DYNAMIC POSITIONING

INDUCTION COURSE
TRAINING MANUAL
Revision 01-01-2018

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COURSE AIMS.

The Dynamic Positioning (DP) Induction Course will provide an indepth understanding of the
positioning system as it is used to compensate for vessel movement. It will cover vessels’
DP referencing systems, sensors, power plants, thrusters and feedback systems.

Those who successfully complete this course should have acquired a knowledge of the
principles of Dynamic Positioning, be able to set up a Dynamic Positioning system and have
an understanding of the practical operation of associated equipment, including position
reference systems. Trainees should be able to recognize and respond to the various alarms,
warning and information messages. Trainees should also be able to relate the DP installation
to the ship system, e.g. power supply, maneuvering facility, available position reference
systems and nature of work. Trainees should also be able to relate DP operations to the
existing environmental conditions of wind, sea state, current and vessel movement.

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Contents

Course aims ……………………………………………………………………………… 1

Contents …………………………………………………………………………………. 2

1 PRINCIPLES OF DYNAMIC POSITIONING

1.1 Definitions ………………………………………………………………………………….3
1.2 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………. 4
1.3 Motion and Forces …………………………………………………………………………6
1.4 Coordinate System ………………………………………………………………………...
9

2 ELEMENTS OF DYNAMIC POSITIONING SYSTEM

2.1 DP system composition ……………………………………………………………….. 10
2.2 DP Operator …………………………………………………………………………….. 10
2.3 Computer system ……………………………………………………………………….. 11
2.4 Man machinery interface (MMI) ………………………………………………………….14
2.5 Power Requirements …………………………………………………………………… 14
2.6 Position reference systems ……………….…………………………………………… 15
2.7 Sensors systems ……………..………………………………………………………… 17
2.8 Redundancy ……………………………………………………………………………. 19
2.9 Mathematical Modeling Process . ………………………………………………………19

3 PRACTICAL OPERATION OF A DP SYSTEM

3.1 DP Mode ………………………………………………………………………………… 22
3.2 Basic DP Mode ………………………………………………………………………….. 22
3.3 Non-Basic DP Mode …………………………………………………………………… 25
3.4 Consequence Analysis ……………………………………………………………………32
3.5 Centre of Rotation / Alternative Centre of Rotation …………………………………. 33

4 POSITION REFERENCE SYSTEMS

4.1 General ………………………………………………………………………………….. 34
4.2 Hydro-acoustic position reference (HPR) system …………………………………… 42
4.3 Artemis …………………………………………………………………………………… 53
4.4 Taut Wire Position Reference Systems ………………………………………………. 59
4.5 Differential Global Positioning System …………………………………………………64
4.6 Laser Positioning Reference Systems ……………………………………………….. 70

5 ENVIRONMENT REFERENCE
5.1 Wind sensors …………………………………………………………………………….. 75
5.2 Reference Origin ………………………………………………………………………… 77
5.3 Heading Reference (GYRO) ………………………………………………………….. 77
5.4 Vertical Reference Unit (VRU) ………………………………………………………… 78
5.5 Functions and capabilities of a modern DP system ………………………………… 79

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6 POWER GENERATION AND SUPPLY AND PROPULSION

6.1 General ………………………………………………………………………………….. 82
6.2 Power Management System (PMS) …………………………………………………… 83
6.3 Automated Power Management System …………………………………………….. 84
6.4 Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS) ………………………………………………. 84
6.5 Propulsion system …………………………………………………………………….. 85
6.6 Thrusters allocation ……………………………………………………………………. 87

7 OPERATIONS USING DP
7.1 Geodetic systems . …………………………………………………………………….. 89
7.2 DP capability plot ………………………………………………………………………. 92
7.3 DP Footprit Plot …………………………………………………………………………. 93
7.4 Trials and Checklists ……………………………………………………………………… 94
7.5 DP Operation Manual …………………………………………………………………… 95
7.6 List of DP Operational Procedures ………………………………………………………96
7.7 DP Incidents ……………………………………………………………………………. 100
7.8 Competence …………………………………………………………………………….. 103
7.9 Manning …………………………………………………………………………………. 104
7.10 DP Operational Documentation ……………………………………………………….. 104
7.11 DP Classes ……………………………………………………………………………… 107
7.12 DP Operations ………………………………………………………………………….. 113

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Chapter 1. PRINCIPLES OF DYNAMIC POSITIONING.

Section 1.1 Definitions. (IMO MSC Circular 645 “Guidelines for Vessels with DP system”).

1.3.1 Dynamically positioned vessel (DP-vessel) means a unit or a vessel which

automatically maintains its position (fixed location or predetermined track) by means
of thruster force.

1.3.2 Dynamic positioning systems (DP-system) means the complete installation necessary
for dynamically positioning a vessel comprising the following sub-systems:
.1 power system,
.2 thruster system, and
.3 DP-control system.

1.3.3 Position keeping means maintaining a desired position within the normal excursions of
the control system and the environmental conditions.

1.3.4 Power system means all components and systems necessary to supply the DP-system
with power. The power system includes:
.1 prime movers with necessary auxiliary systems including piping,
.2 generators,
.3 switchboards, and
.4 distributing system (cabling and cable routeing).

1.3.5 Thruster system means all components and systems necessary to supply the DP-
system with thrust force and direction. The thruster system includes:
.1 thrusters with drive units and necessary auxiliary systems including piping,
.2 main propellers and rudders if these are under the control of the DP-system,
.3 thruster control electronics,
.4 manual thruster controls, and
.5 associated cabling and cable routeing.

