New Technologies for
Rural Road Construction
IIT Guwahati
31 July 2023
Slope Protection and Retention Measures
Arindam Dey
Associate Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
& Center for Disaster Management and Research (CDMR)
Geotechnical Engineering Division
IIT Guwahati
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Poor Hillside Practices
Australian Geomechanics Society
Slope Stabilization
Slope Protection
Retention of Slopes
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Slope Stabilization
Myriads of non-unique ways
Primary objectives
Reduce the driving forces
Excavation of material from appropriate part of unstable ground
Drainage of water to reduce the hydrostatic pressures acting on unstable zone
Increase the resisting forces
Drainage that increases the shear strength of the ground
Elimination of weak surfaces or other potential failure zones
Building of retaining structures or other supports
Provision of in-situ reinforcement in the ground
Chemical treatment to increase the shear strength of the ground
or, Both
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Slope Stabilization Techniques
Unloading – To reduce the driving forces in a slide mass
Excavation and/or Filling techniques
Removal of the weight from upper part of the slope
Removal of all of the potentially unstable materials
Flattening or Grading of slopes
Benching of slopes
Application of a lightweight fill
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Non-Engineered Benching
Mahur, Assam
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Slope Stabilization Techniques
Buttressing of slope
Offset or counter the driving forces of
a slope
Externally applied force system that
increases the resisting force
Various techniques of buttressing
Soil and Rock fill – Toe buttressing
Counterberms
Shear keys
Mechanically stabilized buttresses
Pneusol (Tiresoil)
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NTPC Ash Dyke, Bongaigaon
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NTPC Ash Dyke, Satpura, Sarni
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Harangajao, Assam
Toe buttressing with Gabion wall
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Slope Stabilization Techniques
Vertical Reinforcement
Stone columns
Mitigate or prevent landslides
Reticulated micropiles
Create a monolithic rigid block of
reinforced soil to a depth below the
critical surface
Driven piles or Sheet Piles
Drilled shafts
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Landslide Mitigation
Calcom Cement Plant, Umrangso, Assam
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Landslide Mitigation
Calcom Cement Plant, Umrangso, Assam
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Calcom Cement Plant, Umrangso, Assam
Application of rows of sheet pile wall for stabilization
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Tuirial Hydroelectric Power Plant Project, Saiphum, Mizoram
Failure of shotcreting without
weepholes, Saiphum, Mizoram
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Tuirial Hydroelectric Power Plant Project, Saiphum, Mizoram
Stagewise doweling and micropiling
for stabilization
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The New Student House (Campobasso, Italy)
Application of staggered pile wall for cut slope protection
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Slope Stabilization Techniques
Horizontal/Inclined Reinforcement
Soil Nailing
In-situ passive inclusions penetrating
the failure plane
Mobilize when movement occurs in the
soil
Geosynthetic reinforced soil walls
Wrap around geosynthetic faced soil
systems
Reinforced retaining walls
Concrete block walls
Gabion-faced retaining walls
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Clouterre Project, France
Soil nailing to protect vertical cut
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Slope Stabilization Techniques
Anchored Reinforcements
Tie-back walls
Anchored slopes
Vegetated slopes
Reinforcement by roots
Check on soil erosion
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Slope Stabilization Techniques
Several other stabilization techniques
Erosion control mats and blankets
Biotechnical stabilization / Bioremediation
Surface slope protection
Shotcreting
Chunam plaster
Masonry
Riprap
L16: An Overview of Slope Stability and
01-Aug-23 22
Landslides Analysis
Rainfall-induced Failure of Vertical Cuts
Landslide near Narayana Hospital, 2020
Gauripur
Landslide,
Opposite to IIT
Guwahati
2020
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Rainfall-Induced Failure of Slopes
Kullu-Mandi Highway 2023 Raj Bhawan, Guwahati, 2020
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Drainage is the Key
Surface Drainage
Concrete ditch drains or Geopipes
Catchment parameters
Area and shape of catchment zone
Rainfall intensity
Steepness and length of slope being drained
Condition of ground surface and nature of the subsurface soils
Nature and extent of vegetation
Redirection of surface runoff
Subsurface drainage
Drain blankets
Trenches
Cut-off drains
Horizontal drains
Relief drains
Drainage tunnels
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NTPC Ash Dyke, Birsinghpur, MP
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NTPC Ash Dyke, Birsinghpur, MP
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Gabion Wall, Mahur, Assam
Free drainage of water
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Wall Drainage
Accumulation of rain water in the back fill results in its saturation, and thus a
considerable increase in the earth pressure acting on the wall. This may
eventually lead to unstable conditions.
