the
literature of Greece and Rome are an integral part of Western literature. The literary
forms of China, as well as Chinese ideographic forms, are at the root of Japanese
literature.

The Japanese have an extensive literature spanning more than twelve centuries, which are
divided into different periods.

Archaic Period

It was marked by two events that were of prime importance to

the development of literature in Japan:
● Introduction of the art of writing (kanji) from China Until they became acquainted
with the Chinese, the Japanese had no written characters. Chinese characters were
adopted to write Japanese, creating what is known as the man'yōgana, the earliest
form of kana or syllabic writing.
● First propagation of the Buddhist religion Buddhism gained much greater
importance in Japan. It took on the highly aristocratic and uniquely Japanese form.
It was influential in developing the Japanese culture. Literature during this period
was mostly a series of songs and poems about war and historical incidents, and
series of norito or prayers to the gods of the Shinto, Japan’s indigenous religion
predating Buddhism.

Nara Period

Considered as the Golden Age of Poetry, it began in 710 AD when Nara was made the seat
of the emperor’s government and ended in 794 AD when the capital was moved to Nagaoka.
It produced two important literary works:

a. Kojiki or Records of Ancient Matters, which contain the early traditions of the
Japanese race, mythology, and legendary history; and
b. Man'yōshū or Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves, the oldest extant anthology of
Japanese poetry. Divided into twenty chapters or kan, it contains some 4,500 poems
written over a period of about 440 years and representing the works of several hundred
poets. This collection employs two principal poetic forms: tanka or short poem, the most
universal form of poetry in Japan, made up of 31 syllables arranged in five lines or units;
and choka or long poem, formed with 31 syllables with undefined length and concluding with
an extra seven-syllable line.
The representative prose works during this period are the following:

a. Shoku-Nihongi, a history text;

b. Izumo Fudoki, an ancient record of Izumo; and
c. Nihon Shoki or Chronicles of Japan, the second oldest book of classical Japanese
history. This is a text that shows the history of Japan from its origins until 697 AD.

These texts provide historical accounts of how Japan came to be as a nation.

Heian Period

This period is considered the classical age of Japanese literature. It refers to the period
when Kyoto or Heian-kyō (“City of Peace”) was the real seat of government. Its literature
reflected the pleasure-loving and effeminate but cultured and refined character of the
class of Japanese who produced it. It was largely the work of women; thus, literature
during this period was gentle and domestic.

The popular works produced during this period were the following:

a. Kokinshū (Collection of Ancient and Modern Poems) is an anthology of the best poems
produced during the previous 150 years; the prose work such as Kokinshū’s preface was
written by Ki No Tsurayuki and which was the start of criticism becoming a distinct form
of Japanese literature; and
b. The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu is sometimes referred to as the first modern
Japanese novel. Here is an excerpt from the first chapter of the novel.

Kamakura-Muromachi Period
It was characterized by a constant state of warfare and turmoil, and the decline of
learning.

The important works of the period are the following:

a. Shin Kokinshū (New Collection of Ancient and Modern Poems), which is reflective of the
gloom and solitude of the period;
b. Heike Monogatari (Tale of the Heike), which tells of the defeat of the Taira by the
Minamoto clan;
c. Gempei Seisuki, which is the history of the rise and fall of the Gen and Hei, two great
noble families who fought for absolute control over Japan during the latter half of the
12th century, and
d. Tsurezuregusa (Essays in Idleness) by Yoshida Kenko; it is a collection of essays on
various subjects. The period saw the Buddhist monks as the chief maintainers of learning,
the development of renga or linked verse, and the evolution of Noh drama, which consists
of a one-act dance performed by male actors with extremely slow movements as they
chant prose passages and sing verse sections. Zeami Motokiyo developed the Noh drama to
its highest form.
Edo Period

Literature during this period was more voluminous and had a far wider range of subjects.
It was produced by the merchant class and was considered as bawdy and worldly. During
the period, forms of popular drama developed, which later evolved into kabuki, a popular
Japanese theater form consisting of a colorful background, lively and emotional music,
dancing, and exaggerated acting. The period saw the perfection of the haiku, a poem of 17
syllables in three lines of five, seven, five syllables, respectively. A haiku is known to
depict the beauty of nature as seen in the eyes of the writer. Matsuo Bashō, Kobayashi
Issa, and Yosa Buson were notable haiku writers of this period.

Take note that in the original Japanese version, the syllables follow the 5-7-5 pattern in
the respective order of lines. It also shows the emotion and imagery of nature as seen by
the writer. Interpretations may depend on the reader of a haiku.

Other important works of the period are the following: Koshoku ichidai otoko, Tōkaidōchū
Hizakurige, and Oku no Hosomichi. These Japanese works reflect philosophical meditations
toward existence. They highlight Japanese sensibilities when it comes to daily or mundane
experiences.

