ycLEAR FISSION AND FUSION — wi Wa NUCLEAR FISSION | 22 - process of breaking up of the nucle rie proces of beat the nucleus of a heavy atom into two, more or less equal fragments une release re amount of energy is called fission, ~ call vi ypen uranium is bombarded with REUITOTS, a uranium nucle res a slow neutron, ing an unstable compound pi 5 . 5 formin jucleus. The compound nucleus splits into two nearly equal parts. fam neutons are also released in this process ‘The schematic equation for the fission process is 234 al . U9 + gn! —> 6, > X £Y + neutro.ts A) 236" ; U°" isahighly unstable isotope, and.X and Y are the issian fragments. The fragments are nO ible and a number of 2 Fe uniquely determined, because there are various combinations of fragments p mutrons are given off. Typical fission reactions are 2354 hy yee ae + git! > U2 > sg Bal4! + yg Kr? +3911! +O 354 a5 yee 9285 + grt! > gg > 54 Xe“ + 5g.57™ +2 7! +O Here, Qs the energy released in the reaction. © ‘ygoarvi™? According o Eqn. (2), when .,U* is bombarded by a sloy: maving-newtron, the nucleus becomes U®°) and splits into ..Ba"" and 4,Kr°? releasing 3 neutrons and energy (Fig. 22.1). unstable (2 235 236° pal‘! o2U ool ” Q- 4 a I on Ne gt Ot ae O aw 92 aekt Fig. 22.1 22.1.1. Energy Released in Fission We know that in the process of nuclear is produced because the original mass of the nucleus is g1 products produced after fission. The difference between these "converted into energy according t Einstein’ s equation E = mec". The energy liberated per fission can be calculated as follows: Let us consider the fission of, gg. The fission reaction is shown in Fig. 22.1. nding energy curve (Fig. 17.3), for a heavy nucleus (with A ~ 236), the Method | Pron er ae Bis ~ 7.6 MeV. For a nucleus with a medium weight, itis about 8.5 MeV. Hence, the average binding rey per particle is about 0.9 MeV more in the fission Products than in a compound nucleus (¢.8- 92U) » Thus, this excess of 0.9 MeV per nucleon must liberated per fission of *57U is given by be lib i i cess. The total enerey liberated in the fission Pro’ 7 ders ey 212 MeV. culate the total energy released By considering only the fission products sider the reaction fission a large amount of energy is released. This energy reater than the sum ofthe masses of the these masées before and after fission is _ Method II. We shall cal (ie, stable end products). Let us col444 “nt 8 U> BMo+ Yxe+2n. The total mass of the nuclei before fission is 1.0087 + 235.0439 = 236.0526 u, The total mass of the nuclei after fission is 97.906 + 135.9072 + 3.0174 = 235.8306 u. The mass difference is 0.2220 u. The energy release = 0.2220 x 931.3 = 206.7 MeV. Energy released by 1kg of uranium. Number of atoms in 1kg of uranium = (6.023 » 10°) /235 Energy released in one fission = 200 MeV Energy produced 26 a byl kgof uranium} 2 ¢ SEO" 200 = 5.128x10 ay during fission A 13, ° * B= (5.128 % 10°) x (1.6 % 10") J "1 MeV=1.6 x 10-8 sy (5.128x10"°)<(1.6x1059) = DR (1.6x109") 3.6x10° 26 = 107k Wh. oy e . Thus the energy released by fission of 1 kg of U2 is 2.26 x 10 kWh. Due to this reason, nucle, tratBy is being used for the generation of electricity. The most striking aspect of nuclear fission the magnitude of the energy involved. Ordinary chemical reactions, such as those that participate in the combustion of coal and oil, liberate only a few electron volte per individual reaction, Mos kWh 1k Wh=3.6 x 10° J) neutrons, B and y-rays and neutrinos carry off perhaps 20% of the total energy. 