Christianity (Hebrew: )נצרותis a monotheistic[1] religion centered on the life and
teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as depicted in the New Testament.[2] Christianity teaches
that Jesus is the Son of God and the Messiah prophesied in the Old Testament, and that
the New Testament records the Gospel that was revealed by Jesus.
Christianity began as a sect within Judaism,[3] and includes the Hebrew Bible (known to
Christians as the Old Testament) as well as the New Testament as its canonical
scriptures.[4] Like Judaism and Islam, Christianity is classified as an Abrahamic religion
(see also, Judeo-Christian).[5][6]
The name "Christian" (Greek Χριστιανός Strong's G5546), meaning "belonging to
Christ" or "partisan of Christ",[7] was first applied to the disciples in Antioch, as recorded
in Acts 11:26.[8] The earliest recorded use of the term "Christianity" (Greek
Χριστιανισμός) is by Ignatius of Antioch.[9]
Jesus the Christ
As indicated by the name "Christianity," the focus of a Christian's life is a firm belief in
Jesus as the Son of God and the Messiah or Christ. The title "Messiah" comes from the
Hebrew word ַ( מָשׁיחmāšiáħ) meaning anointed one. The Greek translation Χριστός
(Christos) is the source of the English word Christ.
A depiction of Jesus and Mary, the Theotokos of Vladimir (12th century)
Christians believe that, as the Messiah, Jesus was anointed as ruler and savior of
humanity, and hold that Jesus' coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the
Old Testament. The Christian concept of the Messiah differs significantly from the
contemporary Jewish concept.[13] The core Christian belief is that, through the death and
resurrection of Jesus, sinful humans can be reconciled to God and thereby are offered
salvation and the promise of eternal life. [Ref. For whosoever shall call upon the name of
the Lord shall be saved. Romans 10:13 KJB]
While there have been theological disputes over the nature of Jesus, Christians generally
believe that Jesus is God incarnate and "true God and true man" (or both fully divine and
fully human). Jesus, having become fully human in all respects, suffered the pains and
temptations of a mortal man, yet he did not sin. As fully God, he defeated death and rose
to life again. According to the Bible, "God raised him from the dead,"[14] he ascended to
heaven, to the "right hand of God,"[15] and he will return again[16] to fulfil the rest of
Messianic prophecy such as the Resurrection of the dead, the Last Judgment and
establishment of the physical Kingdom of God.
According to the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit
and born from the Virgin Mary. Little of Jesus' childhood is recorded in the canonical
Gospels, however infancy Gospels were popular in antiquity. In comparison, his
adulthood, especially the week before his death, are well documented in the Gospels
contained within the New Testament. The Biblical accounts of Jesus' ministry include: his
baptism, miracles, preaching, teaching, and deeds.
The Death and Resurrection of Jesus
Main article: Death and Resurrection of Jesus
The Crucifixion by Diego Velázquez (17th century)
Christians consider the resurrection of Jesus to be the cornerstone of their faith and the
most important event in human history.[17][18]
According to the Gospels, Jesus and his followers went to Jerusalem the week of the
Passover where they were eagerly greeted by a crowd. In Jerusalem, Jesus drove money
changers from the Temple,[19] and predicted its destruction[20] - heightening conflict with
the Jewish authorities who were plotting his death.[21]
After sharing his last meal with his disciples, Jesus went to pray in the Garden of
Gethsemane where he was betrayed by his disciple Judas Iscariot and arrested by the
temple guard on orders from the Sanhedrin and the high priest Caiaphas. Jesus was
convicted by the Sanhedrin of blasphemy and transferred to the Roman governor Pilate.
Pilate was pressured into crucifying Jesus by the nearly rioting crowds. Although the
crowds were incited by the religious authorities, Jesus was sentenced to death for
"inciting rebellion." Jesus died by late afternoon and was entombed.
Christians believe that God raised Jesus from the dead on the third day, that Jesus
appeared to his apostles and other disciples, commissioned his disciples to "make
disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son (Jesus)
and of the Holy Spirit."[22] and then ascended to heaven. Christians also believe that God
the Father sent the Holy Spirit (or Paraclete)[23] to the disciples.