1.3.6 DP-control system means all control components and systems, hardware and software
necessary to dynamically position the vessel. The DP-control system consists of the
following:
.1 computer system/joystick system,
.2 sensor system,
.3 display system (operator panels),
.4 position reference system, and
.5 associated cabling and cable routeing.

1.3.7 Computer system means a system consisting of one or several computers including
software and their interfaces.

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Section 1.2 Introduction

Dynamic Positioning is a relatively new technology, having been born of necessity as a result
of the increasing demands of the rapidly expanding oil and gas exploration industry in the
1960s and early 1970s. Even now, when there exists over 1000 DP-capable vessels, the
majority of them are operationally related to the exploration or exploitation of oil and gas
reserves.

Since the end of hostilities in 1945, world shipping has undergone many wide-ranging
changes. Traditional shipping patterns and trades have changed beyond recognition, and the
methods used to achieve the commercial ends of the shipping industry have also altered
immeasurably. Passenger liner trades have collapsed totally in the face of competition from
universal jet air transport, while cruiseliner traffic is enjoying a major boom. General cargo
vessels of the traditional tweendecker variety have also been eclipsed by specialist carriers
of various shapes and sizes; the container vessel predominating. Passengers and vehicles
are carried across short sea routes in roll-on/roll-off ferries of a size and sophistication
unheard of a few decades ago. Bulk cargoes of all descriptions are now lifted in huge but
rather unsophisticated tonnage, and all ships nowadays are manned by ever decreasing
numbers of personnel from an ever increasing variety of nationalities.

Common to all of the types of vessel mentioned above is the necessity to make a profit, and
with the majority of ships the profits arise from making passages at sea; a ship tied up in port
is making no money for her owner. The priority in naval architecture terms was to design
vessels that would be most economical at designed (usually close to maximum) speed, and
to show expediency in turn-round arrangements in port. Sophistication within the vessel's
maneuverability was of a lower priority, and mainly provided in order to reduce the expense
of and reliance upon tug assistance during port arrival and departure.

Normal trading vessels generally sport main propellers and rudders optimized for full power
economy, together with maybe a bow thruster. Only a small fraction of trading vessels are
fitted with greater maneuverability, and these tend to be the ferries, where precise
maneuverability is required for reliable berthing and unberthing, sometimes many times in
any day.

The advent of the offshore oil and gas industry has brought about a whole new set of needs
and requirements. Further to this, the more recent moves into deeper waters, together with
the requirement to consider more environmental-friendly methods, has brought about the
great development in the area of Dynamic Positioning techniques and technology. Offshore
drilling, (as opposed to onshore) commenced in the mid 1920's, but it was not until after
around 1950 that there arose a need to operate in deep water. In shallower waters the
drilling rig could be placed upon a jack-up barge, which, once on location, raised itself clear
of the sea on three or more massive legs. The barge thus becomes a fixed platform for the
duration of the drilling operation, with no positioning problems.

The water depth allowing jack-up operations is obviously quite limited, and in deeper waters
barges and drillships would rely upon mooring systems using four or more anchors and
mooring lines controlled by winches located on board. Both jack-up and mooring are still
techniques used in many locations where circumstances permit, but there remain very many
locations and operations where the use of either of these techniques is either impossible due
to water depth or other operational constraints, or otherwise very expensive in terms of time
and money.

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In terms of water depth, it is possible to anchor in very deep water, and operations are
occasionally conducted from anchored barges in depths exceeding 1000m. Once, however,
the depth exceeds 500m, the economics of the operation are such that alternatives must be
considered. The cost and time taken to lay the spread of, maybe eight anchors, together with
the associated costs of the anchor-handling tugs, is very high. These costs start to escalate
if any of the anchors fails to hold when tensioned, and piggy-backing has to be resorted to.

(Piggy-backing is where a second anchor is laid behind the first, dragging, one, to back it
up). If the water is deep then the amount of ground tackle becomes great with
commensurate increases is weights of gear deployed, line lengths and power requirements
of tugs. The rig, once anchored, has a certain amount of movement due to the flexibility
inherent in the mooring spread, but there is a distinct lack of flexibility of the maneuverability
of the rig. If a position shift is needed, then some or all anchors may need to be lifted and
relaid.

Small position changes may be made by means of winch spooling, adjusting the line lengths,
but there is a lack of precision in this. Likewise, heading changes are limited. Other problems
which may affect vessels/barges/rigs using spread moorings and anchors concerns the
hazards represented by any existing underwater installation, such as pipelines. These
hazards may exist in any water depth, of course, and may influence the choice of positioning
method even where mooring would be otherwise ideal. In some fields there is a partial or
total bar upon the use of anchors and moorings.

In the early 1960's there was a pressing need for expansion in the
production of oil related energy. This necessitated exploration
drilling in many parts of the world hitherto unexploited. Frequently
the limitation had been that the water was too deep for drilling
operations, but in 1961 the small monohull drilling vessel "Cuss 1",
which had hitherto used a four-point mooring spread for
positioning, was fitted with four manually-controlled steerable
propellers. Using radar ranging to surface buoys, together with
sonar ranging from subsea beacons, the vessel was able to carry
out core drilling operations off California and Mexico in water
depths of between 100 and 3500m.
First drilling vessel “Cuss 1”

Control of the position and heading of the

vessel was completely manual, so this vessel
did not come within any modem definition of
Dynamic Positioning. The first vessel to fulfill
that requirement was the "Eureka", of 1961.
This vessel was fitted with an analogue
control system of very basic type, interfaced
with a taut wire reference. Equipped with
steerable thrusters fore and aft in addition to
her main propulsion, this vessel was of about
450 tons displacement and length 130 feet.

