Foundations of Natural

Science I

Zenaida B. Domingo
(Physics)

University of the Philippines

OPEN UNIVERSITY
Foundations of Natural Science I
By Zenaida B. Domingo (Physics)

Copyright © 2000 Zenaida B. Domingo (Physics)

and the University of the Philippines Open University

Apart from any fair use for the purpose of research or private study,
criticism or review, this publication may be reproduced, stored
or transmitted, in any form or by any means
ONLY WITH THE WRITTEN PERMISSION
of the author and the University of the Philippines Open University.

Published in the Philippines by the University of the Philippines Open University

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Email [email protected]

First printing, 2000

Layout by Helen M. Creer

The development and preparation of this module was made possible by a grant
from Metrobank Foundation, Inc.

Printed in the Philippines

 Table of Contents

Module 1 Ancient Views About the Universe, 1

Roduction, 1
Objectives, 1
Astrology and Astronomy, 2
Ptolemy’s Geocentric Model, 3
The Copernican Revolution, 4

Module 2 The Emergence of Physics, 9

Introduction, 9
Objectives, 9
The Motion of the Planets: Kepler’s Laws,9
Galileo’s Concepts of Motion: Velocity, Acceleration, Free Fall, Relativity, 13
Composite Motion: Projectile Motion, 20
Relativity, 26
Galileo, The Astronomer, 27

Module 3 Newton’s Mechanical Synthesis, 28

Introduction, 28
Objectives, 28
Introducing Newton, 28
Newton’s Principia, 29
Newton’s Three Laws of Motion, 30
Newton’s Theory of Gravity: Action-at-a-Distance, 41
Momentum, Energy and Conservation Laws, 43
Work, Power, Energy, 46
Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation, 49
Absolute Space and Absolute Time, 50

Module 4 The Unification of Electricity, Magnetism and Light, 51

Introduction, 51
Objectives, 51
Electrical Phenomena: Coulomb’s Law, 52
Coulomb’s Law For Static Charges:, 53
Action-at-a-Distance: Electric Field, 57
Electric Current: Charges in Motion, 57
Four Principles of Electromagnetism, 59
Sources of Magnetic Field, 61
Maxwell’s Electromagnetic (Em) Synthesis, 64

Module 5 Einstein’s Relativistic Revolution, 68

Introduction, 68
Objectives, 68
The Michelson – Morley Experiment, 69
The Special Theory of Relativity, 70
The Twin Paradox, 76
Relativistic Mass and Energy, 78
The General Theory of Relativity (Gtr), 79

Module 6 The Quantum World Of Uncertainties, 82

Introduction, 82
Objectives, 82
Comparison of Newtonian and Quantum Worlds, 84
Blackbody Radiation: Origin of the Quantum, 91
Properties Of Blackbody Radiation, 92
De Broglie Waves, 96
Atomic Spectra, 97
Rutherford’s Scattering Experiment (1911), 99
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle, 102
Schroedinger’s Equation And Quantum Mechanics, 103
Schroedinger’s Accomplishments, 104
Dirac’s Electron Theory: Spin And Anti-Matter, 106
Formation: Materialization, 107
Pauli’s Exclusion Principle: Quantum Statistics, 109

Module 7 Probing the Subatomic World, 110

Introduction, 110
Objectives, 110
Historical Background, 111
Properties Of The Nuclei, 112
Radioactivity, 114
Half Life, 116
Beta, Gamma and Alpha Decays, 117
Particle Accelerators, 120
The Cloud Chamber Accelerator, 121
The Cyclotron, 121
The Strong Force and the Family of Hadrons, 122
The Weak Force and the Family of Leptons, 123
Quarks – Their Flavors and Colors, 124
The Four Fundamental Interactions / Forces In Nature, 126

Module 8 The Origin and Evolution of the Universe, 129

Introduction, 129
Objectives, 129
The Cosmic Scenery: The Universe, 130
The Milky Way, 131
Consequences of Hubbles’ Law, 134
The Picture of the Universe, 20 Billion Years Ago, 136
How are Stars Formed?, 137
Natural Science I (PHYSICS) UP Open University

1
Ancient Views
About the Universe

INTRODUCTION
Science is not unique to the modern world. Historians of science trace the
beginnings of scientific thought to many centuries ago, when individuals engaged
in some kind of theorizing about the nature of life and the universe. These early
notions about matter and motion affected important aspects of life at the time. For
instance, hunting, sowing and reaping seasons were scheduled on the basis of the
positions of the sun, moon and stars.

In this module, we will look at some of the major early theories, models and
concepts about the nature of the universe of which we are a part. Knowing these
theories, models and concepts will help us understand the modern theories of the
universe that have supplanted them and which now form the cornerstone of
modern Physics.

OBJECTIVES

After studying this module, you will be able to:

1. Distinguish between astrology and astronomy;

2. Discuss the Geocentric Model of the universe by Ptolemy; and
3. Explain the Copernical Revolution and the Heliocentric Model of the
universe.

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ASTROLOGY AND ASTRONOMY

The study of heavenly bodies like the sun, moon and stars, and planets goes back
many centuries. Perhaps the vast difference between day and night—a difference
that can be directly attributed to the sun and its position relative to the earth—
explains the beginning of the ancient interest in heavenly bodies. Or it could have
been the magnificent sight of a starry, starry night that first drew the ancients to
the study of celestial bodies. In any case, people took note of the positions and
movements of heavenly bodies not only for their own sake but also, and more
importantly, to make decisions about when to hold favorite sports activities, when
to plant, when to hold important tribal rituals, and the like.

Some of the ancients’ theories about how the position and motion of heavenly
bodies affect human life were logical. Others were pure fancy. The latter
constitutes what we now know as astrology.

Astrology is a pseudoscience which claims, without good evidence, that

constellations at birth greatly influence the future of persons and nations. From
astrology we have such terms as Gemini, Pisces, Year of the Rat, Year of the
Dragon, etc.

Astronomy, on the other hand, is an empirical science which studies the universe
through observations, with mathematical calculations, to predict the position and
behavior of heavenly bodies and how they affect human lives.

SAQ 1-1
Below are sentences about celestial bodies. In the blank after each item, indicate
whether the sentence belongs to astrology or to astronomy.

1. The Libra moon is a lighthearted, loving aspect focusing us on partnerships of

all kinds. ____________________
2. The sun is the biggest star in our galaxy. ____________________
3. Earth is the third planet in the solar system. ____________________

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ASAQ 1-1
1. Astrology 2. Astronomy 3. Astronomy

PTOLEMY’S GEOCENTRIC MODEL

Ptolemy was both astronomer and astrologer. His complete name was Claudius
Ptolemaeus. He was born during the second century. He worked at the library of
Alexandria. His minor works included the following:

• Codification of the Babylonian astrological tradition

• Studies on atmospheric refraction and precession of equinoxes
• Rules for prediction of eclipses
• Names of stars and listing of their brightness
• Understanding of planetary motion

Ptolemy’s major contribution was the GEOCENTRIC OR EARTH-CENTERED

UNIVERSE. He claimed that the earth was the center of the universe, with the
sun, moon, stars and other planets moving around it in definite spherical orbits as
shown below.

NET
PLA
MOON

EARTH NET
PLA

spheres
(perfect, crystal,
transparent)

SUN, STARS, ETC.

Figure 1-1: Earth-Centered Universe

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The earth-centered universe was the most natural model during Ptolemy’s time
because the earth with respect to its inhabitants seemed steady, solid and
immobile. The other elements—i.e., the moon, planets, sun, stars, etc.—were seen
to be moving, rising and setting each day. Ptolemy’s geocentric model gave rise
to the so-called “Music of the Spheres” where planets go around the earth affixed
to spheres, indirectly attached through off-center wheels—as the sphere turns, the
wheel rotates, seemingly inspiring a music all its own.

However, there were problems with the Geocentric Model, as follows:

1. How to figure out a “real” motion of the planets as seen by an observer

“outside” the system which would reproduce accurately the apparent motion
of the planets from “inside.”

2. The Earth-centered model was supported by the Church which prevented the
advance of astronomy for a millennium.

THE COPERNICAN REVOLUTION

In 1543, a Polish Catholic cleric, Nicolas Copernicus, formulated the
HELIOCENTRIC or SUN-CENTERED model of the universe. In this model, the
sun was considered the center of the universe with the Earth as one of the planets
(third) moving in a perfect circular orbit around the sun.

EARTH

SUN

CIRCULAR
ORBITS

Figure 1-2: Sun-Centered Universe

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The Copernican Revolution had several effects:

1. It explained the apparent motion of the planets.

2. The Church was upset by the theory because it did not reinforce the Bible
truth that Joshua commanded the sun, not the earth, to stand still (Geocentric
Model). Thus, Copernicus’ book/work was forbidden until 1835.

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SAQ 1-2
1. Describe Ptolemy’s Geocentric Model of the universe. Why was it the
most natural model during his time?

2. What is the so-called “Music of the Spheres?”

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ASAQ 1-2
1. During Ptolemy’s time, people on earth could observe the sun,
moon, stars and other heavenly bodies, seemingly moving around the
earth, changing positions at equal time intervals during the seasons and
years. Hence, it was very easy and logical to conclude that the earth
was the center of the universe.

2.The “Music of the Spheres” consisted of planets going around the

earth affixed to spheres, indirectly attached through off-center
wheels. As the sphere turns, the wheels rotate—the motion depicting
a unique harmony and music all its own.

SAQ 1-3
What were the effects of the Copernican revolution?

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ASAQ 1-3
The Copernican Revolution had two effects:

a) It explained the apparent motion of the planets independent of the

position of the observer.

b) It had a negative effect on the Catholic Church which did not support
it, thereby preventing the advance of astronomy in the next one
thousand years.

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2
The Emergence of Physics

INTRODUCTION
The emergence of Physics was marked by the description of the motion of the
planets by Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion. This was followed by Galileo’s
concepts of motion: velocity, acceleration, free fall and relativity. Galileo’s
experiments also ushered in the New Scientific Method.

OBJECTIVES

After studying this module, you will be able to:

1. Describe the motion of planets using Kepler’s laws;

2. Explain Galileo’s concepts of motion; and
3. Describe the New Scientific Method introduced by Galileo.

THE MOTION OF THE PLANETS: KEPLER’S LAWS

Johannes Kepler was born in Germany in 1571. He was educated in a Protestant
Seminary for Clergy.

Kepler’s God was the creative power of the cosmos, the Geometer whose hand
was very evident in the universe. He embraced the Heliocentric Model, and made
the Sun his metaphor for God, around whom everything revolves.

Kepler’s major work consists of what are now known as Kepler’s Laws of
Planetary Motion. They are discussed one by one below.

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First Law: LAW OF ORBITS

“Planets move in elliptical orbits with the sun at one focus.”

A1
SUN

A2
Δt 2

Figure 2-1. Elliptical Orbits of Planets

Second Law: LAW OF AREAS

“Planets sweep out equal areas at equal time intervals.”

From Figure 2-1, if Δt1 = Δt ⇒ A1 = A

2 2

Third Law: LAW OF PERIODS

“The square of the period of any planet is proportional to the cube of the planet’s
mean distance from the sun.”

If T = period = time for one complete revolution around the sun and r = mean distance
then, the Law of Periods may be written as:

(Equation 2-1) T2 ∝ r3
↓
(Eq. 2-2) T = C r3 where C = constant
2

⎛ 2⎞ ⎛ 2⎞ ⎛ 2⎞
(Eq. 2-3) C = ⎜⎜ T ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ T ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ T ⎟⎟
⎜ r3 ⎟ ⎜ r3 ⎟ ⎜ r3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ Earth ⎝ ⎠ Mars ⎝ ⎠ Saturn, etc.

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Kepler’s Laws used Tycho Brahe’s accurate observations of planetary positions.

Tycho was the greatest observational genius of his age while Kepler was the
greatest theoretician. They both knew that one needed the other but Brahe refused
to collaborate with Kepler.

Kepler also had to abandon the circular orbits proposed by Pythagoras, Plato,
Ptolemy, Copernicus, and all other Christian astronomers. The circle stood for the
perfect geometrical shape. But Kepler had to abandon the Divine Geometer idea.

In his book, Harmonies of the World, Kepler described the order and beauty of
planetary motion. Mathematical laws were able to explain such motion, with the
inner planets moving more rapidly and the outer planets exhibiting slower and
more stately motion. Indeed, planetary motion was like a celestial machine with
clockwork precision.

In the end, Johannes Kepler wrote:

“I measured the skies, now the shadows

I measure. Skybound was the mind,
Earthbound the body results.”

He preferred the hard truth to his dearest illusions.

SAQ 2-1
1. Suppose you are given the following data:

T(Mercury) = 88 days

R(Mercury) = 2.57 x 106m

R(Earth) = 6.38 x 106m.

T = period (time for one complete revolution)

R = radius

m = meters

Find T(Earth) in days using Eq. 2-3.

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ASAQ 2-1
Given: TMercury = 88 days

RMercury = 2.57 x 106m

REarth = 6.38 x 106m

Where R = radius and T = period

Find: TEarth in days using Eq. 2-3

⎛T 2 ⎞ ⎛T 2 ⎞
Eq. 1-3: C = ⎜⎜ R 3 ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ R 3 ⎟⎟ = CONSTANT
⎝ ⎠ Earth ⎝ ⎠ Mercury
2 3 2 3
TE R M = TM R E

(88 days )2 (6.38 x 10 6 m )3

2 3
2
TM RE
TE = 3 =
RM (2.57 x 10 6 m) 3

2 (7744)(days) 2 (259.7 x 1018 m 3 )

TE =
(16.97 x 1018 m 3 )

TE = 133444.09 (days) 2

TE = 365.3 days

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GALILEO’S CONCEPTS OF MOTION: VELOCITY,

ACCELERATION, FREE FALL, RELATIVITY
Galileo was an Italian. On one occasion, while he was attending Mass in one of
the famous cathedrals of Italy, he noticed a candelabra moving back and forth
along the same path. In his mind, he tried to figure out whether the swings
occured at equal time intervals. The motion of that candelabra fascinated him so
much that when he reached his home, he tried to duplicate the set up in his own
backyard. He tied a string to a post. At the free end of the string he tied a stone.
He then displaced it to one side and released the system as shown below.

(3-2a) (3-2b) (3-2a) (3-2d)

m m m
m A A B A B
0 0 0
System0 Mass m displaced Mass m released Mass m swings from
At Rest from 0 → A From A → 0 → B B→0→A

Figure 2-2

Galileo conducted his first experiment on simple harmonic motion at home.

During his time, there were no watches. So he used the constant dripping of a
faucet nearby as timer. His observations led him to draw the following
conclusions:

1. The period T (time for one complete swing/vibration A →B → A) was

independent of the size of the swing.

2. The period, T, was also independent of the mass/weight of the object.

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Other terms related to vibratory or simple harmonic motion (SHM) are the
following:

OSCILLATION → Vibration, cycle (See Figs. 10-2)

(A → B → C → B → A)

AMPLITUDE → Maximum horizontal displacement (AB/BC)

PERIOD (T) → Time for one complete cycle/vibration

FREQUENCY (f): No. of cycles/sec.

1
In general:
T= where T (sec)
f
f (sec-1, cycles per second, cps, Hz (hertz)
Eq. 2-4
A → cm., inches, m, etc.

Based on Galileo’s observations, the following SHM (Simple Harmonic Motion)

equation was formulated:

L
T = 2π g

Eq. 2-5

where:

T = period of motion
L = length
g = acceleration due to gravity

SHM applications then were pulsometers (the early counterpart of the

stethoscope) and the determination of the value of “g” in any locality.

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SAQ 2-2
A 1-meter pendulum executes 0.5 cps. Find the acceleration due to gravity, “g”
in the locality.

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ASAQ 2-2
Given: L = 1 meter (length)
f = 0.5 cps (cycles/sec) = frequency

Find: “g” acceleration due to gravity in the locality.

L 1 1
Eq. 2-5: T = 2π g ; T= f = =2
0.5
Square both sides of Eq. 2-5:

L
2 2
T = 4π g

4π 2 L (4) (3.14) 2 (1m)

g= T2 =
(2.0 sec) 2

m Acceleration due
g = 9.86 to gravity in
sec 2 the locality

Galileo’s SHM observations are related to fall/vertical motion.

small m (m & M released M big

stone from rest) stone

Ym YM

m M

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If Ym = YM and both stones are released from rest at the same instant, then the
time to reach the ground will be the same for both stones—i.e., tm = tM.M and m
are called freely falling bodies. They are free of the action of any force except the
pull of gravity. When a stone is tied to a string, displaced from equilibrium
position and released from rest, it travels through a curved due to the combined
effect of the string and the pull of gravity.

Galileo’s observations and experiments also gave rise to the following statements
and equations:

1. The total distance is proportional to the square of the time (or double
proportional to time)—i.e., for v 0 = 0,

y ∝ t2 → d = (constant) t2

⎛1 ⎞ 2
d = ⎜ 2 g ⎟t
⎝ ⎠

1
(Eq. 2-9): y = gt2
2
where = total distance traveled
t = time
a = acceleration

2. Velocity is proportion to time:

v ∝ t → v = (constant) t

(Eq. 2-10) V = gt

If V 0 ≠ 0, then V = V 0 + gt (Eq. 2-11)

Eqs. 2-9 & 2-3 become y = v 0 t + 1 gt2 (Eq. 2-12)s

2

Units (Metric) MKS CGS

y m cm
t sec sec
v m/sec cm/sec
a or g m/sec2 cm/sec2

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SAQ 2-3
A ball is released from rest from a bridge and reaches the bottom in 5 seconds.
How high was the bridge?

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ASAQ 2-3
Given:

A
released from rest (Vo = 0)

height
of = y
bridge

t A B = 5 seconds
B

Fig. 10-7

Find: How high was the bridge?

Using Eq. 2-12:

1 2
y = Vot 0 + gt
2

1 245
y= (9.8 m/s2) (5s2)2 = m
2 2

y = 122.5m (height of bridge)

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COMPOSITE MOTION: PROJECTILE MOTION

Projectile motion refers to objects thrown with an initial velocity v 0 and allowed
to move in a plane, exhibiting two-dimensional motion/composite motion. The
motion of golf balls, baseballs, bullets, missiles and bombs are some examples.

Vo = Vox; Voy = 0

Vx = Vox

y=h Vx = Vox

Vx = Vox
x=R x

With Projectile Motion, the following are true:

1. The horizontal component of velocity is constant:

Vo = Vox = CONSTANT

2. The vertical component of velocity changes.

As the projectile goes down, its velocity increases; hence it is accelerated.
This acceleration is due to gravity, “g.”

3. At the highest point of its path,

Vo = Vox ⇒ maximum horizontal velocity
Voy = 0 ⇒ zero vertical velocity
Y= h ⇒ maximum height
X=0 ⇒ zero horizontal displacement

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4. As the projectile travels down through its trajectory (parabolic path due to
gravitational effect), when it strikes the ground,

X = R (range) ⇒ maximum horizontal displacement

Y=0 ⇒ zero height

Hence, projectiles exhibit constant velocity along the horizontal and accelerated
motion along the vertical. The net effect is the curved, parabolic path.

The more general type of projectile motion is shown below:

V, Vy = 0
Vy V Vx
Vx
Vx V
Vy V -Vy
Vx
Ymax
Vx V
Vy = Voy V Vy

Vx
x
0 Vx = Vox
x=R
max Vy
V
Figure 2-6

Vx = horizontal component of velocity

Vy = vertical component of velocity
V = resultant velocity at any point

From Figure 2-6, it can be seen that:

1. The velocity vector V , at every point of its path, changes in both

magnitude and direction.

2. The x-component/horizontal component of the velocity is constant at

every point of its path.

3. The y-component/vertical component of the velocity is variable,

(magnitude and direction) decreasing in its upward motion and increasing
during the downward motion.

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Hence, projectile motion is a combination of constant horizontal motion (ax = 0)

and accelerated vertical motion (ay = g).

SAQ 2-4
A book slides off a horizontal table top with a speed of 3.0 m/s, striking the
floor in 0.6 sec.

1. Find the height of the table top above the floor.

2.What is the horizontal distance from the edge of the table to the point where
the book strikes the floor?

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ASAQ 2-4
Given: Book slides off horizontal table.

V = 3.0 m/s , t = 0.6 sec

Sketch System:

A Vo = Vox
BOOK

0 x B
Figure 2-8

To find: a) y (height of table top)

b) x (horizontal distance/position)

Solution: Using Eq. 2-12

1 2 1 1
a) y = Voyt − gt = 0 − gt 2 = 0 − (9.8 m/sec2) (0.6 sec)2
2 2 2
y = −1.764m , ⊝ sign implies down (↓) from the table

b) x = Voxt = (3.0 m/s) (0.65) = 1.8 m from edge of table

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SAQ 2-5
What is the possible effect of air resistance in the motion of a baseball which
follows the path of a general type of projectile?

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ASAQ 2-5
In general, especially for high speed systems (baseball, golf ball, etc), air
resistance is NOT NEGLIGIBLE. Because the surrounding air particles offer
resistance, which in general, is proportional to the square of a particle’s speed,
the net effects are the following:

1. Maximum height decreases

2. Maximum range (horizontal displacement decreases)

3. Trajectory/path becomes asymmetric

No
Air Resistance

x
0

With
Air Resistance

-y

Figure 2-9

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RELATIVITY
Galileo was the first relativistic physicist.

Consider the projectile experiment below which he performed.

I. SHIP at REST:

B Vo

If a ball is
released from the
ship’s mast with
an initial
horizontal
velocity, Vo, it
A P will travel the
path of a
R projectile and
will hit point P,
at a distance R
from A.

Figure 2-10

II SHIP MOVING WITH SPEED V : Let Vo = V

B Vo

The ball released

from the ship’s
mast will follow a
horizontal
trajectory. Since:
Vball = Vship,
R then, the ball
hits the deck
at the base of
the mast, a
distance R
from A.
Figure 2-11

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If this experiment were performed inside a closed cabin in the ship’s interior, it
would be impossible to find out whether the ship is at anchor or moving across
the sea. THIS IS GALILEO’S RELATIVITY. This principle was extended by
Einstein to the case of optical and electromagnetic phenomena, as observed in a
closed, uniformly moving cabin.

In contrast to these results, Aristotle earlier theorized that a ball released from rest
will fall vertically downward and will hit the moving ship closer to the stern.
Nobody bothered to check his results/theory by actual experimentation. All
conclusions at the time were based on debate, philosophy, etc.

GALILEO, THE ASTRONOMER

Galileo also revolutionized astronomy by constructing the first astronomical
telescope. He was able to see the planets, moon and stars. Below are some of his
findings/observations.

1. The surface of the moon is not perfect but full of inequalities, hollows and
peaks just like the earth.

2. The planets are globular/spherical in shape with circular cross-sections and

completely illuminated by reflected light.

3. The stars are blazes of light shooting out beams (sources of light).

4. Jupiter has three stars (moon) moving around it, as Venus and Mercury move
around the sun.

These observations prove that the Copernican System (which posits that the sun,
not the earth, is the center of the universe) was correct.

Galileo was an outstanding scientist, both in the theoretical and experimental

fields. He published his works in the Dialogues on the Great World Systems in
1632 in Florence, Italy.

However, the reactions of the government and the Church were extremely harsh.
Galileo was arrested by the Holy Inquisition and went through long periods of
solitary confinement. He was made to confess and renounce his “heretic”
works/theories. He was placed under house arrest. He died on January 8, 1642,
completely blind and tired of life.

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3
Newton’s Mechanical
Synthesis

INTRODUCTION
“Nature and Natures’ Laws lay hid in the night. God said, Let Newton be! and all
was light.”
(Alexander Pope 1688-1744)

OBJECTIVES

After studying this module, you should be able to:

1. Describe Newton’s contributions to physics;

2. Define the basic physical quantities such as mass, force, motion, energy,
momentum, etc.
3. Discuss Newton’s Basic Laws and their applications—Newton’s Three Laws
of Motion, the Conservation Laws, and the Law of Universal Gravitation; and
4. Analyze and solve simple physics problems using Newton’s Laws of Motion.

INTRODUCING NEWTON
Isaac Newton was born in Lincolnshire, London in 1642. He was educated at the
Trinity College and the University of Cambridge.

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The Great Plague cut short Newton’s studies at the University. But while others
considered the Great Plague as a break in their education, Newton’s 18 months in
Lincolnshire were the most productive in his life.

During the Great Plague, Isaac Newton formulated and pioneered work on the
following:

1. Binomial Theorem
2. Differential and Integral Calculus
3. The Theory of Colors
4. Method of Tangents
5. Gravitation

Newton’s major contributions to Math and Physics are:

1. Laws of Motion
2. Theory of Universal Gravitation (Planetary Motion)
3. Optical studies on Dispersion, Reflection and Refraction
4. Publication of the PRINCIPIA: Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy.

At age 26, Newton was a full professor at the University of Cambridge. At age 30,
he was a Fellow of the Royal Society. Sir Isaac Newton was knighted in 1705. He
died in 1727 at the age of 85.

NEWTON’S PRINCIPIA
Newton’s Principia utilizes the mechanistic philosophy in the interpretation of all
physical phenomena. Under mechanics, the study of forces and their effects on
objects, work, energy and momentum are identified.

Mechanics consists of two parts:

1. STATICS – study of systems at rest

2. DYNAMICS – study of systems in motion

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NEWTON’S THREE LAWS OF MOTION

FIRST LAW: THE LAW OF INERTIA

(IA) AN OBJECT AT
REST STAYS AT
REST ACTED UPON

BY AN
UNLESS EXTERNAL

FORCE
(IB) AN OBJECT IN
MOTION
CONTINUES TO
TRAVEL WITH
CONSTANT
VELOCITY

BOX

Example IA1: Box resting on a table

top is an object at rest.

Example IA2: Picture frame hanging

on the wall is an object UPOU
at rest. Nat.Sc.I

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Example IIB1: A ball rolling on a

smooth surface is an
object with constant
velocity.

Example IIB2: A pail of water being

lowered at a constant
rate is a system with
constant velocity. constant
velocity

SAQ 3-1
1) Give your own examples (two) of systems at rest.

2) Give your own examples (two) of systems moving with constant velocity.

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ASAQ 3-1
1. Give two examples of systems at rest.

a)

Box held in position

by a cable along an
incline.

b)

Package M suspended
from a line attached to
the ceiling.

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ASAQ 3-1

2. Give two examples of systems moving with constant velocity.

a)

Fd (drag force)

Fd = - Fg

Fg (gravitational
force)

A parachutist falling to earth at constant speed.

b)

A wagon with child being pulled by the father at a constant rate, assuming
friction less pavement.

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SECOND LAW: THE LAW OF ACCELERATION

The acceleration of an object is:

IIA: In the direction of the net external force acting on it;

IIB: Proportional to the net external force;

IIC: Inversely proportional to the mass of the object.

In equation form, Newton’s Second Law is given by:

ΣF = ma

where ΣF = net external force; resultant force; vector sum of forces

m = mass

a = acceleration

= arrow head; symbol for vector quantity with both

magnitude and direction.

Units of Force, Mass and Acceleration: (SI)

System of Units Mass Acceleration Force
m
SI Kg m/s2 N (newton) = kg -
s2
m
CGS G cm/s2 dyne = g -
s2
Conversion: 1N = 105 dynes

Hence: 1 Newton ⇒ the amount of force needed to accelerate a 1-kg object at

the rate of 1 m/s2

1 dyne ⇒ the amount of force needed to accelerate a 1-g object at the rate
of 1 cm/s2

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FORCE, MASS and NEWTON’S SECOND LAW

Newton’s first and second laws can be used to define force:

A force is an external influence on an object that causes it to accelerate.

Mass is an intrinsic property of an object that measures its resistance to

acceleration.

In equation form, Newton’s Second Law may be written as:

ΣF = ma ΣF = net external force

a = acceleration

m = mass

IIA → a along ΣF

IIB → a α ΣF

1
IIC → a α
m

Examples:

1. A force of 3N produces an acceleration of 2m/s2 on an object of unknown

mass.

a) What is the mass of the object?

b) If the force is increased to 4N, what is the acceleration?

Solution: Under the same force, the ratio of the masses varies inversely as the
ratio of accelerations.

a1 m
= 2 for constant/same force
a2 m1

Given: F1 = 3N, a1 = 2m/s2

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Find: a) m1

F1 3N
Solution: F1 = m1a1 → m1 = = = 1.5 kg
a1 2m / s 2

b) If F2 = 4N, a2 = ?

F2 4N
F2 = m2a2 → a2 = = = 2.67m/s2
a2 1.5kg

2. A given force produces an acceleration of 5 m/s2 on a standard object of

mass m1. When the same force is applied to a carton of ice cream of mass
m2, it produces an acceleration of 11 m/s2.

a) What is the mass of the carton of ice cream?

b) What is the magnitude of the force?

Solution: The ratio of the masses varies inversely as the ratio of

accelerations under the same applied force.

m2 a1 5m / s 2
F = ma ⇒ = =
m1 a2 11m / s 2

5 5
Solve for m2 = m2 m1 = (1 kg) = 0.45 kg.
11 11

Magnitude of the force: F = m1 a1= (1 kg) (5m/s2) = 5N

SAQ 3-2
A force of 15N is applied to a mass m. The mass moves in a straight line with
its speed increasing by 10 m/s every two seconds. Find the mass m.

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ASAQ 3-2
Given: F = 15 N

ΔV 10m / s m
a=
Δt 2s
=5 2
s

F = ma (2nd Law)

F 15 N
M = = = 3kg
a 5m / s 2

THIRD LAW: ACTION-REACTION LAW

“Forces of interaction between two objects are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction.”

Properties of Action – Reaction Law:

1. If object A exerts a force on object B, object B exerts a force on object A that

is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.

2. Forces always occur in pairs.

3. Both action and reaction forces occur simultaneously. Either can be called the
action and the other the reaction.

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4. Action and reaction forces ACT ON DIFFERENT OBJECTS, hence they can
never balance each other.

Example 1: Block resting on a table

N′

W′

W ⇒ force acting downward on the block due to the attraction of the earth

W 1 = − W ⇒ equal and opposite force exerted by the block on the earth.

N 1 = − N ⇒ downward force exerted by the block on the table.

W1 Ƹ W
ACTION – REACTION FORCES
N1 Ƹ − N

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T′
W T

F
f
N

From the diagram of forces: T´ is a reaction force.

← Vector diagram f forces should include only action forces:

N Along the vertical: N = W

No motion along the vertical

T Along the horizontal:

•
f
T > f ⇒ horse – cart system
will move to the
RIGHT

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SAQ 3-3
Given: Picture frame supported by two wires as shown.

Draw the forces acting

on the cords and the
picture frame.

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ASAQ 3-3

T2 T1

W = mg

NEWTON’S THEORY OF GRAVITY: ACTION-AT-A-

DISTANCE
The most common and experienced force is the gravitational attraction of the
earth for an object. This force is called the WEIGHT of the object.

If an object is dropped near the

surface of the earth and air resistance m
is neglected, the only force acting on
the object is the force due to gravity. a = g = 9.8 m/s2
The object accelerates toward the
earth with an acceleration equal to Fg
9.8m/s2.
earth

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Recall Newton’s 2nd Law: ΣF = ma

Fg = ma but Fg = W

a = g

then Fg = W = mg

where g = 9.8 m/s2

Action-at-a-Distance is explained by introducing the concept of a field. For

example, the attraction of the earth by the sun is a two-step process as indicated
below.

gravitational
field

SUN EARTH
(g )

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ACTION-AT-A-DISTANCE: SUN – EARTH SYSTEM

Sun sets up
a gravitational ( g s ) produces
field around it a force on earth
(gs )

Similarly:

Earth produces
a gravitational ( g ) exerts a
E

field around it force on

(g ) E the sun

MOMENTUM, ENERGY AND CONSERVATION

LAWS

Momentum: An object of mass m and moving with velocity v possess

momentum p .

Def. p = mv where p = linear momentum

v = velocity

Properties of momentum ( p ):

1) Vector quantity with both magnitude and direction.

m cm
2) Units mv → kg - ; gm -
s s

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Conservation of linear momentum: “If the resultant external force on a system

is zero, the total linear momentum of the system is constant (conserved).”

Let P = total linear momentum of the system

P = ΣM i Vi = M 1V1 + M 2 V2 + . . . = CONSTANT

V3
V1
PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + …
M1
M3
M2 = CONSTANT

V2

A bullet of mass 20 gm moves horizontally at 400 m/s and embeds itself in a

block of mass 380gm initially at rest on a frictionless table. What is the final
velocity of the bullet and block?

wooden
block
at rest M1 + M2
bullet
(M1) V1 M2 V12

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Principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum:

P BEFORE COLLISION = P AFTER COLLISION

M 1V1 = (M1 + M2) V12

(20gm) (400 m/s) = (20 + 380) gm ( V12 )

(8000 gm – m/s) = (400 gm) V12

8000
m/s = V12
400

20 m/s = V12
towards right

This is an example of a PERFECTLY INELASTIC COLLISION where the two

colliding bodies stick together and travel as one. Other examples are illustrated
below:

1) Recoil of guns:
MB
VB

MR VR

Before Firing (BF) After Firing (AF)

P T ( BF ) = P T ( AF )
M B V OB + M R V OR = M BV B + M RV R
0 0

∴ − M RV R = M BV B
Velocity of rifle
⎛ MB ⎞
opposite velocity → V R = −⎜ ⎟ VB
⎝ MR ⎠
of bullet

Where: M R = mass of rifle V R = velocity of rifle

M B = mass of bullet V B = velocity of bullet

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2) Explosions:

In general: M B >> M R

V R << V B
y
M1 original path
M of projectile (bomb)
M2

x
0

WORK, POWER, ENERGY

WORK: Force exerted through a distance

F WF = F x d
f
Wf = -fd F along d
d

W & F, W & d → if d = 0 → W = 0

if F opposite d → W = − Fd
Special Cases if F along d → W = + Fd
if F ⊥ d → W = 0

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POWER: Work done per unit time; rate of doing work

W
P=
t

Units: W = Fd P = w/t
joule
MKS nt – m = joule = watt
sec
CGS dyne – cm = erg

1 kw = 1000 watts
1 hp = 746 watts = .746 kw

WORK AND ENERGY:

Energy → ability to do work

m
O

1) Potential energy: PE = mgh

h
RM
S Energy at rest PE ∝ h
R FO
PE
K
OR
GY W V = oF V
ER
EN m m
DO K
WO
R 2) Kinetic energy:
1 2
Energy in motion KE = MV
2
WORK ENERGY
KE ∝ V 2

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

For a conservative system (no friction), the total mechanical energy is constant.

ME TOTAL = CONSTANT ⇒ ME T CONSERVED

ME TOTAL = (PE + KE) A = (PE + KE) B

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Example: (1)
1
v = 0 (B) KE = mv2 = 0
2

ME B = = (PE + KE) B = PEmax = mghmax

0
h
1
v, h´ (c) ME C = (PE + KE) C = mg h´ + mv2
2
v

(A) → h = 0, PE = mgh = 0
1
ME A = (PE + KE) A = KEmax = mv2max
2
0
ME A = ME B = ME C . . . .