Two of the options to take care of this problem are the following:
Provision of weep holes w/o geo-textile on the back-face of wall
Perforated pipe draining system with filter
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Wall Drainage
• Geotextile material or a thin layer of some
other filter may be used on the back face of
wall for the full height
• Prevent the backfill material entering the
weep holes and eventually clogging
them.
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Slope Protection/Stabilization Measures
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Rockfall at Pandoh, Himachal Pradesh
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Some Novel Slope Protection/Stabilization Measures
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Some Novel Slope Protection/Stabilization Measures
Rockfall protection measures - DRAPERY
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Some Novel Slope Protection/Stabilization Measures
RUVOLUM: Free online design and dimensioning tool for Tecco
Mesh Drapery protection system
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Some Novel Slope Protection/Stabilization Measures
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Some Novel Slope Protection/Stabilization Measures
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Some Novel Slope Protection/Stabilization Measures
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Some Novel Slope Protection/Stabilization Measures
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Some Novel Slope Protection/Stabilization Measures
The World of Retention Systems
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Slope Retention Systems and Typologies
Retention systems
Structures built to retain vertical or near vertical earth slopes and resist lateral thrusts
Retention of water, natural soil or fill soil
Rigid retention systems Surficial Flexible Retention System
Masonry Retaining Walls Crib Walls
Gravity Retaining Walls Interlocking Block / Porcupine walls
Semi-gravity retaining walls Gabion Walls
Semi-rigid retention systems Composite Retention Systems
Cantilever retaining walls Reinforced Soil (MSE) Walls
Counterfort retaining walls Anchored Earth Walls
Embedded flexible retention systems Soil Nailed / Nailed Soil Slopes
Cantilever Sheet pile walls
Anchored bulkheads
Bored pile walls
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Rigid Retention Systems
Masonry Retaining Walls
Load bearing brickwork
Design guidance provided by Brick
Development Association (Haseltine
and Tutt 1991)
Modest wall height up to 4 m
Mass brickwork suitable for short
walls of 1 m
Quetta-bond brickwork can support
walls up to 3 m
Double skinned reinforced and
grouted cavity walls may be taller
Longevity is the main problem, as
service life is lesser when affected by
climatic conditions
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Rigid Retention Systems
Gravity Retaining Walls / Breast Walls
Stability and resistance to deformation is governed by their own weight (Eurocode 7)
Constructed with plain or reinforced concrete, stone masonry, blockwork, rubble masonry
May include base footing (with or without heels), ledge or buttress
Cross-section should be such that the resultant earth pressure should not produce any
tensile stress in any part of the wall
Joints between concrete lifts and masonry blocks may fail in tension
Meant for smaller heights less than 3 m
Not economical for higher walls (Teng 1962)
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Rigid Retaining Structures
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Rigid Retention Systems
Semi-Gravity Retaining Walls
Rely more on internal resistance to bending and shear
Less on self-weight than gravity walls
Utilization of steel connection between the base and stem, or between concrete lifts
Reduces mass of concrete, makes the stem slender, minimize the size of wall sections
Induces tensile stiffness across the concrete lifts
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Semi-Rigid Retention Systems
Cantilever Retaining Walls
Inverted T- or L-shaped structures
Consist of a thin stem and a base slab
Economical to a height of about 6-8 m
The stem retains the soil mass behind the wall by cantilever action
Stability is achieved from the weight of the soil on the heel portion of the base slab
Shear key may be used to augment sliding resistance
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Semi-Rigid Retention Systems
Counterfort Retaining Walls or Buttressed
Walls
Similar to cantilever walls
Counterforts are thin vertical concrete slabs that tie
the wall stem and the base slab together
Placed at regular intervals along the length of the
wall
Subjected to tensile stresses
Counterforts reduce the bending moments and shear
stresses in the stem of the wall
Applicable to withstand high lateral pressure
originating from the retained backfill
Used for very tall walls, 10-12 m high