Meiji Era

The Meiji era saw the reopening of Japan to the West and was a period of rapid
industrialization. It bore witness to the following:
● Fukuzawa Yukichi and Nakae Chōmin wrote enlightenment literature, while
pre-modern popular books portrayed the fast-changing country;
● Haibun, a kind of composition that combines prose and haiku, flourished during thi
period;
● Ichiyō Higuchi, a woman writer who wrote short stories on powerless women of this
age, was among the first important writers who emerged during this era;
● Izumi Kyōka, who wrote early novels such as The Operating Room (1895) and The
Holy Man of Mount Koya (1900), is revered for having his own distinctive style that
made use of supernatural elements.

Modern Period
During this time, literature is characterized by the denial of the worth of traditional
writings and by themes of disaffection, loss of purpose, and coping with defeat as a result
of World War II and Japan’s defeat. Osamu Dazai’s novel, The Setting Sun, is one of the
stories that reflect the aftermath of war.

Prominent writers of the 1970s and the 1980s identified with intellectual and moral issues
in their attempt to raise social and political consciousness. These writers include the
following:
● Kenzaburō Ōe wrote A Personal Matter in 1964 and became Japan’s second winner
of the Nobel Prize for Literature;
● Kōbō Abe wrote fantastic novels such as Woman in the Dunes, which won the
Yomiuri Prize for literature in 1962 and was adapted into a film in 1964;
● Shizuko Todo won the 1988 Naoki Prize for Ripening Summer, a story that captures
the complex psychology of modern women;
 ● Haruki Murakami remains as one of the most popular and controversial of today’s
widely acclaimed Japanese authors. In the 1980s, Japan established its prominence
in the literary scene by producing manga (comic books). Manga became popular as a
material for leisure reading of children and young adults. Part of the reason why
manga was successful was its portrayal of women in the modern world, and
ultimately its representation of a traditional country, such as Japan, which
embraces the challenges of urbanity and the future.

Lesson 3
Indian Literature

Indian literature pertains not only to the literature of what we know as India today but
also that of Pakistan and Bangladesh. Historically, these countries were considered one
until the partition of India in 1947, which created India and Pakistan. Then, in 1971,
Bangladesh seceded from Pakistan. In the case of literature, although the countries are no
longer one, their literary tradition is unquestionably united.

Today, the constitution of India recognizes 22 official languages. This includes Sanskrit,
which is an ancient language that was used for writing epics and religious texts. Though
Sanskrit is no longer used by the majority, it is still considered an important part of Indian
cultural heritage that is at par with the Latin and Greek of the West. While Sanskrit and
other languages developed from Sanskrit are still active languages in Northern India, most
languages used in the south come from Dravidian, a different language family. An example
of Dravidian language is Tamil. Because of the contact of Indians with Persians and the
rest of the Middle East, Urdu emerged as a language in the 1500s. As India was colonized
by the British Empire, English became a vital language. However, only a small percentage of
the Indian population use English because it is mostly accessible through formal education.
The Indian colonial experience affected how writers expressed their sentiments.

Most literary forms and works in Indian literature incorporate philosophical and religious
concepts. Often, these works are viewed as extensions of Hindu teachings. Considered to
be the oldest Hindu writings, the Vedas (meaning “knowledge” in Sanskrit) are a collection
of sacred books written in Sanskrit. There are four Vedas:

Rig Veda (“knowledge of the verses”) - a collection of 1,028 sacred hymns and is divided
into ten books called Mandalas;
● Yajur Veda (“knowledge of the sacrifice”) - a handbook for priests in the
performance of sacrificial rituals;
● Sama Veda (“knowledge of the melodies”) - a collection of chants and melodies
drawn from the Rig Veda and are to be sung during worship; and
● Atharva Veda (“knowledge of the fire priest”) - a collection of charms, spells, and
hymns, largely outside of the scope of worship and Vedic sacrifice.

India prides itself as a civilization that holds some of the world’s oldest epics: the
Mahabharata by Vyasa and Ramayana by Valmiki. Mahabharata narrates an ancient tale of
war within a family caused by a desire for power. The entire text contains 100,000 lines,
hence, it is considered as one of the longest literary masterpieces. It is actually a group of
poems in one. The epic story of the great war between the two branches of the Bharat
family comprises only about a fifth of the whole work, which runs about 100,000 sloka
(lines) or double octosyllabic couplets and is contained in eighteen books and a supplement.
Meanwhile, the Ramayana takes its story from an episode in the Mahabharata and gives it a
romantic treatment in the form of kavya or court poetry. It centers on the life and
adventures of the couple Ramachandra and Sita. The tale of Savitri is another narrative
found in Mahabharata. It is told to the exiled king of the Pandavas by way of consoling him
for the plight of his much-tried queen, Draupadi. Savitri takes her place alongside the
more famous Sita (heroine of the Ramayana) and the admirable Shakuntala (whose story is
also told in the Mahabharata) as the type of ideal Indian womanhood.