Example: (2)

Simple Pendulum

PE A = mgh; KE A = 0

ME A = ME B
0 0
v=0 0 PE A + KE A = PE B + KE B
v=
C h=0 A
h 1
mgh = mv B 2
B 2

PE B = 0, KE B =
1
MVB
2 v B 2 = 2gh → v B = 2 gh (max. speed)
2

Relate momentum to second law:

ΔV Δ(M V) ΔP
Fnet = ma = m = =
Δt Δt Δt

ΔP
∴ Fnet = TIME RATE OF CHANGE OF MOMENTUM
Δt

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NEWTON’S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

All material bodies attract each other with a force directly proportional to their
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

F21 F12 M 1M 2
M1 M2 F∝
d2
d
M 1M 2
F = (constant)
d2
G M 1M 2
F=
d2
G

F = mutual attractive force

M1, M2 ⇒ masses
nt − m 2
G = 6.67 x 70-11 D = distance between centers
kg 2
G = universal gravitational constant

1) Terrestrial Bodies:
M
'
M

G M 1M 2
F= M1 = ME
RE d2
M2 = M
earth G MM E
ME
Mg = 2
d2 = RE2
RE
F = wt. = mg

GM E
(1) GE = 2
→
RE

(2) If d > RE → g < g(surface) → (lighter)

(3) If d < RE → g < g(surface) → (lighter) g > g(surface) → (heavier)

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Equation (1) can be applied on the moon or on any planet

GM M
GM = 2
RM

since MM < ME
RM < RE

GM < GE
MGM < MGE
(wt)M < (wt) M
∴ We float in the moon!

ABSOLUTE SPACE AND ABSOLUTE TIME

From Newtonian mechanics:

→ absolute space : position exact

→ absolute time : time exact

But Einstein’s theory of relativity showed that space and time are not
absolute; THEY ARE RELATIVE! More on this later in the course.

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4
The Unification of Electricity,
Magnetism and Light

INTRODUCTION
Electric charges and electrical interactions are one of nature’s fundamental classes
of interactions. Electrostatic interactions are governed by Coulomb’s law and are
most conveniently described using the concept of electric field. Electrostatic
interactions hold atoms, molecules and our bodies together, but they are also
constantly trying to tear apart the nuclei of the atom. Electrical and magnetic
phenomena gave rise to the so-called Electromagnetic Theory, Faraday’s law of
Induction, and Maxwell’s electromagnetic synthesis. Hence the unification of
electricity, magnetism and light.

OBJECTIVES

After studying this module, you will be able to:

1. Describe electrostatic phenomena using Coulomb’s Law;

2. Describe the experiments of Oersted and Ampere on magnetic phenomena;
3. Explain the fusion of electricity and magnetism, i.e., electromagnetic
phenomena based on Faraday’s Law of Induction; and
4. Use the field concept to understand Maxwell’s Electromagnetic Synthesis.

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ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA: COULOMB’S LAW

ELECTRIC CHARGES

The structure of matter can be described in terms of three particles: the

negatively-charged electron, the positively charged proton, and the uncharged
neutron. The masses of the individual particles are:

Mass of electron = Me = 9.109 x 10-31 kg

Mass of proton = Mp = 1.673 x 10-27 kg

Mass of neutron = Mn = 1.675 x 10-27 kg

The protons and neutrons in an atom make up a small, very dense core called the
NUCLEUS (~ 10-15m). Surrounding the nucleus are the electrons. The number of
protons or electrons in neutral atoms of any element is called the ATOMIC
NUMBER of the element. If one or more electrons are removed, the remaining
positively charged structure is called a POSITIVE ION. A NEGATIVE ION is an
atom that has gained one or more electrons. Shown below is an example of the
neutral Lithium atom, a positive Lithium ion and a negative Lithium ion.

Fig. 1 (a) the neutral Li atom has three protons in its nucleus and three electrons.
(b) A positive ion is made by removing an electron from a neutral atom. (c) A
negative ion is made by adding an electron to a neutral atom. (The electron
“orbits” are a schematic representation of the actual electron distribution, actually
a diffuse cloud many times larger than the nucleus.)

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BEHAVIOR OF CHARGES: Electric charges may repel or attract each other. In

general, LIKE CHARGES REPEL while UNLIKE CHARGES ATTRACT.

⊕⊕ ⊕ ⊕ ⊖ ⊖
⊕attracts⊖ ⊕repels⊕ ⊖repels⊖

COULOMB’S LAW FOR STATIC CHARGES:

Coulomb’s Law states that:

“The magnitude of the force of interaction between two point charges

is (a) directly proportional to the product of the charges and (b)
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.”

(a) F ∝ q1, q2
q1 q2
r

1
(b) F ∝
r2

q1 q 2 q1 q 2
(a) ε′ (b) F ∝ → F = (constant) (1)
r2 r2

Let k = constant, then equation 1 becomes

q1 q 2
F=k q1, q2 → charges
r2
r → separation distance
k = electrostatic constant
k = 9 x 109 N-m2 /coul2

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F = mutual attractive / repulsive force between q1, and q2

F12 F12 F12 F12

q1 q2 q1 q2

ATTRACTIVE REPULSIVE

SAQ 4-1
Give three examples of electric – charge interactions.

1)

2)

3)

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ASAQ 4-1

1)

plastic rods rubbed with fur

After rubbing:

→ two plastic rods

become negatively-
charged

→ two plastic rods

repel each other

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ASAQ 4-1

2)

glass rods

glass rods rubbed

with silk

silk

After rubbing:

→ two glass rods

become positively
charged

→ two glass rods

repel each other

3) plastic rod ⊖

glass rod ⊕

⊖ plastic rod ATTRACTS ⊕ glass rod

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ACTION-AT-A-DISTANCE: ELECTRIC FIELD

When electric charges interact, the force/s they exert on other charges are not the
charge-to-charge type but the charge-field-charge phenomena as show below:

+q +q1 +q -q1

REPULSION: LIKE CHARGES ATTRACTION: UNLIKE/OPPOSITE CHARGES

q → sets up an electric field E

q1 → test charge is placed a distance r from q.

E → acts on q1, i.e., exerts an electrical force on q1

ELECTRIC CURRENT: CHARGES IN MOTION

Electric current is the rate of flow of electric charge from one region to another.
When this motion takes place within a conductor that forms a closed path, the
path is called an electric circuit.

SAQ 4-2
1. Two equal point charges of + 3.0 x 10-6 C are placed 0.60m apart. What is
the magnitude of the force each exerts on the other?

2. What are the directions of the forces for #1?

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ASAQ 12-2
1) Use Coulomb’s Law.

⎛ N −M2 ⎞
⎜⎜ 9 x10 9 ⎟⎟(+3.0 x10 −6 C )(+3.0 x10 −6 C )
C2
= ⎝ ⎠
kq1 q 2
F=
r2 (0.6m) 2

81x10 −3 N − M 2
F= = 225 x 10-3 N or .225 N
0.36M 2

2)

F21 F12
+q1 +q2

q1 REPELS q2 with a force F12

F12 =- F21
q2 REPELS q1 with a force F21

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FOUR PRINCIPLES OF ELECTROMAGNETISM

I. Electromotive Force (EMF) sets electricity in motion. This is known as
OHM’S LAW.

(E ) Electric Field Inside a conductor:

E

(FE) Exerts force on charges

Q coulomb
I= = AMPERE
t sec
(VD) Charges move

(I) Electric Current I = current

(Electricity in Motion) Q = charge
t = time
VD = drift velocity

ELECTRIC CIRCUIT:
ε → seat of emf (electromotive force);
I → supplies electric energy
→ maintains steady voltage and current
+
ε R

CIRCUIT EQUATION: OHM’S LAW

V = IR V = voltage (volts)
I = current (ampere)
V∝I R = resistance (ohm)

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II. ELECTRIC CURRENT → MAGNETIC FIELD (AMPERE’S LAW)

magnetic
lines of
force B (magneticfield)
magnetic lines
of force

I
I

EMF SOURCE
(electromotive force)

Moving charges give rise to magnetic fields. Magnetic fields exert forces on
conductors that are carrying currents. These forces operate electric motors,
moving coil galvanometers and many other devices.

Properties of magnetic fields are:

1. Fm ∝ q → magnitude of magnetic force Fm is proportional to the charge

2. Fm ∝ v → proportional to the velocity
3. Fm ∝ B → proportional to magnitude of magnetic field.

AMPERE’S LAW may also be stated as follows:

MOVING CAUSES MAGNETIC

ELECTRICITY INDUCTION

Electric Magnetic
Current Field
(Moving Charges)

I B
where B = magnetic field; region around a magnet; or
current-carrying wire

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SOURCES OF MAGNETIC FIELD B :

B

S N

Magnet

Conducting
Wire

I I

Solenoid

Magnetic dipole

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III. FARADAY’S LAW OF INDUCTION

“The induced emf in a circuit is directly proportional to the time rate of change of
magnetic flux through the circuit.”

CHANGING/MOVING ELECTROMOTIVE ELECTRIC

MAGNETIC INDUCTION FORCE CURRENTS

V I
S N

V I
S N

Other Properties:

1) EMF produced is not localized but distributed throughout the circuit.

2) EMF appears when there is relative motion between the magnet and loop.
3) Rising or falling current in a battery gives rise to induced emf.
4) Induced emf opposes the change that produces it.

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IV. OERSTED’S PRINCIPLE:

“Magnetic induction causes magnetomotive force”

Magnetic Field Magnetic Force

⎛ B⎞ ⎛F ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ B⎠
B
B
FB

θ
θ
+q -q
V
V

FB
FB = q v B sin θ

where FB = magnetic force (N)

B = magnetic field (N/coul)

V = velocity (m/s)
q = charge (coul)

Properties of FB:

1) FB ∝q ∝ = directly proportional
2) FB ∝ v

3) The magnitude and direction of FB depends on the direction of V

4) If V =0 FB =0
5) FB on a ⊖ charge is in the direction opposite that on a ⊕ charge with
the same velocity.

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Case 1: If V II B , θ = 0 → FB = 0
Case 2: If V opposite B , θ = 1800 → FB = 0
Case 3: If V ⊥ B , θ = 900, FB = q vB (max.)

MOTION OF CHARGES IN A MAGNETIC FIELD B → CIRCULAR

MOTION OF CHARGES IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD E →

Linear / Curved (Parabolic)

MAXWELL’S ELECTROMAGNETIC (EM) SYNTHESIS

Formulated Maxwell’s Equations → integration / summary of four EM principles.

→ relate E and B to their sources → electric charges, currents,

changing fields

MECHANICS EM

Newton’s Maxwell’s Equations

Laws of Motion

2) Solved four equations → wave equation for E and B

→ EM waves are caused by EM disturbances
(oscillating charges and currents)
→ Speed of EM waves: 3x 108 m/sec = c
(speed of light)

THEREFORE: LIGHT IS AN ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE!!

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES:

1) Generated by EM disturbances
2) Same speeds : c = 3x 108 m/sec (vacuum)
3) Different wavelength and frequencies.

Light: 400 – 700 nm 1 nm = 10-9 m

(Visible)

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1023 10-14
1022 10-13
1021 Gamma Rays 10-12
1020 10-11
1019 10-10
X - rays
1018 10-9
1017 10-8
1016 Ultraviolet 10-7
1015 10-6
VISIBLE
1014 10-5
1013 Infrared 10-4
1012 10-3
1011 10-2
1010 10-1
Short Radio Waves
109 1
108 TV & FM Radio 101
107 102
AM Radio
106 103
105 104
104 105
Long Radio Waves
103 106
102 107
101

Frequency, Hz Wavelength, m

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

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WAVES AND THEIR PROPERTIES:

1) Same speed, different wavelengths and frequencies.

2) Exhibit:

a) Reflection – bounces from surfaces

b) Refraction – bends when changing mediums.

N′
A B

n θi θr

n′

where
θi = angle of incidence N
θr = angle of reflection
C

Law of Reflection: θi = θr

AO, NO, OB → same plane

Law of Refraction: n sin θi = n′ sin θr

n = index of refraction

c speed of light in vacuum

n= →
v speed of light in medium

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c) Dispersion – separation of white light into its component colors

Violet
Blue

Green
different colors
t
ligh Yellow
ite
wh
Orange

Red

d) Interference – superposition of two or more waves

S1

S2

e) Diffraction – bending of light around corners

f) Polarization – selective transmission of e-m waves

1) Absorption
2) Reflection
3) Scattering
4) Birefringence

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5
Einstein’s Relativistic
Revolution

INTRODUCTION
Who hasn’t heard of Albert Einstein? His name is synonymous with “genius.”
Whiz kids are called Einstein by admiring friends and acquaintances.

Einstein was a brilliant, hardworking man who could work even in the simplest
environment. His primary objective was to formulate a principle or law that
would relate mechanics and electromagnetisim, space and time, mass and energy.

At age 26, Einstein wrote the “Special Theory of Relativity” and after 23 years, at
age 49, he finished the “General Theory of Relativity.”

Einstein’s Relativistic Revolution is two-fold: The Special Theory compares

measurements made in different inertial reference frames moving with constant
velocity relative to each other while the General Theory is applicable to
accelerated reference frames and gravity.

You will learn about both theories in this module.

OBJECTIVES

After studying this module, you will be able to:

1. Describe the Michelson-Marley Experiment and the Concept of the Ether;

2. Explain the Special Theory of Relativity and its applications/consequences;
3. Explain the General Theory of Relativity –– its basis, tests and applications; and
4. Explain the four-dimensional spacetime called Minkowski spacetime.

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THE MICHELSON – MORLEY EXPERIMENT

From the study of wave motion, it is known that all mechanical waves (sounds,
water, elastic waves, etc.) require a medium for propagation. The speed of the
waves depend on the properties of the medium. Air is the medium for sound
waves and water is the medium for water waves. For electromagnetic waves, the
medium is called ether.

E
Electromagnetic waves

Sound Waves

B Ether Medium
Z

String Medium

Figure 1

ETHER is considered as the medium that supports the propagation of light and
other electromagnetic waves. For this to be possible, ether must have the
following properties:

1. Great rigidity to support waves (e.g., tension in strings)

2. Does not introduce any drag force on the planets (since the motion is fully
accounted for by the Law of Gravitation)

Scientists believe that it is possible to determine the velocity of the earth relative
to the ether. The Michelson – Morley Interferometer was designed to verify the
motion of the earth in the ether through “interference fringes.” All
experiments/tests proved negative ⎯ i.e., no interference fringes were detected.
In other words, THE EARTH DOES NOT MOVE RELATIVE TO THE ETHER
or THERE IS NO ETHER.

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SAQ 5-1
What is the Michelson-Morley Experiment? Did it achieve its objective?
Why/why not?

ASAQ 5-1
The Michelson-Morley Experiment tried to prove the existence of the ether
medium which supports wave motion. The Experiment proved that there is no
ether.

THE SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY

POSTULATE I: Absolute, uniform motion cannot be detected.

POSTULATE II: The speed of light is independent of the motion of the source.

Postulates I and II seem reasonable but the implications are quite surprising and
even contradict common sense.

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APPLICATION: POSTULATE I

Juan Maria

At Rest Constant Speed v ()

A v=0 A v

Figure 2. Application of Postulate I

For Juan who is at rest, Maria is moving away from him with speed + V . To
Maria, Juan is moving away from her with speed - V . This proves that the motion
of persons / things depend on the state of the observer. This will also explain the
motion of a freely falling body as predicted by Galileo’s experiments (recall
previous modules).

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APPLICATION: POSTULATE II

⎛ stationary ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ observer O1 ⎠

SLS
(stationary light source)
V
⎛ moving ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ observer O 2 ⎠

Figure 3A. Stationary Light Source

⎛ moving ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ observer O1 ⎠

v V
MLS

⎛ stationary ⎞
(moving light source) ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ observer O 2 ⎠

Figure 3B. Moving Light Source

From Figure 3A, the speed of light measured by O1 is c = 3x 108 m/s. The speed
of light measured by O2 is not c + v. By Postulate I, Figure 3A is equivalent to
Figure 3B where O2 is at rest and the source and O1 is moving with speed v .
Based on Postulate I (“Absolute motion cannot be detected”), it is not possible to
say which is really moving and which is at rest. On the basis of Postulate II (the
speed of light is independent of the motion of the source), it can be seen that O2
measures the speed of light to be c = 3x 108 m/s, just as O1 does.

An equivalent / alternate description of Postulate II is therefore: Every observer

measures the same value for the speed of light.

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Einstein’s postulates have important consequences in time, space, mass and

energy. Based on a new set of equations called the Lorentz Transformation
Equations that takes into account relativistic effects, new physical concepts are
made possible.

SAQ 5-2
Recall the two postulates of the Special Theory of Relativity.

ASAQ 5-2
Postulate I: Absolute, uniform motion cannot be detected.
Postulate II: The speed of light is independent of the motion of the source.

TIME DILATION

The time between events that happen at the same place in a reference frame is
called the PROPER TIME, tp. The time interval Δt measured in any other
reference frame is always longer than the proper time. This expansion is called
TIME DILATION, which is expressed in the following equation:

Δt = ɣΔtp

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where: Δt = dilated time

Δtp = proper time

1
ɣ= 2
1− v
c2

Example 1: Astronauts in a spaceship traveling at v = 0.7c relative to the earth

take a one hour nap. How long does the nap last as measured on
earth?

Δt = ɣΔtp
1 1 1
ɣ= = =
1− v
2 2
1 − .49
c 2 1 − (.7c)
c2
1 1
ɣ= = = 1.41
.51 (.71)
Δt = ɣΔtp = (1.41) (1h) = 1.41/h

LENGTH CONTRACTION

A meterstick moving with a velocity comparable with the speed of light, c, along
its length, will have a shorter length when it is measured in the frame in which it
is moving. The following equation is used.

Let L = relativistic length

v2
L = ɣ (L0) = 1 − (L0)
c2
L0 = 1m
If v = 0 → L = L0 = 1m

L < 1m
If v < c → L < L0

v~ c → L ~ 0 L=0

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Hence, if v ~ c, the linear dimension disappears. This result may be extended to

two-dimensional and three-dimensional systems as indicated below.

V<<C V< C V~ C

Figure 4. Length Contraction in 1, 2, and 3 Dimensions

SAQ 5-3
A stick that has a proper length of 1m moves in a direction along its length with
speed V relative to you. The length of the stick as measured by you is 0.914m.
What is the speed V?

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ASAQ 5-3

V2
L = 1− Lp
C2

2
⎛ L ⎞ V2 ⎛ 0.914m ⎞
2

Solve for V : ⎜ ⎟ =1- 2 = ⎜ ⎟

⎜L ⎟ C ⎝ 1m ⎠
⎝ p ⎠

= 0.835

V = c 1 − 0.835 = 0.406c

THE TWIN PARADOX

Consider again the equation on time dilation:

Δt = ɣΔtp

This equation suggests an apparent paradox called the TWIN PARADOX.

Consider identical-twin astronauts Rosalinda and Rosario. Rosalinda remains on
earth and her twin Rosario takes off on a high-speed trip through the galaxy. Due
to time dilation, Rosalinda sees Rosario’s heartbeat and all other life processes
running more slowly than her own. Thus, Rosalinda thinks that Rosario is aging
more slowly. Hence, when Rosario returns to the earth, she is younger than
Rosalinda. Now, where is the paradox?

All inertial frames are equivalent. Can’t Rosario make exactly the same argument
to conclude that Rosalinda is in fact younger? Then each twin thinks that the other
is younger. That’s a paradox.

To resolve the paradox, it should be recognized that the twins are NOT identical
in all aspects. If Rosalinda remains in an inertial frame, at all times, Rosario must
have an acceleration with respect to inertial frames during part of the trip in order
to turn around and come back.

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Planet x
c)
(v ~
Δt x

Earth

Δt p

Figure 5. The Twin Paradox

Rosalinda remains always at rest in the same inertial frame. Rosario does not.
Thus, there is a real physical difference between the circumstances of the two
twins. Rosalinda is correct. When Rosario returns, she is younger than Rosalinda.
This may be verified through the time dilation equation.

(Δt)Rosario
(Δt)Rosalinda = V2
1−
C2

If V ~ .8C, then

(Δt)Rosario
(Δt)Rosalinda =
0.6

or (Δt)Rosario = 0.6 (Δt)Rosalinda

Hence, Rosario is younger than Rosalinda!

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RELATIVISTIC MASS AND ENERGY

In general, the mass of an object/system increases as its velocity increases. This is
indicated by the equation below:

Mo
M=
V2
1-
C2

where Mo = rest mass

M = relativistic mass
V = relative speed

Hence, from the given equation:

If V < < C → M = Mo

V < C → M > Mo

V → C→ M → ∝

V > C → M (imaginary)

Due to the imaginary mass at breakdown (V > C), the speed of an object cannot
be greater than C. Also, the energy of an object/system depends on the mass and
the velocity indicated as follows:

Mo
E = MC2 where M=
V2
1-
C2

This is the famous mass-energy transformation equation for systems moving with
speed V comparable with the speed of light.

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THE GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY (GTR)

The General Theory of Relativity (GTR) was formulated by Einstein 26 years
after he had formulated the Special Theory of Relativity, in order to overcome the
limitations of the latter. The General Theory is useful in all types of
phenomena⎯mechanical/ electromagnetic, accelerated/uniform.

BASIS OF THE GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY:

THE PRINCIPLE OF EQUIVALENCE

“A homogeneous gravitational field is completely equivalent to a uniformly

accelerated reference frame.”

a = -g a = -g

(A) (B)
Uniformly-Accelerated Uniform (Homogeneous)
Reference Frame Gravitational Field

Figure 6. Experimental Test I of GTR

A and B shows that it is impossible to know if a room / compartment is

accelerating in space or at rest in a uniform gravitational field. For A and B, it can
be shown that:

a A = aB = − g (same acceleration)

W A = WB (same weight)

MA = MB (same/equivalent mass)

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DEFLECTION OF A LIGHT BEAM IN A GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

light a

t1 t2 t3 t4

Figure 7. Experimental Test II of GTR

The beam of light entering the accelerating compartment follows a parabolic path.
Hence, a beam of light will accelerate in a gravitational field, just like objects that
have mass. For example, near the earth’s surface, light will fall with an
acceleration of 9.81 m/s2. In a distance of 3000 km, traversed by light in 0.01sec,
a beam of light will fall about 0.5mm.

BLACK HOLES

Black holes were predicted by Appenheimer and Snyder in 1939. From the
General Theory of Relativity⎯

“If the density of an object such as a star is great enough, its gravitational
attraction will be so great that once inside a critical radius, nothing can
escape, not even light or other electromagnetic radiation… hence, the
black hole.

Giant x-rays
Star

Black hole

Figure 8. Experimental Test III of GTR

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SAQ 5-4
What are black holes?

ASAQ 5-4
Black holes are very dense objects (such as star) whose gravitational attraction is
so great such that once inside it, nothing can escape, not even light or other
electromagnetic radiation. Since it absorbs everything, including light, it is
therefore black.

FOUR-DIMENSIONAL SPACE-TIME: THE GEOMETRIZATION OF

GRAVITY

From GTR, Einstein said:

“A gravitational field is equivalent to an inertial field produced by

a suitable change of coordinates.”

What change of coordinates is adequate?

This change of coordinates assumes space to be four-dimensional,

curved or warped slightly in a fifth dimension.

Consequences:

1. MINKOWSKI SPACE
Solid space of three-dimensions is just a part of reality; its fourth dimension is
perceptible as a succession of changes in time.
2. HYPERSPACE (4-d space) CONTINUUM 4. Dimensional space is curved or
cusped slightly around each particle of matter in the direction of the fifth
dimension.

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6
The Quantum World of
Uncertainties

INTRODUCTION
From the previous modules you know that Newtonian Physics casts light on a
very deterministic system/world. The position of a particle and waves traveling
through space are both defined and observed. In this module we will explore the
properties of another world ⎯i.e., the quantum world.

OBJECTIVES

After studying this module, you will be able to:

1. Compare the Newtonian and Quantum Worlds;

2. Enumerate the events that paved the way for the Quantum World – Blackbody
Radiation Wave – Particle Duality and the different models of the atom;
3. Explain the Uncertainty Principle; and
4. Explain quantum probabilities, spin and anti-matter.

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COMPARISON OF NEWTONIAN
AND QUANTUM WORLDS
NEWTONIAN QUANTUM

Determinism Indeterminate

Objectivity Lacks Objectivity

Observer-Created Reality

Determinism – assumes a clockwork universe where a particle can be both at

rest and at a precise place

Indeterminate – position not exact; probabilities accepted

e.g., electrons in random motion

Objectivity – particles (stones, planets) exist objectively; even when we

don’t directly observe them, they exist

Observer-Created Reality – what an observer decides to measure influences his

measurement

– what is there depends, in part, on how we choose to

see it; reality is partially created by the observer.

LIGHT – PARTICLE OR WAVE?

Newton used the PARTICLE THEORY of light to explain the laws of reflection
and refraction as shown below:

θ1 θ2

material
medium θ3

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LAW OF REFLECTION

θ1 = θ2

Angle of Angle of
Incidence = Reflection

LAW OF REFRACTION: SNELL’S LAW

n1sinθ1 = n3sinθ3

c
where n = index of refraction of medium =
v
θ3 = angle of refraction
c = speed of light in vacuum (3 x 105 m/s)
v = speed of light in a medium
In general, v < c

SAQ 6-1
Compare and contrast the Newtonian and the Quantum world.

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ASAQ 6-1
The Newtonian World is deterministic and objective. It assumes a clockwork
universe where a particle can be at rest at a precise position. It also assumes that
particles/systems exist even when we don’t directly observe them.

The Quantum World, on the other hand, assumes everything to be

probabilistic⎯i.e., positions are not exact and only probabilities exist. Contrary
to the Newtonian point of view, this view assumes that the world is not,
independent of our observation; what is there depends on a partially created
reality.

SAQ 6-2
State the Law of Reflection. Illustrate it.

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ASAQ 6-2
Newton’s Law of Reflection states that: “The angle of incidence is equal to the
angle of reflection.”

A B

θ1 θ2
incident
ray reflected ray

θ1 = θ2

(angle of incidence) = (angle of reflection)

LAW OF REFLECTION

Example: A beam of light in air hits a water surface at an angle of 30°. If the
index of refraction of air is 1.00 and that of water is 1.33, find the angle of
refraction and the angle of reflection. Show these rays on a diagram.

45° 45°
water-air
boundary
air

θ=?

water

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Using Snell’s Law of Refraction:

Given constants:
n1 sin θ1 = n3 sin θ3 n1 = 1.00 (air)
n3 = 1.33 (water)
(1.0) sin 45° = (1.33) sin θ
(1.00)(.707)
= sin θ where n1, n3, = index of refraction
(1.33)
0.53 = sin θ
32° = θ

Thomas Young, in 1801, demonstrated the WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT in a

famous experiment using two coherent sources of light produced by illuminating
a pair of narrow, parallel slits with a single source as shown in Figures 1a and 1b.
The interference pattern produced is a series of alternating bright and dark vertical
lines on a screen.

Similarly, the wave nature of light becomes apparent when there are obstacles and
apertures with sizes comparable to the wavelength of light. Figures 2a, 2b and 2c
show examples of the diffraction of light and interference-diffraction
effects/patterns.

Figure (1a)

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Maximum
(bright)

Minimum (dark)

Maximum
(bright)

Minimum (dark)

Maximum
(bright)

Minimum (dark) Figure (1b)

Maximum
(bright)

Minimum (dark)

Maximum
(bright)

Screen

Figures 1a and 1b. Interference of Waves from Two Coherent Sources

Figure 2a Figure 2b
Diffraction of light around a Diffraction pattern of a round and
razor blade opaque object in the path of a point
source

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Figure (2c). Interference and diffraction patterns

in the image of the violin shown above

So, what is light? Is it a particle or a wave?

Light is both wave and particle. Light is a wave when it travels through space
(exhibiting interference, diffraction, polarization and dispersion); light is a
particle when it interacts with matter (exhibiting reflection, refraction and
transmission). This is the wave-particle duality of light.

SAQ 6-3
When is light a particle and when is it wave?

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ASAQ 6-3
Light is both wave and particle. Light is a wave when it travels through
space/medium. Light is a particle when it interacts with matter.

SAQ 6-4
What are the proofs that light is a

1. wave?

2. particle?

ASAQ 6-4
1. Interference, diffraction, polarization, dispersion
2. Reflection, refraction, transmission

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BLACKBODY RADIATION:
ORIGIN OF THE QUANTUM
The blackbody is an ideal system that absorbs all radiation incident on it.
Essentially, it is a cavity with a very small opening. Radiation entering the cavity
has little chance of leaving the cavity before it is completely absorbed. The
radiation emitted through the hole is therefore characteristic of the temperature of
the object. Figures 3a and 3b show the blackbody and the spectral distribution of
the characteristic radiation of the blackbody.

Pr

1450 K

1200 K

1000 K

1 2 3 4 5 λ, μm

Figure 3a The Blackbody Figure 3b. Spectral Distribution of

Blackbody Radiation

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PROPERTIES OF BLACKBODY RADIATION

• Depends on wall temperatures T (oK)
• Rayleigh – Jeans Law agrees with experimental data in the regions of low
frequency and long wavelengths (1450K)
• Planck’s result, (1200K) which was an empirical fit to the data could be
derived only with a new assumption formulated by Einstein in 1905 which
states that:

Electromagnetic radiation consists of QUANTA, or identical, invisible units, each

carrying energy hf where f is the frequency of the radiation.

Hence, the electromagnetic energy comes in SMALL BUNDLES OF ENERGY.

The quantum of energy is related to the frequency of the wave of radiation by

E = nhf

n = integer
E = energy
f = frequency

h = 6.63 x 10-34 joules – sec. (Planck’s constant)

If n = 1 En = (1) hf
If n = 2 En = (2) hf

Therefore: ENERGY IS QUANTIZED.

ENERGY IS DISCRETE.
ENERGY IS NOT CONTINUOUS.

This is the principle of quantization of energy.

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SAQ 6-5
1. What is a blackbody?

2. What is the significance of blackbody radiation?

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ASAQ 6-5
1. A blackbody is an ideal system that absorbs all energy incident on it.
2. Studies on blackbody radiation paved the way for the “Quantization of
Energy.”

“Electromagnetic radiation consists of QUANTA or identical, invisible

units, each carrying energy hf.”
• F = frequency of radiation
• H = Planck’s constant = 6.63 x 10-34 joule/sec.

QUANTIZED

ENERGY DISCRETE

NOT CONTINUOUS

QUANTIZATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION (PROOFS)

1. PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

I
A

Collector

Light

Grid

V
−
e

+ _
Metal plate V

Figure 4a. Photoelectric Effect

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• Light/Photon strikes the cathode and ejects electrons.

• Photons prove that light energy is not distributed continuously in space but is
QUANTIZED IN SMALL QUANTITIES.
hc −34
• Energy of each photon: E = hf where h = 6.626 x 10 j -sec
λ

2. THE COMPTON EFFECT: SCATTERING OF X-RAYS

BY FREE ELECTRONS

Figure 4b. Compton Effect.

Light of frequency of scatters from an electron as though the light were a particle
(photons). As in the collision of any two particles, the photon’s energy changes
when the photon scatters, and its frequency changes to f1. In general, the energy
of the scattered photon, E2, is less than the energy of the incident photon, E1. The
particle nature of radiation becomes manifest in the Compton Effect.

SAQ 6-6
What are the proofs of the Quantization of Electromagnetic Radiation?

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ASAQ 6-6
1. Photoelectric effect
2. Compton effect

DE BROGLIE WAVES
Since light has both wave and particle properties, then matter (electrons) may also
have wave-like properties.

Electron Waves may therefore be defined in terms of the DE BROGLIE

RELATIONS:

ELECTRON WAVES:

E
f= (frequency)
h

h
λ= (wavelength)
p

De Broglie Waves utilize the same equations for photons and support Bohr’s
Quantum Theory of the Hydrogen atom.

RESULTS OF BLACKBODY RADIATION AND QUANTUM THEORY:

STUDIES OF ATOMIC PROCESSES:

1) Penetrating X-rays – Roentgen (1895)

2) Radioactivity – Becquerel (1896)
3) Isolation of Radium – Curie (1898)
4) Elementary Particles – J.J. Thomson (1897)
(Electrons)

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SAQ 6-7
What are DE BROGLIE WAVES?

ASAQ 6-7
De Broglie waves are the so-called electron waves defined by:

E
f= (frequency)
h

h
λ= (wavelength)
p

ATOMIC SPECTRA
It was discovered early in the 19th century that each element has a certain set of
wavelengths in its line spectrum. As shown below, the spectrum of hydrogen
always contains a certain set of wavelengths; sodium produces a different set; iron
still has another. The identification of elements by their spectra became a useful
analytical technique. The characteristic spectrum of an atom was assumed to be
related to its internal structure.

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Screen

Line Spectrum

light optical system

source H2 (lens, slit, grating)

Figure 5. Atomic Spectra

The ATOMIC SPECTRA of Hydrogen consist of a discrete set of yellow lines

with specific/characteristic color, spacing and intensities related to the properties
of the elements/source.

Other scientists who conducted atomic spectra studies were the following:

1) BALMER – wavelength of source lines of the

Hydrogenspectra
2) RYDBERG-RITZ – predicted other lines outside the visible
FORMULA
3) THOMSON – attempted to find a model that predicted observed
frequencies for any atom
– assumed that ⊕ and ⊖ charges are distributed
throughout the atom

SAQ 6-8
What is atomic spectra?

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ASAQ 6-8
Atomic spectra consist of a discrete set of lines whose color, spacing and
intensities are properties of the bombarded elements.

RUTHERFORD’S SCATTERING EXPERIMENT (1911)

α
(a) Alpha particle scattering
through a small angle by
the Thomson atom

(a)

Nucleus
α (b) Alpha particle scattered
through a large angle by
the Rutherford nuclear
atom

(b)

Figure 6. First Glimpse of the Atomic Structure

a) Positive charges and most of the atom must be concentrated in a very small
region of nucleus and negatively-charged electron, with very small mass, form
a large cloud about the nucleus (similar to the solar system).

nucleus → sun
electrons → planets
Coulomb force → Gravitational force

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SAQ 6-9
What experiment gave the first glimpse of the atomic structure?

ASAQ 6-9
Rutherford’s Scattering Experiment in 1911.

BOHR’S QUANTUM THEORY OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM:

• Applied the quantum theory of Planck and Einstein to the problem of

atomic structure
• Assumed that electrons in orbit about the nucleus do not radiate light
• Energy quantization: only specific orbits for electrons are allowed

First Postulate: Electron could move in certain stable orbits without

radiating: stationary states (lowest orbit beyond which
electron could not fall)

Second Postulate: Energy conservation with photon emission. When an electron

drops from a higher orbit → lower orbit, thereby losing
energy, the atom emits light (photon) which carries off the
lost energy.

ΔW
Photon frequency: f = → difference between initial and final energy
h

ΔW = Wi – Wf (similar to Planck’s E = nhf)

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• Since only certain electron orbits are allowed, only certain electron jumps
between orbits can take place → energy of emitted light is QUANTIZED

n = 1 lowest orbit; stable level; lowest energy

n > 1 higher orbits; higher energy; excited / unstable level

• Since energy of light is related to color, only specific colors of light are
emitted by atoms.
• Hence, Bohr’s theoretical model of the atom accounts for the existence of
mysterious spectral lines.

0.0 eV
8
7
6
5 Paschen (IR) -0.85 eV
4
-1.51 eV
3
-3.4 eV

Balmer (visible)
2

Lyman Series
(UV)

1 -13.6 eV

Figure 9. Energy level diagram for H (Bohr):

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Third Postulate: Quantized Angular Momentum

ηh
mvr = = ɳђ
2π

SAQ 6-10
Who formulated the Quantum theory of the Hydrogen atom?