22.1.2. Features of the Fission Reaction Three features of the fission reaction make it useful as a means to gi (1) Energy dissipation. Most of the energ; fragments. These relatively heavy fragments do not travel yer before they dissipate most of their kinetic energy in collisio The energy can be extracted us heat and used to boil water, The resulting steam can then be used in @ conventional way to drive a turbine to generate electricity, (2) Neutron multiplicity. The average number making possible the chain reaction. How much gre, y far through the reactor fuel element ns with the atoms of the fuel element of neutrons Produced is greater than one, “ater th 7 ‘ nan one it must be, in order to achieve # chain reaction, depends on the construction of the reactor, (3) Delayed neutrons. The two neutrons emitted in the fission process BU rast > BRbs6+ WlCv6 +20 are prompt neutrons—they are emitted essentially at the ij instant of fission, _ Delayed neutrons. About 1 percent Of the neutrons in the fission roce: ' delayed neutrons emitted following the decays of the heavy fragmen The delayed neutrons erable erator oF om apical system to control the reaction and keep it from Proceedii ae idly “von ‘ 1 Ing too rapidly. oe and {hese theery Sr nuclear fission. Bohr ana Wheeler re explained om won liquid drop model, & liquid drop has a spherical form dueyucLeAR FISSION AND FUSION 4ap lecular forces resposi - AL ton at for surface tension, According to their theory, an excited liquid tipsoid. If the extern: te ways, On applying a large external force, the sphere may change. oe ie eal a thee cuficiently large, the ellipsoid ro change tow du jumb-bell may even break at the narrow end into two portions. aaa jner op ™ jntoan shape am The analogy may be extended to a nucleus which behaves like a liquid drop. When @ nucleus spsobs a neutron it fOrTis a coffpound nucleus which is highly energetic U ig, 22.2). The extra may possessed by it comes mostly from the Binding energy of the neutron absorbed by it, The gars energy may set up a Series of rapid oscillations inthe spherical compound nucleus shown as inFig. 2.2. Asa result of these oscillations, the shape ofthe nucleus may change a times from “jrerical to ellipsoidal shown as B. I the extra’energy is large, oscillations may be s@ vioient that sioge C and ultimately stage D may be approached. The nucleus is now dumbbell shaped (stage 1p). Each bell of the dumb-bell has now a positive charge and one repels the other. This results in @ fission (stage £). Spherical Dumb-be iti -bell Critical Nuclear compound shape state separation Ellipsoidal a CO &) +0 Neutrons A B c D E Fig. 22.2 The nuclei that result from fissis fission fragments. Usually fission fragments are of unequaL-size. A heavy micleus undergoes fission when it acquires enough excitation energy to * oscillate violently. Certain nuclei, notably {UP fare sufficiently excited by the mere absorption of an individual neutron. Other nucle), notably U7 * require more excitation energy for fission than ‘he binding energy released when another neutron is absorbed. ,U* undergoes fission only b: 2 rE ly by in tion with fast neutrons whose Kinetic energies exceed about | MeV. EXAMPLE. Explain mass yield in asymmetrical, ssi APRA scuss MSS distribution of fission (Mumbai, 2010) fragments for different fission chains of U®. SoL. Consider the following fission reaction: Buy > Bas Kr+3(bn)+O U4 hn > one Compound neous ith maximum A is “Ba. The stable isotope of Krypton with trons, these fission fragments must exhibit much beta lowing beta decay observations: The stable isotope of Barium w maximum A is ®Kr, To get rid of excess neu! activity, Experimentally this is confirmed by the fo "Ba 'jyla + B+ Wee +p +¥ Sprs B+ V "aNd + p+ 9 (Stable) 2)g CHAIN REACTION ' 7 chain reaction is a self-propavating 0 CiNS Fh jaivalmost in geometrical progres Process .in why leh “rofner sion daring cg ea unter of neutrons goes on multiplying example + Suppose a single neutron tll whole of fissile material is disintegrated. cing fission in a uranium nucleus pro. aes prompt neutrons, The three news | as i (wT MAY CAUSE Fission in thre nuclei producing 9 16 yeni! producing_9 ne ‘these nine neutrons in turn may cau trons n ’ fis- gon in nine uranium nuclei producing 27 sfuaons and Soon. The number of neue” rons produced in 77 such generations is 3", The ratio of secondary neutrons produced ‘jgthe original neutrons is called the multi- 1 plication factor (k). ® ‘Consider | kg of 9yU™Swhich contains { 6,023 * 10°*/ 235 