Savitri is portrayed in this tale as a person with beauty and intelligence. As she found her
true love in Satyavan, she will do everything to have him back, even going through the
dangers of facing Yama, the god of death. She used her wit and intelligence to eventually
trick Yama into returning the soul of Satyavan.

Some of the notable contemporary authors of Indian literature include Arundhati Roy and
Rabindranath Tagore. Roy was known for her famous novel, The God of Small Things
(1997). It won the Man Booker Prize for Fiction in 1997. Meanwhile, Tagore was awarded
with the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913. Some of his remarkable works include Manasi
(1890), Chitrangada (Chitra,1892), and Sonar Tori (The Golden Boat, 1894).

Lesson 4
Thai and Indonesian Literature

Thai Literature
Indian literature greatly influenced Thai literature. In fact, the national epic of Thailand
is called Ramakien and was referred to as the Thai version of Ramayana. However,
numerous versions of the epic were lost after the war of Ayutthaya.

The Inao is an important classical literary work in Thailand because it presented the
history of the land, including the people’s traditions, customs, manners, and figures
prominently in the repertoire of classical dramas. Sunthorn Phu (1786–1855) was regarded
as one of the major literary figures in Thailand. His style of writing is sensitive toward the
life and sentiments of the common folk. This style is brought about by his adventurous life
endeavors.

In Thailand, even members of the royalty are revered as literary personalities.

Historically, King Rama V and King Rama VI had great passion for poetry, which were
intensely philosophical. This, of course, was made possible by the fact that they were
introduced to many avenues of learning.

In the early 20th century, Phya Anuman Rajadhon, a literary writer and scholar, wrote
about Thai culture, language, and folklore. His works influenced the succeeding generations
of scholars in various fields. Also, the works of Dokmaisod (the pseudonym of M.L. Boopha
Nimmanhaemindha) became popular to Thai readers. At present, her works are still read in
different grade levels in Thailand. Her best known works were: Phu Di, Nung Nai Roi, Nit,
and Chaichana Khong Luang Naruban. Another author, Malai Choopinit, was a popular name
in full-length stories. His prominent works are Thung Maharat, a novel about rural life, and
Long Phrai, a novel that is about an adventure in the forest.

Indonesian Literature
Since Indonesia is an archipelago, its literature can be described as multicultural because
of the great influences of its diverse ethnic groups. Its earliest form of literature is oral
in nature and was handed from one generation to another. When Indonesians had acquired
a writing system of their own, they wrote their literature on caves and on branches of
trees and leaves.

Indonesia’s earliest recorded literary tradition dates back to the eighth century, when
their folk and ancient narratives were local versions of older Hindu texts. For two
centuries, during the Medang or Mataram Kingdom, the development in the arts, literature,
and culture because of the influence of Hindu-Buddhist traditions rapidly increased. The
spread of Islam was also helpful in the development of Indonesian literary and artistic
practices as they were exposed to Islamic ideas coming from Islamic West India, the Arab
culture, and Persia. This event paved the way for the advancement of literature and sacred
texts, music and instruments, and dance.

Wayang, with its origins dating back to the Neolithic period, is the tradition of using
Javanese shadow puppets in theater performances, and it further developed during the
period of Indianization when it was used in the portrayal of lakon, which are complex Hindu
dramas. Further refinements to this tradition were added in the 16th to 18th century upon
the country’s contact with Islamic culture.

The modern Indonesian literature was characterized by works with Western influences,
which emerged in the twentieth century. Prose narratives differ and are influenced by
Indian literature and those of the neighboring countries. They usually focus on “beast
fables,” legends, riddles, adventure stories, and more. Texts were written in various
languages, chiefly in Javanese and Malay.

Early Javanese literature works existed between the ninth and the tenth century CE.
Prose and poetry were prevalent, they were variations of the famous Indian epics,
Mahabharata and Ramayana. Moreover, the Javanese adapted the Sanskrit court poetry
and developed it as their own. However, the onset of Dutch colonization from the 18th to
the 19th century led to the decrease in Javanese and Malay works.

In Javanese society, there is a long tradition of poets being critics of authority. During
the reign of Suharto, poets and playwrights, including W. S. Rendra and Pramoedya Ananta
Toer, had their works banned, and they were even imprisoned because their literary works
expressed their dissent against the government. Even so, Pramoedya Ananta Toer, a
novelist who wrote This Earth of Mankind won the Ramon Magsaysay Award, a prize valued
as an Asian equivalent of the Nobel Prize for Literature. The situation of the writers
eased when Suharto was forced to resign in 1998.