ASAQ 6-10
Niels Bohr.

HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle supports the quantum world’s indeterminism.
In general, it states that:

Neither the momentum nor the position of a particle can be determined

simultaneously with arbitrarily great precision, (as classical physics would
predict). Instead, the uncertainties in the two quantities play
complementary roles.

To detect a particle, the detector must INTERACT with it; and this interaction
unavoidably changes the state of motion of the particle, introducing uncertainty
about its original state. These uncertainties are fundamental and intrinsic. They
cannot be avoided/circumvented, even in principle, by any experimental
technique.

Let Δx = uncertainty in x –coordinate

Δp = uncertainty in momentum component px

h
Then: Δx Δp≽ h = Planck’s constant
2π

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SAQ 6-11
State the Uncertainty Principle. Can this be overcome by sophisticated
experimental techniques?

ASAQ 6-11
Uncertainty Principle: The momentum and position of a particle cannot be
determined simultaneously with great precision… there are intrinsic and
fundamental uncertainties in the two components which are complementary and
cannot be avoided.

BOHR’S COMPLEMENTARY/CORRESPONDENCE PRINCIPLE:

1) Quantum Physics gives the same results as classical physics in the limit of
large quantum numbers.
2) The principles of Quantum Physics yield results identical with those of
classical physical physics in the domain where experiment indicates the
latter to be valid.

SCHROEDINGER’S EQUATION
AND QUANTUM MECHANICS
Schroedinger heard de Broglies’ hypotheses that the electron was a wave. He
therefore devised an equation that the electron wave shape would have to obey if
the electron is part of the hydrogen atom.

Schroedinger’s equation began the study of wave mechanics which is a general

method of finding the quantization condition for a given system.

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SCHROEDINGER’S ACCOMPLISHMENTS
1) Formulated the wave equation.
2) Solved the standing wave problem for H atom, etc.
3) Allowed frequencies, combined with de Broglie E = hf. The same set of
energy levels was obtained as predicted by Bohr.
4) Schroedingers’ Equation is applicable to all types of quantum problems
and proven by experiment.

2ϕ 2h ⎛ 22ϕ 22ϕ 22ϕ ⎞

iђ = ⎜⎜ 2 + 2 + 2 ⎟⎟ + V ϕ
2+ 2m ⎝ 2x 2y 2z ⎠

ϕ → wave function x, y, z → space coordinates

m → mass V→ potential function

Schroedinger’s equation was applicable to all types of quantum problems. An

experiment established that electrons were real waves, BUT WAVES OF
WHAT?

Answer: Electrons are not particles but matter waves.

SAQ 6-12
What are electrons-particles or waves?

ASAQ 6-12
Electrons are not particles but matter waves.

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QUANTUM PROBABILITIES AND RANDOMNESS

Max Born was the exponent of quantum probabilities and randomness which is
illustrated below.

A A2

Probability Wave Square of wave amplitude gives the

A = amplitude probability of finding (position of
particle) individual electron.

- The electron is a true/real particle. Schroedinger wave function specifies the

probability of finding it at some point in space.

- Waves not material systems → waves of probability

SAQ 6-13
Who is the exponent of quantum probabilities and randomness?

ASAQ 6-13
Max Born.

Quantum Probabilities: can propagate through space and change from point to
point.

Predictive Power of Quantum Theory: determines the shape of the wave and how
it moves; how probabilities change in space and time –
INDETERMINISM / RANDOMNESS.

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DIRAC’S ELECTRON THEORY:

SPIN AND ANTI-MATTER
TWO EXPLANATIONS OF ATOMIC PHENOMENA

1) Heisenberg’s matrix mechanics

2) Schroedinger’s wave mechanics

Dirac – showed that matrix and wave mechanics are completely equivalent
- (1) and (2) are different representations within the same theory
- formulated Transformation Theory
↓
Quantum Mechanics/Quantum theory

ƒ New mathematically consistent dynamics which replaced

classical physics.

ELECTRON THEORY

The Electron Theory was developed by P. A. Dirac in 1928. It obtained a wave

equation for a charged particle in an electromagnetic field that incorporated the
results of special relativity. When observed mass and charge of the electron are
inserted in appropriate solutions of this equation, the following were observed:

1
1) Intrinsic angular momentum of electron = ђ (spin ½)
2

eh
2) Magnetic moment = (one Bohr magneton)
2m

ANTI-MATTER

• Positive and negative electrons exist.

• In 1932, a positive electron was detected in the flux of cosmic radiation on

the earth’s surface.

Positive electrons → POSITRONS

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SAQ 6-14
What do you call positive electrons?

ASAQ 6-14
Positrons.

FORMATION: MATERIALIZATION
electron (q = -e)

Photon
(E > 1.02 MeV positron (q = + e)

Figure 10. Pair Production.

electron
-e
photons Hence, a positron is an
ANTI-PARTICLE of
electron.
+e
positron

Figure 11. Inverse of Pair Production: Annihilation

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Properties of anti-particles:

1) same mass
2) same spin
3) both unstable lifetime
4) opposite charge

SAQ 6-15
A photon materializes into an electron and a position. What is this process
called?

ASAQ 6-15
Pair production.

SAQ 6-16
What happens when a positron meets an electron?

ASAQ 6-16
The electron and the positron are annihilated and two photons appear.

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PAULI’S EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE:

QUANTUM STATISTICS
“No two electrons in an atom can exist in the same quantum state”

1) Each electron in an atom must have a different set of quantum numbers: n, l,

Ml, Ms

2) Quantum Statistics

- from study of atomic spectra

- various states of the atom can be determined from its spectrum and the
quantum numbers of these states can be inferred

n = 1, 2, 3, … → principal quantum number

l = 0, 1, 2 … (n-1) → orbital quantum no. (angular momentum)

Ml = 0, ± 1, ± 2, … ±l → magnetic quantum no.

Ms = ½ → spin quantum number (spin angular momentum)

SAQ 6-17
State Pauli’s Exclusion Principle.

ASAQ 6-17
“No two electrons in an atom can exist in the same quantum state.”

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7
Probing The
Subatomic World

INTRODUCTION
The subatomic world is a world within the atom. It is the world of the nuclei
where dynamic nuclear processes like radioactivity (beta, gamma and alpha
decay, nuclear reactions, fission and fusion) occur. In short, it is the exciting
world of Nuclear Physics!

OBJECTIVES

After studying this module, you will be able to:

1. Describe the nuclei and the different nuclear reactions;

2. Explain how high-energy particle accelerators operate;
3. Describe the Family of Hadrons and Leptons;
4. Define/describe quantum fields, quarks and gluons; and
5. Discuss the four fundamental forces of nature.

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HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Interest in the subatomic world started with a series of breakthroughs in the study
of the atomic nucleus. These are the following:

1. HENRY BECQUEREL
- Discovered radioactivity using the double sulfate/uranium
- First to provide information on the atomic nucleus

2. ERNEST RUTHERFORD
- Classified rays emitted by the radioactive nuclei (α, β, ɣ) according to
ability to penetrate matter and ionize air

α : least penetrating; highest ionization (He nuclei)

ɣ : most penetrating; lowest ionization (high-energy photons).
β : in-between α and ɣ penetrating capability (electrons/positrons)

3. H. GEIGER AND E. MARSDEN

α - particle scattering experiments + Bohr’s model

4. MODERN PICTURE OF THE ATOM

- Tiny, massive nucleus at the center surrounded by a cloud of electrons at a
relatively great distance

5. 1932: BEGINNING OF MODERN NUCLEAR PHYSICS

- Chadwick : discovery of the neutron

- Anderson : discovery of the positron
- Cockroft : first nuclear reaction (accelerated particles) and Walton

SAQ 7-1
Describe the modern picture of the atom.

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ASAQ 7-1
The atom is composed of a tiny, massive nucleus at the center surrounded by a
cloud of electrons.

PROPERTIES OF THE NUCLEI

1. PROTONS AND NEUTRONS

Nuclei are composed of protons and neutrons.

PROTONS : ⊕ charge
m = 1.6726 x 10-27 kg = 1.007276 μ

where μ = unified mass unit, defined so that Avogardro’s number of

unified mass unit (μ = 1g) and Avogadro’s number of 12C
atoms will have a mass of 12g.

NEUTRONS: no charge; neutral

m = 1.6750 x 70-27 kg = 1.008665 μ

2. INSIDE THE NUCLEUS:

Inside the nucleus are NUCLEONS which exert strong attractive forces on nearby
neighbors resulting in strong nuclear forces (hadronic forces) which are stronger
than electrical forces and very much stronger than gravitational forces. These
forces decrease rapidly with distance.

3. SIZE AND SHAPE

The size and shape of the nucleus were determined by bombarding the nucleus
with high energy particles and observing their scattering properties.

- Electron scattering experiments were used to measure the distribution of

charges
- Neutron scattering experiments determined the region of influence of hadronic
forces

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In general, most nuclei are spherical with a nuclear radius given by the equation:

R = R0 A where R0 ~ 1.5 fm

A ~ atomic mass

Hence, RαA

4. N and Z NUMBERS

N → atomic mass
Z → atomic number = number of protons/electrons

5. ISOTOPES – SAME Z; DIFFERENT N

ELEMENT/SYMBOL N Z
Hydrogen/H 1H 1
2H 1
3H 1
3H 1
Helium/He 3He 2
4He 2
Uranium/U 238U 92
Plutonium/Pu 234Pu 94

In general, there are three stable isotopes for each atom. For heavier nuclei,
electron repulsion of protons leads to greater stability.

6. MASS and BINDING ENERGY

The mass of the nucleus is equal to the sum of the masses of nucleons making up
the nucleus. When two or more nucleons fuse to form a nucleus, the total mass
decreases and energy is given off. To break up the nucleus into its parts, energy
must be put into the system to be changed into the increase in rest mass.

E = c2 x mass change

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SAQ 7-2
Give two examples of nucleons. (Remember that nucleons are particles found in
the nucleus of an atom.)

ASAQ 7-3
Protons and neutrons are nucleons.

RADIOACTIVITY

Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of radioactive radiation - α, β, and ɣ. It

is caused by nuclear instability.

The rate of emission of radioactive particles from a substance decreases

exponentially with time. This is characteristic of all radioactive processes which
can be considered as a statistical process, where pressure and temperature have no
effect on nuclear properties because the nucleus is well shielded from others by
atomic electrons.

Radioactivity is represented by a DECAY EQUATION given by:

N = Noe -λt

where N = N(t) = number of radioactive nuclei at time t

No = number of nuclei at time t = 0

λ = decay constant; property of the decay of any given radioactive nucleus.

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The decay rate equation is given by

dN -λt
R= = Roe
dt

where Ro = initial decay rate = λNo

Unit: 1 Bq = 1 decay/sec
1Ci = 3.7 x 1010 decays/sec
= 3.7 x 1010 Bq

Bq → Becquerel

Ci → Curie – amount of radiation

emitted by 1 gm
Radium

N0

1
N0
2

1
N0
4

t1 2 2t1 2

Figure 1. Exponential radioactive decay.

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SAQ 7-3
What is radioactivity and what causes it?

ASAQ 7-3
Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of radioactive radiation - α, ρ, γ. It is
caused by nuclear instability.

HALF LIFE
The average time for half of a given number of radioactive nuclei to decay is
called the half life. It is also the time for which the decay rate decreases to half its
⎛1⎞
original value. For example, if the decay rate is initially Ro, it will be ⎜ ⎟ Ro
⎝2⎠
⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞
after one half life, ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ Ro after two half lives, etc. Hence, after n half-lives,
⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠
the decay rate will be:

n
⎛1⎞
R = ⎜ ⎟ Ro
⎝2⎠

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The general equation for half life is:

t 1 = ln 2 t1 - half life
2 λ 2

λ - decay constant

The half lives of radioactive nuclei vary from very small times (less than 1μs) to
very large times (1016 years, > age of the universe).

BETA, GAMMA AND ALPHA DECAYS

There are three types of radioactive decays: beta decay, gamma decay and alpha
decay:

BETA DECAY: Occurs in nuclei with too many or too few neutrons. A (radius)
remains while Z either increases by 1 (β- decay) or decreases by
1 (β+ decay).

β- decay equation:

n p + β- + γe
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
free protons electron neutrino
neutron

GAMMA DECAY: A nucleus in an excited state decays to a lower-energy state

by the emission of a photon.

ALPHA DECAY: Applicable for very heavy nuclei (Z > 83)

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N 232 Th

α
228
140 Ra 228 Ac
β
β 228
Th
224
α
Ra
135 α
220
Rn
216 Po α

212 α
Pb
130 212
Bi β
β
212 Po
208
α
Tl α
β 208
Pb
125
80 85 90 Z

Figure 2. The thorium α - decay series.

FISSION: When a very heavy nucleus, such as 235U, breaks up into two lighter
nuclei with the release of energy, a process called fission, occurs.

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n 235 U

(a)

236 U

(b)

236 U

(c)

n
n
n Fission
fragments
(d)

Figure 3. Nuclear fission.

a) Absorption of a neutron by 235U

b) Formation of 236U (excited state)
236
c) U oscillation becomes unstable
d) Nucleus splits apart into two nuclei of medium mass and emits several
neutrons that can produce fission in other nuclei

FUSION: When two very light nuclei, such as 2H and 3H, fuse together to form
a nucleus of greater mass, a process called fusion occurs.

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FUSION PROCESS / EQUATION:

2 3 4
H + H He + n + 17.6 MeV

↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
Deuterium Tritium Helium neutron energy

SAQ 7-4
What type of radioactive decay is applicable for very heavy nuclei? (Z>83)

ASAQ 7-4
Alpha (α).

PARTICLE ACCELERATORS
Particle accelerators are used to study the properties of elementary particles.
Projectile particles such as protons or electrons are accelerated to high speeds and
allowed to collide with target particles of the same type. The results of such
collisions are then analyzed through sophisticated detectors in which the energies
and momenta of the particles that emerge after the collisions are precisely
measured. The patterns revealed in these measurements are used to prove the
underlying structure of the colliding particles.

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THE CLOUD CHAMBER ACCELERATOR

The Cloud Chamber was designed by C.T.R. Wilson in 1931. It was the first
ATOM SMASHER.

The principle in the operation of the cloud chamber is the use of electrically-
charged, fast moving particles that produce ionization when passing through air or
gas. If air is saturated with water vapor, the ions produced become condensation
centers, resulting in a fog-formation along the particle tracks.

THE CYCLOTRON

Figure 4. The Cyclotron

The cyclotron was invented by Laurence and Livingston at the University of

California. In the cyclotron, particles with mass m and charge q move inside a
vacuum chamber in a uniform magnetic field B perpendicular to the plane of the
paths. In such a field a particle with speed v moves in a circular path with radius r
given by:

mv
r =
q B

and angular frequency:

v q B
ω= =
r m

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As the potential difference between D1 and D2 alternates, an electric field between

the gaps is created. The net effect is larger radius, speed and kinetic energy. The
maximum speed and kinetic energy are related by:

1 q 2 B2 R 2
Kmax = MV2max =
2 2m

THE STRONG FORCE AND

THE FAMILY OF HADRONS
Inside the nucleus, the nucleons (neutrons and protons) exert a strong attractive
force on their nearby neighbors. This force, called the strong nuclear force or the
HADRONIC FORCE, is much stronger than the electrostatic force by repulsion
between the protons, and is very much stronger than the gravitational forces
between the nucleons.

FAMILY OF HADRONS:

BARYONS BESONS
Nucleon p (protons) Pion Π+
n ( neutron)
Π°
Π-
Lambda λ
Sigma Σ+ Σ°, Σ- Kaon K+
K°

Χi ≡°, ≡-
Omega Ω Eta η°

SAQ 7-5
Inside the nucleus, what kind of force do the nucleons exert on their nearby
neighbors?

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ASAQ 7-5
Hadronic force.

THE WEAK FORCE AND THE FAMILY

OF LEPTONS
Particles that participate in weak interactions but not in strong interaction are
called LEPTONS. These include electrons, muons, and neutrinos which are all
less massive than the lightest hadron. Lepton means “light particle”. This reflects
the very small mass of these particles. However, in 1975 the TAU lepton was
discovered by Perl in. It has a mass nearly twice that of the proton. Hence it is
called the “heavy lepton.”

Leptons are point particles with no structure and can be considered to be really
elementary since they are not composed of other particles.

THE SIX LEPTONS Mass

ELECTRON and neutrino 0.511 MeV/c2

MUON and neutrino 106 MeV/c2

TAU and neutrino 1784 MeV/c2

SAQ 7-6
Enumerate the six leptons.

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ASAQ 7-6
The six leptons are:
Electron and neutrino
Muon and netrino
Tau and neutrino

QUARKS – THEIR FLAVORS AND COLORS

The most important advancement in the understanding of elementary particles
was the QUARK MODEL proposed by M. Gell-Mann and G. Zweig in 1963. In
this model, quarks came in three types called FLAVORS, labeled u, d and s (for
up, down and strange). An unusual property of the quark is that they carry
fractional electron charges. The Table below gives a summary of the properties of
quarks and antiquarks.

Table 1. Properties of quarks and antiquarks.

Baryon
Flavor Spin Charge Number Strangeness Charm Topness Bottomness
Quarks
1
u (up)
2
h + 2
3
e + 13 0 0 0 0
1 1
d (down)
2
h −
3
e + 13 0 0 0 0
1 1
s (strange)
2
h −
3
e + 13 −1 0 0 0
1
c (charmed)
2
h + 2
3
e + 13 0 +1 +1 0
1
t (top)
2
h + 2
3
e + 13 0 0 0 +1
b (bottom) 1 1
2
h −
3
e + 13 0 0 0 0
Antiquarks
1 2 1
u h − e − 0 0 0 0
2 3 3
1 1 1
d h + e − 0 0 0 0
2 3 3
1 1 1
s h + e − +1 0 0 0
2 3 3
1 2 1
c 2
h −
3
e −
3
0 −1 −1 0
1 2 1
t 2
h −
3
e −
3
0 0 0 −1
1 1 1
b 2
h +
3
e −
3
0 0 0 0

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The six quarks and six leptons (and their antiparticles) are considered the
fundamental, elementary particles that make up all matter. The Table below lists
the masses of the fundamental particles.

Table 2. Masses of fundamental particles.

Particle Mass

Quarks
u (up) 336 MeV/ c2
d (down) 338 MeV/ c2
s (strange) 540 MeV/ c2
c (charmed) 1,500 MeV/ c2
t (top) 174,000 MeV/ c2
b (bottom) 500 MeV/ c2

Leptons

e (electron) 0.511 MeV/ c2

ve (electron neutrino) <7 eV/ c2
μ (muon) 105.659 MeV/ c2
vμ (muon neutrino) <0.27 MeV/ c2
τ (tau) 1,784 MeV/ c2
vτ (tau neutrino) <31 MeV/ c2

SAQ 7-7
What are the types of flavors of quarks?

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ASAQ 7-7
u (up); d (down); s (strange)

THE FOUR FUNDAMENTAL INTERACTIONS /

FORCES IN NATURE
The four fundamental interactions in nature are the following:
1. Strong nuclear interactions
2. Weak interactions that cause atomic nuclei and quantum particles to decay
3. Electromagnetic force
4. Gravitational force

The Table below summarizes the basic properties of the four basic interactions.

Table 3. The basic interactions and their properties.

Basic interactions Description

Gravitational All particles with mass experience the force due to
the gravitational interaction.
Electromagnetic All particles with electric charge experience the
force due to the electromagnetic interaction.
Weak The charge associated with the weak interaction is
called flavor. Quarks and leptons have flavor and
experience the weak interaction. Decay times via
weak interaction are typically 10-10s.
Strong The “charge” associated with the strong interaction
is called color. Quarks and gluons have color and
experience the strong interaction. Hadrons (baryons
and mesons) experience a residual strong interaction
resulting from the fundamental strong interaction
between the quarks that make up the hadrons. Decay
times via strong interaction are typically 10-23s.

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1. GRAVITATIONAL FORCE (NEWTON):

• Assembles matter into galaxies, planets and stars

2. ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE (MAXWELL):

• Determines the structures of atoms, molecules, solids and liquids

• Important factor in astronomical universe
• Most macroscopic forces are electromagnetic in origin

3. STRONG NUCLEAR FORCE:

• Forces that bind protons and neutrons in the nucleus

• Applications in Quantum Chromodynamics

4. WEAK NUCLEAR FORCES: (YANG-MILLS)

• Explains the decay of neutrons

SAQ 7-8
What are the four fundamental forces in nature?

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ASAQ 7-8
The four fundamental forces in nature are:

1) Strong nuclear interactions

2) Weak interactions that cause atomic nuclei and quantum particles to
decay
3) Electromagnetic force
4) Gravitational force

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8
The Origin and Evolution
of the Universe

INTRODUCTION
Accounting for the origin and evolution of the universe requires the exploration of
the connections between the early history of the universe and the interactions of
fundamental particles. It is surprising to note that the smallest-scale system
(10-18m range of the weak interactions) is closely related to the biggest (1026m
order of magnitude of the universe).

Gravitational interactions play an essential role in the behavior of the universe.

One of the great achievements of Newtonian mechanics, including the law of
gravitation, was the understanding it brought to the motion of planets in the solar
system. Astronomical evidence, such as observations of the motions of double
stars around their common center of mass, shows that gravitational interactions
also operate in larger astronomical systems, including stars, galaxies and nebulae.

OBJECTIVES

After studying this module, you will be able to:

1. Describe the cosmic scenery composed of the planets, stars, galaxies and
quasars;
2. Explain Hubbles’ Law of the Expanding Universe;
3. Explain the birth and death of stars; and
4. Analyze the possible fate of the universe⎯i.e., continuous expansion or
eventual contraction?

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THE COSMIC SCENERY: THE UNIVERSE

The universe is made up of the solar system with the sun at the center, and the
milky way/galaxy.

THE SOLAR SYSTEM

The solar system consists of the earth and eight other planets and 34 moons in
gravitationally-bound orbits around a star called the sun. This is the cosmic
scenery.

Indicated below are some physical constants associated with the sun:

Total mass = 2x 1033gm

Diameter = 2x1015cm
Age = 5x109 years
Electromagnetic = 4x1033 ergs/sec
Output
Temperature = ~5700K (blackbody spectrum)
Radius = 7x1010cm
Outer layers = 73%H; 25%He, 2%C, O2, etc.

SAQ 8-1
Describe the cosmic scenery.

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ASAQ 8-1
The cosmic scenery is made up of the solar system with the earth and eight other
planets, 34 moons in gravitationally-bound orbits around a star called the sun.

THE MILKY WAY

The Milky Way has the following characteristics:

• 2 x 1011 stars including the sun.

• Gravitationally bound in a rotating spherical system with most members in a
plane.
• Mass: 3 x 1044 gm
• Age: at least 1010 years

The Milky Way consists of small clusters of about 30 galaxies with an

average density of 10-31 g/cm3

OBSERVABLE UNIVERSE

• ~ 1028 cm or 3000 Mpc dimension: (1p = 1 parsec = 3 x 1018cm)

• Region with direct observational evidence.
• Spectra consisting of red shifts are observed.

SAQ 8-2
How old is the milky way?

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ASAQ 8-2
At least 1010 years.

DOPPLER SHIFTS

“All objects within the observable universe are receding from one another at
speeds proportional to their separation.”

These Doppler shifts are the basis of the HUBBLE’S LAW which governs the
observable universe. Below is an illustration of the law:

HUBBLE’S LAW:

V12 α d12

where V12 → receding speed

d12 → separation distance of m1 and m2

V2
V1
d12 m2
m1

Observable
universe

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From equation 1:

V12 α d12

V12 = (constant) d12

V12 = Hd12

where H = Hubbles’ constant

= 57 km/sec/Mpc

SAQ 8-3
State the Doppler Shift.

ASAQ 8-3
“All objects within the observable universe are receding from each other at
speeds proportional to their separation.

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CONSEQUENCES OF HUBBLES’ LAW

Hubble’s law is the chief evidence of an expanding universe.

Ours is a low-density universe:

• < 10-30g/cm3
• infinite volume
• ~ 16-20 billion years old
• will expand forever

There are no meaningful answers to questions like:

• Where is the center of the universe?

• What came before the present universe?

The earliest events for which there is evidence are:

• ~15-20 billion years ago, the universe was much hotter and denser.
• Hubble’s expansion can be run backwards in time when all galaxies were
close to each other.
• The oldest stars in our galaxy are 12-18 billion years.
• The age of radioactive elements in the Solar System can be determined.
• There are two relics of a hot, dense phase.

SAQ 8-4
Derive the Hubbler’s Law starting from the Doppler Shift.

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ASAQ 8-4

V12 α d12 V12 → receding speed

d12 → separation distance

∴ V12 = H d12
where H = Hubbles’ constant
= (57 km/sec/Mpc)

SAQ 8-5
What is the chief evidence of an expanding universe?

ASAQ 8-5
Hubbles’ Law.

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THE PICTURE OF THE UNIVERSE, 20 BILLION

YEARS AGO
Twenty billion years ago, the universe had a temperature of 1010K and a
density(P) of 1 gm/cm3 . As the universe expanded and cooled, unstable particles
decayed and nuclear reactions were observed. This led to a hot, dense phase,
culminating in the Big Bang.

The Big Bang wiped out evidences of what went before.

The evolution of the galaxy involved the exchange of materials between stars and
interstellar gaseous medium and nuclear processes that occur in stars.

The following are the types of galaxies:

1. Ellipticals ⎯ brightest stars in spheroidal volume

2. Spirals ⎯ brightest stars in spiral planes
3. Protogalaxy ⎯ evolves into a galaxy when some fraction of its gas has
been converted to stars
4. Quasars ⎯ some early stage of the galaxy formation process

SAQ 8-6
What is the big bang?

ASAQ 8-6
The Big Bang was the beginning of the universe. It was an immense explosion
some time in the past when matter in the universe was concentrated in a small
space. It wiped out evidences of what went before.

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HOW ARE STARS FORMED?

Stars are formed from interstellar gasses.

The processes of star formation are the following:

1. Dense and massive interstellar clouds collide.

2. The cloud collapses due to collision and contracts into star-sized pieces
called proto-stars.
3. The protostars contract up to 107K at the center with H → He liberating
7x108 ergs/cm.
4. The energy liberated keeps the pressure inside constant.
5. The star remains in the H-static equilibrium phase until H fuel is
exhausted (main sequence stage).

The average lifetime of stars is 1010 years.

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Foundations of Natural
Science I

Irene M. Villaseñor
(Chemistry)

University of the Philippines

OPEN UNIVERSITY
Foundations of Natural Science I
By Irene M. Villaseñor (Chemistry)

Copyright © 2000 Irene M. Villaseñor (Chemistry)

and the University of the Philippines Open University

Apart from any fair use for the purpose of research or private study,
criticism or review, this publication may be reproduced, stored
or transmitted, in any form or by any means
ONLY WITH THE WRITTEN PERMISSION
of the author and the University of the Philippines Open University.

Published in the Philippines by the University of the Philippines Open University

Office of Academic Support and Instructional Services
2/F, National Computer Center
CP Garcia Avenue, Diliman, Quezon City 1101
Tel/Fax (632) 426-1515
Email [email protected]

First printing, 2000

The development and preparation of this module was made possible by a grant
from Metrobank Foundation, Inc.

Printed in the Philippines

 Table of Contents

Module 1 The Emergence of Chemistry, 1

Introduction, 1
Atomic Theories, 2
Greek Philosophy, 2
Alchemy, 2
Iatrochemistry, 3
Phlogiston Theory, 3
Modern Chemistry, 5
Development of the Atomic Theory, 7
Plum-Pudding Model, 8
Nuclear Model, 9
Electronic Model, 11
Quantum Mechanical Model, 12
Atomic Orbitals, 14
Quantum Numbers, 14

Module 2 Matter, 19
Introduction, 19
Classification of Matter, 20
Pure Substances, 20
Mixtures, 21
States of Matter, 25
Solids, 26
Liquids, 26
Gases, 29
Kinetic Theory, 32
Gas Laws, 32
Properties of Matter, 36
Changes in Matter, 37

Module 3 The Periodic Properties of Elements, 41

Introduction, 41
Mass Number and Atomic Number, 42
Electronic Configuration, 44
Development of the Periodic Table, 47
The Periodic Table, 47
Classification of Elements, 53
Module 4 Chemical Bonds, 60
Introduction, 60
Ionic Bond, 61
Covalent Bonds, 64
Polar and Non-Polar Covalent Bonds, 68
Transition Between Ionic and Covalent Bonding, 68
Molecular Geometry, 69
Polarity of Molecules, 70
Interparticle Forces of Attraction, 73
Metallic Bond, 75
Metalloids, 77

Module 5 Chemical Reactions, 79

Introduction, 79
Atomic and Molecular Mass, 80
Mole Concept, 81
Empirical and Molecular Formulas, 84
Stoichiometry, 88
Thermodynamics, 90
Enthalpy, 90
Entropy, 91
Gibbs Free Energy, 92
Chemical Kinetics, 94
Factors Affecting Chemical Rates, 95

Module 6 Organic and Biochemistry, 98

Introduction, 98
Organic Compounds, 99
Hydrocarbons, 99
Oxygen-Containing Organic Compounds, 100
Biomolecules, 106
Carbohydrates, 107
Proteins, 108
Fibrous Proteins, 110
Globular Proteins, 111
Lipids, 112
Fat-Soluble Vitamins, 112
Fats, 112
Phospholipids, 114
Steroids, 115
Structure of DNA and RNA, 116
Functions of DNA and RNA, 117
Module 7 Applications of Chemistry, 119
Introduction, 119
Polymers, 120
Fibers, 120
Elastomers, 121
Plastics, 121
Liquid Crystals, 122
Environmental Chemistry, 126
Air Pollution, 126
Water Pollution, 128
Solid Waste, 129
Bioremediation, 129
Food, 129
Minerals, 130
Vitamins, 131
Food Additives, 131
UP Open University Natural Science I

1
The Emergence of Chemistry

INTRODUCTION
The birthplace of chemistry was Egypt. The hieroglyphic name for Egypt is
Kême. It means the land of the black earth. It was in Egypt that the earliest
practice of chemistry at about AD 50 was documented and found in the tombs
near Thebes. Such chemical practices include separating gold from quartz;
extracting oils, juices, and dyestuff from plants and animals; enamelling silver,
preparing hides by tanning, baking, brewing, and making pots, bricks, and tiles.

This module is on the historical perspective of the emergence of chemistry from

the ancient times to the present. It discusses the theories postulated by the Greek
philosophers based on their abstract thinking, the alchemists and their
preoccupation with gold, the iatrochemists with their search for medicinals, and
the phlogistonists with the their experiments on combustion. The birth of modern
chemistry started with quantitative measurements, theories to explain chemical
combinations, and finally the structure of the atom.

OBJECTIVES

After studying this module, you will be able to

1. enumerate the events that led to the formulation of the atomic theory;
2. state the theories governing the structure of atom;
3. draw the different models of the atom; and
4. describe atomic orbitals using quantum numbers.

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ATOMIC THEORIES

Greek Philosophy

The early theories regarding chemistry were forwarded by Greek philosophers.

These theories were based on logic rather than experimental evidence. Aristotle
(384-322 B.C.) believed that there were four elements: earth, fire, air, and
water. These elements have four properties: hotness, coldness, moistness, and
dryness. Water is cold and moist; air is hot and moist; earth is cold and dry; fire
is hot and dry. Aristotle further believed that matter is infinite and continuous.
Any substance could be divided and subdivided endlessly.

Leucippos and Democritus (460-370 B.C.) proposed that all matter was
composed of tiny particles called atomos, a Greek word meaning indivisible.
Epicurus argued that these atoms are too small to be seen singly but they have
weight, shape, occupy space, and may combine with each other to form various
things.

Alchemy

Beginning about AD 100, alchemy dominated the practise of chemistry,

specifically in Alexandria, Eqypt. Alchemists believed that common metals could
be changed to gold, a perfect metal and a medicine. Their preoccupation then was
to discover a substance, called a “philosopher’s stone”, that would artificially
change common metals into gold and silver. Although no one ever succeeded in
making gold, a number of chemical reagents, chemical reactions, and new
substances were discovered in the search for the perfection of metals. Several
treatises were published that gave detailed descriptions of chemical techniques
and apparatus, including experiments on the properties of metals. The need for
more quantitative methods was apparent in procedures giving specific amounts of
reagents to be used in the experiments.

New substances such as the alkali metals, ammonium salts, nitrates for
gunpowder, and amalgams were discovered. The process of distillation also led to
the isolation of new substances such as ethyl alcohol, the “spirit of wine”, nitric
acid, sulfuric acid, and hydrochloric acid. These acids were considered as new
and powerful chemical reagents. Roger Bacon ((1214-1294), an alchemist,
believed that gold dissolved in a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acid, known
as aqua regia, was the elixir of life. He also found that a mixture of sulfur,
saltpeter, and charcoal, now known as gunpowder, caused explosions.

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Iatrochemistry

Philippus Aureolus Theophratus Bombastus von Hohenheim (1493-1541),

popularly known as Paracelsus (meaning as great as Celsus, the great physician),
started the search for the “elixir of life” or the “fountain of youth”. This is the
period of iatrochemistry or medicinal chemistry. The aim of this period was the
search for new drugs and chemicals. Paracelsus redirected alchemy away from the
search of gold.

The period of experimentations in the study of chemistry started with Jan

Baptista Van Helmont (1577-1644) who was probably the first man to prepare
and study hydrogen, carbon dioxide (gas sylvestre), and methane (marsh gas).
He was the first to postulate the law of conservation of matter. He believed that
nothing was really lost but it was merely changed.

Robert Boyle (1627-1691) established chemistry as a science distinct from

alchemy. He is a pioneer of the experimental method and challenged Aristotle’s
concept of the four elements. He defined an element as a simple substance not
capable of being broken down or decomposed into still simpler substances. Boyle
also wanted to know what made a fire burn but was unable to satisfy himself that
air was necessary for combustion. Robert Hooke (1635-1703) continued Boyle’s
experiments on combustion and concluded that air consists of two gases, only one
of which is needed for combustion. John Mayow (1645-1679), a physician, used
mice in his experiments on air. He concluded that air promoted burning,
combined with metals when they are burned, and sustained respiration of the
body.

Phlogiston Theory

Ernest Stahl (1660-1734) named the substance that undergoes combustion as

phlogiston, meaning flame. He believed that all combustible bodies contain
phlogiston. When they burn, the phlogiston escapes into the air. When air
becomes saturated with phlogiston, combustion stops. Hence, confined air cannot
support combustion nor respiration indefinitely because it becomes saturated with
phlogiston.

With the introduction of new chemical apparatus came the chemical revolution.
Lord Henry Cavendish (1731-1810) discovered the inflammable hydrogen gas
that he called inflammable air, and regarded it as true phlogiston. He also
discovered the formation of water (H2O), when hydrogen burnt, and nitric acid
(HNO3), when a spark is passed through air.

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Joseph Priestly (1733-1804) discovered oxygen that he called atmospheric air

without phlogiston or dephlogisticated air. It supports combustion and it is a
life-giving element that may be used in medicine. Unknown to Priestly, Carl
Wilhelm Scheele (1742-1786) had already discovered oxygen which he called
fire air. He believed that fire or heat is made up of phlogiston and fire air. But we
now know that oxygen was not from the fire but was obtained by heating nitric
acid (HNO3), mercuric oxide (HgO), and silver carbonate (Ag2CO3) which
Scheele used in his experiments.