Can have both main and front counterforts
Front counterfort is termed as ‘buttress’
Subjected to compressive stresses
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Retaining Wall Design: Proportioning
Gravity First, approximate Cantilever
dimensions are chosen
for the retaining wall
Then, stability of wall
is checked for these
dimensions
Section is changed if it
is undesirable from the
stability or economy
point of view
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Retaining Wall Design: Proportioning
Counterfort Retaining Wall
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Earth Pressure on Gravity Retaining Wall
Active Earth Pressure on an
Inclined Backface with Inclined
Backfill made of Granular Material
Active Earth Pressure on a Vertical
Backface with Inclined Backfill
made of Granular Material
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Earth Pressure on Cantilever Retaining Wall
Earth pressure may be calculated at the vertical section going through the heel
of wall Active Earth Pressure on a Vertical Backface with Inclined
Backfill made of Granular Material
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Stability of Retaining Wall
Excessive SETTLEMENT
may occur if weak soil layer
is located below the
foundation within 1.5 times
foundation width.
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Wall Settlements
Settlement of soil below the wall:
Immediate settlement in granular soil
Consolidation settlement in cohesive soil
Differential settlement (between heel and toe):
Heel settlement is larger when there is substantial increase in backfill load
Toe settlements are produced by lateral earth pressure.
To minimize toe settlements, ground may be strengthened
Sand piles, Rock columns, Grouting, Structural piles etc.
Differential settlements along the length of wall may produce cracks in wall.
Can be monitored during construction itself
Preventive action may be taken such as ensuring proper compaction of
the ground.
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Stability of Retaining Wall
Deep seated shear failure may occur if there is a weak
soil layer below the foundation within a depth of
about 1.5 times width of foundation.
The failure surface may be assumed to have
cylindrical shape and critical failure surface for sliding
may be determined through analysis Similar to a
slope stability analysis.
For backfill with its slope
less than 100, the critical
sliding surface may be
assumed to pass through
heel of the retaining wall.
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Alternative for Improving FoS against SLIDING
Use base key to
increase the Use a dead man
passive resistance anchor at the stem
against sliding to transfer a part
of sliding force to it
Increase the width of
base slab (preferably
on heel side)
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Embedded Flexible Retention Systems
Cantilever Sheet Pile Walls
Bending capacity plays a significant role rather than the
weight of the retention system
Flexible support systems for waterfront structures and
temporary excavation works
Can be of steel, timber or precast reinforced concrete
Often used in unfavourable soil conditions such as soft
clays as a foundation is not required
Driven from ground surface
Easy and quick construction even in presence of water
Able to follow construction of complex plan shapes
Minimum displacement of soil while driving
Can be constructed in situations with low headroom
Reduced noise during driving
High sustainability due to speed of installation and
extraction
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Embedded Flexible Retention Systems
Anchored Bulkheads
Used when the height of backfill to be retained
is more than 6 m
Provision of anchors or tie-back mechanisms to
lessen the depth of penetration
To sustain the same pressure, lesser depth of
penetration required as compared to sheet
pile wall
Reduction of cross-section area and weight
of sheet pile wall
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Embedded Flexible Retention Systems
(Chakraborty and
Dey 2022)
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Dredge Excavations
Sheet Pile and Tie-back wall for vertical cut protection
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Embedded Flexible Retention Systems
Bored Pile Walls
Can be constructed at any ground conditions, and close to
the existing structures
Can support very high vertical loads is addition to lateral
earth pressures
Top of the piles are capped with a concrete beam to
distribute loads
Arrangement of bored piles
Intermittent (spacing exceeds diameter)
OC soils or Cemented soils, GWT below excavation level
Contiguous (piles touching each other or having a
negligible gap)
Very low permeability soils
Secant (piles interlocking, spacing < diameter)
Primary concrete piles are unreinforced and constructed
of cement bentonite, and the secondary piles are
installed when the primary ones are still green Higher
bending stiffness.