Drilling vessel “Eureka”

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A few years later the oil adventure started in the North

Sea, and Norway and the UK became interested in
dynamic positioning. British GEC Electrical Projects Ltd
equipped in 1974 WIMPEY SEALAB, an old cargo
vessel converted to a drilling vessel, and in 1977
UNCLE JOHN, a semi-submersible platform, with
equipment similar to that which the Americans and
French had named the "Dynamic Positioning (DP)
System".

“Wimpey Sealab”

Norwegian ship owners wanted a DP system produced in Norway because of the problems
connected with getting service in the North Sea from Honeywell, who had roughly the whole
DP market in the early 1970's. Research was started up in Tonrdheim and a concept was
presented. Kongsberg, Vapenfabrikk (KV) was chosen to carry out the project and Stolt
Nielsen ordered the first system. The first vessel to use a Norwegian DP system was the
SEAWAY EAGLE on the 17th of May 1977.

Section 1.3 Motion and Forces.

The prime function of a DP system is to allow a vessel to maintain position and heading. A
variety of further sub-functions may be available, such as track-follow, or weathervane
modes, but the maintenance of position and heading is fundamental.

Any vessel (or other object) has six freedoms of movement; three rotations and three
translations. In a vessel they can be illustrated as Roll, Pitch, Yaw, Surge, Sway and Heave.

Dynamic Positioning concerned with the automatic control of Surge, Sway and Yaw. Surge
and Sway, of course, comprise the position of the vessel, while Yaw is defined by the vessel
heading. Both of these are controlled about desired or "setpoint" values input by the
operator. In each case, the variable must be measured in order to obtain "feedback" values.
Position is measured by one or a range of Position Reference, or navigation systems, while
heading feedback is provided from one or more gyro compasses. The difference between
Setpoint and Feedback is the error or offset, and the DP system operates to reduce the
errors to, or maintain the errors at a minimum.

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In order to be able to control position and heading, it is necessary that sensors be enabled to
allow both position and heading to be measured. The three axes are separated, such that
the DP operator may select to control Surge, or Sway, or Yaw, individually and automatically.
In the Kongsberg/K-Pos systems three buttons are provided, labelled SURGE, SWAY and
YAW. With the vessel in MANUAL or JOYSTICK control on the DP console, the DPO may
control the vessel using Joystick and Rotate controls. This is the "PosCon" function fitted in
many vessel types including many supply boats. Using the "PosCon" controls the DPO may
manoeuvre the vessel using all of the thrusters available, with thruster output integrated into
the Joystick/rotate controls.

The computer reads the joystick and rotates control positions, and allocates thrust to obtain
the desired result. While in this Manual control mode, the DPO may select any of the three
automatic axis control functions, e.g. if he presses the YAW button, Surge and Sway
movements are still controlled manually by the Joystick, while the heading of the vessel
(yaw) is stabilized and controlled onto the setpoint. This setpoint is the heading of the vessel
at the moment "Yaw" was selected into the system. The DPO could just as easily have
selected "Surge" or "Sway", but he must ensure that a position-reference system is operating
and enabled before selecting either of these two functions. Likewise, the DPO may press
any two buttons from the Surge/Sway/Yaw trio, leaving the remaining function under manual
control. Pressing all three of them takes the system into full AUTO or automatic mode, since
auto-DP is, by definition, automatic control of Surge, Sway and Yaw.

Some systems, particularly the Alstom/Cegelec systems, have three modes of control;
Manual, JSAH, and Auto. In "Manual", control of the vessel lies with the joystick/rotate
controls. In JSAH (Joystick, Automatic Heading) the position control of the vessel remains
with the joystick, while her heading is controlled automatically by the system. This is the
equivalent of the Manual mode with the "Yaw" button pressed.

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While on station, the function of the DP is to maintain the vessel's position and heading,
counteracting any external forces such as wind and current which will be continually trying to
set the vessel away from the required, or setpoint, position. In particular, rotation of the
vessel will be induced by wind forces upon asymetric hull and superstructure configurations.
The DP must induce compensating surge, sway and yaw vectors in order to restore and
maintain position and heading.

As mentioned above, the vessel must be able to maintain position and heading in the face of
a variety of external forces. Some of these forces are measured directly, and fed back into
the computers for immediate compensation. A good example of this is compensation for
wind forces, where a continuous measurement is available from wind sensors.

Other examples include plough cable tension in a vessel laying cable, and fire monitor forces
in a vessel engaged in firefighting. In both cases operational elements of the vessel conspire
to provide forces which would tend to offset her from the setpoint position and heading.
Sensors connected to the cable tensioners, and the fire monitors respectively allow direct
feedback of these "external" forces, resulting in direct compensation for those forces.

Some external forces are not directly measured. In these cases, the offset force is deduced
over a period of time, allowing an average value of compensating thrust to be applied. All
forces not attributable to direct measurement are labeled "current", as this is what they are
assumed to be, but in reality this is a combination of current, waves, swell, and any errors in
the system. In the Alstom systems, this aggregated error is labeled "Sea Force".