SAQ 1-1

What were the conclusions of phlogistonists regarding combustion?

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ASAQ 1-1

The conclusions of the phlogistonists are as follows:

1. The combustible substance in all combustible bodies is phlogiston.

2. Heat, fire, and light have the same components, good air (oxygen) and
phlogiston.
3. Hydrogen, an inflammable or combustible gas, is phlogiston.
4. Combustion is just the migration of phlogiston from the combustible body to
the atmospheric air.
5. When atmospheric air becomes saturated with phlogiston, combustion stops.
6. Good air (oxygen) is most effective in removing phlogiston from the
atmospheric air.

We must exercise caution in the interpretation of our experimental results. Take

for example the experiment of Robert Boyle. When he placed yellow sulfur in a
container and removed the air, the sulfur did not burn. When he let air into the
container, the sulfur burnt vigorously. Then Boyle placed gunpowder under water
and the gunpowder burnt on. Boyle’s conclusion was that air was not necessary
for burning. It was Robert Hooke, an assistant to Boyle, who concluded that air
must contain a substance similar to that fixed in nitre. Molten nitre (KNO3) when
mixed with sulfur and charcoal made black gunpowder. The phlogistonists
believed that the substance that supports combustion is present in the heat or fire,
not in atmospheric air or in the substance being burnt.

Modern Chemistry

Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (1743-1794) began to question the phlogiston theory

when his experiments showed that the products of combustion of sulfur, mercury,
and phosphorous were heavier and that the volume of confined air decreased. He
then repeated Priestly’s experiment and heated the combustion product of
mercury. He got the same gas that Priestly obtained. He concluded that mercury
had first combined with the oxygen of atmospheric air to form the red oxide of
mercury (HgO) which, upon heating, released oxygen again. Hence, air is made
up of two gases: one is active in combustion, the other is inert. He called the
active gas oxygen (meaning acid generator) and the inert gas azote, which later
became nitrogen. Lavoisier further interpreted Cavendish’s experiment. Water
must be a compound of hydrogen and oxygen. He validated van Helmont’s law of
conservation of matter. All masses and all elements must be accounted for in any
chemical change. With these accomplishments, Lavoisier was named the Father
of Modern Chemistry.

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SAQ 1-2

1. Why would an increase in the mass of the products of combustion be

contrary to the phlogiston theory?

2. How would you define combustion? Why would the products of

combustion be heavier?

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ASAQ 1-2
1. If phlogiston had mass, then the products of combustion would weigh less
after the phlogiston had escaped. If phlogiston was weightless, then there
should be no change in weight. Either way, there should not be an increase
in mass during combustion.

2. Burning or combustion is a process of chemical combination with oxygen

that is present in air. There would be an increase in mass because oxygen
has mass. When metal oxides were heated, they gave up their oxygen and
become metals again.

In dealing with an experimental science like chemistry, we have to formulate a

hypothesis based on experimental observations. But the scientific method does
not stop there. Lavoisier, tested his hypothesis by further experiments. He was
able to explain the formation of metal and non-metal oxides by his hypothesis that
combustion is a chemical reaction with oxygen. He even tested the reverse
reaction - heating metal oxides produced oxygen gas!

Claude Louis Berthollet (1755-1822), Joseph Louis Proust (1755-1826),

Jeremiah Richter (1762-1807) did experiments on the chemical combination of
two elements. Berthellot concluded that any amounts of two elements may
combine because his experiments showed that both lead and tin could combine
with various amounts of oxygen. Proust suggested that there were definite
proportions in the combination of two elements. Richter proposed the law of
multiple proportions based on the fact that iron and mercury could combine with
oxygen in two different but definite proportions.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE ATOMIC THEORY

The famous atomic theory of John Dalton (1766-1844) has several hypotheses to
explain the results of several experiments:
1. Each element is made up of atoms.
2. Atoms are indivisible.
3. All of the atoms of a particular element have the same properties. Atoms of
different elements will have different properties.
4. Chemical compounds are formed by the combination of atoms of the different
elements in the simplest numerical ratio.
5. In a chemical reaction, atoms may combine, separate, or rearrange, but atoms
are not created or destroyed.

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Postulates 2 and 3 are now incorrect. Of course, we now know that an atom is
divisible. Chemists are concerned only with the three fundamental sub-atomic
particles - the electron, proton, and neutron. Postulate 3 cannot explain the
presence of isotopes, identical elements having different masses. Examples are
carbon-12, carbon-13 and carbon-14; and hydrogen-1, deuterium-2, and tritium-3.

Postulate 4 is the basis for the Law of Definite Composition, which states that
elements combine in definite or fixed amounts to form a compound. In the
formation of water, hydrogen and oxygen combine in a fixed ratio of 2:1 or 2
grams of hydrogen reacts with 16 grams of oxygen.

Atoms of element X Atoms of element Y Compound of elements X and Y

On the other hand, oxygen may combine with carbon in two different proportions
to form carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2) but still in fixed ratios:
1carbon: 1oxygen for carbon monoxide and 1carbon: 2oxygen for carbon dioxide.
When 12 grams of carbon reacts with 16 grams of oxygen, CO is formed.
Reaction of the same amount of carbon with 32 grams of oxygen produces CO2.
Notice that the ratios of oxygen (16 grams:32 grams or 1:2) that reacts with a
fixed mass of carbon (12 grams) are in ratios of small whole numbers. This is an
example of the Law of Multiple Proportions. We will further discuss these two
laws in module 3.

Just how do atoms look like? How are these subatomic particles arranged to form
an atom? Presently, individual atoms of elements can now be seen through
computerized images using a scanning tunnelling microscope (STM). Without
this sophisticated instrument, how did the early scientists deduce the structure of
an atom?

Plum-Pudding Model

In 1897, Sir Joseph J. Thomson (1856-1940), a British physicist and Nobel

laureate, discovered the electron, the first subatomic particle, while doing
experiments on cathode rays. In a cathode ray tube, two metal plates are connected
to a high voltage source. The negatively charged plate, called the cathode, emits
radiation. This cathode ray is attracted to the positively charged plate, called an

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anode. From the concept that unlike charges attract and like charges repel, the
cathode ray must consist of negatively charged particles, now known as electrons.
J.J. Thomson also determined the charge to mass ratio of an electron to be equal to –
1.7 x 108 coulombs per gram. In 1909, Robert Millikan (1868-1953) determined the
charge of an electron, using his famous oil-drop experiment, to be 1.602 x 10-19
coulombs. Using these data, the mass of an electron is 9.1097 x 10-28 gram or 5.486
x 10-4 atomic mass unit (amu).

To account for the presence of sub-atomic particles, J.J.

Thomson, in 1904, postulated the plum-pudding model
of an atom which depicts an atom as a sphere of positive
electricity, the pudding, in which are embedded a number
of electrons, the plum, carrying an equal negative charge.

Plum-Pudding Atom

Nuclear Model

Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937), another British

nuclear physicist and Nobel laureate, investigated
radioactivity and discovered the alpha, beta, and
gamma rays. Alpha particles are heavy with a 2+
charge. In his now famous alpha particle scattering
experiment, Rutherford bombarded thin foils of Au,
Pt, Ag, or Cu with alpha particles. He noted that
about 99.9% of the alpha particles went directly
through the foil while some were deflected. In
1911, Rutherford theorized the nuclear model of
an atom. In 1919, Rutherford discovered the
presence of protons in the nucleus. However, the
mass of the protons alone could not explain the
A deflection of alpha
mass of an atom. It was not until 1932 that James
particles convinced
Rutherford that each atom Chadwick (1897-1974) discovered neutrons.
had a tiny, dense, positively Neutrons are electrically neutral particles.
charged center.
Although the nuclear model was able to explain the
results of the scattering experiment, it was not able
to explain the emission of light of different colors
by elements.

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The electron and proton have electrical charges of equal magnitude (1.602 x 10-
19
coulombs) but have opposite signs. The unit charge of an electron is 1- while
that of a proton is 1+. The proton weighs 1.6727 x 10-24 gram or 1.0077 atomic
mass unit (amu), which is about 1,840 times the mass of an electron. To account
for the total masses of atoms, Ernest Rutherford, in 1920, postulated the existence
of the neutron. It is an uncharged particle and weighs 1.0087 amu. The radius of
an atom is about 10-10 meter. The radius of the nucleus is only 10-15 meter. Hence,
the nucleus occupies only 1/1013 of the volume of an atom! You don’t have to
memorize these numbers. I just want to impress on you that atoms are extremely
small, with the nucleus being more minute. A single drop of water would already
contain more than a trillion atoms.

SAQ 1-3

1. What is the unit charge of the positive electricity of the Thomson atom
drawn above?

2. Why will 99.9% of the alpha particles pass through the foil?

3. What causes the deflection of the positively charged alpha particles?

4. Describe the structure of the nuclear model proposed by Rutherford.

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ASAQ 1-3

1. In the Thomson atom drawn above, there are eight electrons embedded in the
positive electricity. Since atoms are electrically neutral, a given atom must
contain as many electrons as protons. Hence, the positive electricity must
have a unit charge equal to 8+.

2. 99.9% of the alpha particles pass undeflected because most of the volume of
an atom must be empty space.

3. Knowing that liked charges repel (and unlike charges attract), deflection
must be due to the collision between two positively charged species, the
alpha particles and the nucleus.

4. The nuclear model of the atom has a positively charged nucleus in the center
of an atom. It contains the protons and neutrons. The electrons, which
occupy most of the total volume of the atom, are outside the nucleus and are
in rapid, spherical motion outside the nucleus. Since the protons and
neutrons are heavier than electrons, the mass of the atom is essentially due to
the nucleus.

Can you now make conclusions based on experimental observations? Can you
follow the trend of thought of early scientists? Good!

Electronic Model

As electrons move around the nucleus, they lose energy. How then do we explain
the fact that electrons do not spiral into the nucleus due to the attraction between
unlike charges? As early as 1900 Max Planck (1858-1947) had already
concluded that radiant energy is emitted and absorbed as individual bundles of
energy called quanta or photons. The concept that radiant energy is quantized
(discrete, definite) is the basis of the quantum theory. This theory was
previously discussed in Physics, module ____.

In 1913, Niels Bohr (1885-1962), a Danish physicist and Nobel laureate, applied
the quantum theory to Rutherford’s atom. According to Bohr, electrons can
occupy only certain spherical orbits, called energy levels or energy shells. The
energy in a specific energy level is quantized. An electron moving in an orbit has
a definite energy that is characteristic of that orbit. When an electron absorbs or
emits energy, it changed from one energy shell to another. As the radius of the
energy shell increases, the energy of the electrons in the shell also increases. An

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electron cannot occupy the space in between energy levels. Electrons are in the
ground state when they occupy the lowest possible energy level. When an
electron absorbs energy and jumps to outer energy levels, it is in an excited state.

Consequently, when electrons move to lower energy

orbitals, they emit radiation, photon of a particular
frequency (ν) or wavelength (λ) , whose energy (hν)
depends on the energy difference between the two
energy levels. Different elements will have distinct
differences in energy levels and hence, will emit light
of different ν or λ. Every element, therefore, has a
unique emission spectrum. For example, hydrogen
gas emits light of reddish color, which corresponds to
a λ equal to 800 nm.
The electrons occupy fixed
shells orbiting the nucleus, Bohr’s electronic atom was able to explain the line
corresponding to different spectrum of the hydrogen atom. However, it cannot
possible energy levels. account for the line spectrum of other atoms
containing more than one electron.

Quantum Mechanical Model

If energy can have wave-like, described in terms of ν or λ, and particle-like,

measured as photons, characteristics, then matter, while having particle-like
properties, should also exhibit properties of a wave. This is Louis de Broglie’s
(1892-1987) wave-particle duality of matter. The wave properties are apparent
only for submicroscopic objects like an electron. If an electron exhibits properties
of a wave, then we cannot pinpoint its exact position because a wave extends into
space.

Werner Karl Heisenberg (1901-1976), known as the founder of quantum

mechanics, postulated his now famous Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle.
Events at the subatomic level cannot be determined. It would be impossible to
specify both the position and momentum of an electron simultaneously. It would
not be appropriate to assign specific energy levels to electrons as Bohr did.

Erwin Schrödinger (1887-1961), an Austrian physicist and Nobel laureate,

interpreted the behavior of electrons in terms of waves rather than particles (wave
mechanics). In 1926, he formulated an equation that related the wave properties
of electrons to their energies. The wave equation combines the particle property,
in terms of its mass, and the wave property, as the wave function ψ, of an
electron. The square of the wave function, ψ2, describes an orbital.

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An orbital is a region in space within which an

electron is most likely to be found. An atom is
represented as an electron cloud around the
nucleus. The density of the electron cloud represents
the probability that the electron will be found there.

Rather than having a fixed

orbit, electrons occupy a
radial probability density.

SAQ 1-4

What are the similarities and differences between Bohr’s electronic atom and
Schrödinger’s quantum mechanical atom?

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ASAQ 1-4

The similarities between the two models of the atom are:

1. The nucleus is at the center of the atom.

2. The nucleus contains both protons and neutrons. Hence, the nucleus is
positively charged.
3. The proton and neutron are heavier than electrons. Although it is very small
in size (10-15 m), the nucleus accounts for the mass of the atom.
4. Electrons are outside the nucleus.

The differences between the two models are:

1. Since Bohr treated the electron as a particle, then Bohr’s electrons can only
occupy quantized, specific, discrete energy levels called orbits. Electrons can
jump from one energy level to another by absorbing or emitting energy.
2. The quantum mechanical model used the wave-like properties of an electron.
As a wave, an electron extends into space and its location is not definite.
Hence, we cannot pinpoint the exact location of an electron. We cannot say
that it is in this specific orbit. We can only state that an electron is probably in
this region in space called an orbital.

ATOMIC ORBITALS
There are four types of orbitals: s, p, d, and f orbitals for sharp, principal, diffuse,
and fundamental. These words were used to describe line spectra before the
development of quantum mechanics.

Quantum Numbers

In quantum mechanics, each orbital is described by three quantum numbers that

specify its energy level, shape, and orientation in space. These quantum numbers
are derived from the mathematical solution of the Schrödinger equation. The
energy states that an electron can occupy are described by the following quantum
numbers:

1. Principal quantum number, n, describes which main energy level or

energy shell the electron is in. It has integral values.

n = 1, 2, 3…

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n = 1 refers to the first energy level or energy shell. The larger the value of n,
the larger is the radius of the orbital, and the higher is its energy.

2. Subsidiary or angular momentum or second quantum number, l, specifies

the shape of the orbital. The values of l depend upon the value of n.

l = 0, 1, 2…(n-1)

When n = 1, then l = 0. When l = 0, the orbital is an s orbital. All s orbitals

are spherical in shape. The probability of finding an electron is greatest
(highest electron density) nearest the nucleus. In the first energy shell (n = 1),
there is only one orbital (l = 0) which is called the 1s orbital.

In the second energy level (n = 2), there are two types of orbitals
corresponding to l = 0 and l = 1. When l = 1, the orbital is designated as a p
orbital which is dumbbell shape. The two orbitals in the second energy level
are designated as 2s and 2p orbitals.

When n = 3, what are the possible values of l? Always start from l = 0 up to n-

1. Therefore, the values of l in the third energy level (n = 3) are 0, 1, and 2.
The d orbital is the letter designation of the orbital described by l = 2. There
are three orbitals in the third energy level: 3s, 3p, and 3d orbitals.

SAQ 1-5

How many orbitals are in the fourth energy level? In the fifth energy shell?

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ASAQ 1-5

There are four orbitals in the fourth energy level because when n = 4, the l values
are 0, 1, 2, and 3 with letter designations of s, p, d, and f, respectively. The
orbitals present in the fourth energy level are 4s, 4p, 4d, and 4f. Keeping in mind
that there are only four types of orbitals, then the 5th, 6th, 7th and other energy
levels can only have four orbitals. In the 5th energy level, the orbitals are 5s, 5p,
5d, and 5f. The orbitals in the 6th energy level are 6s, 6p, 6d, and 6f.

Easy question. Just remember the formula: l = 0, 1, … n-1.

3. Magnetic quantum number, m, specifies the orientation of the orbital in

space. It tells which particular orbital the electron occupies within an energy
sublevel. The value of m is dependent on the value of l.

m = +l … 0 … -l

When l = 0, then m = 0. This means that the s orbital, being spherical, has
only one possible orientation in space. Hence, in the first energy shell, there is
only 1 orbital, the 1s orbital, described by the quantum numbers: n = 1, l = 0,
m = 0.

When l = 1, then m values are +1, 0, -1. There are three p orbitals whose
electron densities are concentrated on the two sides of the nucleus. The p
orbital has two lobes that can be oriented along the x, y, and z-axes.

z z z

y y y

x x x

2pz 2px
2py

Therefore, in the second energy shell, there are a total of four orbitals: 2s, 2px,
2py, and 2pz. The 2s orbital is described by the quantum numbers: n = 2, l = 0,
m = 0. The three 2 p orbitals are described by the following quantum
numbers: n = 2, l = 1, m = +1; n = 2, l = 1, m = 0; and n = 2, l = 1, m = -1.
Notice that the four orbitals do not have identical sets of all four quantum
numbers. This is an example of Pauli’s Exclusion Principle.

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When l = 2, then m = +2, +1, 0, -1, -2. There are five different orientations for
the d orbital. The d orbital has four lobes that may either be on the axes (dx2 -
dy2 and dz2) or on the plane in-between the axes (dxy, dxz, and dyz).

z z z

y y y

x 3dxy x 3dyz
x 3dxz

z z

y y

x 3dx2-y2 x 3dz2

SAQ 1-6

1. What are the values of m when l = 3. How many possible orientations are
there for the f orbital?

2. How many orbitals are in the 3rd energy level? In the 4th energy level?

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ASAQ 1-6

1. l = 3 represents an f orbital. When l = 3, then m = +3, +2, +1, 0, -1, -2, -3.
Therefore, there are seven different f orbitals.

2. A total of nine orbitals are in the 3rd energy level: 3s, 3px, 3py, 3pz, 3dx2 - dy2,
3dz2, 3dxy, 3dxz, and 3dyz. There are 16 orbitals in the 4th energy level: one 4s
orbital, three 4p orbitals, five 4d orbitals, and seven 4f orbitals. Of course,
there will also be 16 orbitals in the 5th, 6th, 7th, etc. energy levels.

Another easy question. Just remember your formulas:

n = 1, 2, 3, …
l = 0, 1, … n-1
m = +l, … 0, … -l

Hurrah! This confetti is for you! You went

through several pages of history tracing the
development of Chemistry. The most
important topic in this module is the series of
theories such as the quantum theory, the dual
nature of matter, the uncertainty principle, and
wave mechanics which led to the
determination of the structure of the atom - the
quantum mechanical model. In subsequent
modules, when we refer to an atom, we are
referring to the quantum mechanical model -
with its nucleus and electron cloud. Take your
much-needed break before proceeding to the
next module.

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2
Matter

INTRODUCTION
Chemistry, in its simplest definition, is the study of matter. Matter is anything
that occupies space and has mass. Everything around us, whether visible or
invisible, whether macroscopic or microscopic, is matter. What is the nature and
composition of matter? What are the different types of matter? What are its
properties? What changes does matter undergo?

We are all familiar with the generic term chemicals. It can mean the water we
drink, the air we breathe, the food we eat, the clothes we wear. It can mean
pharmaceuticals, fertilizers, pesticides, materials such as metals, plastics,
polymers, and ceramics, biomolecules such as carbohydrates and proteins, and
many more. But are you familiar with the basic concepts of chemistry?

OBJECTIVES

After studying this module, you will be able to differentiate

1. among the different types of matter;

2. among the three states of matter and their properties;
3. among the different properties of matter; and
4. between the changes that matter undergoes.

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CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

Pure Substances
Matter may either be a pure substance or a mixture. A pure substance may be
classified as an element or a compound. An element is the simplest form of matter.
It cannot be decomposed into simpler substances. There are at present 112 known
elements, 83 are naturally occurring while the rest are artificially synthesized.
Elements are assigned a chemical symbol derived from their English names or their
foreign names. The smallest stable unit of an element is an atom. Some elements
normally occur as diatomic molecules such as H2, O2, N2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2.

In high school, you became familiar with the first ten elements in the periodic
table and their chemical symbols: hydrogen (H), helium (He) (used to fill
balloons), lithium (Li), beryllium (Be), boron (B), carbon (C) (in diamond, soot,
graphite or “lead” in pencil), nitrogen (N) (in air), oxygen (O) (in air), fluorine
(F), and neon (Ne) (in advertising lights).
You became familiar too with copper (Cu) in electric wires, iodine (I2) as a
disinfectant, chlorine (Cl2) as a water purifier, 24 karat or pure gold (Au) in
jewellery, silicon (Si) in microchips, sodium (Na) in street lights, chromium (Cr)
used for plating car parts, cobalt (Co) as a source of gamma radiation used in
radiation therapy for the treatment of cancer, silver (Ag) in mirrors, cadmium
(Cd) in rechargeable batteries, phosphorous (P) and sulfur (S) in matches and
fireworks, krypton (Kr) in fluorescent bulbs and flash bulbs.
Uranium (U) and plutonium (Pu) are examples of radioactive elements.
Radioactive elements spontaneously emit particles and / or radiation due to the
instability of their nuclei. Uranium was used in the atomic bomb dropped on
Hiroshima, Japan while plutonium was used in the bomb for Nagasaki.
Radioactive elements are also used in nuclear reactors for the generation of
electricity. The Bataan nuclear plant has remained closed since 1986 because of
the problems of radioactive waste disposal and the potential hazards of exposure
to radioactivity such as fire, explosion, exposure to intense radiation, cancer, and
deaths. These radioactive elements are also used as tracers in science and
medicine. The most popular radioactive element used in medicine is iodine, which
is used to test the activity of the thyroid gland.
Most elements react with one or more other elements to form compounds. A
compound is a pure substance that is composed of two or more elements in fixed
proportions joined together by chemical bonds. Hence, compounds can be
decomposed only by chemical means into its constituent elements. The
properties of a compound differ from those of the elements it contains. A
compound is represented by a chemical formula that indicates the actual
numbers and kinds of atoms. The smallest particle of a compound is a molecule.

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Common compounds are water (H2O), dry ice or solid carbon dioxide (CO2),
carbon monoxide (CO), table salt or sodium chloride (NaCl), table sugar or
sucrose (C12H22O11), muriatic acid or hydrochloric acid (HCl), baking soda or
sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), lime or calcium oxide (CaO), milk of magnesia or
magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).

The most abundant metallic element on the earth’s crust is aluminum. It is

extremely reactive and forms aluminum oxide when in contact with air. It is not
found as a free metal but as aluminum silicate or aluminum oxide (Bauxite). It is
used in the construction of aircraft, railroad cars, automobiles, boat hulls, armor
plates for tanks, personnel carriers, and other military vehicle devices; in cooking
utensils; in pistons of engines; as an aluminum wire; as a material in low-
temperature nuclear reactors; for aluminum foils, containers, flexible packages,
bottles and cans.

Mixtures

A mixture consists of two or more pure substances. It does not have a fixed
composition. Each substance in the mixture retains its own chemical identity and
they may be separated by physical means such as:
• filtration (differs in solubility)
• distillation (differs in boiling points)
• magnetic separation (differs in magnetic property)
• evaporation, decantation
• scooping (differs in particle size)
• flotation (differs in density).

Homogenous Mixtures

Mixtures are classified as either homogeneous

or heterogeneous. A homogeneous mixture
exists in only one phase and it has uniform
Gold is traditionally used to composition, appearance, and properties.
make high denomination coins. Homogeneous mixtures, also known as
It is alloyed with 2 parts in 24 solutions, may be solid solutions or alloys
of copper or silver to harden it. such as jewelry and coins; liquid solutions
such as 70% isopropyl and gasoline; or
gaseous solution such as air.

Other types of solutions are:

1. solid in liquid - NaCl in H2O or sea water; dextrose for intravenous feeding
2. solid in gas

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3. liquid in solid – amalgams are formed when mercury, also called liquid silver,
combines with all the common metals, except iron and platinum. Dental
fillings may be made of gold or silver amalgam.
4. liquid in gas
5. gas in solid - solid foams for insulation and upholstery; uratex beds
6. gas in liquid - carbonated beverages; carbon dioxide in water known as
carbonic acid, H2CO3. It dissolves limestone, CaCO3 leading to the formation
of stalactites and stalagmites in caves.

The principle followed in solubility is “like dissolves like”, which we will discuss
in Module 4. Other factors affecting solubility are temperature and pressure. The
solubility of solid solutes generally increases with increasing temperature. Gases
generally become less soluble in a liquid with increasing temperature and more
soluble with increasing pressure. Opening a bottle of soft drink reduces the
pressure causing much of the gas to bubble out of solution and escape.

Let us define some more terms before we leave this topic on solutions. When the
maximum amount of solute is dissolved in a definite amount of solvent, the
solution is saturated. The amount of solute needed to form a saturated solution is
known as the solubility of the solute. Added solute will no longer dissolved in a
saturated solution and will instead lead to precipitation. If less than the
maximum amount of solute is dissolved, the solution is unsaturated. Added
solute will dissolve until saturation is reached. If more than the maximum amount
of solute is dissolved, the solution is supersaturated. A supersaturated solution is
made by carefully cooling a saturated solution, which was prepared at a high
temperature. A supersaturated solution is unstable. Addition of a small amount of
the solute leads to crystallization or precipitation.

Solvent Solute

Solution

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Heterogeneous Mixtures

A heterogeneous mixture has two or more distinct phases. Substances in

heterogeneous mixtures do not mix (immiscible). Heterogeneous mixtures may
either be suspensions or colloids. Suspensions are aggregates of solid particles
dispersed in a gas or in a liquid of lower density. Colloids are dispersed particles
that are larger than those of a solution but smaller than those of a suspension.
Examples of colloids are:

1. An aerosol is a colloidal dispersion of either

microscopic solids or liquids in gas. Examples of
solid aerosols are smoke, dust, or smog. Sprays,
clouds, mist, or fogs are liquid aerosols.

2. A sol is a colloidal dispersion of solid in a liquid.

Examples are muddy water, inks, or paints. Inks
Smoke is a solid
and paints are a colloidal dispersion of minute
aerosol while
solid pigment particles in an oily solvent.

3. A gel, such as gelatin and jellies, is a colloidal

dispersion of a liquid in a solid. It is more rigid Clouds are liquid
and elastic than a sol. aerosols with
water dispersed in
air.
4. An emulsion is a colloidal dispersion of liquid in
another liquid. Mayonnaise is an emulsion of oil
and vinegar held together by egg yolk, an
emulsifier. Oil and water, which are immiscible
liquids, become an emulsion in the presence of a
detergent, an emulsifier.

5. A foam is a colloidal dispersion of a gas in a

liquid (whipped cream) or a solid (marshmallow).

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SAQ 2-1

1. Explain why jewelry, coins, air, seawater, rubbing alcohol, and gasoline are
homogeneous mixtures.

2. Give examples of heterogeneous mixtures.

3. Classify each of the following as a pure substance or a mixture; if a mixture,

tell whether it is a homogeneous or heterogeneous mixture: beach sand,
mayonnaise, champagne, soot, iodized salt, acid rain, hemoglobin,
chlorophyll, Gatorade, rust.

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ASAQ 2-1

1. Pure gold (Au) is labelled as 24 karat. A 12 karat jewelry contains only 50%
Au mixed with either copper (Cu) or silver (Ag). These three elements are
often referred to as “coinage” metals. Air is a gaseous solution whose main
elements are O2 and N2. Seawater is NaCl dissolved in H2O. Rubbing
alcohol may either be ethyl alcohol or isopropyl alcohol dissolved in H2O
with varying concentrations (70% vs 40%). Gasoline, which is obtained by
petroleum, contains many different volatile hydrocarbons (compounds of
carbon and hydrogen). In all cases, you cannot distinguish the components of
the mixture.

2. Some examples of heterogeneous mixtures are gravel and sand, salt and
sugar (could be sorted by size), iron (Fe) and Au filings (could be sorted by
color or by use of a magnet to attract Fe filings), and many more.

3. Soot is the element carbon. The compounds are rust, hemoglobin and
chlorophyll. Rust is FeO. Hemoglobin is a protein present in the blood that
carries O2 from our lungs to the other parts of the body. Chlorophyll is the
green pigment in plants which is necessary for photosynthesis.
Homogeneous mixtures are iodized salt, acid rain, champagne, and
Gatorade. Heterogeneous mixtures are beach sand and mayonnaise (an
emulsion).

You are now becoming familiar with the chemical basis (including chemical
formulas for some) of common things around you. Make it a practice to know the
components of what you eat, especially processed foods, by reading their
ingredients.

STATES OF MATTER
Matter consists of tiny particles called atoms (for elements), ions, and molecules
(for compounds). The space in between these particles and the attractive forces
between them determine its state. The states of matter are solid, liquid, and gas. A
fourth state, plasma consisting of hot, ionized gas will not be discussed in
Chemistry. There are also substances whose properties are intermediate between
the solid and liquid states. Examples are liquid crystals and glasses.

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The strong attractive forces between

particles in a solid keep them packed
together. A liquid has particles that are
fairly free to move. This is why a liquid
can flow. The weaker forces between gas
particles allow them to spread out rapidly
and occupy the whole container.
Solid Liquid

You can see and touch solids and liquids. Their main
difference is their rigidity. Solids are rigid with definite
shapes and definite volumes. Liquids are not rigid. They can
flow and take the shape of the container. Gases are invisible
and untouchable. Gases are in constant motion due to the
very weak attractive forces between molecules.

Gas

Solids

Solids are visible, touchable, rigid, or plastic. They have ordered arrangement
with their particles occupying fixed positions in a crystal lattice. The particles of
solids are close together and are held together by strong intermolecular forces of
attraction called van der Waals forces. Hence, a solid has a definite shape, a
definite volume, and is almost incompressible.

Solids melt when the temperature rises. As the temperature increases, the
particles of a solid gain energy. In time, they gain enough energy to break out of
their crystal lattice, making the solid melt. The temperature at which a solid melts
is called the melting or freezing temperature.

A solid may also change directly into a gas. This process is called sublimation. A
solid sublimes when its boiling point at atmospheric pressure is lower than its
melting point. Examples of solids that sublime are mothballs, dry ice (solid CO2),
deodorizers, and air fresheners.

Liquids

Liquids are visible, touchable, but not rigid, not even plastic. The particles are not
as close together as in the solid state. They possess more energy to partially
overcome the van der Waals forces of attraction. Particles of liquids are free to
move relative to each other. Hence, liquids flow and take the shape of the
container.

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As the temperature of liquid decreases, its particles move less freely until they
form a solid. This process is freezing. Heat is released as a liquid changes into a
solid, because its particles need less energy in the solid form. The liquid state of
substances can now be kept at temperatures below their freezing points and these
are called supercooled liquids.

SAQ 2-2

Which is more dense, liquid water or ice?

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ASAQ 2-2

In general, most substances contract and become denser when they freeze.
However, when water freezes, it expands and becomes less dense than liquid
water. Observe that ice floats in water. This explains why ice forms at the
surface of bodies of water. This allows the survival of aquatic life.

As the temperature of liquid increases, its particles gain enough energy to break
free and form a gas. The more energetic particles on the liquid’s surface escape
into the air. This process is called evaporation. As the temperature reaches the
boiling point of the liquid, large bubbles form in the liquid. The normal boiling
point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure is equal to one atmosphere.
The normal boiling point of water is 100oC. Superheated liquids are heated above
their boiling points.

If a liquid (or a solid) is placed in a sealed container, then the molecules which
evaporate (or sublime) cannot escape. Upon contact with the surface of the liquid
(or solid), these gaseous molecules may condense again. When the rate of
evaporation (or sublimation) is equal to the rate of condensation, the amounts of
liquid (or solid) and vapor remain constant. The pressure exerted by the vapor on
the walls of the container and on the surface of the liquid (or solid) is called the
vapor pressure. As the temperature increases, vapor pressure increases because
more molecules acquire enough energy to evaporate. Vapor pressure also
increases with a decrease in attractive forces. Substances that have weak attractive
forces readily evaporate, and therefore have higher vapor pressures.

Other properties of liquids are its

viscosity and surface tension. Viscosity is
the ability of a liquid to resist flowing.
Condensed milk is a viscous liquid and
flow slowly.

Surface tension exists at the surface of a

liquid. This is due to attractive forces
exerting an inward pull on surface Water droplets and bubbles are
molecules. round because of surface
tension.

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Gases

Gases are invisible and untouchable. Gas particles are far apart with negligible
attractive forces. Gas particles are so energetic, they are in constant motion. When
a gas is released in a container, its particles scatter out to fill the whole container.
Hence, a gas has no definite volume and no definite shape. It gets the volume
and the shape of the container.

Gas particles diffuse. This property explains why we can smell the scent of things
that are far. Gases are easily compressed at high pressures. Gases are more
compressible than liquids or solids. Gases condense when their temperature
decreases. At low temperatures, gaseous particles lose energy and they cannot
move completely free from each other. Hence, they form a liquid.

When an animal “breathes”, there is an

exchange of oxygen gas and carbon
dioxide gas between itself and its
surroundings. Unicellular organisms
“breathes” by diffusion of gases through
cell surfaces. Mammals use lungs to
obtain oxygen from the air. Aquatic Oxygen gas goes into the fish
animals use their gills to “breathe”. As a and carbon dioxide gas moves
fish swims, water enters its mouth, flows out through the gills.
over the gills, and leaves through an
opening in the side of the body.

Air is made up of 78.1% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, 0.9% argon, 0.03% carbon
dioxide, and minute quantities of neon, helium, methane, krypton, hydrogen,
oxides of nitrogen, and xenon. Humid or wet air also contains water vapor.
Polluted air contains noxious gases such as NO, NO2, SO2, and SO3, and
suspended particles such as smoke and dust.

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SAQ 2-3

1. Complete the following table:

Liquids Solids Gases

Are practically
incompressible
Maintain their volumes
No characteristic shapes
Diffuse but slowly
Evaporate from open
containers
Exhibit surface tension, vapor
pressure, viscosity, boiling
and freezing temperatures

2. At what temperatures and pressures do changes in state of matter occur?

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ASAQ 2-3

1.

Liquids Solids Gases

Are practically Are incompressible Are compressible
incompressible
Maintain their volumes Definite volume No definite volume
No characteristic shapes Definite shape No definite shape
Diffuse but slowly Do not diffuse Diffuses rapidly
Evaporate from open Sublime Condenses
containers
Exhibit surface tension, Exhibits vapor pressure Exhibits vapor pressure
vapor pressure, viscosity upon sublimation; do
not exhibit surface
tension; do not flow
Boiling and freezing Boiling and melting
temperatures temperatures

2. At low temperatures, gases condenses into liquids and liquids freezes (or
solidifies) into solids. At low temperatures, particles being less energetic, are
held together by stronger attractive forces. Oxygen gas liquefies at about -
183°C, and nitrogen gas at about -196°C.

Gases are normally converted into liquids by compressing them under high
pressure. They are then stored and transported in metal cylinders. (Why use
metal cylinders?). When these liquids are released from their cylinders, their
pressure greatly decreases so they become gases again.