or about 25 * 10”? atoms, Suppose a stray neutron causes fission ing Maal uranium nucleus. Each fission will releas Chain Reaction on the average 2.5 neutrons. The velocity of a neutron among the uranium atoms i fission capture of a thermal neutron by the »U°¥nuclei takes place in about 10°, Each of these fissions, in turn, will release 2,5 neutrons. Let us assume that all these neutrons are available for inducing further fission reactions. Let 1 be the number of stages of fission captures required to disrupt the entire ma: such that a of L kg of 40, Then, (2.5)" = 25 * 10 orn = 60. The time required for 60 fissions to take place = 60 * 10°*s Since each fission releases about 200 MeV of enérgy, this means that'a total of 200 x 25 x 107 =5 x 10°° MeV of energy is released in 0.6 yrs. The release of this tremendous amount of energy in such a short time interval leads to a violent explosion, This results in powerful air blasts and * high temperature of the order of 10” K or more, besides intense radioactivity. The self-propagating process described here is alee chain reaction Two See otehuin Sasa ne pee In one, the chain reaction is first accelerated so that the neutrons are built up to a certain level and there after the number of fission producing neutrons is kept constant, This is consrolled chain reaction. Such a controlled chain reaction is used in nuclear reactors, In the other type of chain reaction, the number of neutrons is allowed to multiply indefinitely and the entire energy is released all at once. This type of reaction takes place in atom ea a Multiplication factor (A). The ratio of secondary neutrons produced to the original neutrons is called the multiplication factor. It is defined as 0.6 1 in any one generation the preceding generation be “eritical” or steady when k = 1, it will be building up or II be dying down or “s ubcritical” when k <1, in reaction, Consider a system consisting of uranium (as Cie neutron that produces fission ejects 2.5 neutrons een her fission. The maintenance of the chain reaction he three processes’given below : The fission chain reaction will | itical” when k> 1 and it wil cal size for maintenance 0 Sie material) and a moderator. Even Haare on an average, all of them are not available Wr Ty depends upon a favourable balance of neMODERN PHYSiog Guces more neutrons than the numberof pega: pro (@) The fission of uranium nuclei whieh he wan used for inducing fission. asia capture of ee by the uranium andy, (2) Non-fission processes, ind by ” aoe capture bY the different substa he a the system. (3) Escape or leakage of neutrons plus of neutrons Produced j If the loss of neutrons due to the last a the first, a chain reaction takes places. Othe The escape of neutrons takes place from 1 throughout its volume. :. Escape rate varies as? and production including the F* inces in tl through the sur s less than the sui ot take place- f the reacting body and fission ocqy,, two causes i wise it cant he surface © rate varies as r. : Earned. - Production rate 7 ; the smaller is the escape rate. Thus it is clear that by increasing trons by escape from the system is reduced. The greater the e of neutrons. In this case, the production he escap y h ° + causes and a chain reaction-can be maintained ‘The larger the size of the body, the volume of the system, the loss of net size of the system, the lesser is the probability of t of neutrons will be more than the loss due to other Thus there is a critical size for the system. Doalbnition, Citic! ste afc cyriern cpa fipsthe omatorkct ts olefbnesl as ve rpalenem sex for which the number of neutrons produced in the fission process just balance those Jost by leakage ‘and non-fission capture. The mass of the fissionable material at this size is called the critical mass. © if the size is less than the critical size, a chain reaction is not possible. Natural uranium and chain reaction. Natural uranium consists of 99.28% of U** and 0.72% of U5, As most of the mass of natural uranium consists of U"**, the neutrons released during nuclear fission will try to bombard the nuclei of U* mostly and very few will bombard Le undergoes fission even by neutrons of small energy like thermal neutrons. U?