The purpose of Jesus' death and resurrection is described in various doctrines of
atonement. Some see Jesus as a Sacrifice (substitutionary atonement) made to take away
the sin of the world (John 1:29} in a manner similar to Old Testament sacrifices. Others
see Jesus' dying and suffering on the cross as a sign and demonstration from God the
Father that His Son was willing to endure the shame and suffering of the cross because of
his agape (parental, self-sacrificing) love for humanity. In other Scriptures which record
Jesus' death and resurrection, The Gospel According to St. John compares the crucifixion
of Jesus to the lifting up of the Nehushtan (brass serpent) saying that "Just as Moses lifted
up the snake in the desert, so the Son of Man must be lifted up, that everyone who
believes in him may have eternal life. For God so loved the world that he gave his one
and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life." (John
3:14-16)
Many modern writers such as members of the Jesus Seminar and other Biblical scholars
such as Michael Ramsey (a former Archbishop of Canterbury) have argued that the
historical Jesus never claimed to be divine. John Hick observes that it is generally agreed
among scholars today that Jesus did not claim to be God.[24] Many also reject the
historicity of the empty tomb (and thus a bodily resurrection) and many other events
narrated in the gospels. They assert that Gospel accounts describing these things are
probably literary fabrications.[25] However, many other scholars and historians maintain
that the Gospel accounts of Jesus are, in fact, historically reliable: In terms of ancient
history, the New Testament sources were written a short time after the events,[26] and
having been written, they encountered insignificant changes in later transcriptions and
translations, according to scholars such as the late Sir Frederic Kenyon.[27]
The Trinity
Main article: Trinity
The "Hospitality of Abraham" by Andrei Rublev: The three angels represent the three
persons of God
Trinitarians
Most Christians believe that God is spirit (John 4:24), an uncreated, omnipotent, and
eternal being, the creator and sustainer of all things, who works the redemption of the
world through his Son, Jesus Christ. With this background, belief in the divinity of Christ
and the Holy Spirit is expressed as the doctrine of the Holy Trinity,[31] which describes the
single Divine substance existing as three distinct and inseparable persons: the Father, the
Son (Jesus Christ the eternal Word), and the Holy Spirit (1 John 5:7). According to this
doctrine, God is not divided in the sense that each person has a third of the whole; rather,
each person is considered to be fully God (see Perichoresis). The distinction lies in their
relations, the Father being unbegotten, the Son begotten of the Father, and the Holy Spirit
proceeding.[32] "Begotten," in these formulae, refers to the idea that Jesus was uncreated
and "eternally begotten" of the Father.
Christians of Reformed theology also conceive salvation to be one work of the triune God
in which "the three divine persons act together as one, and manifest their own proper
characteristics" with the agency of the Holy Spirit as an essential element."[33]
Trinitarian Christians trace the orthodox formula of the Trinity — The Father, and of the
Son, and of the Holy Ghost — back to the resurrected Jesus himself who spoke these
words, and which words were subsequently recorded in Matthew 28:16-20, and are
commonly referred to as the Great Commission.
The "Indwelling of the Holy Spirit" has been called the "common privilege of all
believers."[34] John 20:22 quotes Jesus as saying to His apostles, "Receive the Holy
Spirit." They were to receive the Holy Spirit Himself in some way. Nearly all Christians
speak of the "Indwelling of the Holy Spirit." The person who has "received the Holy
Spirit" thereafter not only has a sinful nature and carnal desires. According to this
theological position, there now is also a second, competing, moral presence, that of the
Holy Spirit, forever indwelling within him/her. From that point on, the person is able to
see daily situations from either of two perspectives, and as a result, can choose to respond
in a moral, Christian manner. However, the Christian often ignores these ethical, moral,
positive thoughts inspired by the presence (indwelling) of the Holy Spirit, and respond in
some selfish or lustful way as their own original nature desires.[35] (John 16:7-14; 1
Corinthians 2:10ff)
In Catholic, Orthodox, and some Anglican theology, this indwelling is received through
the sacrament called Confirmation or, in the East, Chrismation. In most Protestant
traditions, the "Indwelling of the Holy Spirit" takes place in the action of becoming a
Christian.[35]
The New Testament also teaches that the Holy Spirit inspired all Scripture,[36] a belief
shared by most Christians.[37]
Non-Trinitarians
In antiquity, and again following the Reformation, several sects advocated views contrary
to the Trinity. These views were rejected by many bishops such as Irenaeus and
subsequently by the Ecumenical Councils. During the Reformation (though most
Catholics, Orthodox, and Protestants accepted the value of many of the Councils) some
groups rejected these councils as spiritually tainted.[38] Clemens Ziegler, Casper
Schwenckfeld, and Melchior Hoffman, advanced the view that Christ was only divine
and not human. Michael Servetus denied that the traditional doctrine of the Trinity was
necessary to defend the divinity of Christ. He claimed that Jesus was God Himself in the
flesh. [39]
Modalists, such as Oneness Pentecostals, regard God as a single person, with the Father,
Son, and Holy Spirit considered modes or roles by which the unipersonal God expresses
himself.[40]
Latter-day Saints (commonly called Mormons) accept the divinity of the Father, Son, and
Holy Spirit, but deny that they are the same being. Rather, they believe them to be
separate beings united perfectly in will and purpose, thus making up one single
Godhead.[41] They believe that the Father, like the Son, has a glorified physical body.