Champagne is a sparkling or bubbly white wine. It is made by

sealing white wine in a glass bottle and allowing it to ferment
naturally. During fermentation, carbon dioxide gas is formed and
dissolves in the wine. When the bottle is opened, the gas escapes
from the solution in the form of bubbles.

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You are very familiar with the three states of matter and their properties. The
concepts discussed so far are easy to understand because, unlike the invisible
atoms and molecules, gases, liquids, and solids are all part of our every day
existence.

Kinetic Theory

The kinetic theory explains the relationship between the properties of a gas and
the movement of its particles. The postulates of the kinetic theory of gases are as
follows:

1. gases consist of molecules widely separated in space

2. gas molecules are in constant, rapid, straight-line motion and collide with
each other and their container

3. gas molecules translates heat energy into kinetic energy

4. no attractive forces exist between the molecules of an ideal gas

When gas particles collide with each other and with the walls of their container,
they exert pressure. In postulate 4, an “ideal” or “perfect” gas exists only at high
temperatures and low pressures. In “real” gases, attractive forces exist.

Gas Laws

The gas laws correlate the behavior of gases to measurable quantities such as
pressure (P), volume (V), and temperature (T). Pressure is measured using a
barometer or a manometer. Its units are atmosphere (atm) or torr or mm Hg or
pascal with the following equalities: 100kPa = 1.01325 x 10 5 Pa = 1 atm = 760
torr = 760 mm Hg. The units of volume are liters (l) or milliliters (ml) where 1
liter is equal to 1000 ml. Temperature refers to the absolute temperature in
Kelvin (K) where K = 0 C + 273.15

1. Boyle’s Law

Boyle’s law states that the pressure and the volume of a gas are inversely
proportional to each other at constant temperature. The pressure of a gas increases
(doubles) when the volume of the gas is reduced (to half) and decreases when the
volume is increased. If the volume of a gas is increased, its particles collide with
the walls of the container and with each other less often, so its pressure decreases.
Mathematically,
P1V1 = P2V2.

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Hence, when the cap of a softdrink bottle is removed, the pressure drops to
atmospheric pressure, causing the gases to expand and escape. Boyle’s law also
explains tire blow-outs after long trips.

2. Charles’s Law

Jacques Charles (1746–1823) proved that the volume of a gas at constant pressure
is directly proportion to its absolute temperature. An increase in the absolute
temperature of the gas will lead to an increase in the volume of the gas.
Mathematically,

V1 V2
=
T1 T2

The earliest balloons were filled with hot air.

Modern balloons are filled with hydrogen or
helium, or, in the case of modern hot-air sport
ballooning, air heated by a small gas burner. In
1783, the Montgolfier brothers sent up a balloon
filled with hot air and J. Charles released one filled
with hydrogen.

The density of air decreases with altitude. A

balloon will rise as long as the total mass of the
balloon is lighter than air. When air is heated, it
expands, become less dense, and floats. Hydrogen,
being the lightest element, gives the greatest lift.
In late 1783, J. Charles However, hydrogen is flammable. Helium is now
devised the basic design for preferably used in balloons.
man-carrying balloons.

The volume of a gas in a balloon also increases as

it ascends because the atmospheric pressure
decreases with altitude.

3. Combined Gas Law

At constant temperature, volume varies inversely with the pressure. At constant
pressure, volume varies directly with the absolute temperature. If we vary both
the absolute temperature and pressure, what happens to the volume? The
combined gas law relates the pressure, the volume, and the absolute temperature.
Mathematically,

PV PV
1 1
= 2 2
T1 T2

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4. Amonton’s Law

At constant volume, what is the relationship between the absolute temperature

and pressure? Rearranging the above formula of the combined gas law gives us.

P1 T1
=
P2 T2

Hence, at constant volume, pressure varies directly with the absolute temperature.
According to postulate 3 of the kinetic theory, when gas molecules absorb heat,
they move faster. More energetic particles collide more often and with greater
force. Heating a gas will therefore increase its pressure. Never throw spray cans
into the fire because they might explode. Amonton’s law also explains why
pressure cookers reduces cooking time and why canned goods are vacuum
packed.

5. Avogadro’s Law

Equal volumes of any two gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the
same number of molecules. The volume of one mole of gas at 273K and 1 atm
pressure (standard temperature and pressure or STP) is 22.4 liters. The more air
we pump into a balloon or a tire (increase in the number of molecules of air), the
bigger it gets (increase in volume).

SAQ 2-4

1. A gas at constant temperature exhibits a pressure of 1 atm and occupies a

volume of 25 liters. Calculate: a) the volume the gas will occupy if the
pressure is increased to 1.5 atm; b) the pressure of the gas if the volume is
increased to 50 liters.

2. At gas at constant pressure occupies a volume of 10 liters at 250C. Calculate:

a) the volume the gas will occupy if the temperature is increased to 1000C; b)
the temperature at which the volume of the gas will be 5 liters.

3. A volume of gas equal to 25 liters was collected at 250C and 1.00 atm
pressure. What would be the volume of the gas if it were collected at 1000C
and 0.85 atm pressure?

34 Module 2: Matter
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ASAQ 2-4

1. P1V1 = P2V2

Direct substitution gives: a) (1 atm)(25 liters) = (1.5 atm) V

(1atm)(25liters)
V= = 16.7 liters
1.5atm

b) (1 atm)(25 liters) = P (50 liters)

(1atm)(25liters)
P= = 0.5 atm
50liters

V1 V2
2. =
T1 T2
10liters V
Direct substitution gives: a) =
(25 + 273)K (100 + 273)K

10liters (100 + 273) K

V = = 12.5liters
(25 + 273) K

10liters 5liters
b) =
(25 + 273)K T

5liters(25 + 273)K
T= = 149K
10liters

PV PV
3. 1 1
= 2 2
T1 T2
(1atm)(25liters) (0.85atm)V
Direct substitution gives: =
(25 + 273)K (100 + 273)K

(1atm)(25liters)(100 + 273)K
V= = 36.8liters
(0.85atm)(25 + 273)K

Module 2: Matter 35
Natural Science I UP Open University

Solution of verbal problems needs mathematical know-how. It involves direct

substitution in the formula followed by cross-multiplication.

PROPERTIES OF MATTER
We may describe matter either by its physical or chemical properties. The
physical properties are related to the physical appearance of matter and they can
be detected by the senses. Examples of physical properties are color, taste, mass,
volume, boiling and melting points. Chemical properties are associated with the
tendency of a substance to react chemically with another substance. Combustion,
or burning, is a chemical process by which O2 combines with a substance,
releasing heat.

SAQ 2-5

Which of the following are physical properties and which are chemical
properties?

1. A metal is lustrous.
2. NaCl dissolves readily in water.
3. NaCl turns black when heated.
4. Hydrogen is a gas at room temperature.
5. Hydrogen burns in chlorine gas.
6. Sulfur is a yellow solid.
7. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) smells like rotten eggs.
8. Water has a normal boiling point of 1000C and a normal melting point of
00C.
9. Iron rusts.
10. Cu dissolves in nitric acid forming a blue green solution and a reddish
brown gas.

36 Module 2: Matter
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ASAQ 2-5

Physical properties are examples 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8. Chemical properties are 3, 5, 9,

and 10. Notice that a change in the physical properties of the initial substance
may indicate the formation of new substances. In Example 2, white NaCl turned
black. In example 4, yellowish Cu and colorless nitric acid turned blue green
with the evolution of a reddish brown gas. Keywords such as burns or rusts may
also imply that we are referring to chemical properties.

This is an easy question. Practice by focusing on a substance like your car and list
its physical and chemical properties.

CHANGES IN MATTER
The transformations that matter undergoes may either be a physical change or a
chemical change. Changes in size, shape, or state of a substance but not in its
chemical composition and properties are physical changes. Physical changes are
usually reversible. The state of a substance depends on its temperature and
pressure.

high P high P
GASES------------>LIQUIDS ------------->SOLIDS
low T low T

Changes in the states of matter are the following:

• Sublimation - from solid to gas
• Deposition - from gas to solid
• Evaporation - from liquid to gas
• Condensation - from gas to liquid
• Freezing - from liquid to solid
• Melting - from solid to liquid

You are all familiar with the physical changes taking place in the water cycle.
Water is present on earth and in the atmosphere. It evaporates from oceans, rivers,
and other bodies of water into the air. As air rises, water cools and condenses into
clouds. When rain clouds form due to an increase in the size of water droplets,
water falls back to earth and the cycle begins again.

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In chemical changes, substances are converted into new substances. The

properties of the new substances differ from those of the original substances. The
different types of chemical reactions:

• decomposition: the original substance breaks down into several new

substances
e.g. table sugar (sucrose) turns black upon heating

C12H22O11 Æ 12C + 11H2O

• combination or synthesis: several substances react to form a new substance

e.g. rusting of iron in moist atmosphere

2Fe + O2 Æ 2FeO

• displacement: an active substance replaces another element from its

compound
e.g. dissolving a metal in acid with the evolution of a gas

Zn + 2HCl Æ ZnCl2 + H2

• double displacement or double decomposition: two substances exchange

atoms or groups of atoms
e.g. neutralization of an acid with a base to form a salt

2NaOH + H2SO4 ---> Na2SO4 + 2 H2O

In contrast to the water cycle, the carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen cycles involve
chemical changes. In the carbon cycle, CO2 in air is taken in by plants and used in
photosynthesis, together with H2O, to synthesize carbohydrates. Animals eat
plants and uses these carbohydrates as energy reservoir. As sources of energy,
these carbohydrates are decomposed with CO2 as one of the products. CO2 is then
given off into the air during respiration. In the oxygen cycle, O2 is produced as a
waste product of photosynthesis and is consumed by both plants and animals
during respiration.

The nitrogen cycle involves the conversion of nitrates to ammonia. Nitrogen-

fixing bacteria in roots of plants converts nitrogen from the air into nitrates.
Nitrates are used by plants to synthesize proteins. These are then eaten by animals
to synthesize animal proteins. Decomposition of these nitrates from animal waste
products produces ammonia. Ammonia is converted by nitrifying bacteria to
nitrates and by denitrifying bacteria to nitrogen, which is released back into the
air.

38 Module 2: Matter
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SAQ 2-6

Classify each of the following observations as either physical or chemical

changes: cooking of food; cutting a diamond; combustion of gasoline; drying of
clothes; melting of butter; decaying of plants and animals; sublimation of
mothballs; pulverizing of granite rocks; segregation of metallic junk by using a
magnet; rusting of galvanized roofs.

Module 2: Matter 39
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ASAQ 2-6

Physical changes are cutting a diamond (change in size), drying of clothes

(evaporation of water), melting of butter, sublimation of mothballs, pulverizing of
granite rocks, and segregation of metallic junk by using a magnet.

Chemical changes are cooking of food, rusting of galvanized roofs, combustion of

gasoline, and decaying of plants and animals.

Cheers! In the previous module, we studied matter in its

subatomic and atomic levels. In this module, we’ve studied
the macroscopic or bulk matter - matter that is tangible and
real. We’ve studied matter that we’re familiar with its types,
properties, states, and transformations.

40 Module 2: Matter
UP Open University Natural Science I

3
The Periodic Properties
of Elements

INTRODUCTION
When elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic numbers, those similar
properties occur at regular or periodic intervals. The periodic table shows the
graphical regularity among different elements.

The electronic configurations of atoms dictate their relative positions in the

periodic table and their physical as well as their chemical properties. Elements
with similar electronic configurations have similar physical and chemical
properties. How do we distribute electrons in the different orbitals? How do we
arrange the different elements in the periodic table? How do we predict properties
of elements based on their positions in the periodic table?

OBJECTIVES

After studying this module, you will be able to

1. distribute electrons in the different atomic orbitals (electronic configuration);

2. classify elements based on their atomic numbers and the last entering
electron; and
3. predict the properties of elements based on their electronic configuration.

Module 3: The Periodic Properties of Elements 41

Natural Science I UP Open University

MASS NUMBER AND ATOMIC NUMBER

An element may be identified by two numbers: the atomic number, Z, and the
mass number, A. The atomic number is equal to the number of protons. The
mass number is the total number of neutrons and protons, collectively called
nucleons, in the nucleus of an atom. The number of neutrons can be calculated by
subtracting the atomic number from the mass number. To summarize:

A = protons + neutrons
Z = protons
A = Z + neutrons
neutrons = A - Z

An atom is represented as: ZA AtomicSymbol

The mass number of helium is 4 and its atomic number is 2. There

are, therefore, two protons (=Z) and two neutrons (= A-Z) in the
4
2 He helium atom. Since helium is a neutral atom, then there are as
many electrons as protons. Helium has two electrons.

The mass number of chlorine is 35 and its atomic number is 17.

Chlorine has 17 protons and 18 neutrons. As indicated in its atomic
35
Cl 1− symbol, chlorine has a charge of 1-. This means that chlorine has
17
one electron more than its protons. Hence, chlorine ion (chloride)
has 18 electrons.

Aluminum has a mass number equal to 27 and an atomic number

equal to 13. Aluminum has 13 protons and 14 neutrons. With a
charge of 3+, the Aluminum ion has 3 electrons less. Aluminum
27
13 Al 3+ ion has 10 electrons. Let’s compute for the charge: 13 protons have
a charge of 13+ while 10 electrons carry a charge of 10-. Therefore,
the total charge of the ion is 3+.

Isotopes are atoms with the same atomic number but different mass numbers.
Thus, 1735Cl and 17
37
Cl are isotopes. They both contain 17 protons and 17 electrons
but differ in the number of neutrons. Isobars are atoms with the same mass
number but different atomic numbers. Thus 1636 S and 18 36
Ar are isobars. Notice that
isotopes have the same atomic symbol while isobars have different atomic
symbols. Isobars are not alike chemically because chemical characteristics depend
upon the number of electrons.

42 Module 3: The Periodic Properties of Elements

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The ages of artefacts are determined by 14C dating using the carbon-14 isotope.
The most abundant isotope of carbon is carbon-12. 14C isotope is produced when
14
N captures neutrons. This 14C isotope is radioactive and decays by beta-particle
emission. This radioactive carbon isotope is eventually converted to 14CO2, which
then enters the carbon cycle. It is continuously used by plants in photosynthesis
and given off by animals in respiration and a constant 14C to 12C ratio is
established. When the plant or animal dies, the 14C isotope decreases in
concentration with time because it is radioactive. This change in concentration is
used to estimate the length of time the 14C isotope has been decaying.

SAQ 3-1

Complete the following table:

Hypothetical atom V W X Y 56
26 Z 3+

Protons 18 11

Neutrons 40 23 45

Electrons 10 36

Mass Number 63

Atomic Number 29

Net Charge 2+ 0 1-

Module 3: The Periodic Properties of Elements 43

Natural Science I UP Open University

ASAQ 3-1

Hypothetical atom V 2+
63
29
40
W
18
23
11 X 1+ 80 1−
Y
35
56
26 Z 3+
Protons 29 18 11 35 26
Neutrons 34 22 12 45 30
Electrons 27 18 10 36 23
Mass Number 63 40 23 80 56
Atomic Number 29 18 11 35 26
Net Charge 2+ 0 1+ 1- 3+

There are 22 answers in this SAQ. The passing grade is 60%. Did you pass this
SAQ? Very good, if you pass. Otherwise, you have 112 elements to practice
with after we have discussed the periodic table.

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
Knowing the number of electrons, how do we distribute them in the different
orbitals? Electronic configuration describes the arrangement of electrons in an
atom. In multi-electron atoms, the electrons are distributed among the different
orbitals following the Aufbau Prinzip (Building Up Principle) with the lowest
energy levels being filled up first.

1s
2s 2p
3s 3p 3d
4s 4p 4d 4f
5s 5p 5d 5f
6s 6p 6d 6f

Each orbital can accommodate two electrons of opposite spins. A fourth quantum
number, the spin quantum number, s, describes the two ways in which an
electron may be aligned in a magnetic field: parallel to or opposed (anti-parallel)
to the magnetic field. By convention, s = +½ for an unpaired electron and s = -½
for a paired electron.

44 Module 3: The Periodic Properties of Elements

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The first energy level has a 1s orbital that can accommodate two electrons. The
single electron of hydrogen will occupy a 1s orbital. It will have an electronic
configuration of 1s1.

The two electrons of helium will have opposite electron spins and will pair up in
the 1s orbital giving an electronic configuration of 1s2. We can also describe the
two electrons of helium using the four quantum numbers. The first electron has n
= 1; l = 0; m = 0; and s = +½ (an unpaired electron). The second electron of
helium has n = 1; l = 0; m = 0; and s = -½ (it paired up with electron 1). Recall
that this is again an example of Pauli’s Exclusion Principle. Notice that the first
and second electrons of helium have the same n, l, and m values but different s
values.

The third electron of lithium will occupy a 2s orbital. Its electronic configuration
of lithium is 1s2 2s1 while the that of beryllium is 1s22s2.

The fifth electron of boron will be in a 2p orbital with quantum numbers equal to
n = 2, l = 1 ( a p orbital), m = +1 (the first p orbital), s = +½. The sixth electron of
carbon will occupy the second 2p orbital (remember that there are three 2p
orbitals) with n = 2, l = 1, m = 0 (the second p orbital); and s = +½ (the electron is
still unpaired). The seventh electron of nitrogen will go into the third 2p orbital
with n = 2, l = 1, m = -1, s = +½. This is Hund's Rule of Multiplicity, which
states that electrons occupy orbitals with degenerate (or equal) energy levels
singly before pairing. The eighth electron of oxygen will now pair up with its fifth
electron and has n = 2, l = 0, m = +1, and s = +½

SAQ 3-2

1. Following the direction of the arrow in the Aufbau Prinzip, what orbital
follows 6p? 6d and 6f?

2. What orbital will the fourth electron of beryllium occupy? The ninth
electron of fluorine? The tenth electron of argon?

3. What are the electronic configurations of Be, B, C, N, O, F, and Ne?

4. What are the quantum numbers of the last entering or differentiating

electron of Be, F, and Ar?

56
5. Give the electronic configuration of 26 Fe and the quantum numbers of the
last entering electron.

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ASAQ 3-2

1. 7s, 7p, and 7d orbitals follow 6p, 6d, and 6f orbitals, respectively. After a 7p
orbital is an 8s orbital.

2. The fourth electron of beryllium will occupy a 2s orbital and pairs with its
third electron. The ninth electron of fluorine pairs up with its sixth electron
and occupies the second 2p orbital. The tenth electron of neon will occupy
the third 2p orbital and pair up with its seventh electron. What orbital will
the eleventh electron of sodium occupy? 3s

3-4.
Atom Electronic Configuration Quantum Numbers of the Last Electron
4Be 1s2 2s2 n = 2, l = 0, m = 0, s = -½
5B 1s2 2s2 2p1 n = 2, l = 1, m =+1, s = +½
6C 1s2 2s2 2p1 2p1 (Hund’s rule) n = 2, l = 1, m =0, s = +½
7N 1s2 2s2 2p1 2p1 2p1 n = 2, l = 1, m = -1, s = +½
8O 1s2 2s2 2p2 2p1 2p1 n = 2, l = 1, m =+1, s = -½
9F 1s2 2s2 2p2 2p2 2p1 n = 2, l = 1, m =0, s = -½
10Ne 1s2 2s2 2p2 2p2 2p2 n = 2, l = 1, m =-1, s = -½

5. The mass number of Fe is 56 and its atomic number is 26. Being a neutral
atom, Fe has 26 electrons. Its electronic configuration is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
4s2 3d2d1d1d1d1. Using the Aufbau Prinzip, fill the orbitals with two electrons
each with 4s being next to 3p. There is now a total of 20 electrons and we
need six more. Following Hund’s Rule, we distribute 5 electrons singly to
the five d orbital. The 26th electron then pairs with the 21st electron and
occupy the first 3d orbital. The quantum numbers of the 26th electron are n =
3 (third energy level), l = 2 ( a d orbital), m = +2 ( the first d orbital), and s =
-½ (paired with the 21st electron).

6.
These questions are sequential. You have to know and
understand the answers in question no. 1 before you can
proceed to the other questions.

If you were unable to answer question no. 5, you have to read a

General Chemistry book in addition to this module. You have
to practice until you understand the concept of electronic
configuration. Electronic configuration is a basic requirement to
understanding this module.

46 Module 3: The Periodic Properties of Elements

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DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

Early in the 19th century, chemists became interested in the relationships among
the elements. In 1828, Johann W. Dobereiner examined certain sets of elements
that he called triads (Li, Na, K; Cl, Br, I; Ca, Sr, Ba; S, Se, Te). The elements of
each set have similar properties, and the atomic mass of the middle element is
approximately the average of the other two.

In the years 1863-1866, John A. R. Newlands proposed his law of octaves. If the
elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic mass, a given element is
similar to the eighth element that follows it.

In 1869, Julius Lothar Meyer (1830-1895) and Dmitri Mendeleyev (1834-

1907), working independently, formulated the periodic law which states that the
chemical and physical properties of the elements are periodic functions of their
atomic masses. Mendeleyev arranged the elements in a table, leaving spaces
where there was no known element with an atomic mass or physical and chemical
properties that fitted that position. He predicted the properties of these still
undiscovered elements by studying the trends and similarities within groups in his
table.

In 1913, Henry Moseley (1887-1915) proposed a periodic law based on atomic

numbers. The chemical and physical properties of elements are periodic functions
of their atomic numbers. Glenn Seaborg extended the periodic table beyond
uranium 92. He observed the similarities of the elements in the lanthanide series
and the actinide series.

THE PERIODIC TABLE

The elements are arranged in the periodic table according to their electronic
configurations. The periods consist of those elements that are arranged in
horizontal rows. Elements within a period have the same valence shell of
electrons, each consecutive element containing one more electron in this shell.
Valence shell refers to the outermost energy shell or the shell with the highest
principal quantum number, n. Period 1 elements, hydrogen (H) and helium (He),
occupy the first energy shell. Recall that in the first energy shell (n = 1), there is
only one orbital (l = 0), the 1s orbital. Recall further that each orbital can
accommodate two electrons with opposite spins. Hence, period 1 has two
elements corresponding to electronic configurations 1s1 and 1s2.

Module 3: The Periodic Properties of Elements 47

Natural Science I UP Open University

SAQ 3-3

1. How many elements are in period 2? Period 3? Period 4?

56
2. To what period will 26 Fe belong (refer to ASAQ 3-2)?

48 Module 3: The Periodic Properties of Elements

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ASAQ 3-3

1. Elements in period 2 occupy the second energy shell (n = 2) where there are
two orbitals, 2s (l = 0) and 2p (l = 1). Recall that there are three possible
orientations for the p orbital, px, py, and pz , corresponding to m = +1, 0, -1. A
total of four orbitals in the 2nd energy shell can accommodate a total of eight
electrons. Hence, there will be eight elements in period 2.

When n = 3 (3rd energy shell), l = 0, 1, 2 corresponding to 3s, 3p, and 3d

orbitals, respectively. However, recall that the Aufbau Prinzip dictates that
when the 3s and 3p orbitals are filled up, the next higher energy orbital is 4s
and not 3d. Hence, there are also eight elements in period 3 corresponding to
3s and three 3p orbitals.

Following Aufbau Prinzip, there will be eighteen elements in periods 4 and

5. In period 4, the electrons occupy the 4th energy shell. The sequence of
filling up the orbitals is 4s, then 3d, then 4p for a total of nine available
orbitals: 4s, five 3d, and three 4p. Why are there eighteen elements in period
5?

For period 6, there will be thirty two elements following the Aufbau
sequence 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p for a total of sixteen orbitals: 6s, seven 4f, five 5d,
and three 6p orbitals.

Module 3: The Periodic Properties of Elements 49

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50 Module 3: The Periodic Properties of Elements

UP Open University Natural Science I

The electronic configuration of Fe is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d2d1d1d1d1. Fe will
be found in period 4 because 4s represents the outermost energy shell.

Were you able to answer this SAQ? Notice that we have simply defined what a
period in a periodic table is based on our earlier discussion of quantum numbers
and electronic configurations. Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F, and Ne (ASAQ 3-2) are the
eight elements belonging to period 2. They all occupy a valence shell
corresponding to the highest principal quantum number, n = 2.

The vertical columns in the periodic table are called groups or families. The
number of electrons in the valence shells is the same for elements of the same
group, and this number is the same as the column number. Within a group or
family, the elements will have the same outermost electronic configurations. The
similarity in the number of valence electrons explains the similarities in their
properties.

Elements in the first vertical column (Group 1A) will all have one electron in
their valence shell and will have electronic configurations of ns1. Those in the 2nd
vertical column (Group 2A) will have outermost electronic configurations of ns2.
Potassium (K) is found in the 1st vertical column (group or family) and the 4th
horizontal row (period). Its outermost electronic configuration will therefore be
4s1 (period refers to valence shell and group refers to valence electrons).
Conversely, if we know the electronic configuration of an element, we can predict
its relative position in the periodic table. The electronic configuration of Fe is 1s2
2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d2d1d1d1d1. Its outermost electronic configuration is 4s2
3d2d1d1d1d1. What is its valence shell? 4 and Fe belongs to period 4. How many
electrons are there in the valence shell? Eight electrons and hence Fe will occupy
the 8th vertical column (Group 8B) in period 4.

SAQ 3-4

1. What will be the relative positions of Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F, and Ne in the

periodic table? Their electronic configurations are given in ASAQ 3-2.

2. Ruthenium (Ru) and Osmium (Os) are both located in the same group as Fe.
What will be their outermost electronic configurations?

3. Manganese (Mn) is on the left of Fe while cobalt (Co) is on the right. What
will be the outermost electronic configurations of Mn and Co?

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ASAQ 3-4
1.
Atom Electronic Configuration Group No. Period No.
3Li 1s22s1 1A 2
4Be 1s2 2s2 2A 2
5B 1s2 2s2 2p1 3A 2
6C 1s2 2s2 2p1 2p1 4A 2
7N 1s2 2s2 2p1 2p1 2p1 5A 2
8O 1s2 2s2 2p2 2p1 2p1 6A 2
9F 1s2 2s2 2p2 2p2 2p1 7A 2
10Ne 1s2 2s2 2p2 2p2 2p2 8A 2
The electrons occupy the 2nd valence shell. Hence, they will be found in period
2. Since there are eight elements (Why? Refer to ASAQ 4-1) in period 2, then
there will be eight vertical columns in period 2. Li with one valence electron will
occupy the 1st vertical column (Group 1A) and Ne with eight outermost
electrons will occupy the 8th vertical column (Group 8A).
2. If Ru and Os belong to the same group or family as Fe, then they will all
have the same outermost electronic configuration of ns2 (n-1) d2d1d1d1d1.
3. Mn has one electron less than Fe while Co has one electron more. The
electronic configuration of Mn is 4s2 3d1d1d1d1d1 while that of Co is 4s2
3d2d2d1d1d1. Mn is in period 4, vertical column 7 while Co is in period 4,
vertical column 9 (9 valence electrons).
Let us summarize the concepts that we have discussed:
1. Elements in the same period will have electrons in the same valence (or
outermost) shell. The period number will therefore be the same as the
highest principal quantum number, n. Electrons of all elements in period 7
will occupy the 7th energy shell with n = 7.
2. Elements in the same group or family will have the same valence electrons.
All Group 6A elements will have 6 valence electrons with an outermost
electronic configuration of ns2 p2 p1 p1.
This is the confusing part! Everything depends on your understanding of
electronic configurations. The rest of the module will be merely definitions. If
you were able to answer this SAQ, you’ll breeze through the rest of this module.
Otherwise, practice by writing down the electronic configurations of elements,
and then specifying their period and group numbers. Refer to the periodic table
to see if your answers are correct.

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CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
We may classify the elements according to their electronic configurations into
four types:

1. Representative elements include the A families (1A to 7A) with successive

addition of electrons in the s and p orbitals. The number of valence electrons
for each atom is the same as the group number. They may be further
subdivided into s-block and p-block elements. The s-block elements are all
metals and occur in groups 1 (ns1) and 2 (ns2) of the periodic table. The 1A
metals are called the alkali metals and the 2A metals are called alkaline
earth metals.

The alkali metals are very reactive. They are stored under oil
Li because they react immediately with oxygen in the air and
Na vigorously with water. The alkali metals are very soft and light
K with low melting and boiling points.
Rb Only very small traces of francium exist on earth because all Be
Cs known isotopes of francium are radioactive. But we can predict Mg
Fr the properties of francium based on its relative position in the Ca
periodic table.
Sr
The alkaline earth metals are reactive elements but they are not Ba
as reactive as alkali metals. They may be used to make light Ra
alloys.

The p-block elements are those in vertical columns 13-17 of the periodic
F table and include groups 3A (ns2 p1) to 7A (ns2p2p2p1). These elements
Cl have partially filled p orbitals and include a mixture of metals,
Br metalloids, and non-metals.
I
At Group 7A elements are called halogens, meaning “salt former”, because
they react with metals to form salts. With the exception of helium, neon
and argon, all elements in the periodic table react with halogens.
Fluorine is very reactive and it is not found as an element in nature. At
ordinary temperatures, chlorine is a gas, bromine is a liquid, and iodine is
a solid.

2. Noble gases are found at the end of each period in group 8A. He
They are also called inert or rare gases because they are Ne
chemically unreactive and do not form compounds readily. Ar
They are colorless, odorless, and tasteless gases. All noble gases Kr
have outer configurations of ns2 p6, a very stable arrangement. Xr
Helium is used to fill balloons, and argon and neon are used as Rn
lights and gas lasers.

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3. Transition or d-block elements (B families) have partially filled d orbitals.

The last electron occupies an inner d orbital. They occupy vertical columns 3-
12 of the periodic table. All are metals and are found between the highly
reactive metals (Groups 1A and 2A) on the left and the non-metals on the
right (Groups 3A - 8A).

4. Inner-transition or f-block elements are all metals found at the bottom of the
periodic table but should properly follow 3B. The last electron added to each
element is an f electron, either 4f or 5f. The 6th period is called the lanthanide
series while the 7th period is the actinide series with atomic numbers from 89
to 103. All the isotopes of the actinides are radioactive. Of these elements,
only actinium (Ac), thorium (Th), protactinium (Pa), and uranium (U) occur
naturally.

SAQ 3-5
Draw a block diagram of a periodic table showing the classification of elements
according to their electronic configurations.

54 Module 3: The Periodic Properties of Elements

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ASAQ 3-5

1s 1s2
2s 2p1 2p6
3s 3p1 3p6
4s 3d1 3d10 4p1 4p6
5s 4d1 4d10 5p1 5p6
6s 5d1 5d10 6p1 6p6
7s 6d1

4f1 4f14
1
5f 5f14

PERIODIC PROPERTIES
The periodic table is arranged such that elements with similar properties belong to
the same group. Moving down the groups, each level represents an additional
electron shell. These additional shells, the increased distance from the nucleus of
their valence electrons, and the shielding effect of the inner shells, result in these
electrons being bound less tightly. Hence, as one moves down from period 1 to
period 7 within a group, there is a decrease in attraction between the nucleus and
the valence electrons.

Elements from left to right within a period have the same valence shell of
electrons. The next element contains one more electron in this shell. The increase
in the nuclear mass and charge, without an increase in the number of energy
shells, results in a greater nuclear attraction on the valence electrons. The valence
electrons are bound more tightly. Hence, as one moves from left to right within a
period, there is an increasing nuclear attraction that draws valence electrons
inwards.

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SAQ 3-6
1. Lithium belongs to group 1A and period 2. Its outermost electronic
configuration is 2s1. Francium belongs to group 1A and period 7 and its
outermost electronic configuration is 7s1.

a. Which atom is bigger?

b. Which atom readily loses its valence electron?

c. Which atom readily attracts an electron?

2. Neon belongs to group 8A and period 2. Its outermost electronic

configuration is 2s22p6.

a. What is the nuclear charge of Li? Ne? Which will exert a greater nuclear
attraction?

b. Which atom is bigger, Li or Ne?

c. Which atom readily loses its valence electron, Li or Ne?

d. Which atom readily attracts electrons, Li or Ne?

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ASAQ 3-6

1.
a. Fr is bigger due to increase in atomic radius with increasing energy shells.
b. Fr readily loses its valence electron due to decrease in nuclear attraction. Hence,
the amount of energy needed to remove the most loosely held electron in Fr will
be lesser than that for hydrogen.
c. H readily attracts an electron (electrons are attracted to the nucleus).

2.
a. The nuclear charge of Li is +3 because it has 3 protons as dictated by its atomic
number. The nuclear charge of Ne is +10. Both has valence electrons in the 2nd
energy shell. Therefore, Ne will exert greater nuclear attraction.
b. Li is bigger than Ne because there is greater nuclear attraction in Ne and hence,
the electrons are drawn inwards.
c. Li readily loses its valence electron.
d. Although Ne exhibits greater nuclear attraction, it will not attract electrons
because it is chemically unreactive due to the stability of its filled outermost
electrons.

Remember that the larger the value of n, the further the energy shell is from the
nucleus, the lesser is the nuclear attraction, and the higher is the energy of the
electron in that shell.

The periodic properties are:

1. Atomic size

Moving down a group, an increase in atomic radius is generally observed due

to the additional energy shell. Recall that period 1 elements occupy the first
energy shell where n=1 while period 7 elements occupy an energy shell where the
highest n value is 7.

In general, there is a decrease in atomic radius from left to right across a

period due to greater nuclear attraction. Lithium and neon both belong to period
2. The atomic number of lithium is 3 while that of neon is 10. Hence, neon, with a
nuclear charge of 10+, exerts a greater nuclear attraction than lithium, whose
nuclear charge is 3+. As a result, the valence shell of neon contracts, with the
electrons orbiting closer to the nucleus than before. Francium (Fr), group 1A and
period 7, is therefore the biggest element.

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2. Ionization energy is the amount of energy required to remove the most

loosely held electron from an isolated gaseous atom in its ground state.

A(g) → A+ (g) + e- I.E. (+)

A greater amount of energy is needed to remove a tightly bound electron. Hence,

in general, I. E. increases across a period matching an increase in nuclear charge
and a decrease in atomic radius; I.E. decreases as we move down a group.
Again, Francium is the most active element in losing an electron. It has the lowest
ionization potential.

3. Electronegativity is a measure of the ability of an atom in a molecule to

attract electrons to itself. A small atom should have a greater tendency to add
an electron than a large atom since the added electron is closer to the positive
nucleus in a small atom. As the nuclear charge increases, the attraction that
the nucleus has for the negatively charged electrons increases. In general,
electronegativity increases from left to right across any period (with
increasing nuclear attraction) and decreases from top to bottom in any
group (with decreasing size). Fluorine is the most electronegative atom.

4. Electron affinity is the energy released when an electron is added to an

isolated atom in its ground state.
e-+ A(g) → A-(g) E.A. (-)
In general, electron affinities become increasingly negative from left to right
across a period but do not vary greatly as we move down a group.

SAQ 3-7

1. Explain why group 2A elements will have positive electron affinities.

2. Francium, an alkali metal, has the lowest ionization energy while fluorine, a
nonmetal, has the highest electronegativity. What conclusions can you draw
regarding the tendency of metals and nonmetals to either lose or gain
electrons?

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ASAQ 3-7

1. Group 2A elements have an electronic configuration of ns2, a filled s orbital.

An added electron must therefore occupy a p orbital, a higher energy orbital.

2. Metals have low ionization energies and they tend to lose electrons forming
positive charged ions called cations. Metallic property decreases (as
ionization energy increases) from left to right across a period and increases
(as ionization energy decreases) from top to bottom in a group.