* is fissionable only with fast neutrons of energy I-MeV- ‘Slow neutrons or more. It has been found that very few neutrons can cause fission of U7** but neutrons of all possible energies can cause fission of U***. Thus chain reaction is not possible in natural Fission Fast neutrons Fission uranium, fragment c (Pesin A chain reaction can, however, be ensraiot made to develop in natural uranium, Resonance neutrons if the fast neutrons from it are quickly capture Mas reduced to thermal ones before they @) y escape are lost through non-fission capture Fission in the uranium, so that the chances ‘ fragment rae ross) neutrons, of the thermal neutron fission of U2 go up. The neutron can be ‘slowed —& . down by distributing among lumps Decays or rods of uranium a material called Neptunium 239 and moderator, The moderators must not ‘Re? to Plutonium 239, Moderator Slow neutrons | pen is fbsorb the neutrons. The function ‘‘#" le 24000 year” Resonance tay Yecape causes of the moderator is to slow down captureby MayescaP® Sonn ¥ U' the neutrons produced by fission by elastic collision. Materials used as (Self-sustaining chain reaction) Fig. 22.4AR, FISSION AND FUSION vs have a large inelastic scattering cross-section ross-section. Commonly used moderators are graphit reat yilium oxide, hydrides of metals ‘and organic liquids. The nuc| um rons only to slight extent. sn id shows a self-sustaining chain reaction. aoe tron bombards aU nucleus. The nucleus breaks into (WO fragments es three fast neutrons are emitted. The neutrons are slowed down! by the modera of, One U®? which decays to NP al ou and and, at the same time, & small ec, heavy water (D,0), qroderato ei of these substances capture ¢ slow nel eon meess «PE son may, eScaP > One neutron may be captured by U2 to form eo Pu? -One neutron is still avarlable for carrying on the chain reaction. It bombards ie ones repeated. tom Bomb sion is made use of in rinciple of fis ‘ vvomirolted chain reaction is built UP Je, An atom bomb is a nuclear fission bomb. The pt s amount of energy it wpe construction of the atom bomb. It is a device in which an wn ino fissionable material by means of fast neutrons. It then releases tremendou: avery short-time. - Construction and working, An atom bomb consists of two pieces of 9,U* (or g,Pt?”) each f U5 in the form + than the ctitical size and a source of fieutr rt by using a separator apert ons. The two subcritical masses © wre (Fig. 22.5). smalle ‘themisphere are Kept apa Suberitical masses Ul Fig. 22.5 10 be exploded, a third well fitting cylind elled so that it will fit in or fuse togeth .ass, Hence an uncontrolled chain reaction When the bomb has t ler of U2 (whose mass is also less than the critical mass) is prop er with the other two pieces. | Now the total quantity of U*> is greater than the critical m: “fakes place resulting in a terrific explosion. The explosion of an atom bomb releases tremendously large quantity of energy in the form of heat, light and radiation, A temperature “smillions of degrees and a pressure of millions of atmospheres are produced. Such explosions produce shock waves. They are very dangerous because the waves spread radioactivity in air and cause loss of life. The release of dangerously radioactive rays, neutrons and radioactive materials presents a health hazard over the "surroundings for a long time. The radioactive fragments and isotopes formed out of explosion adhere to dust particles thrown into space and fall back to earth causing a tadiation “fall-out”, even at very distant places. 