Present day groups who do not consider Jesus to be God include: Unitarians,[42]
descendants of Reformation era Socinians, Christadelphians,[43] and Jehovah's
Witnesses.[44]
Scriptures
Christianity regards the Holy Bible, a collection of canonical books in two parts (the Old
Testament and the New Testament) as authoritative: written by human authors under the
inspiration of the Holy Spirit, and therefore the inerrant Word of God.[45] Protestants
believe that the Holy Scriptures contain all revealed truth necessary for salvation (See
Sola scriptura).[46]
The Old Testament contains the entire Jewish Tanakh, though in the Christian canon, the
books are ordered differently, and some books of the Tanakh are divided into several
books by the Christian canon. While these books are part of the Christian canon, scholars
of Judaism generally teach that Christians misinterpret passages from the Old Testament,
or Tanakh. (See also Christianity and Judaism.) The Catholic and Orthodox canons
include the Hebrew Jewish canon and other books (from the Septuagint Greek Jewish
canon) which Catholics call Deuterocanonical, while Protestants consider them
Apocrypha.[47]
The first four books of the New Testament are the Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke and
John), which recount the life and teachings of Jesus. The first three are often called
synoptic because of the amount of material they share. The remainder of the New
Testament consists of:
1. a sequel to Luke's Gospel which describes the very early history of the Church
(the Acts of the Apostles),
2. a collection of letters from early Christian leaders to congregations or individuals,
(the Pauline and General epistles), and the
3. Apocalyptic Book of Revelation.[47]
The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church maintains two canons,
1. the Narrow Canon (itself larger than any Biblical canon outside Ethiopia), and
2. the Broad Canon (which has even more books.)[48]
Campaigning to be a restoration of the Christian church,[49] denominations of the Latter
Day Saint movement (commonly called Mormons) are distinct from other forms of
Christianity in that they consider the Book of Mormon holy scripture and comparable to
the Bible.[50] The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints also considers the Doctrine
and Covenants and the Pearl of Great Price scriptural. Along with the Bible (the preferred
English translation is the King James Version), these books are collectively called the
Standard Works of the church.[51]
Worship and practices
Christian life
Christians believe that Jesus is the mediator of the New Covenant (see Hebrews 8:6 and
1Timothy2:5). His famous Sermon on the Mount is considered by many Christian
scholars to be the antitype[74] of the proclamation of the Old Covenant by Moses from
Mount Sinai
Christians believe that all people should strive to follow Christ's commands and example
in their everyday actions (Romans 13:14). For many, this includes obedience to the Ten
Commandments. Jesus made it clear that He did not come to abolish the Law or the
Prophets, but to fulfill them (Matthew 5:17). In response to a "catch" question from a
Pharisee as to which is the greatest commandment in the Old Testament Law, Jesus
replied:
'Love[75] the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your
mind.'[76] This is the first and greatest commandment. And the second is like it: 'Love[75]
your neighbor as yourself.'[77] All the Law and the Prophets hang on these two
commandments."
In the KJV, this kind of love was usually translated "charity" to differentiate it as being
intentional and decisional, not an emotional response. This love includes such injunctions
as "feed the hungry" and "shelter the homeless," and applies to friend and enemy alike.
The relationship between charity and religious practice is sometimes taken for granted
today as Martin Goodman has observed: "charity in the Jewish and Christian sense was
unknown to the pagan world."[78] Other Christian practices include acts of piety such as
prayer and Bible reading.