M → M+ + e -

Nonmetals are electronegative and they tend to gain electrons forming

negatively charged ions called anions. Nonmetallic property increases (as
electronegativity increases) from left to right across a period and decreases (as
electronegativity decreases) as we moved down a group.

e-+ NM → NM-(g)

To summarize, metals differ from nonmetals:

1. Metals easily loses electrons while nonmetals easily gain electrons.

2. The ionization energies of metals are low while those of nonmetals are high.
3. Atoms of metals are bigger than atoms of nonmetals within a given period.
4. The electronegativity values of metals are low while those of nonmetals are
high.

Were you able to deduce the tendency of metals to lose electrons and nonmetals
to gain electrons? Very good! This is the basis of our next module on chemical
bonding. If you were not able to do so, it’s alright. But definitely you’ll have to
fully understand that the relative positions of elements in the periodic table and
their classification is dictated by their electronic configurations. With regards to
periodic trends, just remember that a decrease in atomic radius means that the
ionization energy, electron affinity, and electronegativity values for the atom
increase, and these reflect the increased attraction that the nucleus has for
electrons.

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4
Chemical Bonds
INTRODUCTION

As discussed in the previous chapter, ionization energy and electronegativity

depend on the position of an element in the periodic table. The ionization energy
is a measure of the willingness of an atom to lose electrons while its
electronegativity is a measure of its tendency to attract electrons. These valence
electrons are responsible for chemical bonding.

Chemical bonds are the forces that hold atoms together. The different types of
chemical bond include ionic bonds in salts, covalent bonds in molecules, and
metallic bonds between metal atoms. Which type of bond is formed depends on
the atoms involved, and on how their electrons are distributed.

We have described noble gases as being inert gases because they are chemically
unreactive and do not form compounds readily. Their stability is ascribed to their
outer electronic configuration of ns2p6, with filled orbitals. Hence, elements lose,
gain, or share electrons to have the same stable electronic configuration as a noble
gas. This is known as the octet rule referring to the eight valence electrons of
noble gases.

OBJECTIVES

After studying this module, you will be able to

1. explain chemical reactivity based on electronic configuration;

2. identify the different types of chemical bonds;
3. deduce the geometry of molecules; and
4. explain the physical and chemical properties of molecules based on the type
of chemical bonds used.

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IONIC BOND
Metals have low ionization potentials and they readily lose valence electrons to
achieve a stable electronic configuration. Metals form positive ions called cations.
Nonmetals are electronegative and tend to gain electrons forming negative ions
called anions. The electrostatic attraction between a cation and an anion results in
strong bonds – called ionic bonds or electrovalent bonds – that hold the ions
together in an ionic compound. An ionic bond, therefore, is formed by the
transfer of electrons from a metal to a nonmetal.

An example of an ionic compound is sodium chloride, NaCl. Sodium is an alkali

metal. It belongs to group 1A and hence it has one valence electron occupying an
s orbital. Conversely, given that the atomic number of Na is 11, we should be able
to write its electronic configuration. The tendency of all group 1A elements is to
lose its lone valence electron to have eight outer electrons.

Na Æ Na+ + e-
1s2
2s22p6
3s1

Chlorine is a halogen belonging to group 7A. As such, it has seven valence

electrons. Its atomic number is 17. The tendency of all halogens is to gain one
electron to be isoelectronic (same electronic configuration) with argon.

Cl + e- Æ Cl-
1s2
2s22p6
3s2 3p2p2p1

From these ionic charges, formulas may be derived knowing that the number of
electrons lost by the metal should be equal to the number of electrons gained by
the nonmetal. The total positive ionic charge must equal the total negative ionic
charge of that compound.

Na Æ Na+ + e-
Cl + e- Æ Cl-
Na + Cl Æ Na+Cl- (NaCl)

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SAQ 4-1

1. Magnesium is an alkaline earth metal belonging group 2A. Oxygen

belongs to group 6A. What is the formula for magnesium oxide?

2. What is the formula of sodium oxide? Magnesium chloride?

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ASAQ 4-1

1. Magnesium has two valence electrons while oxygen has six. Their
electronic configurations are:
Mg Æ Mg+2 + 2 e-
1s2
2s22p6
3s2 (tendency is to lose two electrons to be isoelectronic with neon)
O + 2e- Æ O-2
1s2
2s22p6
3s2 3p2p1p1 (tendency is to gain two electrons to have eight outer
electrons)
Mg Æ Mg+2 + 2 e-
O + 2e- Æ O-2

Mg + O Æ Mg+O- (MgO)

2. To make the number of electrons lost equal to the number of electrons

gained, we need two sodium atoms for every oxygen atom. The subscript in
the formula tells us that there are two atoms of sodium and one atom of
oxygen in one molecule of sodium oxide.
(Na Æ Na+ + e-) 2
O + 2e- Æ O-2

2Na + O Æ 2Na+ O-2 (Na2O)

We need two chlorine atoms for every atom of magnesium to balance the
number.of electrons.
Mg Æ Mg+2 + 2 e-
(Cl + e- Æ Cl-)2

Mg + 2Cl Æ Mg+22Cl- (MgCl2)

That was quite easy, right?. Just remember that:

• metals lose electrons to have eight outermost or valence electrons
• non-metals gain electrons to have also eight valence electrons
• electrons are transferred from the metal to the non-metal
• the number of electrons lost should be equal to the number of electrons
gained

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The electrovalence number of an element is the charge (including sign) of the

ion derived from the element after an ionic reaction. If we follow the octet
principle, the electrovalence number of IA should be 1+; group VIIA, 1-; group
IIA, 2+; and group VIA, 2-.

COVALENT BONDS
When atoms of non-metals react, molecules are formed which are held together
by covalent bonds. Since these atoms need to gain electrons, electron transfer
does not occur. Instead, electrons are shared. A covalent bond consists of a pair
of electrons that is shared by two non-metals. Each non-metal may contribute one
electron (normal covalent bond), or a single non-metal may contribute both
electrons (coordinate covalent bond).

Consider the bond formed by two hydrogen atoms. A hydrogen atom has one
electron occupying a 1s orbital and needs one more to have a filled 1s orbital.
Sharing of electrons between these two hydrogen atoms will make them
isoelectronic with helium (1s2).. The hydrogen molecule can be represented by
the symbol H:H or H-H. Although the electrons belong to the molecule as a
whole, each hydrogen atom can be considered to have the noble gas configuration
of helium. The strength of the covalent bond comes from the attraction of the
positively charged nuclei for the negative cloud of the bond.

The electron-dot formulas are called valence-bond structures or Lewis

structures, named after Gilbert N. Lewis who proposed covalent bonding in
1916. The Lewis theory emphasizes the attainment of noble-gas configurations of
atoms in covalent molecules.

Since the number of valence electrons is the same as the group number for the
nonmetals, then group 4A elements (s2p1p1) have four valence electrons and needs
four more to have eight valence electrons (octet rule). Thus, they form four
covalent bonds with other nonmetals to gain four electrons.

SAQ 4-2

How many covalent bonds will group 5A elements form? Group 6A? 7A?

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ASAQ 4-2

Group 5A elements (s2p1p1p1) have five valence electrons and need two more.
They will form three covalent bonds. Group 6A elements (s2p2p1p1), with six
valence electrons, will form two covalent bonds to gain two electrons to have an
octet. With seven valence electrons, group 7A elements (s2p2p2p1) will form one
covalent bond.
What is the magic number? Eight!

A covalent bond with one electron pair is a single bond. In methane, CH4, carbon
has four single bonds as represented by four bonding electron pairs. Nitrogen has
five valence electrons and needs three more. It forms three single bonds with
hydrogen. Nitrogen in ammonia has three bonding electron pairs and a non-
bonding or unshared electron pair. Oxygen in water has two bonding electron
pairs and two nonbonding electron pairs for a total of eight valence electrons.

H H

H C H H N H H O H

CH4 NH3 H2O

Some covalent compounds contain multiple bonds. These may be either double
bonds, two shared pairs of electrons, or triple bonds, three bonding electron
pairs. Single bonds are formed by the overlap of the half-filled orbitals along their
axes (head-on overlap)

forming a sigma (σ) bond. Multiple bonds contain only one

sigma bond and the others are pi (π) bond(s). Pi bonds
involve the sideways or lateral overlap of p orbitals whose
axes are parallel to each other. pi bond

H H H Cl Cl Cl

a b c
Sigma bonds formed by the axial overlap of a) two s orbitals in H2
molecule; b) s and p orbitals in HCl molecule; and c) two p orbitals in
Cl2

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O O
Oxygen atoms are doubly bonded to each other in O2 molecule.
There are one sigma bond, one pi bond, and two non-bonding O2
electron pairs in O2.
N N
Nitrogen atoms are triply bonded in N2 molecule. In N2, there are
one sigma bond, two pi bonds, and one non-bonding electron pair. N2

SAQ 4-3

1. Draw the Lewis structures for the following compounds:

1. phosphorus (group 5A) + chlorine (group 7A)
2. silicon (group 4A) + fluorine (group 7A)
3. selenium (group 6A) + hydrogen (group 1A)
4. carbon (group 4A) + oxygen (group 6A)

2. Draw the Lewis structures for the following compounds: C2H6, C2H4, and
C2H2.

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ASAQ 4-3

1. Lewis structures

Cl P Cl F Si F H Se H O C O

F
Cl SeH2 CO2

PCl3 SF4

2. Lewis structures

H H
H H
H C C H C C H C C H
H H
H H C2H2
C2H4
C3H6

Did you get the correct answers? You may have noticed that this is an all or
nothing type of SAQ. You either know or do not know how to draw the Lewis
structures. If you were able to draw one of the structures, you should be able to
draw the others. Let’s try drawing the Lewis structure of CO2 step by step:

• place 4 dots around carbon to represent its four valence electrons

• place 6 dots around oxygen
• pair electrons from carbon and oxygen

O C

• with 6 valence electrons, oxygen can form only two bonds to have an octet
• carbon has only 6 electrons (2 bonding electron pairs and 2 unpaired
electrons) and needs two more
O C O

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• each atom has now an octet of electrons with carbon having four bonding
electron pairs (two double bonds) and oxygen has two bonding electron pairs
and two non-bonding electron pairs

Polar and Non-Polar Covalent Bonds

In molecules made up of identical atoms such as H2,
Cl2, O2, and N2, there is equal sharing of electrons H H
between the atoms because they have equal
electronegativities. This is a non-polar bond. Symmetrical electron cloud
Molecules with non-polar bonds are also non-polar. for non-polar molecules

In molecules where the bonded atoms have different electronegativities, there is

an unequal sharing of electrons. The more electronegative atom attracts the bonding
electron pair towards itself and gets a partial negative charge. This leaves part of the
molecule positive and the other negative, thus creating a dipole. This is a polar
bond. Depending on its geometry or shape, a molecule with a polar bond may
either be polar or non-polar. Molecular geometry will be discussed in a subsequent
section.

Electronegativity values of elements are assigned using the Pauling (Linus

Pauling) scale. Electronegativity values vary from 0 to 4. In general, metallic
elements have low electronegativities, 0.7 - 1.5. Non-metallic elements have
electronegativities above 2. The most electronegative non-metals are fluorine
(4.0), oxygen (3.5), and chlorine (3.0).

Transition between Ionic and Covalent Bonding

A purely ionic bond is found in compounds formed by a metal
with a low ionization potential and a non-metal with high
electronegative. The difference in electronegativities (ΔEN) is
about 3.3. Hence, the chemical bond in CsF is ionic because purely ionic
their ΔEN is 3.3. bond
A purely covalent bond is found only in molecules formed
from two identical atoms where the bonding electrons are
shared equally. The difference in electronegativities is 0.
Examples are Cl2, H2, Br2. distorted ions

The bonding in most compounds lies somewhere between a

purely ionic and purely covalent bond. The positively charged
ion of a metal attracts and deforms the electron cloud of the
anion. The electron cloud of the anion is drawn towards the purely covalent
cation. In extreme cases, such deformation leads to the formation bond
of predominantly covalent compounds. For NaCl, ΔEN is 2.1.
NaCl is therefore approximately 60% ionic and 40% covalent.

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Molecular Geometry

The molecular geometry is the arrangement of the atoms in space. The geometry
or shape of a molecule is dictated by the valence shell electron pair repulsion
(VSEPR) theory. This theory simply states that electron pairs, both bonding and
non-bonding, will repel one another. Hence, to minimize repulsion, electron pairs
are arranged as far apart as possible from each other.

Two electron pairs are arranged linearly, 180o apart. The shape of three electron
pairs is trigonal planar and they are 1200 apart. Four electron pairs will have the
shape of a tetrahedron with a bond angle equal to 109.50.

Methane, CH4, with four bonding electrons, is tetrahedral. In

ammonia, NH3, nitrogen has three bonding electron pairs H
and one nonbonding electron pair. Although the four 109.5o
electron pairs are arranged in a tetrahedral geometry, the C
number of atoms attached to nitrogen dictates the shape of H H
the molecule. With one less covalent bond, ammonia is H
trigonal pyramidal. The water molecule, H2O has two Methane
bonding electron pairs and two non-bonding electron pairs.
The atoms of water have a V-shaped or angular shape. N
H H
106.8o
H
Ammonia

SAQ 4-4

Give the molecular shapes of the molecules in SAQ 5-3.

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ASAQ 4-4

1. PCl3 is trigonal pyramidal

2. SiF4 is tetrahedral
3. SeH2 is V-shaped or angular
4. CO2 is linear
5. C2H6 is tetrahedral
6. C2H4 is trigonal planar
7. C2H2 is linear

If you got at least 60% correct answers, that’s still ok, provided you were able to
answer that CO2 and C2H2 are both linear. Here’s a short cut based on the number
of bonds and non-bonding electron pairs:

• AB2 (central atom A bonded to two atoms) is linear

• AB3 is trigonal planar
• AB4 is tetrahedral
• AB3E (central atom A bonded to three atoms and has a pair of non-bonding
electrons, E) is trigonal pyramid
• AB2E2 is V-shaped or angular

In PCl3, phosphorus is bonded to three atoms but don’t forget the non-bonding
electron pair. Hence, its type formula is AB3E and it is trigonal pyramidal. SeH2
is AB2E2.

Polarity of Molecules

As mentioned earlier, the polarity of the bonds and the shape of

the molecule both determine the polarity of the molecule. For a H F
diatomic molecule, we consider only one bond dipole. Hence, any δ+ δ-
diatomic molecule with a polar bond is a polar molecule. bond dipole

For polyatomic molecules, we have to consider the overall bond dipoles by

adding up the individual bond dipoles. A bond dipole has magnitude and direction
(a vector). Hence, we have to add up both magnitudes and directions of all bond
dipoles to compute for the overall bond dipoles.

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Consider CO2 as an example. The C=O bond in CO2 is polar

with oxygen having a partial negative charge (δ-). CO2 is a O=C=O
linear molecule. The bond dipoles are equal in magnitude but δ- δ+ δ-
opposite in direction (subtractive). It is like adding two equal non-polar CO2
numbers that are opposite in signs. The sum of the bond
dipoles would be zero and CO2 is a non-polar molecule.

Another example is H2O. The O-H bond is polar with

partially negative oxygen. The geometry of H2O is V-shaped O
or angular. Notice that the directions of the bond dipoles of H δ− H
water are both in the same directions (additive). Of course, δ+ δ+
electron pairs will be more negative than oxygen. With all polar H2O
directions pointing upwards, water is a polar molecule.

SAQ 4-5

Give the polarities of the molecules in SAQ 4-4.

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ASAQ 4-5
The dipoles in PCl3 are in opposite directions and they
cancel out but their magnitudes differ. Hence, PCl3 is
weakly polar. In contrast, SiF4 is non-polar because the
P dipoles cancel out and the magnitudes of the bond dipoles
Cl Cl Cl are the same because all the bonds are identical (Si → F).
Weakly polar PCl3 SeH2 is polar using the same reason to explain the polarity
of water. All the other molecules are non-polar due to their
symmetrical tetrahedral and linear shapes.

SAQ 4-6

Let us first integrate what we have studied so far. Do not use a periodic table.
Given a hypothetical compound X with atomic number of 8 and mass number
of 18. Give the following:

a. Number of protons;
b. Number of electrons;
c. Number of neutrons;
d. Its electronic configuration;
e. The quantum numbers of the differentiating or last electron;
f. The type of element;
g. Its period number and group number
h. The most stable ion it can form;
i. Compound formed when it reacts with Mg (2A);
j. The type of chemical bond formed in i;
k. Compound formed when it reacts with F (7A);
l. The type of chenical bond formed in k;
m. Polarity of the bond formed in k;
n. Shape of the molecule in k;
o. Polarity of the molecule in k.

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ASAQ 4-6

a. 8 protons (given by atomic number)

b. 8 electrons (since the atom is neutral, then total positive charges should be
equal to total negative charges)
c. 10 neutrons (mass number - atomic number)
d. 1s22s22p2p1p1 (distribute 8 electrons)
e. n = 2 (second energy shell); l = 1 (p orbital); m = +1 (1st p orbital: remember
to follow Hund’s rule); s = - 1/2 (paired electron)
f. Representative element (last electron entered a p orbital)
g. period 2 (as dictated by the highest n value) and group 6A (as dictated by the
number of valence or outermost electrons)
h. X-2 (with 6 valence electrons, gain of 2 electrons to have filled outermost
orbitals)
i. Mg+2 X-2 (Mg is 2A and its electrovalence number is +2; number of electrons
lost should be equal to the number of electrons gained)
j. Ionic bond
k. XF2 (Its Lewis structure is similar to SeH2 or H2O.)
l. Covalent bond
m. Polar covalent bond (with fluorine being the most electronegative element)
n. V-shaped or angular (type formula is AB2E2)

o. weakly polar
X
F F

Another sequence question. You must hate them by now! With or without a
periodic table, you should be able to locate an element based on its electronic
configuration. You should be able to predict the type and number of chemical
bonds that an element will form based on the number of valence electrons.

Interparticle Forces of Attraction

Let us digress a bit and go back to a discussion of solutions (module 2). We can
now better understand solutions with our background knowledge on polarity of
molecules. The principle followed in solubility is “like dissolves like”. Non-polar
solute, the substance to be dissolved, dissolves in non-polar solvents, the
dissolving medium. Polar solute dissolves in polar solvents.

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Strong forces of attraction exist between O H

the solute and solvent particles. Non-polar H H O
molecules are held together by weak
London forces. Polar molecules are held H
together by dipole-dipole attraction or the In a water molecule, H-bond in
relatively stronger H-bond. H-bonding between the positively charged
occurs when hydrogen is directly bonded to hydrogen atoms and the negatively
charged oxygen atoms.
an electronegative atom, such as oxygen,
fluorine, nitrogen, or chlorine.

SAQ 4-7

Which of the molecules in SAQ 4-5 will be soluble in water?

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ASAQ 4-7

SeH2 is polar and will thus be soluble in water. All the other molecules, being
non-polar, will be soluble in a non-polar solvent such as CCl4.
Remember: “like dissolves like”.

Hence, substances with similar intermolecular forces of attraction are soluble in

each other. The strength of the attractive forces between the solute-solute and the
solvent-solvent molecules should approximate that of the solute-solvent
molecules. For example, ethanol will be completely soluble (miscible) in water
because ethanol-ethanol, water-water, and ethanol-water attractive forces are all
H-bonds.

METALLIC BOND
-- --
Metals have low ionization potentials. The outer +
+ --
electrons of metal atoms are loosely held and move --
--
freely throughout a metallic crystal. The positive metal -- +
-- --
ions are packed together tightly. The negative cloud of + -- +
the freely moving electrons binds the crystal together. -- --
This is the electron-sea model where the positive metal Metal cations in a sea of
ions are in a sea of electrons. electrons

This electron-sea model explains the properties of metals.

• Metals conduct heat and electricity. The valence electrons of metal absorb
heat and transfer it rapidly to all parts of the metal. It is also this sea of
electrons that carries an electric current.

• Metals are malleable and ductile. The bonds between metal atoms are not held
in a fixed position because the electrons are mobile. Hence, bonds between
metallic atoms can change direction when the metal is bent (ductility) or
hammered (malleability), rather than simply breaking.

• Most metals have comparatively high densities and melting points. The
metallic bond is strong as shown by the close-packed arrangement of the
positive metal ions and the electrostatic attraction between the metal cations
and the electrons.

• Metals are lustrous. Luster is light emitted by electrons when they go into
lower energy orbitals.

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SAQ 4-8

Enumerate the properties of non-metals.

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ASAQ 4-8

Nonmetals are:

• poor conductors of heat and electricity

• brittle, may be hard or soft
• comparatively low densities and low melting points
• dull or non-lustrous

Let us summarize what we have learned about metals and nonmetals. Metal atoms
are held together by metallic bonds while nonmetal atoms are joined through
covalent bonding. The properties of metals are explained by their low ionization
potentials and the freely moving electrons. The properties of nonmetals are
dictated by their high electronegativities and the shared electron pairs.

For completeness, we will discuss briefly the metalloids or semiconductors.

METALLOIDS
Metalloids, such as silicon and germanium, are normally poor conductors. The
atoms of Si and Ge have four outer electrons that are linked with those of
adjacent atoms, and no electrons are free for conduction. But at high
temperatures or when minute impurities are added to them in a process known
as “doping”, they become much better conductors. If the impurity used for
doping has five outer electrons, such as phosphorus or arsenic, then only four of
these electrons are needed for bonding, and there will be “free” electrons
available. Such process is called n (negative) -doping. The addition of atoms
such as boron, aluminium, or gallium, with only three valence electrons, will
result in vacancies or holes among the bonding electrons. This hole behaves like
a positive charge and attracts electrons towards it. This process is p (positive) -
doping. Semi-conductors are used in transistors, integrated circuits, electronic
circuits present in microcomputers, audio and video equipment, and
communication satellites; in solar cells; in semiconductor lasers (acronym for
light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation), which are used in space
communications, in medicine to cut, cauterise, and weld certain tissues, and in
laser-guided missiles, aircrafts, and satellites.

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In contrast to semi-conductors, superconductors exhibit zero resistance to the

flow of electric current. Superconductivity occurs only at very low temperatures
using liquid helium or liquid nitrogen as coolants. Superconductors are used in
superconducting magnets, which generate large magnetic fields. The Central
Japan Railway Company developed the superconducting magnetically levitated or
maglev train. Maglev trains have magnets that elevate them slightly off the
ground while they are moving to eliminate friction with the tracks that reduces
speed.

I hope you fully understood the

significance of chemical bonding: why
two atoms react, what holds atoms and
ions together in compounds, that their
physical and chemical properties are
dependent on the types of bond that
they form and their geometries.

The study of chemical bonds is crucial

in understanding chemical reactions
and the energetics involved, which we
will discuss in the next module. Why
are some substances reactive while
others are inert? Why will the energy
needed to break bonds differ? Why are
some reactions explosive while others
are very slow? We will answer these
questions on chemical reactions after
taking a much-needed break!

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5
Chemical Reactions

INTRODUCTION
A chemical reaction occurs when substances, called reactants, change into new
substances, the products. Recall that chemical reactions may either be
combination, decomposition, displacement, or double displacement. For a
chemical reaction to take place, the bonds between atoms and molecules in
reactants must break and then re-form in different ways to form the products. The
products have different physical and chemical properties from those of the
reactants. A chemical equation describes a chemical reaction.

Matter is not created nor destroyed during chemical reactions. They are simply
rearranged. This is a statement of the Law of Conservation of Mass. This is the
same principle that governs stoichiometry, the quantitative study of reactants and
products in a chemical reaction.

To understand and predict a chemical reaction, we have to understand the changes

in energy among the substances taking part in the reaction. Thermodynamics, a
study of the interconversion of heat and other forms of energy, will help us
predict the spontaneity of a chemical reaction. It answers the question “Will the
chemical reaction take place?” Chemical kinetics, on the other hand, deal with
the speeds or rates of chemical reactions. This refers to the change in the amount
of reactants and products with time.

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OBJECTIVES

After reading this module, you will be able to:

1. Apply the fundamental laws of chemical changes;

2. Predict the spontaneity of chemical reactions based on thermodynamic
functions; and
3. Predict the rates of chemical reactions.

ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR MASS

The mass of an atom is an average of the atomic masses of different isotopes and
their relative abundance. This is known as the atomic mass of an element. For
example, the two isotopes of carbon are 12C and 13C with relative abundance of
98.892% and 1.108%, respectively. The mass of 12C is 12.00 amu while that of
13
C is 13.00335 amu. Hence, the atomic mass of carbon is therefore

(0.98892)(12.00 amu) + (0.01108)(13.00335 amu) = 12.011 amu

Since atoms are microscopic, we cannot weight them. Hence, by international

agreement, the atomic mass of 12C was fixed at 12.00 amu. This was then used as
the standard for measuring the atomic mass of other elements. For example,
experiments showed that hydrogen is 8.4% as heavy as carbon. Hence, the atomic
mass of hydrogen is equal to 0.0084 x 12.00 or 1.008 amu.

The molecular mass is just the sum of all the masses of the atoms in the
molecule. For example, the molecular mass of H2SO4 is equal to 2(1.0 amu) +
32.0 amu + 4(16.0 amu) or a total of 98.0 amu.

SAQ 5-1

1. Three isotopes of silicon occurs in nature: 28Si (92.21%), which has a mass of
27.97693 amu; 29Si (4.70%), which has a mass of 28.97649 amu; and 30Si
(3.09%), which has a mass of 29.97376 amu. Calculate the atomic mass of
silicon.

2. Calculate the molecular mass of sucrose, table sugar, C12H22O11, and the
formula mass of calcium nitrate, Ca(NO3)2.

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ASAQ 5-1

1. Atomic mass Si = (.9221)(27.97693) + (.0470)(28.97649) +

(0.0309)(29.97376) = 28.09 amu

2. Molecular mass sucrose = 12(12.011 amu) + 22(1.008 amu) + 11 (16.00 amu)

= 342.0 amu

Formula mass Ca(NO3)2 = 1(40.08 amu) + 2(14.01 amu) + 6(16.00 amu) =

164.1 amu.

Easy question. Note the use of formula mass when referring to the mass of ionic
compounds.

MOLE CONCEPT
How do we count the number of atoms of an element or the number of molecules
of a compound? We use the mole concept. By international agreement, one mole
of a substance contains as many particles as the number of atoms in exactly 12
grams of 12C. This number was determined experimentally and is equal to
6.022045 x 1023 particles. This is known as Avogadro’s number. Recall that
Avogadro is the scientist who proposed one of the gas laws discussed in module
2. A mole is simply a term, much like a dozen for 12, a ream for 500 sheets, a
century for 100 years, or a millenium for 1000.

The mass of one mole of a substance, known as the molar mass, is numerically
equal to the atomic mass of the element and the molecular mass of the compound
but its unit is grams. Hence, 1 mole of silicon contains 6.022 x 1023 Si atoms and
has a mass of 28.09 grams. One mole of H2SO4 and 1 mole of sucrose will each
contain 6.022 x 1023 molecules but will have molar masses equal to 98 grams and
342 grams, respectively.

For gases, we measure their volumes at a common temperature and pressure.

Equal volumes of all gases will contain equal numbers of molecules (Avogadro’s
Law) provided they are measured at the same pressure and temperature. Hence,
one mole of H2 gas, weighing 2.00 grams, one mole of CH4 gas, weighing 16.00
grams, and one mole of H2O vapor, weighing 18.00 grams, will each occupy 22.4
liters at 0oC and 1 atmosphere (standard condition of T and P: STP) and will each
contain 6.023 X 1023 molecules. 22.4 L is called the molar volume of a gas.

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What is the mass of a single atom of 12C? The mass of 6.022 x 1023 atoms of 12C
is 12 grams. Therefore, the mass of 1 atom of carbon is

Mass in grams of 1 atom of 12C = 1 atom x (12 grams / 6.022 x 1023 atoms)
= 1.661 x 10-24 grams

How many atoms are present in 1.0 g sample of Na? We know that 1 mole of Na
contains 6.022 x 1023 Na atoms. The mass of 1 mole of Na is 22.99 grams. In
equation form:
1 mole Na = 6.022 x 1023 atoms Na
1 mole Na = 23.0 g

Using these equalities as conversion factors:

1moleNa 6.022x10 23 atoms

1.0gNa ( )( ) = 2.62 x10 23 atomsNa
23.0gNa 1moleNa

SAQ 5-2

1. How many moles, molecules are present in 10 g of each of the following:

a) H2 b) O2 c) H2O

2. Aspartame, the artificial sweetener marketed as NutraSweet, has a

molecular formula C14H18N2O5
a. What is the mass of 1.00 mole of aspartame?
b. How many moles are present in 73.5 g of aspartame?
c. What is the mass of 0.75 mole of aspartame?
d. How many H atoms are present in 1 mole of aspartame?

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ASAQ 5-2

1. a) 1 mole of H2 = 2 grams H2
1 mole of H2 = 6.022 x 1023 molecules H2

1moleH 2
gH 2 = 10gH 2 ( ) = 5molesH 2
2gH 2

1moleH2 6.022x10 23 moleculesH2

moleculesH2 = 10gH 2 ( )( ) = 3.0x10 24 molec
2gH 2 1moleH2

The solution above is known as dimensional analysis. Always add the units to
the number they qualify. It involves the use of a conversion factor. The
conversion factor describes the same quantity but in different units. Hence, it is
an equality and hence the ratio is 1. From the above example, there are 2
conversion factors that we can used:

1moleH2 2gH 2
=
2gH 2 1moleH2

1moleH 2 6.022 x10 23 moleculesH2

=
6.022x10 23 moleculesH2 1moleH 2

Use a conversion factor such that the unit of the denominator cancels with the
given unit and the unit of the numerator has the desired unit. In some cases, it
may be necessary to use more than one conversion factor. In the above
example, we were given 10 grams of H2. Our desired unit is moles H2. We then
use a conversion factor where grams H2 is in the denominator and molesH2 is in
the numerator.

b) 0.31 mole O2; 1.9 x 1023 molecules O2

c) 0.56 mole H2O; 3.3 x 1023 molecules H2O

2. Molecular mass of aspartame = 14(12 amu) + 18(1 amu) + 2(14 amu) + 5 (16
amu) = 294 amu (notice that we are using whole number approximations of
the atomic masses)
a) molar mass of aspartame = 294 grams
b)
1mole
73.5g( ) = 0.25mole
294g

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ASAQ 5-2

c)
294g
0.75mole( ) = 221g
1mole

d) In 1 molecule of aspartame, there are 18 hydrogen atoms. In 6.022 x 1023

molecules of aspartame, there will be 18(6.022 x 1023 H atoms) = 1.1 x 10 25
H atoms.

The above SAQ and ASAQ involves the interconversion of moles, molecules,
grams.

EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULAS

The molecular formula of a compound gives us the number of atoms of each
element. From the formula we could calculate the percent composition, the
relative masses of the elements in the compound. Recall from module 1 that a
pure compound always consists of the same elements combined in the same
proportion by mass. This is a statement of the Law of Definite Proportion. The
percent composition is obtained by dividing the mass of each element by the mass
of the compound and multiplying by 100.

For example, what is the percent composition of aspartame, C14H18N2O5?

14(12)
%C = x100 = 57%
294
18(1)
%H = x100 = 6%
294
14(2)
%N = x100 = 10%
294
5(16)
%O = x100 = 27%
294

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SAQ 5-3

What is the % composition of caffeine (C8H10N4O2) and morphine (C17H19NO3)?

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ASAQ 5-3

Molar mass of caffeine = 8(12 g) + 10(1 g) + 4(14 g) + 2 (16 g) = 194 g

8(12)
%C = x100 = 49%
194
10(1)
%H = x100 = 5%
194
4(14)
%N = x100 = 29%
194
2(16)
%O = x100 = 16%
194

Molar mass of morphine = 17(12 g) + 19(1 g) + 1(14 g) + 3(16 g) = 285g

17(12)
%C = x100 = 72%
285
19(1)
%H = x100 = 7%
285
1(14)
%N = x100 = 5%
285
3(16)
%O = x100 = 17%
285
Another easy question. Notice that as a check, the sum of the percent
compositions should be approximately equal to 100%. Caffeine is present in
coffee while morphine is an addictive painkiller. If we compare this theoretical
or calculated percent composition with the percent composition obtained
experimentally, then we would know the purity of the sample.

On the other hand, if the percent composition of a compound is determined

experimentally, then we can calculate for its empirical formula. An empirical
formula is the simplest whole number ratio of the number of atoms of each
element.

For example: What is the empirical formula of nicotine, a component of tobacco,

given its percent composition: 74.1%C, 8.6%H, and 17.3%N by mass?

100 g of nicotine would contain 74.1 g C, 8.6 g H, and 17.3 g N. However, the
subscripts in the formula refer to the relative number of moles of the element.
Hence, we have to convert grams to mole:

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1moleC
74.1gC( ) = 6.17moleC
12.01gC
1moleH
8.6gH( ) = 8.5moleH
1.008gH
1moleN
17.3gN( ) = 1.23moleN
14.01gN

To get a whole number ratio, we divide the number of moles by the least number:

6.17/1.23=5 moles C 8.5/1.23=7 moles H 1.23/1.23=1 mole N

Hence, the empirical formula of nicotine is C5H7N.

The true or actual formula of a compound is its molecular formula. To calculate

for this, we need the empirical formula and the approximate molar mass of the
compound.

For example, the molar mass of nicotine is about 160g. What is its molecular
formula? The empirical mass of nicotine is 5(12 g) + 7(1g) + 1(14g) or 81 g.
Since its molar mass is twice its empirical mass, then the number of atoms in the
molecular formula must be twice the number of atoms in the empirical formula.
The molecular formula of nicotine is 2(C5H7N) or C10H14N2.

The empirical formula of a compound is based on a chemical analysis of the

component elements of a compound. An elemental analyzer can do this. To
compute for the molecular formula, we need the molar mass of the compound.
The molar mass, up to four decimal places, of a compound can now be
determined by getting its mass spectrum using a mass spectrophotometer (ms).
The ms library can even give you a list of the possible structures of the
compounds analyzed by comparing its mass spectrum with the mass spectra of
known compounds.

SAQ 5-4

A sample of caffeine contains 0.624gC, 0.065gH, 0.364gN, 0.208gO. What is

the EF of caffeine? The molar mass of caffeine is 194.0g. What is its MF?

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ASAQ 5-4

1moleC
0.624gC( ) = 0.0520moleC / 0.0130 = 4molesC
12.01gC
1moleH
0.065gH( ) = 0.064moleH / 0.0130 = 5molesH
1.008gH
1moleN
0.364gN( ) = 0.0260moleN / 0.0130 = 2molesN
14.01gN
1moleO
0.208gO( ) = 0.0130moleO / 0.0130 = 1moleO
16.00gO

The empirical formula of caffeine is C4H5N2O. Its empirical mass is 97 g. Since

its molar mass is 194 g, then the molecular formula of caffeine is 2(C4H5N2O) or
C8H10N4O2.

Still classified as an easy question.

STOICHIOMETRY
Stoichiometry is the branch of chemistry that deals with mass relations between
elements and compounds in chemical reactions. It predicts the amount of products
that can be produced using specific amounts of reactants. Or the amount of
reactants needed to produce a specified amount of the product.

According to the Law of Conservation of Mass, when substances react, they are
neither created nor destroyed. The total number of atoms before and after a
chemical reaction is unchanged. Hence, the total mass of the reactants should be
equal to the total mass of the products.