0 LEAR REACTORS “* i fe know that during the fission of U5 a large amount of energy is released. The atom_bhomb is renergy is liberated within an extremely due to an uncontrolled cl dion, Avery large amount % nossible to direct this energy for any useful purpose. But in a small interva of time. Hence it is not Pos fuclear reactor, the chain reaction 18 brought about under controlled conditions. If the chain reaction e time a steady state is established. Under a steady state, the rate of is put under control, after some ‘nergy production also attains a constant evel. Such ‘device in which energy is released at a given | Tate is known as a nuclear reactor: Nuclear reactors consist of five main elements: ed fuel. (1) The fissionable material callSODE, a =n HYG. (3) Neutron reflector, (4) Cooling system, and (5) The safety and con qd) The fissionable substance. The commonly used fissionable materia] isotopes UU the tharmates ‘ Is a tope TH, and the plutonium isotopes Pe? piasal® @) Moderator, : The function of the moderator is to slow _ os a Pe Produced in the process of fission of U6 thermal energies, Lerner ett etc., are used as moderators, Tdeally, moderators have low atomic Weight and low abet’ section for neutrons, ~ — beryl ‘orption ont (3) Neutron reftector, By the use of reflectors on the surface of reactors, leakage of ney can be very much ‘teduced and the neutron flux in the inte: can be increased, Materials of nt Scattering cross-séction and low absorption cross-section are good Teflectors, ‘th 4) Cooling s system. The cooling system removes the heat evolved in the reactor co heat is evolved from the K.E,, of the fission fragments when they are slowed down in the fig Substance-and moderator. The coolant or heat-transfer agent (water steam, He, CO, molten metals and al loys) is Pumped through the Teactor core. Then, through a h coolant transfers heat to the Secondary thermal system of the reactor, : (S) Controtand safety system. The Control systems enable the chain reaction tobe controlled and prevent it from spontaneously Tunning away. This is accomplished by pushing control rods ing | the reactor core, These rods are ofa material (boron or cadmium) having a large n absorption Cross-section. These rods absorb the neutrons amthience cut down the reactivity. By pushing inthe rods, the operation of the reactor can be made to die down, by Pulling them out to build up, The safety systems Protect the space surrounding the reactor against intensive neutron flux and gamma Tays existing in the reactor core. This is achieved by Surrounding the reactor with massive walls of Concrete and lead which would absorb neutr id gamma rays, Power reactor. The heat generated in a nuclear reactor is used for (producing power ina nuclear Power plant. Fig. 22.6 shows the components of a power reactor, A quantity of encriched uranium in | the form of pure metal or solution of ¢ Soluble salt in water constitutes the centre ofthe heat ‘energy Source. A large quantity of heat is roduced in the fission process, The cadmium rods regulate the temperature, to a pre-determined valug- Ttitis desired to Bring -down the temperature, the ne tods are pushed down further as to absorb more neutrons, If the temperature has to.be eG | cadmium rods are pulled up a little, A fluid is circulated through the shielded reactor and 7 k exchanger. The hot fluid, while flowing through the heat exchanger, converts.water into steam. steam produced runs conventional turbines to produce electricity, Control rods Hot liquid feat jer itrol systems, He. Ths Sionably » air and ceri leat exchanger, th Electric generator Condenser "containers 7° Fig. 22.6nycLEAR FISSION AND FUSION 451 Breede ike OE ‘panermal Teactor core with U®* fuel is surrounded by a blanket of a teens reactors. The reactions ee fissile fuel. Reactors of this type are called fuel 2+ on! > 9,U 4y This is followed by 5,U?? + ,, p29 45 239i i Fi asNp*" is also radioactive, It emits a B-particle to form plutonium. 239 93 Np —> 94 Pu? 4B 4y This Brogess of producing one type of fissionable material (Pu?) from a non-fissionable material (U"") is called breeding and the reactor a breeder reactor. The breeding reactions for the fertile material 327 are 2 inf Fon . ag Th+ > 99° Th’ 3 3? Pa 233 (Ty = 1.6%10° yrs). Uses of Nuclear Reactors. (1) Nuclear power. Nuclear reactors are used in the production of electric energy. (2) Production of radioisotopes. Nuclear reactors are useful in producing a large number of radio-isotopes. To produce-radio-isotope, a suitable compound is drawn into the centre of the reactor core where the flux of neutrons may well be more than 10! /m?