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In addition to maintaining station and heading, the DP may be utilised to achieve automatic
change of position or heading, or both. The operator may choose a new position using a
display cursor, also choosing a speed (usually in meters/second). Once this is done he
initiates the move, and the vessel takes up the new position at the speed selected. Similarly,
the operator may input a new heading. Upon initiation, the vessel will rotate to the new
heading while maintaining station. Automatic changes of position and heading may be done
simultaneously. Some DP functions do not relate to the maintenance of a fixed position and
heading. Some vessels, such as dredgers, pipelay barges and cable lay vessels have a
need to follow a precisely determined track. Others need to be able to weathervane around a
specified spot. This is the function used by shuttle tankers configured to load cargo from an
offshore loading terminal. Some vessels need to be able to follow a moving target, such as a
submersible vehicle, or a seabed tracked vehicle. In these cases the vessel's reference is
the vehicle rather than a designated fixed location.

Section 1.4 Coordinate System.

The DPO select which type of coordinates are on line in the system and care must be
exercised. Movement in the wrong mode could be disastrous.

Plus and Minus Law

Rotation to port Rotation to Starboard

Anti-clockwise Clockwise
always minus always Plus

Forward or North
Always
plus

Aft or South
Always
Minus

There are two coordinate systems EARTH and SHIP.

- Earth Co-ordinates: North, South, East and West.
- Ship Co-ordinates: Forward, Aft, Port and Starboard.

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Chapter 2. ELEMENTS OF DYNAMIC POSITIONING SYSTEM.

Section 2.1 DP system composition.
DP system consists from several components each of which is vital to the operation, as the
saying “chain is as strong as the weakest link”.

System components:
- Control Desk
- Computer
- Sensors
- Heading reference
- Position reference
- Thrusters
- Power

DP system outline
Section 2.2 DP Operator.
A DP operator needs to have awareness not only of the equipment, but the operations as
well. There is no requirement for the DP operator to be a mariner, but bear in mind when
moving between locations, and not in DP the non mariner cannot keep a watch.

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Section 2.3 Computer system.

Requirements:
“…….
3.4.2 Computers
.1 For equipment class 1, the DP-control system need not be redundant.

.2 For equipment class 2, the DP-control system should consist of at least two
independent computer systems. Common facilities such as selfchecking routines,
data transfer arrangements, and plant interfaces should not be capable of causing
the failure of both/all systems.

.3 For equipment class 3, the DP-control system should consist of at least two
independent computer systems with self-checking and alignment facilities. Common
facilities such as self-checking routines, data transfer arrangements and plant
interfaces should not be capable of causing failure at both/all systems. In addition,
one back-up DP control system should be arranged, see 3.4.2.6. An alarm should be
initiated if any computer fails or is not ready to take control.

.4 For equipment classes 2 and 3, the DP-control system should include a software
function, normally known as ‘consequence analysis’, which continuously verifies that
the vessel will remain in position even if the worst case failure occurs. This analysis
should verify that the thrusters remaining in operation after the worst case failure can
generate the same resultant thruster force and moment as required before the
failure. The consequence analysis should provide an alarm if the occurrence of a
worst case failure would lead to a loss of position due to insufficient thrust for the
prevailing environmental conditions. For operations which will take a long time to
safely terminate, the consequence analysis should include a function which
simulates the thrust and power remaining after the worse case failure, based on
manual input of weather trend.

.5 Redundant computer systems should be arranged with automatic transfer of control

after a detected failure in one of the computer systems. The automatic transfer of
control from one computer system to another should be smooth, and within the
acceptable limitations of the operation.

.6 For equipment class 3, the back-up DP-control system should be in a room

separated by A.60 class division from the main DP-control station. During DP-
operation this back-up control system should be continuously updated by input from
the sensors, position reference system, thruster feedback, etc., and be ready to take
over control. The switch-over of control to the back-up system should be manual,
situated on the back-up computer and should not be affected by failure of the main
DP-control system.

.7 An uninterruptable power supply (UPS) should be provided for each DP computer

system to ensure that any power failure will not affect more than one computer. UPS
battery capacity should provide a minimum of 30 minutes operation following a
mains supply failure. ……”

IMO MSC Circular 645 „Guidelines for Vessels with Dynamic Positioning Systems „

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The primary control element of any DP system is the suite of computers. It is not the
intention of this book to engage in any detailed discussion relating to types of computer, their
architecture, capabilities or relative merits and limitations. The main distinctions of concern to
the DPO are the number of computers, their methods of operation, and the level of
redundancy. The control console may be located in a variety of spaces. In most vessels it is
on the bridge, but this is not always the case. In some semi-submersible vessels the DP
console may be located in a specially-provided control station that may be away from the
bridge.

The multi-role vessel "Stadive" (now converted to the drilling rig "Louisiana") had a DP
control station on the port side, below upper deck level. Many vessels, including most DSVs
will have the DP console located in the after bridge, facing aft. In these vessels, the aft
bridge is the operational control area, affording a view over the aft deck where most
operations take place. The forward briuge, in these vessels is only used when the vessel is
in transit and not on DP.

Survey and other types of monohull vessel may have the console located in the forward
bridge in a more traditional location. Shuttle tankers may have the DP system situated in the
Bow control station. This is a control bridge located forward, used for control of the vessel
during the approach, connect, loading and breakaway stages of the voyage. Possibly the
least satisfactory location for the DP console is in a compartment with no outside view. This
is the case in a number of drilling rigs, where a common location for the DP console and
computers is in the Machinery Control Room. In any vessel the console may be placed
forward facing, aft facing or even sideways-orientated. The orientation is not so important,
but it is vital that the relative displays are orientated the same way, e.g. if the console is aft-
facing in the aft bridge, the various instrument and display layouts should indicate "stern-up"
to the DPO.