Scattered contiguous (scattered in multiple layers)
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Surficial Flexible Retention Systems
Crib Walls
Suitable for walls of small to moderate height (6-9 m)
which are subjected to moderate earth pressure
Being flexible system, large movements can be
tolerated without damage
Easy to construct, dismantle, reassemble, reuse; Lesser
maintenance cost
Backfilling done with compacted granular soil
Use of permeable fill improves the drainage of
retained soil
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Surficial Flexible Retention Systems
Interlocking Block / Porcupine Wall
Utilization of precast concrete blocks that
interlock with each other without the use of
cement mortar
Interlocking achieved with the aid of a rear lip, or
protrusions on the upper or lower surfaces
Modular nature makes it easy to construct,
dismantle and reassemble
Routine ‘Porcupine walls’ utilizes concrete
blocks weighing around 20 kg, with a built
wall face angle of 68-73º, and height up to 3 m
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Surficial Flexible Retention Systems
Gabion Wall
Gabion consist of a box made of wire or plastic
mesh that is used as a basic building unit
Filled with in-situ coarse granular material such
crushed rock and cobbles
Advantageous for flexibility and material
transportation to remote areas (only wire mesh is
needed to be transported)
Particularly good at absorbing impact energy, and
are often used as rock fall barriers
Possible to repair when damaged, and is recyclable
and reusable
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Gabion Walls
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Why Gabion Systems?
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Why Gabion Systems?
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Gabions
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Gabion Preparation
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Gabion-faced Anchored Structures
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Sikkim-Pakyong Airport
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Applications of Gabions
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Applications of Gabions
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Gabion: Individual System Components
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Gabion: Individual System Components
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Gabion: Individual System Components
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Gabion: Individual System Components
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Gabion: Individual System Components
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Gabion: Individual System Components
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Gabion: Individual System Components
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Failure of Gabion Systems
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Failure of Gabion Systems
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Failure of Gabion Systems
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Failure of Gabion Systems
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Failure of Gabion Systems
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Failure of Gabion Systems
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Failure of Gabion Systems
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Failure of Gabion Systems
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Failure of Gabion Systems
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Failure of Gabion Systems
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Failure of Gabion Systems
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Failure of Gabion Systems
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Possible Failure Modes of Gabion Systems
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Stability against Overturning
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Stability against Sliding
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Stability against Bearing Failure
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Complex Crest Geometries
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Composite Retention Systems
Composite Support Systems
Composed of elements from two types of walls – gravity and embedded (Eurocode 7)
Double sheet pile wall cofferdams
Earth structures reinforced by tendons, geotextiles or grouting
Structures with multiple rows of ground anchorages
Nailed soil walls
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Composite Retention Systems
Reinforced Mechanically Stabilized
Earth (MSE) Walls
Comprise strip footing, facing, reinforcement and
capping beam
Combination of compacted backfill and large
number of closely spaced reinforcing elements
Lightweight facing to support the face material
Reinforcements are initially loaded only under
the overburden pressure from soil and any
applied loads
The interaction mechanism of the embedded
reinforcement initiates as the wall deforms
Bond stresses are developed all along the
reinforcement length
Polymer grid reinforcement (PGR) in the