/ sec. Sodium-24 is manufactured in this way. Na? + gn! > |, Na" _ (3) Scientific research. Reactors produce a number of radioactive materials needed for research purposes. The reactors provide a huge source of neutrons. Using these neutrons, several useful radioisotopes have been artificially produced and several nuclear reactions have been studied. We may also study the effect of neutrons on biological tissues. Reactors may also be used to study radiation damage. 22.3.1. Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) Principle. If the pressure on the water surface is increased, its boiling point increases so that it can have more quantity of heat energy per unit mass. This principle is utilised in PWR. Pressurizer Construction. Fig. 22.7 shows a simple sketch of a PWR. Reactor te i, a vessel _ The fuel is in the form of uranium — Steam oxide (UO,). It is sealed in long, thin rads — Zitconium-alloy tubes that are assembled Electric together with movable control rods into —— a y generator core. The core is enclosed in a steel 53 Steam |) Pressure vessel. Light water is used as ZS Condenser Coolant and moderator. : 3] —- The water that circulates past the core eo Fur Sf cooling 'Skept ata sufficiently high pressure, about i Ware Water 150 atm, to prevent boiling. Working, The heat is extracted in a “Perr ose Containment shell 'o-step process. Water circulates through "are fhe Core under great pressure, to prevent Fig. 22.7 p:cAR FISSION AND FUSION yu 487 Fig. 22.10 | this eyele CC acts like a catalyst. |The reaction cycle is essentially the reaction 4H! > Het +2,e° 42v+0 The loss in mass is calculated as follows : i 4H! = 4.031300; ,He* = 4.002603 and 2 ,¢” = 0.001098. Loss in mass = 0.02756 uw. = Energy released = 0.02756 x 931 = 27.5 MeV. itis ee in one million years the sun loses about 10-" of its mass by the above process. raking mass of the sun as 2 x 10° kg and its present age as 10" years, itis estiriated that the C-N syle may keep going for another 30 billion years. , proton-Proton Cycle. Recent modification of the estimates of the central temperatire of the sun now favour the proton-proton chain, In the p-p chain, two protons first fuse to produce 4 deuterium nucleus which combines with another proton to yield He |. Two Heinuclei interact and fom He! and twprotons. These reactions can be represented by the equations, (H+ H! > (,HE) > H+ eo +v+ 042 MeV H+ HH! > (,He?) > He’ +7+5.5MeV aH + He —>(Be®)—> He! + (H+ HI +12.8MeV 4H! > pHel +2 ye +2427 +26.7MeV 22.6.2. Thermonuclear ret) son, This suggests that a large amount of energy can be The source of stellar energy iS fu cbtained by nuclear fusion. But it is not easy 10 fuse the light nuclei into a single nucleus. The main difficulty in the fusion of nuclei is the electric force of repulsion between the positively charged nuclei, Fusion is possible when the K.E. of each of the nuclei is large enough to overcome at very high temperatures (of the ‘order of 107 to the repulsion. Fusion reactions can take place only r 10° K). Only at these] very high temperatures, the nuclei are able to overcome their mutual Coulomb repulsion and efiter the zone of nuclear attractive forces. Hence these reactions are called thermoruclear reactions.” A star is able to control thermonuclear fusion in its core because of its strong self-gravity. The thermonuclear reactions in the core of the sun cause high temperatures which generate strong Cutward pressures; these act against the sun’s own gravity, preventing it from contracting, and holding it in equilibrium. The equation etllar structure, set up by A.S. Eddington, relates the ‘essure from its centre outwards, the gravitational force in the star to the