In general terms, DP as a technique has spanned the computer era, and has developed with
that era. The earliest DP systems used analogue machines but all built since the late 1960's
are digital. All DP control systems may be described as Closed-loop or feedback systems, in
which the output from the system has an influence on the control function via feedback of
information from the controlled variable. Early systems used computers, often of propriety in-
house design, configured specifically for the system under design. Software was often
introduced on magnetic tape.

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By today's standards memory capacities was extremely limited. Common machines from this
era were the G.E.C. Gem 80, and the Kongsberg KS 500 computers. Over the years new
models of DP system have utilized more up-to-date computers. The modern version of the
G.E.C. Gem 80 computer bears little resemblance to early versions. Modern Kongsberg
Simrad systems use Pentium and RISC based processors. Modern Alstom systems use the
Motorola PowerPC running VX Works as an operating system.

Computers may be installed in single, dual or triple configurations, depending upon the level
of redundancy required. Modern systems may communicate via an internet, or Local area
network (LAN), which incorporates many other vessel control functions in addition to the DP.
This configuration simplifies installation as all communication is via one or two net cables,
whereas in older stand-alone systems a multitude of cables had to be installed and tested,
with greater likelihood of cable failure.

Modern systems do not have to be loaded from magnetic tape, of course, the data is already
on-board on hard disc. Computer location has varied over the years. In the earlier systems
the computers were installed in a separate room. This ensured a certain amount of security,
but sometimes led to problems if the computer room was distant from the bridge. At least
that room could be air-conditioned such that the computers did not have to endure an
adverse environment. In some early vessels the computers were installed on the bridge,
allowing better monitoring but providing the DPO with an additional source of noise. As
computer components became more compact, the processors came to be fitted integral with
the bridge console. This also was a mixed blessing. Sometimes the bridge does not provide
the most suitable environment for the computers, and they were then exposed to all sorts of
interfering fingers! The two foregoing configurations did not lend themselves to separated
location of multiple computers for redundancy purposes. The latest configuration of DP
system from Kongsberg Simrad has the computers housed separately from the bridge
console.

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Section 2.4 Man machinery interface (MMI).

MMI - is an important feature, which enables efficient and safe operation of the system by
helping the operator to make optimum operational decisions. During normal operation this
reduces the risk of human error. Emphasis has been placed on ergonomics, logical
operation, effective presentation of relevant information and user-friendliness.

Section 2.5 Power Requirements.

“3.2 Power system
3.2.1 The power system should have an adequate response time to power demand changes.

3.2.2 For equipment class 1 the power system need not be redundant.

3.2.3 For equipment class 2, the power system should be divisible into two or more systems
such that in the event of failure of one system at least one other system will remain in
operation. The power system may be run as one system during operation, but should be
arranged by bus-tie breakers to separate automatically upon failures which could be
transferred from one system to another, including overloading and short-circuits.

3.2.4 For equipment class 3, the power system should be divisible into two or more systems
such that in the event of failure of one system, at least one other system will remain in
operation. The divided power system should be located in different spaces separated by
A.60 class division. Where the power systems are located below the operational waterline,
the separation should also be watertight. Bus-tie breakers should be open during equipment
class 3 operations unless equivalent integrity of power operation can be accepted according
to 3.1.3.

3.2.5 For equipment classes 2 and 3, the power available for position keeping should be
sufficient to maintain the vessel in position after worst case failure according to 2.2.

3.2.6 If a power management system is installed, adequate redundancy or reliability to the

satisfaction of the Administration should be demonstrated.”

IMO MSC Circular 645 „Guidelines for Vessels with Dynamic Positioning Systems „

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Central to the operation of any DP vessel is the power supply and distribution system. Power
needs to be supplied to the thrusters and other maneuvering systems fitted, and also to the
DP control elements and reference systems.

The thrusters will generally absorb more power than any other consumer on board. Dynamic
Positioning requires more power than other ship functions so it is often found that DP
vessels have a very high level of installed power. The DP function often requires large
unpredictable changes of power load such as occurs when a vessel is on DP headed into
the wind, and the wind rapidly freshens and changes direction. The result may be the vessel
maintaining station beam-on to a gale force wind, requiring much more power than hitherto.

It can be seen that the power generation system needs to be flexible in order to avoid
unnecessary fuel consumption. Many DP vessels are fitted with a diesel-electric power plant
with all thrusters and consumers electrically powered. Power is generated by a number of
diesel alternators. Another configuration consists of part diesel direct-drive and part diesel
electric. A vessel may have twin screws as main propulsion driven direct from diesel
engines. Bow and stern thrusters are electrically driven taking power from shaft alternators
coupled to the main diesels or from separate diesel alternators. There are many alternatives.

The DP system is protected against power failure by the inclusion of an Uninterruptible

Power Supply (UPS). This system provides a stabilized power supply not affected by short-
term interruptions or fluctuations of the ships AC power supply. Power is supplied to the
computers, consoles, displays, alarms, position- and environment-reference systems. In the
event of an interruption to the main AC ship's supply, a bank of batteries will supply power to
all of these systems for a minimum of 30 minutes. It should be noted that this emergency
back-up applies only to the DP system electronics (not the thrusters), and there are parts of
the complete DP system that cannot be powered from the UPS, e.g. the Artemis Fix station
on the platform, the DGPS reference station, also located on a platform. These elements
must have their own backup power arrangements in order to retain reliability.

Section 2.6 Position reference systems.