Christianity teaches that one can overcome sin only through divine grace: moral and
spiritual progress can occur only with God's help through the gift of the Holy Spirit
dwelling within the believer. It also teaches that, by believing in Christ, and sharing in
Christ's life, death, and resurrection, God's children become dead to sin and are
resurrected to a new life with Him.
Worship
Justin Martyr described second century Christian liturgy in his First Apology (c. 150) to
Emperor Antoninus Pius, and his description remains relevant to the basic structure of
Christian liturgical worship:
The Holy Bible, Crucifix, and Rosary
"And on the day called Sunday, all who live in cities or in the country gather
together to one place, and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the
prophets are read, as long as time permits; then, when the reader has ceased, the
president verbally instructs, and exhorts to the imitation of these good things.
Then we all rise together and pray, and, as we before said, when our prayer is
ended, bread and wine and water are brought, and the president in like manner
offers prayers and thanksgivings, according to his ability, and the people assent,
saying Amen; and there is a distribution to each, and a participation of that over
which thanks have been given, and to those who are absent a portion is sent by the
deacons. And they who are well to do, and willing, give what each thinks fit; and
what is collected is deposited with the president, who succours the orphans and
widows and those who, through sickness or any other cause, are in want, and
those who are in bonds and the strangers sojourning among us, and in a word
takes care of all who are in need."[80]
Thus, as Justin described, Christians assemble for communal worship on Sunday, the day
of the resurrection, though other liturgical practices often occur outside this setting.
Scripture readings are drawn from the Old and New Testaments, but especially the
Gospels. Often these are arranged on an annual cycle, using a book called a lectionary.
Instruction is given based on these readings, called a sermon, or homily. There are a
variety of congregational prayers, including thanksgiving, confession, and intercession,
which occur throughout the service and take a variety of forms including recited,
responsive, silent, or sung. The Lord's Prayer, or Our Father, is regularly prayed. The
Eucharist (also called Holy Communion, or the Lord's Supper) consists of a ritual meal of
consecrated bread and wine, discussed in detail below. Lastly, a collection occurs in
which the congregation donates money for the support of the Church and for charitable
work.
Some groups depart from this traditional liturgical structure. A division is often made
between "High" church services, characterized by greater solemnity and ritual, and
"Low" services, but even within these two categories there is great diversity in forms of
worship. Seventh-day Adventists meet on Saturday (the original Sabbath), while others
do not meet on a weekly basis. Charismatic or Pentecostal congregations may
spontaneously feel led by the Holy Spirit to action rather than follow a formal order of
service, including spontaneous prayer. Quakers sit quietly until moved by the Holy Spirit
to speak. Some Evangelical services resemble concerts with rock and pop music,
dancing, and use of multimedia. For groups which do not recognize a priesthood distinct
from ordinary believers the services are generally lead by a minister, preacher, or pastor.
Still others may lack any formal leaders, either in principle or by local necessity. Some
churches use only a cappella music, either on principle (e.g. many Churches of Christ
object to the use of instruments in worship) or by tradition (as in Orthodoxy).
Worship can be varied for special events like baptisms or weddings in the service or
significant feast days. In the early church Christians and those yet to complete initiation
would separate for the Eucharistic part of the worship. In many churches today, adults
and children will separate for all or some of the service to receive age-appropriate
teaching. Such children's worship is often called Sunday school or Sabbath school
(Sunday schools are often held before rather than during services).
Symbols
An early circular ichthys symbol, created by combining the Greek letters ΙΧΘΥΣ into a
wheel. Ephesus, Asia Minor.
Today the best-known Christian symbol is the cross, which refers to the method of Jesus'
execution.[85] Several varieties exist, with some denominations tending to favor distinctive
styles: Catholics the crucifix, Orthodox the crux orthodoxa, and Protestants an unadorned
cross.
An earlier Christian symbol was the 'ichthys' fish (Greek Alpha - α) symbol and anagram.
Other text based symbols are Greek abbreviations for Jesus Christ, originally with
superlineation,[86] to include IHC and ICXC and chi-rho (the first two letters of the word
Christ in Greek). In the Greek alphabet, the Chi-Rho appears like an X (Chi - χ) with a
large P (Rho - ρ) overlaid and above it. It is said Constantine saw this symbol prior to
converting to Christianity (see History and origins section below). The variation IHS of
the nomina sacra is latinized Greek representing the first three letters of the Latin name,
Iesus. Another ancient symbol is an anchor, which denotes faith and can incorporate a
cross within its design.