In writing chemical equations, we have to balanced these equations to ensure that

the total number of atoms on the reactant side is equal to the total number of
atoms on the product side.

For example, in the formation of water from its constituent elements, we write the
chemical equation as H2 + O2 Æ H2O. However, notice that, although we have the
same number of H atoms on both sides of the equation, we have 2 O atoms on the
reactant side and only 1 O atom on the product side. We balanced the O atoms by
adding the prefix 2 to H2O as follows: H2 + O2Æ 2H2O. An inspection of the
equation shows that the H atoms are not balanced – 2 H atoms on the reactant side
and 4 H atoms on the product side. The balanced equation is therefore: 2H2 + O2

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Æ 2H2O. How do we read this balanced equation? 2 moles of H2 react with 1

mole of O2 to produce 2 moles of H2O. We can also obtain information about the
relative masses of reactants and products involved. 4 grams H2 will react with 32
grams O2 to give 36 grams (2moles x 18 grams / mole) H2O.

Based on the balanced equation, we can now compute for the relative amounts of
reactants and products. For example, a) how many grams of O2 will react with 10
grams of H2? b) How many mole of H2O is produced when 5 grams O2 reacts
with sufficient amount of H2. c) What masses of H2 and O2 are needed to prepare
15 grams of H2O?

2H2 + O2 Æ 2H2O
mole:mole relationship: 2 moles 1mole 2 moles
mass:mass relationship: 4g 32 g 36g

32gO 2
a )10gH 2 ( ) = 80gO 2
4gH 2
2molesH 2O
b)5gO 2 ( ) = 0.3moleH 2 O
32gO 2
4gH 2
c)15gH 2 O( ) = 1.7gH 2
36gH 2 O
32gO 2
15gH 2 O( ) = 13gO 2
36gH 2 O

SAQ 5-5

Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid, C9H8O4) is prepared by heating salicylic acid

(C7H6O3) with acetic anhydride (C4H6O3):

C7H6O3 + C4H6O3 Æ C9H8O4 + C2H4O2

Suppose 3.00g of salicylic acid are heated with 5.00 g of acetic anhydride,
which reagent will be completely consumed? How many grams of aspirin can
be produced? How many grams of the excess reagent are left unconsumed?

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ASAQ 5-5

C7H6O3 + C4H6O3 Æ C9H8O4 + C2H4O2

1moleC7 H 6 O3 1moleC4 H 6 O3 102gC 4 H 6 O3

3.00gC 7 H 6 O3 ( )( )( ) = 2.22gC 4 H 6 O3
138gC7 H 6 O3 1moleC7 H 6 O3 1moleC4 H 6 O3

3.00 grams of salicylic acid react with 2.22g acetic anhydride. Therefore,
salicylic acid is completely consumed. It is called the limiting reagent. Acetic
acid is the excess reagent. It is in excess by (5.00-2.22)g or 2.78 g.

1moleC7 H 6 O3 1moleC9 H 8O 4 180gC9 H 8O 4

3.00gC 7 H 6 O3 ( )( )( ) = 3.91gC9 H 8O 4
138gC 7 H 6 O3 1moleC7 H 6 O3 1moleC9 H 8O 4

Did you check if the chemical equation is balanced? Never assume that the
given equation is balanced. Remember that stoichiometric calculations are
based on a balanced equation.

THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics is the study of the interconversion of heat and other forms of
energy. It will help us understand the energies involved during a chemical
reaction and the directions of these reactions.

The first law of thermodynamics is the law of conservation of energy. It states

that energy cannot be created or destroyed. Hence, the total energy of the
universe is constant. According to this law, heat and other forms of energy such
as mechanical, chemical, electrical, nuclear, solar, and other forms, can be
converted into work. Heat and work are tools by which an exchange of energy
is effected. Hence, in any machine, energy is converted into work. Moreover, no
machine can exist in which no energy is converted into work. Heat, energy, and
work are equivalent.

Enthalpy
Almost all chemical reactions absorb or release energy. A calorimeter is used
to measure these energy changes. The substances involved in the chemical
reaction are called the system. Everything outside the system is known as the
surroundings. In the laboratory, beakers, flasks, and test tubes are part of the
surroundings. A system may exchange mass and energy with the surrounding,
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an open system, energy but not mass, a closed system, or neither, an isolated
system.

A measure of the energy or heat content of chemical substances is enthalpy, H,

measured in kilojoules per mole of substance. The change in enthalpy, ΔH, of a
chemical reaction is defined as the enthalpy of the products minus the enthalpy of
the reactants:

ΔH = Hproducts - Hreactants

If heat is given off during a chemical reaction, then the enthalpy of the products
becomes lower than that of the reactants, and ΔH is negative. This is an
exothermic reaction. On the other hand, when heat is absorbed, ΔH is positive
and the reaction is endothermic. For an athermic reaction, there is no energy
change during the chemical reaction and ΔH is zero. For example, melting of ice
and evaporation of water are both endothermic processes. The opposite reactions,
freezing and condensation of water, are exothermic reactions.
Of these two examples, melting of ice is said to be spontaneous. A spontaneous
reaction proceeds on its own without outside assistance. Other examples of
spontaneous processes are the rusting of iron, dissolution of salt and sugar in
water, and mixing of gases in all proportions. In general, a reaction is more likely
to be spontaneous if it is exothermic rather than endothermic, but there are other
factors we must consider.

Entropy
Another thermodynamic function that is needed to predict the spontaneity of a
reaction is entropy, S. Entropy is a measure of the randomness or disorder of a
system. According to the second law of thermodynamics, the entropy of the
universe increases in a spontaneous reaction. In the above examples, melting of
ice involves an increase in entropy from the solid state, a highly ordered state, to
the liquid state and ΔS is positive. The same holds true when water evaporates to
the gaseous state, a highly disordered state.

The melting of ice is endothermic and is accompanied by an increase in entropy.

This is a spontaneous process at room temperature. The reverse reaction, freezing
of water, is, therefore, a non-spontaneous process. From experience, we know that
the freezing of water becomes spontaneous at 0-40C. The evaporation of water is
also an endothermic process and is also accompanied by an increase in entropy.
From experience, we know that the evaporation of water is spontaneous only at
high temperatures. Hence, a measure of the spontaneity of a reaction relies not
only on the enthalpy and entropy of the system but also on its temperature.

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Gibbs Free Energy

Gibbs free energy measures the spontaneity of a reaction. The change in free
energy is given by the equation:

ΔG = Gproducts - Greactants

If the products of the reaction have a lower free energy than the reactants, then
ΔG is negative and the reaction is spontaneous. If the products have a higher free
energy, ΔG is positive and energy is needed for the reaction to proceed. Hence,
this is a non-spontaneous reaction. The reverse reaction is, of course,
spontaneous. If the free energies of the reactants and products are equal, then ΔG
is zero and the reaction is in chemical equilibrium. This means that the rate of the
forward reaction is equal to the rate of the backward reaction.

The change in Gibbs free energy combines changes in enthalpy, entropy, and
temperature. It is given by the equation:

ΔG = ΔH - TΔS

A negative ΔH and a positive ΔS will give a negative ΔG regardless of the

temperature. Hence, an exothermic reaction that is accompanied by an increase in
entropy will always be spontaneous. A positive ΔH and a negative ΔS will
produce a positive ΔG at all temperatures. Therefore, an endothermic reaction
with a decrease in the entropy of the system will not proceed at any given
temperature. The backward reaction will, however, be spontaneous.

If ΔH and ΔS are both negative, then ΔG will be negative if TΔS is smaller in

magnitude than ΔH. This will only be true at low temperatures. On the other hand,
if ΔH and ΔS are both positive, then ΔG will be negative at high temperatures
because the magnitude of TΔS will then be greater than ΔH. This explains why
endothermic reactions are possible.

Going back to the previous examples, melting of ice has positive ΔH and ΔS. The
process becomes spontaneous at room temperature because the melting point of
ice is 00C or 273K. The freezing of water has negative ΔH and ΔS, and the
process becomes spontaneous at 00C, the freezing point of water.

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SAQ 5-6

1. Which of the following processes are spontaneous?

a. condensation of water vapor into rain: H2O(g) Æ H2O(g)

b. separation of water into hydrogen and oxygen: 2H2O(l) Æ 2H2(g) + O2(g)

c. cooling of a hot flat iron

d. decay of animal wastes

e. photosynthesis : 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) Æ C6H12O6(s) + 6O2(g)

f. boiling of water: H2O(l) Æ H2O(g)

g. dissolution of sugar in coffee

2. Are these processes exothermic or endothermic?

3. Does an increase or a decrease in entropy accompany these processes?

4. At what temperatures will these processes be spontaneous.

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ASAQ 5-6

1. Processes c, d, g are spontaneous processes.

2. Processes b, d, e, f are endothermic reactions. In process d, energy is needed
to break down complex organic substances into simpler substances. Bond
breaking is endothermic and the reverse process, bond forming, is
exothermic. In photosynthesis, sunlight is needed as a source of energy.
Processes a and c are exothermic while process g is athermic.
3. Processes b, d, f, g are accompanied by an increase in entropy while processes
a, c, e involves a decrease in entropy.

4. a. H2O(g) Æ H2O(l): ΔH(-); ΔS(-); ΔG(-) at low temperatures

b. 2H2O(l) Æ 2H2(g) + O2(g): ΔH(+); ΔS (+); ΔG(-) at high temperatures
c. hot iron Æ cool iron: ΔH(-); ΔS (-); ΔG(-) at low temperatures
d. complex organic substances Æ simpler organic substances: ΔH(+); ΔS (+);
ΔG(-) at high temperatures
e. 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) Æ C6H12O6(s) + 6O2(g) : ΔH(+); ΔS (-); ΔG(+) at all
temperatures. Photosynthesis is the process by which organisms containing
chlorophyll, the pigments of plant, obtain energy in the form of light and
convert it to chemical energy through a series of reactions. These reactions
occur due to the presence of enzymes or biological catalysts.
f. H2O(l) Æ H2O(g) : ΔH(+); ΔS (+); ΔG(-) at high temperatures
g. C12H22O11(s) Æ C12H22O11 (aq) : ΔH(0); ΔS (+); ΔG(-) at all temperatures

The examples that were given are practical, everyday occurrences. We know that
water will not boil by itself. We have to heat it. We now know the
thermodynamics involved in these processes – the interplay between enthalpy,
entropy, and Gibbs free energy.

CHEMICAL KINETICS
In the discussion on thermodynamics, we predicted whether or not a chemical
reaction would take place. Once started, different reactions take place at different
rates. The erosion of a mountain, although spontaneous, is a very slow process.
On the other hand, the chemical reactions taking place in an explosion are
extremely fast even though an explosion is not spontaneous. We have to light
firecrackers and Roman candles to start the reaction of potassium nitrate, which
supplies oxygen, with substances such as charcoal and sulfur to produce heat and
light. Of course, you have experienced how fast you would withdraw your hand
from a painful stimulus like heat.

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Chemical kinetics is the study of the rates of chemical reactions. We can

manipulate the rates of chemical reactions – speed it up or slow it down – by
changing the reaction conditions. The task of a chemist is to find the most
effective way of making a product. The rates of chemical reactions can be
measured at various stages of the reaction by spectroscopic techniques. The use of
pulsed laser beams also allows us to measure reactions on the picosecond scale.

Factors Affecting Chemical Rates

In chemical reactions, reactants must collide in order to react. When they collide,
reactants break existing bonds and form new ones to give the products. But not all
collisions lead to chemical reactions. In effective collisions, the molecules of the
reactants must be properly aligned and must possess sufficient energy. This
energy is called the activation energy, Ea. It is the amount of energy that the
reactants should possess before they can form products. This is an energy barrier
below which a reaction will not take place. Hence, factors that increase the
probability of effective collisions are the same factors that hasten the rate of a
chemical reaction.

An increase in temperature increases the kinetic energy of the reactant

molecules. Collisions are more frequent and more effective at higher temperatures
because molecules move faster as the temperature increase. At high temperatures,
molecules are more likely to possess the required activation energy. This explains
why when we want to cook our food more rapidly, we turn up the heat. We also
freeze foods to avoid spoiling by slowing down the rate of bacterial decay.

An increase in the concentration of reactants increases the number of

molecules in a given volume and thus increases the rate of collisions. On
January 27, 1967, three astronauts, V. Grissom, E. White II, and R. Chaffee, of
Apollo 1 died in a flash fire. A spark ignited flammable material and instantly
engulfed the spacecraft in flames. It took only five minutes for the rescuers to
arrive but the astronauts were already dead. The rate of combustion was very
fast because their spacecraft was oxygen-filled.

Raising the pressure also increases the rates of gaseous reactions. The reactants
are brought closer together, and they therefore have a greater chance of colliding.
In solids, the surface area affects the overall rate. Bigger surface areas expose
more particles to other reactants at any one time. Sawdust burn faster than logs.
Fire builders always start with kindling.

Catalysts increase the rate of chemical reactions by providing a large surface area
on which reactants may react or by affording an alternative reaction path with
lower activation energy. Enzymes catalyze many biochemical reactions or cell
processes. For example, the enzyme trypsin cuts protein into shorter pieces, as
part of the digestive process in the intestines.

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In the oil refinery, cracking is used to break down complex organic molecules into
simpler compounds. This is done either by the application of heat and high
pressure, a process known as thermal cracking, or by catalytic cracking, which is
a combination of heat and a catalyst, usually alumina-silica gel powders. In
catalytic converters of automobiles, palladium and platinum are used as catalysts
to change pollutants, such as CO, into the less toxic CO2 and water.

SAQ 5-7

What factors causes the following observations.

1. Forcing more air through a blower cause a faster rate of burning?

2. Esteros emit a more pungent odor during summer months?

3. Insects begin to move more slowly as the days become cooler.

4. One's skin becomes tanned more readily in the summer than during the cold
weather.

5. Titanium is used in the polymerization of ethylene to produce polyethylene.

6. Powdered zinc reacts faster with HCl than granular zinc.

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ASAQ 5-7

1. Concentration
2. Temperature
3. Temperature – Insects are cold-blooded animals.
4. Temperature
5. Catalyst
6. Surface area

We now have the scientific basis for the things that we do and observed in our
daily lives. Everything that we do and observe involves either physical or
chemical changes. In this module, our interest was on chemical changes or
chemical reactions. Stoichiometry gave us the recipe, what and how much of the
reactants do we need to produce the desired product. Chemical Thermodynamics
helped us predict whether the change, both physical and chemical, will take place.
Chemical Kinetics helped us deduce the rates of these reactions.

In the next module, we will still be discussing chemical reactions. But this time,
these reactions do not take place in the laboratory but in living organisms. These
are biochemical reactions.

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6
Organic and Biochemistry

INTRODUCTION
Organic chemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of carbon
compounds. It involves a wide variety of chemical reactions, both natural and
synthetic. Examples of organic compounds are plastics, pharmaceuticals, dyes,
pesticides, vitamins, fats, carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids. The last four
examples are called biomolecules, substances that are essential for life. These
biomolecules carry out the chemical reactions that enable living organisms to
grow and reproduce. The branch of chemistry that studies the structures and
functions of biomolecules is biochemistry.

OBJECTIVES

After studying this module, you will be able to

1. enumerate and give examples of common carbon-containing compounds;

2. classify biomolecules based on their building blocks; and
3. differentiate among the biomolecules and their functions.

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ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
From our previous discussion, recall that carbon belongs to group 4A, thus it
has 4 valence electrons. It needs 4 more to have an octet of electrons. Therefore,
it forms 4 covalent bonds. These bonds may either be 4 single bonds, 2 double
bonds, 2 single and 1 double bonds, or a triple and single bonds. Carbon can
also form long chains and rings or cyclic compounds. This ability to form 4
covalent bonds to other non-metals accounts for the large number, almost 4
million, and diverse structures of organic compounds. Organic compounds
contain carbon attached to other elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
sulfur, and the halogens. The groups that distinguishes organic compounds from
each other are called functional groups. They determine the chemical
properties of organic compounds.

Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are made up of carbon and hydrogen. They may be open-chain or
cyclic. Saturated hydrocarbons contain single bonds while unsaturated
hydrocarbons have multiple bonds, double or triple. This are the simplest of the
organic compounds and may be considered as the parent compounds from which
other organic compounds were derived. Hydrocarbons are non-polar compounds
and, hence, are insoluble in water.

Hydrocarbons are classified as aliphatic or aromatic. Aliphatic hydrocarbons

include alkane, alkenes, alkynes, and their cyclic derivatives. Alkanes or
paraffins are saturated hydrocarbons, characterized by carbon-carbon single
bond, with the type formula CnH2n+2, where n refers to the number of carbon
atoms. The simplest member of the alkane family is methane, CH4, known as
marsh gas or natural gas. Methane is flammable and is a product of the
decomposition of matter in swamps. The other members of the alkane family
are ethane, C2H6 or CH3CH3; propane, C3H8 or CH3CH2CH3; butane, C4H10.
Butane is used as camping gas. From chain lengths of C5 onwards, Greek
prefixes are used to indicate the number of carbon chains: pentane for C5H12,
hexane for C6H14, heptane for C7H16, and so on. Alkanes are chemically
unreactive. They do not react readily at ordinary temperatures with acids, bases,
reducing or oxidizing agents. Petroleum and petroleum products such as
gasoline, kerosene, heavy fuel oil, lubricating oils, petroleum jelly, and paraffin
contain alkanes.

Alkenes or olefins contain a carbon-carbon double bond and have the type
formula CnH2n. The simplest member is ethene, H2C=CH2. Ethene is present in
coal gas and petroleum. It is also a plant hormone causing the ripening of fruits.
Polymerization of ethene produces polyethylene, or polyethene, which is used as
plastic. In naming alkenes, we simply change the suffix –ane for alkanes with the

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suffix –ene. Alkenes are chemically reactive, adding atoms at the double bonds.
Isoprene and butadiene are present in natural rubber and are used in the
manufacture of synthetic rubber and plastics.

Alkynes contain a carbon-carbon triple bond and have the general formula CnH2n-
2. They are chemically alike to alkenes, adding atoms at the triple bond. Ethyne,
HC≡CH, burns very strongly in oxygen. It is used in oxy-acetylene torches for
cutting and welding metals.

The term aromatic was originally

used to describe benzene and its
derivatives. Aromatic compounds
now include many substances
Benzene containing closed rings of carbon
and even include other atoms such
as nitrogen and oxygen. Benzene
is produced from coal tar.
N Benzopyrene is present
Examples of aromatic compounds
in cigarette smoke and
Pyridine are flavorings, perfumes, dyes,
it causes cancer.
drugs, hormones and vitamins
except vitamin C.

Oxygen-Containing Organic Compounds

Oxygen belongs to group 6A and forms two bonds to other atoms. These two
bonds may be two single bonds or a double bond. Oxygen may be substituted for
hydrogen in hydrocarbons. The oxygen-containing compounds are classified
according to their functional groups. The functional group present in alcohols and
phenols, aromatic alcohols, is the hydroxyl group, –OH. The simplest alcohol is
methanol, CH3OH. It is very poisonous. It is used as an anti-freeze and as an
organic solvent for gums and lacquers. You are more familiar with ethanol,
CH3CH2OH, which is present in alcoholic beverages such as beer and wine.
Ethanol is obtained from the fermentation of sugars. It is also used as an anti-
freeze, in thermometers, as rubbing alcohol, as automobile fuel when mixed with
gasoline (gasohol), as an organic solvent for perfumes, lacquers, tinctures, and
explosives.

The functional group present in ethers is C-O-C. The word ether refers to diethyl
ether, CH3CH2OCH2CH3, which was formerly used as a general anesthetic for
surgery. However, ethyl ether has serious side effects and is highly flammable.
An epoxide is a cyclic ether with the oxygen atom forming a bridge between two
adjacent carbons. It is commonly used as an adhesive.

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The functional group of aldehydes and ketones is the carbonyl carbon, C=O. The
simplest aldehyde is methanal or formaldehyde, HCHO. You are more familiar
with formalin, which is used as a preservative, mostly for cadavers. Formalin
contains 40% formaldehyde and 60% water or alcohol. Do you still recall the
formalin scare, that formalin is also used in the preservation of fruits and
vegetables? Recent studies showed that formaldehyde is carcinogenic. Recent
studies also showed that alcoholic pregnant women give birth to babies with
physical malformations, a malady known as teratogenesis. This is due to the
metabolism of ethanol to ethanal, a known teratogen. You have also used acetone
to remove nail polish. It is the simplest ketone and it is also known as propanone.
It is a very important solvent in the laboratory and in industry. A word of caution
– acetone is flammable!

SAQ 6-1

What is the structure of propanone, commonly known as acetone? What are the
formulas of propane, propene, propyne, propanol, and propanal?

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ASAQ 6-1

The suffix –one indicates that propanone is a ketone. Hence, the functional
group is C=O. Unlike aldehydes which contain a terminal carbonyl carbon,
ketones have a C=O that is internal, which means that the carbonyl carbon is
bonded to two hydrocarbon groups. The prefix prop- indicates the presence of
three carbons. Hence, the structure of propanone is

H3 C C H3
C
O

Propane is CH3CH2CH3; propene is CH3CH=CH2; propyne is HC≡CHCH3;

propanal is CH3CH2CHO. In the case of propanol, where the functional group
is –OH, there are two positions where the –OH group can be placed: the first
carbon or position 1; and the middle carbon or position 2. CH3CH2CH2OH is
1-propanol while 2-propanol is

CH3CHCH3

OH

Notice that the first and the third carbons are equivalent and they are both
position 1.

Did you get the correct formulas? Good! Notice that the naming of organic
compounds is very systematic. The prefix gives the number of carbons while
the suffix indicates the functional group present. The names given above are
IUPAC names. Some organic compounds are more popularly known by their
common names such as acetone. The common name of 2-propanol is isopropyl
alcohol. Sounds familiar? You’re right! Isopropyl alcohol is rubbing alcohol.
Remember the TV ad on the 70% versus 40% isopropyl alcohol?

Do not forget that carbon has 4 bonds each, oxygen has two, and each
hydrogen has 1 bond.

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What is the ingredient present in vinegar? It is acetic acid or ethanoic acid,

another oxygen containing organic compound whose functional group is –COOH.
Carboxylic acids may contain one, two, or three –COOH groups. Fatty acids are
also characterized by the carboxylic acid group. They are present in vegetable and
animal fats. The major component of coconut oil is lauric acid.
CH3(CH2)10COOH. Coconut oil is used in the making of soap, detergents,
shampoos, cosmetics, in candles and margarines. Oleic, linoleic, and linolenic
acids are essential fatty acids, which one cannot synthesize inside the body but
they are usually taken in through a fish diet. They are more popularly known as
omega-9, omega-6, and omega-3, respectively. Remember the TV ad on Hearty
Flakes being good for the heart! Hydrolysis of fats using sodium hydroxide
produces soap. You are also familiar with citric acid, which is present in citrus
fruits such as orange, pomelo, lemon. Replacement of the –OH group in –COOH
leads to the formation of carboxylic acid derivatives: amides, -CONH2; esters, -
COOR; acid halides, -COX, where -X is a halogen; and anhydrides. Fishy odors
are attributed to the presence of amides while esters are mostly present in
perfumes. The characteristic smell of plastic balloon is due to ethyl acetate, an
ester.

Other atoms, such as the halogens, nitrogen, and sulfur may be substituted for
hydrogen in an alkane, as long as the correct number of chemical bonds is
observed – one bond for halogens, three bonds for nitrogen, and two bonds for
sulfur. Hence, CH3CH2Cl is ethyl chloride, CH3CH2NH2 is ethyl amine, and
CH3CH2SH is ethyl thiol.

Some organic compounds with nitrogen are classified as alkaloids. Examples

are nicotine, which is present in tobacco smoke; strychnine, which is used as a
poison for hunting; caffeine, which is present in coffee; quinine from the bark of
cinchona tree, which is an anti-malarial agent; and morphine from opium
poppy, which is a painkiller but is addictive.

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SAQ 6-2

What are the functional groups present in the following organic compounds?

CH3
CH3 CH3 CH3 H3C

CH3 β−Carotene CH3 CH3 CH3

CH3

CH3 CH3 CH3

CH2OH
2
CH3
Retinol
CH3

CH2OH

COOH O
H COH O
O
O C C H3
H

HO OH
Ascorbic acid Acetylsalicylic acid or Aspirin

NH C C H3 CH3C HCOOH

OH C H2CH(CH3)2
Acetaminophen Ibuprofen

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SAQ 6-2

CH3 CH3

N O O N

2 CH3COCCH3

OH CH3C O O O CCH3
HO O
O Heroin O
Morphine

ASAQ 6-2

β-Carotene is an alkene, specifically a tetraterpene with 40 carbon atoms, while

retinol, aside from having double bonds, is also an alcohol. Notice the suffix –ol.
β-Carotene is present in carrots, squash, and other vegetables. It belongs to a
group of red, orange, and yellow pigments known as carotenoids. β-Carotene is
metabolized to retinol or Vitamin A. We will talk more about Vitamin A when
we discussed the fat-soluble vitamins. Suffice it to say that our bodies stop
converting β-carotene to retinol when there is enough stored in the liver.

Ascorbic acid is, of course, Vitamin C. Although it is an acid, it does not belong
to the carboxylic acid group. The functional groups present are alcohols (-OH)
and an alkene (C=C) moieties. Also present is an ester, specifically a cyclic ester
or a lactone. We usually take Vitamin C when we have colds. Fruits rich in
Vitamin C are oranges, lemons, tomatoes, dalanghita, pomelo, among others.
Vitamin C deficiency leads to a malady known as scurvy, which is characterized
by weakness, spongy and inflamed gums, loose teeth, swollen and tender joints,
and hemorrhage.
CH2OH

H COH O cyclic ester or

O lactone
H

HO OH
Ascorbic acid

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ASAQ 6-2

Aspirin and ibuprofen, present in Alaxan, are analgesic (relieves pain),

antipyretic (lowers fever), and anti-inflammatory (reduces swelling) medicines
while acetaminophen, the active ingredient of Tylenol, is analgesic and
antipyretic. All three contain an aromatic moiety. Ibuprofen and aspirin also
have the carboxylic acid group. Aspirin has an ester group while acetaminophen
contains an amide group. Esters and amides, along with anhydrides and acyl
halides, are called carboxylic acid derivatives. An example of an anhydride is
acetic anhydride, the reagent used to convert morphine into heroine.

Both morphine and heroin are alkaloids. Morphine is extracted from opium
poppy, Papaver somniferum. They are both amines. The phenol and the alcohol
groups present in morphine were both converted into an ester in heroine. The
other functional groups present are an alkene, a cyclic ether, and cycloalkanes.
Morphine is also an analgesic but it is considered a drug, rather than a medicine,
because is addictive. It is an opiate whose analgesic property is similar to
endorphins and enkephalins, the body’s natural painkillers. (Have you seen the
movie “I Come in Peace”?). A synthetic derivative of morphine is Demerol,
usually given as a painkiller when giving birth. Heroine is three times as potent
as morphine.

You are familiar with the different examples of organic substances we have
discussed. β-carotene is added to orange juices and to some noodles. A related
compound, lycopene, is present in tomato sauce and catsup. How many times
have you use aspirin, Alaxan, Tylenol for body pains and fever? Of course, you
know that heroin is banned and morphine is very seldom used except for pain
management. Another banned drug is shabu or methamphetamine hydrochloride.
It belongs to a group of chemicals known as amphetamines. Amphetamines are
used to treat depression. However, abusive use leads to serious mental illness
including paranoia, delusions, hallucinations, and violent behavior.

BIOMOLECULES
Biochemistry is study of the substances found in living organisms, called
biomolecules, and the chemical reactions that are necessary for a living cell to
carry out its functions. Biomolecules are also called giant molecules or
biopolymers. They are made up of thousands of atoms with repeating units,
known as monomers or building blocks. The important classes of biomolecules
are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.

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Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are made up of sugars. They are classified based on the number
of sugar units – monosaccharides, with one sugar unit, di-, tri-, and
polysaccharides. The most popular monosaccharide is glucose, which is the
major product in plant photosynthesis. Glucose is present in the blood of
animals, in honey, and in juices of fruits. It is used mainly as a sweetening
agent. Another example of a monosaccharide is fructose, which is also known
as fruit sugar. Glucose is a polyhydroxy aldehyde, an aldose, while fructose is a
polyhydroxy ketone, a ketose. Glucose is an aldohexose, a polyhydroxy
aldehyde with six carbons, while fructose is a ketohexose.

CHO

H OH
CH2OH CH2OH
H OH O O
HO HO OH
HO H HO HO
OH OH
H OH
OH
CH2OH α-D-Glucose β-D-Glucose
Fischer structure of
D-Glucose

Examples of disaccharides are sucrose, lactose, maltose, and cellobiose.

Sucrose, commonly known as table sugar, is made up of glucose and fructose.
It is also known as cane sugar because it is extracted from sugar cane and sugar
beet. Lactose is present in milk. It consists of glucose and galactose. It is used
in baby foods, candies, and pharmaceutical formulations. Maltose is made up of
two glucose units with α-1,4 glycosidic linkage, which means that the 2 glucose
units are linked at carbon 4 of one glucose unit and carbon 1 of the other
glucose unit by an alpha linkage. It is used in infant food and in beverages,
such as malted milk and beer. Cellobiose differs from maltose in that the two
glucose units are held together by a beta linkage, a β-1,4.

CH2OH 4 CH2OH
CH2OH 4 CH2OH O O
O O
HO HO 1 O OH
HO 1 HO HO HO
OH OH OH OH
O OH
Maltose Cellobiose

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Starch, cellulose, chitin, and glycogen are examples of polysaccharides. Starch

is composed of 20% amylose, a polymer of maltose, and amylopectin. Starch is
synthesized by plants and is a source of energy because its oxidation to CO2 and
water releases energy. Digestion of starch by animals produces glucose, which
is stored as glycogen in the liver. Glycogen is essentially animal starch and is
the energy reservoir of animals. Cellulose is the main component of plants’ cell
walls and is mainly structural in function. It is usually associated with woody
and gummy substances. The monomer of cellulose is cellobiose. Chitin, which
resembles cellulose, is the main component of the exoskeletons of arthropods
such as crustaceans and insects.

Carbohydrates, specifically starch, are the major source of food – starch-

containing grains in the form of rice, bread, pasta, and others. Cellulose in the
form of wood, cotton, linen, and rayon is used for building houses and as
fabrics.

Proteins
Protein is derived from the Greek word proteios, meaning first. They are giant
molecules, with molecular masses of 10,000 amu and more, whose building
blocks are amino acids. Amino acids are alpha-amino carboxylic acids whose
general formula is

R
H 2N COOH
H

There are 23 amino acids present in proteins, 10 of them classified as essential

amino acids, which means that they can not be synthesized by the body but has to
be fed through the diet. Seeds of plants, meat, eggs, and milk contain these
essential amino acids. The amino acids differ only in the –R group. For glycine,
the –R group is –H; for alanine, R = -CH3; for lysine, R = H2NCH2CH2CH2CH2-.
Lysine is present in Nutroplex, a multivitamin syrup. Some examples of amino
acids are histidine, phenylalanine, arginine, glutamic acid, aspartic acid,
glutamine, tyrosine, leucine, isoleucine, proline.

When the carboxylic acid group, -COOH, of one amino acid reacts with the
amino group, -NH2, of another amino acid, a peptide bond is formed.

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peptide bond

CH3 H O CH3
H
H 2N COOH + H2N COOH H 2N C NH COOH
H H H H

Glycine Alanine A dipeptide

SAQ 6-3

What is the functional group present in a peptide bond? How many possible
dipeptides are formed when glycine reacts with alanine?

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ASAQ 6-3

A peptide bond is an amide bond. Hence, proteins, which are made up of

several amino acids, are polypeptides or polyamides. Reaction of glycine with
alanine produces 4 possible dipeptide: glycylalanine (gly-ala), whose structure
is drawn above; alanylglycine (ala-gly), which is formed when the amino
group of glycine reacts with the carboxylic acid group of alanine;
glycylglycine (gly-gly); and alanylalanine (ala-ala).

This question aims to show you that the chemistry of biomolecules is

essentially similar to that of the smaller organic molecules, their monomers. It
also aims to illustrate the number of possible combinations of amino acids in
proteins. This will account for the diverse structures of thousands of proteins.

The primary structure of proteins is the linear polypeptide chain. The presence
of intermolecular forces of attraction between atoms of the amino acid moieties
bring about the coiling and folding of proteins into its secondary structures,
either as alpha helix or beta pleated sheets. The intermolecular forces of
attraction are hydrogen bonds, London dispersion forces between non-polar
amino acids, dipole-dipole attractions between polar amino acids, and disulfide
bridges. Proteins are further classified according to their tertiary structure: either
as fibrous proteins or globular proteins.

Fibrous Proteins
Fibrous proteins are not soluble in water. They are long and thread-like and
form fibers by intramolecular hydrogen-bonding. Their function is chiefly
structural. Structural proteins are present in tissues and organs. They are
necessary in the growth and repair of tissues. Examples of fibrous proteins are
collagen, keratin, fibrinogen, and myosin. The tensile strength of bones, skin,
tendons, and cartilage is due to collagen. Keratin is present in skin, hair, nails,
wool, horn, feathers, scales, hooves. Curly hair is due to disulfide linkages.
Therefore, hair straightening involves breaking these disulfide bridges using a
suitable reagent. Can you imagine what will happen if our fibrous proteins are
water-soluble? Fibrinogen is a globular protein which is converted into the
fibrous protein fibrin, and causes the clotting of blood. Myosin combines with
actin, both muscle proteins, to form actomyosin, which is responsible for
muscle contraction.

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Globular Proteins
Molecules of globular proteins are coiled into compact units which are spherical
in shape. They are water soluble. Their function is mainly regulatory in nature.
All enzymes, some hormones, antibodies, albumin, hemoglobin are examples of
globular proteins. Enzymes are biological catalysts that increase the rates of
metabolism in the body, both catabolic and anabolic. Examples of enzymes are
amylases in saliva, which initiates the digestion of starch; alcohol
dehydrogenase, which catalyzes the conversion of ethanol to ethanal; carbonic
anhydrase in blood plasma, which catalyzes both the formation of carbonic
acid, H2CO3, and its decomposition to CO2 and H2O – essential in the
maintenance of the pH, or level of acidity, of the blood; proteases, which
breaks down proteins. Other enzymes are oxidases, reductases, hydrolases,
lyases, transferases, whose functions are apparent in their names.

Hormones are chemical messengers that direct the activities of plants and
animals. Plant hormones regulate the growth and development of plants.
Examples are auxins, which promote growth to occur at the top of the plant
stem; gibberellins stimulate the growth of plants, including the growth of side
buds; cytokinins promote cell division and differentiation; and ethene, which is
responsible for ripening in fruits.

In animals, hormones are produced by the endocrine glands. Insulin and

glucagon are two of the most popularly known animal hormones that are
released by the pancreas. Insulin lowers the blood glucose level by causing the
conversion of glucose to glycogen while glucagon raises the blood sugar levels.
The hormone oxytocin stimulates milk release from the breast. Adrenaline and
noradrenaline are released from the adrenal gland when one gets excited or
frightened. Testosterone and estrogen are called sex hormones. They control the
development of secondary sexual characteristics. Testosterone is responsible
for masculinization such as growth of facial and pubic hair and deepening of the
voice. Estrogen, together with progesterone, another female hormone, regulate
the menstrual cycle. In insects, a well-known hormone is the pheromone. They
help insects attract their mates.