Requirements.
“3.4.3 Position reference system
.1 Position reference systems should be selected with due consideration to
operational requirements, both with regard to restrictions caused by the manner of
deployment and expected performance in working situation.
.2 For equipment classes 2 and 3, at least three position reference systems should be
installed and simultaneously available to the DP-control system during operation.
.3 When two or more position reference systems are required, they should not all be
of the same type, but based on different principles and suitable for the operating
conditions.
.4 The position reference systems should produce data with adequate accuracy for
the intended DP-operation.
.5 The performance of position reference systems should be monitored and warnings
provided when the signals from the position reference systems are either incorrect
or substantially degraded.
.6 For equipment class 3, at least one of the position reference systems should be
connected directly to the back-up control system and separated by A.60 class
division from the other position reference systems.”

IMO MSC Circular 645 „Guidelines for Vessels with Dynamic Positioning Systems „

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The DP vessel should be equipped with suitable position reference and sensors in
accordance with the vessel’s DP class notation and operational requirements. Position
reference systems should be selected with due consideration to operational requirements,
both with regard to restrictions caused by the manner of deployment and expected
performance in working situations. Position reference systems comprise absolute and
relative systems. An absolute system gives vessel geographical position. A relative system
gives vessel position in relation to a non-fixed reference. A relative system can be used as
an absolute system if installed on a point that is a fixed geographical position. And, an
acoustic absolute system can be used as a relative system if attached to a non-fixed asset.
Absolute
- Differential GPS - The reliability of this system is very much dependent on the location
and can range from good to very poor
- Acoustic (HPR) - Can be reliable but is reliant on batteries in portable transponders ( no
limitation exists with fixed transponders)
- Taut Wire - Very reliable simple system, may introduce movement restrictions when in
use.

Relative
- Microwave (Artemis) - Is limited in that it is a line of site only system, the advantage is that
communication link is available and emergency shutdown systems are sometimes built in
- Laser (Fanbeam) - This cheap reference can be initially very reliable reducing as the
target becomes dirty or due to atmospherics. It is a line of site reference
- Radar (e.g. RADius, RadaScan)
- DARPS

Note 1: Class rules give minimum requirements for the number of position references. Where
operational uptime is one of the key success factors the benefit gained by consciously
exceeding the minimum requirements are to be evaluated. Other benefits of exceeding
minimum requirements include greater redundancy and improved station keeping performance.

Note 2: It could be debated that Taut Wire and Acoustic Position reference systems are relative
position reference systems. For purposes of this document, absolute indicates that this position
reference sensor is independent of another fixed or floating offshore structure.

Caution: Additional position reference systems should be based on different principles. It is

generally not recommended to install multiple satellite based systems at the expenses of other
systems.

Caution: DP reference systems sensitive to interferences from the vessels radars, radios etc.
Should not be used during critical operations such as sub-sea operations.

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This is, perhaps, the most important concern of the DPO; that of maintaining adequate and
reliable position reference systems. The number of position references used will depend
upon a number of factors, in particular the level of risk involved in the operation, the IMO
Equipment Class in force for that operation, the availability of references of a suitable type,
and the consequences of loss of one or more position references.

Section 2.7 Sensors systems.

Requirements.
“3.4.4 Vessel sensors
.1 Vessel sensors should at least measure vessel heading, vessel motions, and wind
speed and direction.
.2 When an equipment class 2 or 3 DP-control system is fully dependent on correct
signals from vessel sensors, then these signals should be based on three systems
serving the same purpose (i.e. this will result in at least three gyro compasses
being installed).
.3 Sensors for the same purpose, connected to redundant systems should be
arranged independently so that failure of one will not affect the others.
.4 For equipment class 3, one of each type of sensors should be connected directly to
the back-up control system and separated by A.60 class division from the other
sensors.”
IMO MSC Circular 645 „Guidelines for Vessels with Dynamic Positioning Systems „

Sensors or environment sensors affecting a DP system are normally Wind Sensors

(Anemometers) and Motion sensors called Vertical Reference Sensors (VRS), Vertical
Reference Unit (VRU) or Motion Reference Unit (MRU).

Wind - This measures both the wind speed and wind direction. A calculation based on
parameters such as vessel topside area is made on the effect of the vessel. This signal is
fed forward to the DP Computer so that action may be taken before the vessel moves off
station

Gyro - Measures the vessels heading giving error correction for such reference systems as
Artemis.

Vertical Reference Sensor - used to measure the vessels pitch, roll and heave and used as
error corrections on such reference systems as Taut Wire, Artemis etc.

Draught - used on vessels such as heavy lift or SSV where ships operations may
significantly effect the draught of the vessel. Since a change of draught influences the effect
of wind and current on the hull.
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Draghead Force - Used on dredges where the vessels forward speed is governed by the
loading of the draghead.

There is generally no current measurement, instead the current is calculated by the DP

computer which looks for a permanent off set in the thrust required to keep the vessel in
position. Depending on the class of vessels all sensors may be duplicated or triplicated.
There exist three main environmental factors which provide forces which will cause the
vessel to move away from her set point position and/or heading: Wind, Waves and Current.

If deemed necessary, a facility exists in modern DP systems to input manually values for
current and wind. This facility must be treated with care; if manual values for current have
been entered, care must be taken to ensure that they are representative of the current
actually running, and it is necessary for the DPO to regularly update this value as the tide
changes. If this is not done, the position keeping quality could degrade as the true current
and the manual input value diverge. In general, it is not recommended that this facility be
used unless there is observed a significant error in the current vector displayed compared to
observed reality. If the DPO observes a large discrepancy between the value of tide
displayed on the screen, and that obtaining for real, then he should realise that the tide;
vector is a total integration of all factors between the predicted position and the measured
position. These factors will include the real tide but will also contain all errors in the system.