History and origins
Virgin and Child. Wall painting from the early catacombs, Rome, 4th century.
The history of Christianity is the history of the Christian religion and Church, from Jesus
and his Twelve Apostles to contemporary times.
In the mid-first century, Christianity spread beyond its Jewish origins. The New
Testament depicts this as occurring under the leadership of the Apostles, especially Peter
and Paul. Some scholars even consider Paul to be the founding figure of Christianity,
pointing to the extent of his writings and the scope of his missionary work.[87] (See also
Pauline Christianity). Within a generation an episcopal hierarchy can be seen, and this
would form the structure of the Church.[88] In 301 Christianity became a state-religion in
Armenia being the first country to accept Christianity. Christianity spread east to Asia and
throughout the Roman Empire, despite persecution by the Roman Emperors until its
legalization by Emperor Constantine in 313. During his reign, questions of orthodoxy
lead to the convocation of the first Ecumenical Council, that of Nicaea.
In 391 Theodosius I established Nicene Christianity as the official and, except for
Judaism, only legal religion in the Roman Empire. Later, as the political structure of the
empire collapsed in the West, the Church assumed political and cultural roles previously
held by the Roman aristocracy. Eremitic and Coenobitic monasticism developed,
originating with the hermit St Anthony of Egypt around 300. With the avowed purpose of
fleeing the world and its evils in contemptu mundi, the institution of monasticism would
become a central part of the medieval world.[89]
Christ Jesus,[90] the Good Shepherd, 3rd century.
Christianity became the established church of the Axumite Kingdom (presently
encompassing Eritrea and Northern Ethiopia) under king Ezana in the 4th century
through the efforts of a Syrian Greek named Frumentius, known in Eritrea and Ethiopia
as Abba Selama, Kesaté Birhan ("Father of Peace, Revealer of Light"), thus making
Eritrea and Ethiopia one of the first Christian states even before most of Europe. As a
youth, Frumentius had been shipwrecked with his brother Aedesius on the Eritrean coast.
The brothers managed to be brought to the royal court, where they rose to positions of
influence and converted Emperor Ezana to Christianity, causing him to be baptised.
Ezana sent Frumentius to Alexandria to ask the Patriarch, St. Athanasius, to appoint a
bishop for the Kingdom of Aksum. Athanasius appointed Frumentius himself, who
returned to Aksum as Bishop with the name of Abune Selama.
The first coins to display the Christian cross were those of the Axumite leader Ezana
circa 350 AD.
During the Migration Period of Late Antiquity, various Germanic peoples adopted
Christianity. Meanwhile, as western political unity dissolved, the linguistic divide of the
Empire between Latin-speaking West and the Greek-speaking East intensified. By the
Middle Ages distinct forms of Latin and Greek Christianity increasingly separated until
cultural differences and disciplinary disputes finally resulted in the Great Schism
(conventionally dated to 1054), which formally divided Christendom into the Catholic
west and the Orthodox east. Western Christianity in the Middle Ages was characterized
by cooperation and conflict between the secular rulers and the Church under the Pope,
and by the development of scholastic theology and philosophy.
Beginning in the 7th century, Muslim rulers began a long series of military conquests of
Christian areas, and it quickly conquered areas of the Byzantine Empire in Asia Minor,
Palestine, Syria, Egypt, and North Africa, and even captured southern Spain. Numerous
military struggles followed, including the Crusades, the Spanish Reconquista, the Fall of
Constantinople and the aggression of the Turks.
Martin Luther
In the early sixteenth century, increasing discontent with corruption and immorality
among the clergy resulted in attempts to reform the Church and society. The Protestant
Reformation began after Martin Luther published his 95 theses in 1517, whilst the Roman
Catholic Church experienced internal renewal with the Counter-Reformation and the
Council of Trent (1545-1563). During the following centuries, competition between
Catholicism and Protestantism became deeply entangled with political struggles among
European states. Meanwhile, partly from missionary zeal, but also under the impetus of
colonial expansion by the European powers, Christianity spread to the Americas,
Oceania, East Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa.
In the Modern Era, Christianity was confronted with various forms of skepticism and
with certain modern political ideologies such as liberalism, nationalism, and socialism.
This included the anti-clericalism of the French Revolution, the Spanish Civil War, and
general hostility of Marxist movements, especially the Russian Revolution.