Another example of a globular protein is hemoglobin. It is an iron-protein

complex and it is present in the red blood cells. It gives blood its red color. It
transports oxygen from the lungs to the different cells of the body and is
transformed to oxyhemoglobin. After transporting oxygen, it carries carbon
dioxide, a product of tissue respiration, to the lungs and it becomes
carboxyhemoglobin. A reduction in hemoglobin caused by iron deficiency or a
decrease in the number of red blood cells leads to anemia. Sickle-cell anemia
and thalassemia are hereditary defects due to the formation of abnormal
hemoglobin.

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Another example of globular proteins is the antibody. Antibodies, also called

immunoglobulins, act primarily as a defense against foreign substances, known
as antigens. The immune system defends our bodies against antigens such as
microorganisms which may cause diseases and infections. The human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) attacks the immune system. HIV damages the
ability of the body to withstand diseases and infections. HIV is transmitted
through an exchange of body fluids, mostly through sex, contact with
contaminated blood or needles, during breastfeeding. It causes acquired immune
deficiency syndrome (AIDS). The main cause of death among AIDS patients is
pneumonia.

Lipids
Lipids are biomolecules that are insoluble in water. They are hydrophobic and
are
described as being lipophilic or fat-soluble. Classified as lipids are fats,
phospholipids, steroids, and fat-soluble vitamins such as vitamin A, E, and K.

Fat-Soluble Vitamins
A deficiency in Vitamin A causes night blindness while an excess weakens the
bones and cartilage. Cod-liver oil and fishes are sources of Vitamin A. Seed
oils and wheat germ are rich in Vitamin E, another essential nutrient whose
specific role in the human body is not as yet identified. Vitamin K is essential
for blood clotting because it produces prothrombin, an enzyme that converts
fibrinogen into fibrin. Rich sources of Vitamin K are green leafy vegetables and
egg yolk.

Fats
Fat are triglycerides produced from the reaction of fatty acids with glycerol. We
have already mentioned several fatty acids such as lauric acid, oleic acid,
linoleic acid, and linolenic acid when we discussed carboxylic acids.
O
CH2OH CH2OC(CH2)10CH3
O
CHOH + 3 CH3(CH2)10COOH CHOC(CH2)10CH3
O
CH2OH CH2OC(CH2)10CH3

Glycerol Lauric Acid Fat

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The glycerol group is the same for all fats. The fatty acids vary, resulting in fats
with different properties. The fat illustrated above is a simple fat, which
contains only one type of fatty acid. Mixed fats or mixed triglycerides contain
two or three different fatty acids.

SAQ 6-4

What functional group is present in fats? Why are fats water-insoluble?

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ASAQ 6-4

Fats are esters. Fats are water-insoluble because of the non-polar long-chain
hydrocarbon moiety.

Remember that the properties of compounds, like solubility, are dictated by

their chemical structures. Their functions are likewise dictated by their
chemical structures, hence, the term structure-function correlation or structure-
function relationship.

Fatty acids are classified as either saturated or unsaturated fatty acids. From our
previous discussion, saturated fatty acids are joined by single bonds while the
characteristic feature of unsaturated fatty acids is the presence of a double
bond. Lauric acid is a saturated fatty acid while oleic, linoleic, and linolenic
acids are examples of unsaturated fatty acids. Unsaturated fatty acids are liquids
at room temperatures or oils and are usually of vegetable origin such as coconut
oil, palm oil, corn oil, olive oil, soybean oil, among others. Meats and dairy
products are sources of saturated fats. Monounsaturated fats are present in olive
oil and avocados while polyunsaturated fatty acids, with more than 1 double
bond, are found in fish and vegetable oils.

Fats are energy reservoirs and are used as lubricants and insulators. More
energy can be stored as fat than as carbohydrate or protein. In the above
reaction, the backward reaction, hydrolysis of fat, occurs when fats are broken
down during digestion. Digestion of fats is exothermic and yields energy.

A word of caution: Too much eating of animal fat causes obesity and raises the
level of cholesterol in the blood. This causes atherosclerosis, in which fatty
deposits build up on the inside walls of arteries. Atherosclerosis is the principal
cause of heart disease and strokes. Fat burners are the in thing now.

Phospholipids
The structure of phospholipids is similar to fats with one of the fatty acid side-
chains being replaced by a phosphate group, PO4-3. The phosphate group is
hydrophilic while the fatty acid chains are hydrophobic. Phospholipids form a
bilayer structure in cell membranes, with the polar groups on the outside and the
non-polar groups in the middle, forming a thin layer of fat that encloses the cell.

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O
CH2OC-(CH2)10CH3
O non-polar side chains
CHOC-(CH2)14CH3
O
CH2OP O- polar phosphate group
O -

The cell membrane is approximately 50% phospholipids and 50% proteins. Many
of the proteins have attached long carbohydrate chains and these are called
glycoproteins. Cell membranes are semi-permeable. The middle non-polar fatty
layer acts as a barrier to molecules that are lipophobic or hydrophilic. These
hydrophilic molecules may pass through pores in some protein molecules through
simple diffusion or through active transport.

Steroids

The more popular examples of steroids are the sex hormones, testosterone,
estrogen, and progesterone. Some oral contraceptives are synthetic steroids
made of female sex hormones and they function by inhibiting ovulation. On the
other hand, anabolic steroids are derived from the male sex hormone. They are
used to increase weight and muscle mass. In 1974, the International Olympics
Committee banned the use of anabolic steroids because they have been misused
by many athletes.

Other steroid hormones are adrenal cortical steroids, also known as

corticosteroid hormones, such as hydrocortisone, cortisone, aldosterone, and
progesterone. Cortisone is a medicinal drug used for the treatment of skin
ailments, rheumatoid arthritis, asthma and allergies, and eye diseases, and in
cases of adrenal insufficiency, or the malfunctioning of the adrenal cortex .

Another example are the sterols. We have already discussed cholesterol. Some
sterols are converted to Vitamin D when the skin is exposed to the ultraviolet rays
of the sun. Vitamin D is needed for normal bone formation because it helps in the
retention of calcium and phosphorus in the body.

Nucleic Acids
The name nucleic acid was derived from the word nucleus because they were
initially isolated from the nucleus of the cell. The two types of nucleic acids are
DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid, and RNA, ribonucleic acid. DNA is the hereditary
or genetic material of the cell while RNA takes part in protein synthesis. The
tightly coiled DNA, along with proteins, is present in chromosomes.
Chromosomes are divided into units called genes.

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Chromosomes exist in pairs, one inherited from the mother and the other from the
father. The number of chromosome pairs varies with the species. For example,
dogs have 38 pairs, tomato has 12 pairs, and humans have 23 pairs, a pair of
which are called sex chromosomes. One sex chromosome is inherited from the
mother, always an X chromosome, while the other is from the father, either an X
or a Y chromosome. Females have an XX chromosome pair while males have an
XY chromosome pair. This topic will be discussed further in your Natural Science
II course.

Structure of DNA and RNA

Nucleic acids are NH2

polynucleotides. A
-
nucleotide consists of a O N N
sugar moiety, ribose for Adenine
RNA and 2-deoxyribose for O P O CH2 N N
DNA, a phosphate group, O
-
and a base. The bases are O H H
classified either as purines or Phosphate H
pyrimidines. The purine H
bases present in both DNA OH H
and RNA are adenine and
Deoxyribose
guanine. In DNA, the
pyrimidine bases are
thymine and cytosine while
uracil and cytosine are
present in RNA.

RNA is a single strand, helical structure with alternating ribose and phosphate as
the backbone. DNA is a double stranded helix, similar to a spiral staircase, the
structure of which was determined by Francis Crick (1916- ) and James Dewey
Watson (1928- ), both 1962 Nobel laureates. Similar to RNA, the DNA strands
are made up of alternating 2-deoxyribose and phosphate. The two strands are held
together by hydrogen bonds between specific base pairs – adenine with thymine
(A-T) and guanine with cytosine (G-C).

ATG GC TG C A
TA C ATCG A C A G
T CG T
CG TA CGT A

Helical structure of DNA

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Functions of DNA and RNA

The functions of DNA are replication, transcription, and translation.

replication
transcription translation
DNA RNA Proteins

In replication, the DNA helix unwinds and each strand acts as a template. In the
above example, a portion of one strand, the parent strand, contains the base
sequence ATGC and the new strand, a daughter strand, will contain the
complementary base sequence TAGC. The base sequence TAGC is present in the
other parent strand and its daughter strand will contain the base sequence ATGC.
These produce two identical double helices DNA molecules, the strands always
consist of an old parent strand and a new daughter strand.

Although there is high fidelity in replication, a mispairing of bases may occur

leading to the formation of a DNA molecule with a different base sequence. This
is known as mutation and is brought about by substances known as mutagens.
Much has been written about the mutagenic effects of chemicals and radioactive
substances left in Subic naval base and Clark air base.

The procedure of transcription is similar to replication wherein the DNA helix

unwinds and the separated strands act as templates in the synthesis of RNA,
specifically m-RNA or messenger RNA. Using the same example as above, a
DNA strand with a base sequence ATGC will produce a m-RNA with a
complementary base sequence UACG. The other m-RNA molecule will have a
base sequence AUCG. Since RNA is single stranded, then two different m-RNA
molecules are produced from the two DNA strands. The formation of other forms
of RNA such as r-RNA, or ribosomal RNA, and t-RNA, or transfer RNA, will be
explained in Natural Science II.

Three nucleotides, called codons, on the m-RNA strand corresponds to a specific

amino acid. The sequence of nucleotides, in multiples of three, in m-RNA decides
the order of amino acids. Formation of peptide bonds between these amino acids
produces proteins. This process is known as translation. If a mutation in the
sequence of nucleotides that codes for a particular polypeptide occurs, it may
change an amino acid in the polypeptide chain. An example is sickle-cell anemia,
which is due to mutation of hemoglobin. This mutation is due to a change in just
one amino acid, from glutamic acid in normal hemoglobin to valine, but it
drastically changed the function of hemoglobin. This disease is hereditary. There
are other congenital diseases due to mutations in the DNA of the cell but these are
best discussed in Natural Science II.

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In this module, we studied the different functional groups of organic

compounds. These functional groups dictate the chemical properties of organic
substances. These functional groups react to form biomolecules. Biomolecules,
although made up of thousands of atoms, are essentially organic substances
whose properties, both physical and chemical, are dictated by their structures.
These properties also determine their functions. Consider this module as an
introduction to the different applications of chemistry, which we discuss in the
next module.

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7
Applications of Chemistry

INTRODUCTION
This last module of the Chemistry portion of Natural Science I discusses the
different applications of the basic concepts of Chemistry, which we studied in the
previous modules. We have actually discussed some applications of chemistry:
uses of metals as thermal and electrical conductors, and as materials; uses of
metalloids as semi-conductors; superconductors; examples of therapeutic
substances and their uses; uses of radioactive substances in atomic bombs, nuclear
reactors, and in medicine.

In this module, we will discuss the synthesis and uses of polymers and liquid
crystals; cite examples of chemical pollutants and how we can help in their
control; and look into the controversy surrounding natural versus synthetic food.

OBJECTIVES

After studying this module, you will be able to

1. describe the physical and chemical properties of materials such as polymers

and liquid crystals;
2. explain concepts in environmental chemistry; and
3. cite examples of natural and synthetic chemicals that are used as food.

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POLYMERS
A-A-A-A-A-A-A-
We have already discussed the basic homopolymer
concepts of polymerization in the
previous module when we discussed
A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B
biopolymers. Homopolymers consist
of only one type of monomer while alternating copolymer
copolymers are formed from two or
more monomers. Copolymers may A-A-A-B-B-A-A-B
either be alternating copolymers or random copolymer
random copolymers.

Linear polymers are

CH2CHCH2CHCH2CH made up of long chains of A-A-A-A-A-A
polymers such as A A
R R R polyethylene and A-A-A-A-A-A
polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
R = H, polyethylene A A
The opposite of linear
= CH3, polypropylene polymers are branched A-A-A-A-A-A
= Cl, polyvinyl chloride polymers. In cross-linked
= benzene, polystyrene polymers, the polymer Cross-linked polymers
chains are joined together
Linear polymers by side chains.

The two basic polymerization procedures are addition polymerization and

condensation polymerization.

Fibers
Fibers are hair like structures exhibiting great tensile strength along the fiber.
Fibers from animal sources are proteins. The main component of silk is fibroin
while that of wool and fur is keratin. Silk is from spiders and cocoons of silk
worms. Wool may come from sheep, camels, Kashmir goats, rabbits, mink, and
beavers, among others.

Fibers from plants are mostly cellulose. The two most common sources of plant
fibers are cotton and kapok. Cotton is usually woven into fabrics and is used in
the paper making industry while kapok is used for upholstery. Kapok beds have
now been replaced by uratex beds, made from polyurethane. Our barong Tagalog
is either jusi, from banana leaves, or piña, from pineapple fiber. The Bicol region
is known for its abaca, or Manila hemp, which is made into rope, slippers, mat,
and hammock, among others.

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Do you know that glass is an example of a fiber from mineral origin? Glass is
made from silica sand. Ceramics are also fibers made from aluminum oxide,
silicon carbide, and boron carbide. Asbestos fibers, used for insulation and
fireproofing, is no longer being used because it is carcinogenic.

Examples of synthetic fibers are nylon, a polyamide, acrylic and Orlon, both
polyacrylonitriles, Dacron, a polyester, and spandex, a polyurethane. The
intermolecular forces of attractions present in fibers is usually strong, like H-
bonding in polyamides, because the uses of fibers depend on the high tensile
strength along the fiber.

Elastomers
Elastomers are synthetic polymers that exhibit the properties of rubber.
Elastomers are elastic and flexible. Rubber is used in vehicle tires, conveyor belts,
piping and tubings, hoses, rollers, shock absorbers, balloons, balls, cushions, rain
proof garments, diving gears, and gloves, among others. The most common
elastomers are rubber bands!

Natural rubber is extracted from the latex of rubber trees. It is a polyisoprene. The
chemical formula of isoprene is H2C=C(CH3)CH=CH2. Several synthetic rubbers
have been produced, mostly in the United States. Examples are neoprene, whose
monomer is chloroprene, H2C=C(Cl)CH=CH2; Buna-N rubber, a copolymer
whose monomers are butadiene and acrylonitrile with sodium as catalyst; GR-S,
another copolymer whose monomers are butadiene and styrene; and butyl rubber,
a copolymer between butadiene and isobutylene.

In 1839, Charles Goodyear, of Goodyear tires, discovered a process known as

vulcanization. This involves the formation of sulfur cross links or bridges between
the polymers. Vulcanized rubber is stronger and more elastic.

The monomers in rubber are mostly non-polar compounds such as the

hydrocarbons isoprene, butadiene, isobutylene, and styrene. Hence, the
intermolecular forces of attractions present in elastomers are mostly London
dispersion forces. These weak forces of attraction allow for the elasticity and
flexibility of elastomers.

Plastics
The word plastic means can be formed into desired shapes. Plastics are
lightweight materials which are very durable. Linear and branched molecules are
thermoplastic, soften when heated and harden when cooled, while cross-liked
polymers are thermosetting, harden when heated.

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There are numerous examples of plastics with various uses. Among the most
common examples of plastics are: polyvinyl chloride (PVC) in plastic pipes, vinyl
coatings, and wire insulation; urea-formaldehyde resins in tableware; acrylic resin
as a binder for laminated glass; polymethyl methacrylate, whose brand name is
Lucite and Plexiglas, for eyeglass and camera lenses; polystyrene resins for radio-
frequency insulation and in refrigeration installations; polytetrafluoroethylene,
whose commercial name is Teflon, as a high-performance engineering plastic but
whose popularity is now limited to non-stick frying pans; polycarbonates, acetals,
and polyamides and other synthetic plastics used instead of metal in machinery
and safety helmets; low-density polyethylene (LDPE) as rolls of clear-plastic
wrap; high-density polyethylene (HPDE) in thicker plastic films, plastic trash
bags and containers; polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), polyvinyl chloride,
and polyvinylidene chloride as packaging materials; and polyethylene
terephthalate (PETE) in soft drink bottles.

C-NH-(CH2)2-NH-C-O-(CH2)2-O
OCH2CH2-O-C- _C
O O
Polyurethane
O O
Polyethylene terephthalate

-NH-(CH2)6-NH-C-(CH2)4-C
O O
Nylon 6,6

The main problem with plastics is their disposal because they are non-
biodegradable. The amount of styrofoam, another non-biodegradable material,
and plastic eating utensils used by fast food chains alone is staggering! Plastics
are often recycled. The recycling symbol is made up of three arrows in the
shape of a triangle with a number in the middle of the triangle. The number
indicate the kind of polymer from which the plastic was made: 1 for PETE, 2
for HDPE, 3 for PVC, 4 for LDPE, 5 for PP, 6 for PS, and 7 for other types of
polymers.

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SAQ 7-1
What type of polymer (fiber, elastomer, or plastic) is present in the following
examples?

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ASAQ 7-1
The fishing line is made of nylon, a synthetic fiber. The feeding bottle is a
plastic while the nipple is an elastomer. The bicycle tires are elastomers, the
shoes are rubber shoes, the helmet is hard plastic, the jersey and cycling shorts
are fibers. The rope is a natural fiber from abaca. The basketball and the football
are elastomers while the bowling and the billiard balls are hard plastics. The
more affordable frames for eyeglasses are the plastic frames. As mentioned
earlier, Lucite or Plexiglass is used for eyeglasses.

Easy question! I know you are familiar with these polymers when classified as
fibers, elastomers, or plastics. What we learned in this lesson is to give the
chemical structures associated with these materials.

LIQUID CRYSTALS
Liquid crystals have an orderly arrangement, like solids, but they can flow,
similar to liquids. Liquid crystals behave as both solid and a liquid only over a
certain limit of temperatures and pressures. At high temperatures and low
pressures, liquid crystals become ordinary liquids. They solidify at low
temperatures and high pressures.

Liquid crystals are easily affected by changes in temperature and pressure.

Changes in temperature and pressure change the color of liquid crystals, the
wavelength of light that they reflect. Hence, they are used as temperature and
pressure sensors. You’ve heard about mood rings, LC thermometers, LC strips for
stress test, T-shirts that change in color, blackish cups that show their designs
when hot or cold water is poured into them, and toys that change in colors when
immersed in cold or hot water. I have seen how a vanilla-colored ice cream scoop
in a cone of Barbie turned pink, or strawberry colored, when immersed in cold
water. A banana split becomes brown, with chocolate fudge!, when immersed in
cold water.

The optical properties of liquid crystals also changes in the presence of magnetic
and electrical fields. By applying a small electric field, liquid crystals can be used
as displays in laptop computers, digital watches, calculators, hand-held video
cameras, cellular phones, beepers, and in flat televisions. The LCD, or liquid
crystalline display, has displaced the bulkier cathode ray tube (CRT)-based screen
or monitor.

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In arcades, virtual reality games are an in-thing. This involves a simulated world.
To see in the virtual world, one wears a head-mounted display (HMD) with
screens, made of liquid crystals, directed at each eye.

In medicine, thermography measures the heat emitted by the skin. Thermograms

can be made of all or part of the body by applying heat-sensitive liquid crystals
directly on the skin. A warm spot, seen as a yellow color in the thermogram,
might indicate the presence of cancer cells, whereas a cold spot might be a
symptom of some bloodstream blockage, such as a thrombus.

SAQ 7-2
Visit a nearby store that sells medical equipment. List down the instruments
with liquid crystal displays (LCD).

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ASAQ 7-2
Most medical equipment are now digital. The most familiar ones are the
sphygmomanometer, which measures blood pressure, the glucometer, which
measures blood glucose levels, and the thermometer. There is even an equipment
that measures the menstrual cycle! It looks like a beeper.

The advancement in technology is astounding! The sphygmomanometer that I

saw measures the blood pressure using only the index finger! There is no need
for a stethoscope. We should be abreast of these recent developments.

ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY
Common chemicals that we think are harmless are actually contributing to various
forms of pollution. You have seen vehicles that are smoke belchers and industrial
chimneys emitting black smoke, but are you aware of the chemicals that are given
off to the atmosphere and their effects on humans? The first major pollutants were
heavy metals such as lead, copper, and mercury, from the mining and smelting of
ores during the metal age. Pollution became prevalent and global during the
industrial revolution. The main cause of environmental problems is the increase in
population worldwide. The solutions to most environmental problems are
sustainable development and conservation. However, the definitions of
sustainable development and conservation are open to different interpretations by
different sectors of society.

Air Pollution
A major source of air pollution is the burning of fossil fuels such as coal,
petroleum and gasoline. The most common air pollutants are oxides of carbon,
sulfur, and nitrogen. Nitric oxide is formed by the reaction of nitrogen gas and
oxygen gas. Reaction of oxides of nitrogen, NO and NO2, with uv rays produces
smog, or photochemical smog, which is a mixture of solid and liquid fog and
smoke particles, as illustrated in the equations below. The third reaction is a
photochemical reaction, specifically a photodissociation reaction.
Photodissociation is the cleavage of a chemical bond due to absorption of
radiation by a molecule.
N2 (g) + O2 (g) Æ 2NO (g)
2NO (g) + O2 (g) Æ 2NO2 (g)
NO2 (g) + uv rays Æ NO (g) + O (g)
O (g) + O2 (g) Æ O3 (g)

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Excessive amount of ozone, produced by the reaction of atomic oxygen with

molecular oxygen, is toxic. Ozone is also extremely reactive. Smog irritates the
eyes and the respiratory tract.

Sulfur dioxide, when oxidized by air, is converted to sulfur trioxide, which reacts
with water vapor to produce sulfuric acid, H2SO4. H2SO4 and nitric acid, HNO3,
form acid rain.

SO3 (g) + H2O (l) Æ H2SO4 (aq)

Acid rain affects aquatic and plant ecosystems. It also corrodes metals and
building materials. The eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 emitted an estimated
15 million tons of sulfur dioxide. Moreover, ash falls and lahar destroyed the
plant biodiversity in the area. Only grasses, such as cogon and talahib, survived
the Mt. Pinatubo eruption.

Gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide trap the heat from the
sun that causes global warming, also called the greenhouse effect. Since our
country is dependent on coal and petroleum as sources of energy, increasing
levels of carbon dioxide are being produced from their combustion.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which are used in refrigeration, air-conditioning

units and in aerosol sprays, are destroying the ozone layer. Since the C-Cl bond is
weaker than the C-F, the C-Cl bond undergoes photodissociation, as shown in the
following equation:

CF2Cl2 (g) + uv rays Æ CF2Cl (g) + Cl (g)

Cl (g) + O3 (g) Æ ClO (g) + O2 (g)
ClO (g) Æ Cl (g) + O2 (g)

The ozone layer in the stratosphere protects us from the ultraviolet rays of the sun,
which causes skin cancer. The uv rays from the sun are very intense from about
10 a.m. to 3 p.m. Chlorinated compounds, including laboratory and industrial
solvents, are now banned because of their hazardous effects, not only to the
environment, but also to humans as well.

The Clean Air Act recently passed by Congress prohibits the use of incinerators
as a means of waste disposal. Incineration of wastes that contain chlorinated
compounds and heavy metals releases these toxic heavy metals, such as arsenic
and lead, and hydrochloric acid (HCl) into the atmosphere. However, even in the
United States, incineration is used to dispose of infectious medical wastes and
hazardous waste. The Clean Air Act also mandates the use of unleaded gasoline
because of the toxic effects of lead.

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Water Pollution
You are aware of the billions of pesos, the Piso Mula sa Puso project, needed to
rehabilitate Pasig River; the death of Tullahan river; the fish kill in Manila Bay
and Marikina river, and the polluted state of Laguna de Bay. Even the beach in
Boracay was recently reported to have high E. coli count because of improper
sewage disposal. You have also read about the numerous oil spills in Manila Bay
and Subic Bay. Most of our bodies of water are too polluted such that authorities
prevent swimming and fishing activities.

The main water pollutants are sewage, domestic wastes and garbage, industrial
wastes such as heavy metals, oil spills, and agricultural chemicals such as
fertilizers and pesticides. Sewage and domestic wastes, although biodegradable,
are dumped into bodies of water faster than they can decompose. Fertilizers
containing phosphates and nitrates produce algal bloom, which depletes the
oxygen supply leading to death of aquatic life. This process is called
eutrophication. Toxic pesticides, usually non-biodegradable, and untreated
industrial wastes also contribute to the death of aquatic and marine life. No
wonder the price of galunggong soared beyond the six pesos per kilo selling price
during the Cory administration!

Aside from the depletion of aquatic and marine life, some fishes, shellfishes, and
prawns are contaminated with toxins. Mercury, from mine tailings, in fish causes
cancer, birth defects, and death. The Minimata Bay experience in Japan wherein
people suffered from nervous disorders, tremors, paralysis, and subsequent death
due to the accumulation of mercury in fishes is well-publicized. In our country,
authorities monitor the red tide toxins, produced by phytoplankton, in fishes and
shellfishes such as clams, mussels, and oysters. Monitoring is usually done in
summer. Red tides cause diarrhea, paralysis and even death. It is disastrous to the
economies of coastal towns and provinces when red tide alerts are issued. Public
officials, with much fanfare, eat shellfishes to assure consumers that shellfishes
from their towns are safe to eat!

Even our groundwater, which is the source of our drinking water, is polluted. Our
water supply, or lack of it, led to the privatization of our Metro Manila
Waterworks and Sewerage System (MWSS). Nowadays, most houses, offices,
and restaurants use mineral water, and variations thereof, as drinking water. We
are constantly complaining about the rising prices of gasoline products but do you
realize that gasoline is much cheaper than bottled water? We pay P14.90 for 1
liter or 1000 ml of unleaded gasoline and we buy a 250 ml bottle of mineral water
for P10.00! Moreover, although the Bureau of Food and Drugs (BFAD) monitor
the quality of bottled water, refilling stations need only a mayor’s permit to
operate!

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Solid Waste
Solid wastes may either be biodegradable such as garbage, paper, and wood, or
non-biodegradable such as metals, plastics and other synthetic materials.
Biodegradable solid waste is usually buried in landfills (with emphasis on buried).
In a modern landfill, waste is spread in thin layers, compacted by a bulldozer, and
covered by clean earth. Waste is decomposed through aerobic and anaerobic
means. In our country, landfills become mountains of garbage like the Smokey
mountain in Tondo, the Carmona and San Mateo landfills, and the Payatas landfill
in Quezon City.

Incineration is out while zero waste is in. Segregation of waste into

biodegradable, non-biodegradable, recyclable, and hazardous waste leads to zero
waste. In our community, garbage collectors and inspectors will not collect
garbage if they are not properly segregated and labeled. Composting is another
alternative to solid waste disposal. With the ban on incinerators, I am not aware
how hospitals disposed of their infectious and hazardous waste.

Bioremediation
Another alternative waste disposal method is bioremediation. This is the use of
microorganisms to enzymatically degrade environmental pollutants or to clean up
contaminated areas. Microorganisms metabolize toxic wastes into non-toxic
substances. Examples of microorganisms engaged in bioremediation are members
of the genera Pseudomonas, Flavobacterium, Arthrobacter, and Azotobacter.
Scientists are now using genetic engineering to produce microorganisms that can
degrade non-biodegradable synthetic materials.

FOOD
The biomolecules that we discussed in the previous chapter are known as
macronutrients. We are now familiar with their structures and functions. They
are sources of energy, have structural or framework as well as regulatory
functions. We have also mentioned the fact that essential fatty acids and amino
acids are not synthesized by the body but are supplied to the body through the
diet. Hence, the importance of a balanced diet cannot be overemphasized.

In this module, we will discuss micronutrients and food additives.

Micronutrients, such as vitamins and minerals, are not sources of energy and
they exist in minute quantities. Food additives enhance the appearance of food by
improving its color, texture, odor, and taste. Food additives also act as
preservatives to retard the spoilage of food.

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Minerals
Inorganic mineral nutrients are supplied in the diet. There are two classes of
minerals: the major minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron,
iodine, sodium, and potassium; and trace elements such as copper, cobalt,
manganese, fluorine, and zinc.

Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body, followed by phosphorus.

Calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium are needed for development and
maintenance of bones and teeth. About 99% of calcium is present in bones and
teeth. Milk and dairy products, including yoghurt, are rich sources of calcium and
phosphorus. Milk also contains lactose, or milk sugar, casein, or milk proteins,
and salts of chlorine, sodium, potassium, and sulfur. Some products, such as
orange juice, are also fortified with calcium. Several calcium supplements are also
available in drug stores. Calcium deficiency leads to osteoporosis, especially in
post menopausal women. The bones become brittle and are more easily fractured.

Potassium, sodium, and magnesium form the major ions of the fluids in cells and
regulate the water balance in the body. Potassium is the major intracellular cation
while sodium is present in the fluid outside the cells, the extracellular fluid.
Sodium is present in most natural foods and in salted foods. Excess amounts of
sodium causes edema, a swelling due to a glut of extracellular fluid, and
hypertension.

Iron is necessary in the formation of hemoglobin, the protein in red blood cells
responsible for transporting oxygen. It is actually iron that bonds to oxygen. Rich
sources of iron are liver and bitter gourd. Iron deficiency leads to anemia.

Iodine is needed to form thyroxine, also known as tetraiodothyronine (T4) .

Thyroxine, together with triiodothyronine (T3), are the main hormones of the
thyroid gland. These hormones are formed when iodine reacts with tyrosine, an
amino acid, in the thyroid. Their function is to increase carbohydrate and protein
metabolism. Iodine deficiency leads to the formation of goiter, an enlargement of
the thyroid gland, or one of its lobe. Iodine deficiency in pregnant women also
affects their infants. The infants usually suffer from cretinism and mental
retardation. Remember the TV ad “Walang bobo, walang talo, ‘Pag iodized salt
and gamit mo” .

Copper and zinc are present in some enzymes. Cobalt is part of vitamin B12.
Chromium is necessary for glucose metabolism. You are more familiar with
fluorine as a trace mineral. Fluorine helps harden the bones and tooth enamel. It
is included in multivitamins for infants and in toothpastes.

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Vitamins
Vitamins are classified as either fat-soluble or water-soluble. We have already
discussed the fat-soluble vitamins, Vitamin A, D, E, and K, in the previous
module. Of the water-soluble vitamins, Vitamins B and C, we have already
mentioned Vitamin C in one of the SAQs. Vitamin C deficiency causes scurvy.
We will now discuss vitamin B complex, all eight of them: Vitamin B1, B2, B3,
B6, B12, folic acid, panthothenic acid, and folic acid. Vitamin B complex is
necessary for carbohydrate metabolism. Deficiency in Vitamins B2, or
riboflavin, and B6, or pyridoxine causes skin lesions. Thiamine, or vitamin B1,
deficiency brings about beriberi while that of niacin, or Vitamin B3, causes
pellagra. Cobalamin, or vitamin B12, and folic acid deficiency leads to anemia.
If you want to know the symptoms of the aforementioned diseases, it is best to
consult a medical book.

A well-balanced diet, as the old adage goes, contains all these essential vitamins
and minerals. Supplements are needed for pregnant and lactating women, and for
those on special diet or medication. Just remember that vitamins and minerals do
not have therapeutic values. They do not cure diseases but merely help in the
prevention of these diseases. Health food stores are now in every corner. Their
selling pitch is that their products are natural. The supplement facts of a
children’s dietary supplement lists, aside from the usual vitamins and minerals, a
‘whole food blend’, which includes ‘pineapple, broccoli, carrots, apple, tomato,
brussel sprouts, cauliflower, beet, celery, grape, grapefruit, kale, lemon, lime,
plum, raspberry, spinach, strawberry, watermelon, radish, cantaloupe, cherry,
leek, onion, papaya, peach, pear, yellow pepper’. And yes, the chewable tablets
are quite expensive!

Food Additives
There is much controversy about the use of food additives. These are substances
purposely added to food to produce a beneficial effect. The first food additive is
probably sodium chloride, which is used as a food seasoning and a preservative.
Other examples of food additives that act as food seasoning are black pepper,
paprika, curry and turmeric powder, ground ginger, ground garlic, and a
collection of herbs such as oregano, basil, mentha, among others. A more
common food enhancer is monosodium glutamate or MSG or vetchin. Some
people developed Chinese restaurant syndrome upon ingestion of MSG. The
symptoms are lightheadedness, headaches, and general discomfort. MSG is the
sodium salt of glutamic acid, which is an amino acid.

A food additive that cures meat to produce tocino and longganisa is salitre, whose
chemical name is sodium nitrite or NaNO2. Much has been written about the
metabolism of nitrites into nitrosamines, which are known carcinogens. These
nitrosamines can react, specifically through alkylation, with the DNA of the cells,

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and cause mutation. Another potential mutagen, according to studies, is potassium

bromate, KBrO3, a chemical used in making pandesal (bread).

Most food preservatives are anti-oxidants and anti-microbial. The most commonly
used are weak acids such as sodium benzoate, ascorbate, salicylate, and sorbate.
Benzoate is also known as a paraben, esters of para-hydroxybenzoic acid. Sufur-
containing preservatives include sulfur dioxide (SO2), sodium sulfite (Na2SO3)
and bisulfite (NaHSO3). Recall that SO2 is a pollutant. Other preservatives are
butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT). Vitamins
C and E are also anti-oxidants and may be used as preservatives. In the United
States, one cannot use a new preservative or use a known preservative in a
different method and in different amounts. Remember the uproar brought about
by the use of formalin to retard the brown coloration of vegetables? Although
formalin is a known preservative, everybody knows it is used only for the
preservation of dead animals and cadavers!

An example of a food colorant is β-carotene. Micronutrients are also added to

almost all food products. This process is known as fortification. Other food
additives act as emulsifiers and stabilizers. Examples are glycerol, glyceryl
monosterate, and mono- and di-glycerides. Recall that these substances are also
present in fats. Carrageenan, a polysaccharide extracted from algae, is used as an
emulsifier in ice cream.

SAQ 7-3
Are instant noodles nutritious?

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ASAQ 7-3
1 pouch, or 55 grams of instant noodles contains fat, carbohydrate, protein,
Vitamin A, folic acid, riboflavin, thiamin mononitrate, D-biotin, Vitamin B12,
Vitamin E, nicotinamide, Vitamin D3, pyridoxine hydrochloride, calcium D
panthothenate. So, are instant noodles nutritious? Yes, if you eat them once in a
while. No, if you eat them most of the time to replace your meals! In all the
chemicals that we have discussed, moderation is the key to their use. Not even
all natural health foods are totally harmless. I heard a speaker in a seminar say
that “Everything is toxic. Nothing is toxic. It depends on the dosage”.

There are other applications of cemistry, a lot more, which we have not
discussed. Some applications are in cosmetics and personal care,
pharmaceuticals, although we have mentioned a few, in the petroleum, brewery,
and semi-conductor industries, among others. Of course, chemistry is also
involved in both chemical and biological warfare.

What I have noticed is that some products made in the Philippines do not even
list their ingredients! A skin whitener has “a unique blend of ingredients that
effectively…” Shampoos, lotions, conditioners, softeners, astringents, facial
washes, among others are not even labeled with their contents. Compare them
with imported items, which are all properly labeled.

I hope that you will always practice your chemistry when making choices. You
don’t have to “pindot-pindot, pisil-pisil, lapi-lapirot, amoy-amoy ang iyong
bibilhin”. Just read the label!

Cheers! Here’s a toast to a better

appreciation of cemistry and its
wonders!

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