The DPO must look carefully at all elements of his system to try to detect the error causing
the tide discrepancy. It may be that a wind sensor element has seized, causing erroneous
wind input; the wind error will be put down to tide, on the screen. Once such a discrepancy
has been detected and corrected, the erroneous tide vector may persist, although it should
slowly dissipate as the mathematical model updates itself. A quicker way of getting rid of
such a value is to revert back to "Stand By", then selecting "Manual" then "Auto" in the
normal way. This causes the mathematical model to be erased, allowing a new model to be
built from scratch. The DPO could not do this during the conduct of a DP operation, of
course.

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Section 2.8 Redundancy.

“1.3.8 Redundancy means ability of a component or system to maintain or restore its
function, when a single failure has occurred. Redundancy can be achieved for instance by
installation of multiple components, systems or alternative means of performing a function.”
IMO MSC Circular 645 „Guidelines for Vessels with Dynamic Positioning Systems„

A single failure can be, amongst others:

- Thruster failure
- Generator failure
- Powerbus failure (when generators are combined on one powerbus)
- Control computer failure
- Position reference system failure
- Reference system failure

For certain operations redundancy is not required. For instance, if a survey ship loses its DP
capability, there is normally no risk of damage or injuries. These operations will normally be
done in Class 1.

For other operations, such as diving and heavy lifting, there is a risk of damage or injuries.
Depending on the risk, the operation is done in Class 2 or 3. This means at least three
Position reference systems should be selected. This allows the principle of voting logic, so
the failing PRS can be found. For this reason, there are also three dynamic positioning
control computers, three gyrocompasses, three MRU’s and three wind sensors on Class 3
ships. If a single fault occurs that jeopardizes the redundancy, i.e. failing of a thruster,
generator or a PRS, and this cannot be resolved immediately, the operation should be
abandoned as quickly as possible.

To have sufficient redundancy, enough generators and thrusters should be on-line so the
failure of one does not result in a loss of position. This is left to the judgement of the DP
operator. For Class 2 and Class 3 a Consequence Analyses should be incorporated in the
system to assist the DPO in this process.

The redundancy of a DP ship should be judged by an FMEA study and proved by FMEA
trials. Besides that, annual trials are done and normally DP function tests are completed prior
to each project.

Section 2.9 Mathematical Modeling Process.

Any vessel on DP is subjected to forces from wind, waves and tidal movements as well as
forces generated from the propulsion system and other external elements (fire monitors, pipe
lay tension, etc). The response to these forces is changes in position.

Wind speed and direction are measured by wind sensors. The system calculates the offsets
between the measured values of position and heading, and the required (or set point)
values, and calculates the forces that the thrusters must generate in order to reduce those
deviations or offsets to zero. In addition the system calculates the forces of wind, waves and
current acting upon the vessel, and the thrust required to counteract them. These
computations make use of mathematical modeling techniques.

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This wind model contains three tables of coefficients; Surge, Sway and Yaw, and is related
to the sail or windage area and its disposition relative to all angles of attack. In the case of
wind, the resultant force is equal to the coefficient multiplied by the square of the wind
speed. Other models summed into the mathematical model are the current model, the wave
model (if these values are measured or entered manually), mooring forces and any other
sensed externals (pipe stinger tension, fire monitor forces, etc.). Also contained within the
mathematical model are values representing the mass of the vessel and drag.

Output from the mathematical model are estimated values for the speed, and position and
heading. If the vessel is in "Auto" DP then the required speed is zero, so the estimated
speed allows a calculation for damping, or reduction of that speed to zero, this is the
Damping Control. The estimated position and heading are combined with the wanted
position and heading to give heading and position deviation. These deviations generate
thrust demands relative to the size of the deviations and the gain level selected. Typically, for
position, in a medium sized vessel, 2 tonnes of thrust would be demanded, per metre of
deviation in Low Gain; three tonnes in Medium Gain, and four tonnes in High Gain. For
heading deviation in a semisubmersible drilling rig, typical values would be 350 tonne-metres
per degree of heading deviation. These values are fine-tuned during trials. These values are
summed with any input from the wind feed-forward.

The resultant force demand will be a vector and a moment, and is applied to the thruster
allocation. This will contain information relating to which thrusters are available, what their
locations are, and what their RPM/pitch/ azimuth/thrust characteristics are. Thruster set
points are then generated, and applied to an overload control function which is supplied with
information relating to the bus-bar loadings. Mathematical modeling allows the vessel
position and heading to be maintained much more accurately than in a system that simply
uses traditional control techniques based mainly on the PID controller. This allows not only a
greater accuracy in positioning but also the ability to maintain acceptable positioning in
adverse conditions, extending the weather-working window.

The modeling process allows the accurate integration of more than one position reference
into the position calculation. In an early DP system, without modeling available, the position
feedback was from one position reference only; others could be running but not enabled into
the system.

In these systems there was no redundancy of position reference available, other than that of
the DPO manually deselecting a faulty position reference, and selecting an alternative. This
act could result in a positional discontinuity, or jump. In such vessels, backup position
references could be running but their output was not referred to in the position calculation.
Thus there was no comparative monitoring of the relative quality of data obtained from
working and backup position references.

A modern DP system may simultaneously use three or more position references, with the
relative qualities of each being monitored, and all having a weighted influence on the final
determined position of the vessel. This is a feature of the mathematical modeling.

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Chapter 3. PRACTICAL OPERATION OF A DP SYSTEM.