Geosynthetic reinforced walls (GRW) walls
Flexibility is the major advantage
Large settlements and differential rotations Hausmann 1990
are tolerated
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Reinforced Soil Walls
Reinforced soil walls
Advantages over conventional type of walls
More economical if wall heights are large and subsoil is poor
Can be rapidly constructed
Require simple equipment for construction
Flexible structures
Soil forms bulk of their volume
Greater ability to withstand differential settlement than the rigid retaining walls
Large base-to-height ratio
Foundation stress distribution s nearly uniform
Less stress concentration at the toe
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Applications
Retaining walls
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Applications
Bridge abutments
Guwahati-Shillong Byepass
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Applications
Embankments
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Components of Reinforced Soil Walls
Reinforced
Soil
Soil or Fill Facing
Reinforcement
Matrix (optional)
Granular medium desirable Steel Strips Steel Wrap
Local soil Aluminium Grids Aluminium Modular
Borrowed soil Rubber Sheets Rubber Block
Suitability of the soil Concrete Mats Concrete Continuous
for reinforced soil Glass
structure Glass Ropes
Fibre-wood Fibre-wood
Thermoplastics Thermoplastics
Bricks
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Soil or Fill Matrix
Choice of fill matrix
Type of structure
Stability conditions
Short-term (constructional) or long-term (post-constructional) stability
Physico-chemical properties of material
Economy
Soil fill
Granular frictional soils
Mostly with frictional characteristics having good compression behavior
Poor/No tension behavior
Fine-grained cohesive soils
Exhibit some tension resistance due to the cohesive bond (e.g. vertical cuts up to some
height can stand without any support)
Large height of vertical or near-vertical cuts requires to be reinforced
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Soil or Fill Matrix
Local c-φ soil in reinforced soil structure
Compromise between a pure frictional and fine-grained soils
Benefits of granular frictional soils
Economic availability of fine-grained soils
Minimum specification for the fill soil (US DOT, 1978)
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Reinforcement
Reinforcements
Tension resistant elements
Form - Sheet, strips, nets, or mats
Composition - Metal, synthetic fibres, or fibre-reinforced plastics
Main purpose
Reduction or suppression of tensile strain developed due to gravity or boundary forces
Orientation – Direction of tensile strains
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Reinforcement
Strip reinforcement
Flexible linear elements
Thickness : 3-9 mm
Breadth : 40-120 mm
Plain, grooved or ribbed
Materials
Metals
Galvanized steel
Aluminum-Magnesium alloy
Chrome Stainless steel
Check for durability against corrosion
Bamboo
Polymers
Glass-fibre reinforced plastics
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Reinforcement
Grid reinforcement
Flexible elements made up of transverse and longitudinal members
Transverse member run parallel to the face or free-edge of the structure
Act as anchors and passive reinforcements
Stiffer than the longitudinal members
Longitudinal members
High modulus of elasticity and not susceptible to creep
Materials
Metals
Punched Polymers Geogrids
Uniaxial Reinforced retaining wall
Biaxial Foundation beds
Railways and roadway subgrade
Embankment foundations
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Reinforcement
Sheet reinforcement
Galvanized steel, textile fabric or expanded metal
Geotextiles Textile fabrics
Most common nowadays
Porous
Permeability in the range of coarse gravel to fine sand
Manufacturing
Woven from continuous monofilament fibers
Non-woven Staple fibers laid in random pattern and mechanically entangled
Fibers may be bonded or interlocked
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Reinforcement
Anchor reinforcement
Flexible linear elements with distortions at the end
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Facings
Facing in reinforced soil structures
Required for vertical or near-vertical structures
Main purpose
Retains the soil between the reinforcement in the immediate vicinity to the edge of the
structure (Prevent surface erosion)
Does not affect the overall stability of the structure
Affect the local stability
Should be able to adopt to deformations without distortions and introduction of
stresses
Materials
Galvanized steel, Stainless steel, Aluminum, Bricks, Precast concrete panels, Precast
concrete slabs, Geotextiles, Geogrids, Plastics, Glass-reinforced plastics, Timber
Metal and precast concrete panels are mostly used
Ease in handling and assembling
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Facing
Metal facing
Mild steel, Galvanized steel or Aluminum
Same property as the reinforcement strips
Facing is semi-elliptical
Continuous horizontal joint along one edge
Holes are provided for bolting of reinforcing elements
Very flexible
Can adapt to significant deformation
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Facing