progressive changes of pr force int erature, and te fall of temperature outwards to the flow Magnitude of pressure to density and tem| P ofenergy from the interior to the surface. From these equations, stable models of stars emerge, with Central temperatures high enough to start and sustain thermonuclear fusion. The key role, of course,456 A ie The reaction He’ is ay ) (il : velo e 2604 — 1.008665) ~ 4,002604 ~ 1.008665) u = 0 Am= gore + ae co 3 = 17.58 MEY. 0188, nergy released =O" u ; Z Tail energy releast 4,032 a oe a Mev (6) This total enerey release is from the fon 3 ci. & sl ne pe SI= 720 ic 3 6.02% 10” No. of mucte in 1 gram of w= Sor 6.02 x 10” from! gramot Hl” = Fo1ai02 7,914102 * 931.3 MeV 7.203 MeV. | 7.203 . - §:02% 10 - «. Totalreleaseot enerBy * 1023 = 2.153 1, ey ent of one AP nucleus = (c) Energy equiva s 1H? nucleus = ‘Average release of energy Pe tof mass of |, __7:203_ x 100=0:38495 “2 The percentage of the res - 2.014102 x 931.3 deuteron released as energy 0 MeV is released per uranium nucleus. (d) In U fission, 20 +. The percentage of mass| energy releasein } - 200 U> fission 3550439 x 9313 © 109 = 091374 4 EnergyreleasefromH? fusion _ 0.3840. _ 4993 Energy release fromU™® fission 0.09137, 22.6.1, Source of Stellar Energy ‘The temperature of the stars are very high and they radiate trem = : oe (ts incurs stars. The sun radiates 3.8 * 10°6 Peet as ado pce of energy is neither chemical nor gravitational The fad et eee the enetey in the sun and in other stars, Bethe suggested the tong en 1e most important nuclear reactions for release of e y a itrogen Cycle. The cycle is as follows (Fig. 22.10), nS C2 +H! NO +y i 7h 3 CB 4 ay 4 CP +H Nay 4 INH 0 + q 10 NS Pay 7 a NS 40H! 1 +H 12 1H! > 6C? + Heta ae ° ot pis essemially the reaction et ele «fio? 4\H' > He +2 0 we tv+9 js calculated as follows : sans calculate te lows : ssi 4H! = 4.031300; He! = Loss in mass = 0.02756 w, Energy released = 0.02756 x 93) in one million years the sun J hat in one 30} A neck went he sun as 2 * 10°" kg and its present sot ng for another 30 billion years, 3 ton Cycle. Recent modification of © proto favour the proton-proton chain. In the st jeus which combines with another pr f #9) gnwo protons. These reactions ean be 4.00264 2603 and 2 "= 0.001098, 27.5 Mev, about 107 an ; a OF its mass by the above process a Yeats, itis estimated that the C_N 3 ee th the a fiat of the central temperature of £0 prot e Om to ytd lO ist Fase to produce a le. Two He} . fe" nuclei interact and Tepresented by the equations, iH! +H! > (He) ,H? +129 +v+0.42Mey LHP 4H (He) He 4445.5Mey He? + ,He’ (Be) > fe +H +H 412 8Mev 4,H' > ,He* +2 e942: v+2y +26,.7MeV 162. Thermonuclear Reactions The souree of stellar energy is fusion. This suggests that a large amount of energy can be dtuind by nuclear fusion, But it is not easy to fuse the light nuclei into a single nucleus. The xin ficuty in the fusion of nuclei is the electric force of repulsion between the positively éugeinuclei, Fusion is possible when the K.E. of each of the nuclei is large enough to overcome Seepulsion, Fusion reactions can take place only at very high temperatures (of the order of 10” to °K) Only at these very high temperatures, the nuclei are able to overcome their mutual ‘olonb repulsion-and enter the zone of nuclear attractive forces. Hence these reactions are called femonuclear reactions. sar is able to control thermonuclear fusion in its core because of its strong self-gravity. | Tethemonuclear reactions in the core of the sun cause high temperatures which generate strong | Ei" pressures; these act against the sun’s own gravity, preventing it fi contacting, and | caret it equilibrium, The equation of stellar structure, set up by A.S. Ed en tes te Rion force in the star to the progressive changes of ie ane ania fe tude of pressure to density and temperature, and the ape pote ofiters emerge, will te om the interior to the surface. From these equatio se fesion, The Ke tle, of course, peratures high enough to start and sustain thermonut