Concrete Panel Facing
Cruciform shaped
Vertical dowel-groove system to accommodate other adjacent panels
Dowels allow for restricted lateral and rotational movement
Renders the entire facing structure as flexible
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Facing
Concrete Panel Facing
Various architectural forms are created
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Facing
Other types
of facings
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Wrap-Face Geosynthetic Wall
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Stability Analysis of RE/MSE Walls
External stability
Assumption
Reinforced soil wall behaves as an integral unit
Behaves as a rigid gravity structure
Conforms to simple laws of statics
Internal stability
Deals with design of reinforcement in regard to its
Length and Cross-section
Against tension failure
Sufficient anchorage length into the stable soil
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External Stability
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Internal Stability: Failure of Reinforcement
Slippage Failure
Rupture Failure
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AEGCL Transmission Tower Slope, Sarusajai, Guwahati
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AEGCL Transmission Tower Slope, Sarusajai
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AEGCL Transmission Tower Slope, Sarusajai
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Composite Retention Systems
Anchored Earth
Closely spaced passive anchors embedded in
engineered fill
Composed of a bar or strip with relatively small
surface area, terminating at a passive block or hoop
at the rear of the backfill
Anchored earth transmits load from the wall facing
directly to the remote block or hoop
Lightweight facings are used
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Tindharia Project
West bengal
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Composite Retention Systems
Soil Nailing and Nailed Soil Slopes
In-situ ground reinforcement technique
Steel bars are driven, drilled and grouted, or fired
ballistically into the excavated face
Nail installation proceeds in parallel to the top-down staged
excavation
Simultaneous usage of shotcrete of steel-mesh facia
panels
Best suited to near vertical faces in relatively good ground
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Protective Embankment of Ganga Barrage, Kanpur
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Simultaneous Stabilization Schemes
Identifying the combination of stabilization measures to obtain optimal
stability solutions
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Road Caving at Mandi, Himachal Pradesh
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Road Caving at Mandi, Himachal Pradesh
Protecting road by arranging soil-filled drums???
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Road Caving at Mandi, Himachal Pradesh
Protecting road by arranging soil-filled drums???
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Road Caving at Mandi, Himachal Pradesh
Protecting road by arranging soil-filled drums???
It was never meant to work out
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Road Caving at Mandi, Himachal Pradesh
Gabion Wall became the saviour
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Preliminary Selection of Retention Systems
Factors influencing the choice of retention systems
Height of the ground to be supported
Type of retained soil
Type of foundation soil
Groundwater regime
Adjacent structures
Magnitude of external loads
Allowable movements
Available space for construction and machineries
Experience and local practice
Available standards and Codes of practice
Available construction techniques and equipment
Cost – A Major Issue
The Great Pyramid
of Hierarchy
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Final Remarks
Slope protection works is influenced by several factors
Geometry and composition of the slope
Degree of seismicity and strong motion characteristics
Presence of joints, bedding planes, fractures, shear zones
Topographic amplification and wave directivity
Geohydrologic conditions
Spatial variability of soil properties and ambient conditions
Variety of mitigation techniques against instability
Choice depends on the type of slope, composition, and causative factors
Domain of slope stability and landslides is interdisciplinary
Geotechnologists, Geologists, Hydrologists, Climatologists, Seismologists,
Earth Science experts, Instrumentation and Signal processing experts,
Transportation engineers to achieve a sustainable hillslope practice
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Good Hillside Practices
Australian Geomechanics Society
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Softwares
PLAXIS
GeoStudio
FLAC
GTS Midas
Talren
Geo5
OASYS
Rocscience
Gawacwin - Gabion wall design
Wallap - Retaining wall design
ReSSA - Reinforced Slopes - MSE walls
TEDDS - Geotechnical/Structural Retaining wall design software;
Inclined Gabion Structure
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Thank You for Patient Hearing
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