Section 3.1 DP Mode.
The DP vessel should be equipped with suitable DP modes and features with due
consideration to operational requirements, both with regard to restrictions caused by the
activity and performance criteria required to execute the activity safely and successfully.
The following selected DP control modes are relevant to specific DP activities.

Target Follow Enables the DP vessel to follow a moving target and is used, for
example, to follow an ROV along a pipeline.

Heavy Lift Takes account of the effects of the load transfer on the mass of the
vessel and the additional lateral force, normally by reducing gain and
relaxing the DP controller.

External Force Where the measured external force acting on the vessel, which is
Compensation separate from the environment, is included in the DP calculation and
treated as a force feed forward. This mode is used to account for pipe
tensions in a pipe layer and hawser tension in a shuttle tanker.

Fire Monitor Used to compensate for the varying forces exerted on vessel from the fire
Compensation monitors.

Weathervane Enables the DP vessel to rotate with the wind, current and waves around
a fixed or moving point called the terminal point. Neither the heading nor
the position of the DP vessel is fixed. The heading of the vessel is
controlled to point towards the terminal point. The position of the vessel is
controlled to follow a circle, called the setpoint circle, around the terminal
point. This mode is appropriate for connected shuttle tanker/ FPSO
operations.

Caution: It is not uncommon for the term "weathervane" to be used to

denote "minimum thrust", i.e. where the DP control system
allows the vessel's heading to rotate to minimize external
forces acting on the vessel and thruster requirements. These
terms should not be confused.

Section 3.2 Basic DP Mode.

Before an operational mode will work some requirements must be met:
- Sufficient thrusters are selected or "available to select" to support the mode.
- A gyrocompass is selected or "available to select".
- A PME is selected or "available to select".

3.2.1 Joystick Manual Heading (JSMH).

JSMH mode allows single lever control of all selected thrusters. In this mode, the inputs to
the system are provided by the operator alone. Thrust can be applied to the vessel in fore/aft
and port/starboard directions. The joystick controls the thrust on the vessel in the direction in
which the joystick is pointing. The magnitude of the thrust is controlled by the amount the
joystick is pushed forwards or backwards.

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The thrust can either move the vessel, or hold it stationary against the environmental forces.
Heading is controlled by the turn control knob/Joystick, which rotates the vessel about its
center of rotation, using the selected thrusters.

3.2.2 Dynamic Positioning (DP).

DP mode maintains the vessel in a fixed position relative to a fixed reference point, while
maintaining a fixed heading. In this mode, the vessel position is controlled by a PME and the
heading controlled by a gyrocompass.

The system receives the vessel's heading from the gyrocompass, and the vessel's position
from a PME. When DP mode is selected, the current position and heading of the vessel are
taken as the reference position and heading. The vessel's thrusters control the vessel to
maintain the position and heading. The operator may change the position and heading of the
vessel using the console display facilities (Change position and change heading).

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3.2.3 Dynamic Positioning Minimum Power.

DP Minimum Power mode maintains the vessel's position relative to a fixed reference point,
whilst minimizing the vessels port/starboard thrusters demands resulting from the net
weather forces on the vessel. This mode is also sometimes called Weather warning. In this
mode, the position of the vessel is controlled by a PME. The vessel's position is measured
using a PME, and the thrusters are controlled to maintain the vessel at this position, as for
DP mode. The vessel heading is then controlled so as to minimize the power used by the
thrusters. The operator should be aware that should net weather change then heading will
change to that required to minimize thruster use, there will be no input required by the
operator, distance relative to a fixed object will change.

Message system:
- There is a built in fault checking system.
- Alarms are announced visually, and audibly, they are also recorded on a printer.
- There 3 kinds of messages Alarms, Warnings, and Information.
- Alarms mean there has been a failure, or a limit has been exceeded, and some action is
required. Audible, and visual warning.
- Warnings mean there has been an occurrence which if ignored could lead to a failure, no
audible alarm, visual alarm only.
- Information messages, advise of noteworthy conditions, there are no audible or visual
alarms. These will go from display if the message clears.
- Alarms and warnings that are in-active need to be acknowledged before they are removed
from the display.

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Section 3.3 Non-Basic DP Mode.

3.3.1 Follow Track-Auto track mode.
The operator programs in a set of waypoints, that the vessel is required to follow, it is also
possible to program in heading and speed for each leg of the track. Usually a low speed
mode, high speed modes are available.

Follow track:
- The track is programmed or loaded into the DP system.
- The vessel is set up in DP auto position.
- If necessary the vessel is moved into the vicinity of the first waypoint.
- Follow track (Auto-track) mode is selected.
- The vessel will start to follow the track as programmed.
- The vessel can be stopped on the track at any time.

Programmable functions.
Speed:
- The operator can specify a different speed for each leg, or a single speed for the whole
track.
- It may be possible to set a speed that the vessel will move across track.

Leg offset:
- This allows the operator to move the TRACK LEG to the left or the right.
- This may be in increments, or as the operator requires.
- Track offset left and right is connected to following the track forward or
reverse.
- In some systems the leg offset changes as the vessel passes waypoint.
- When applying offsets at the start of a track ensure that the offset and the
vessel are on the same side of the track.

Heading:
- The operator can specify a heading for each track leg or single heading for the whole
track.
- A system selected heading may be available, this will automatically keep the ships head,
where the least amount of power will be used. Bear in mind the DP system will change
heading in this mode without input from operator, should environmental conditions
change.
- It may also be able to select that the vessel, heads towards the next waypoint.
- On some systems the operator may be able to control heading manually.
- The operator may also be able to change heading control menu.

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Position moves:
- Normal position move disabled.
- It is possible to offset track legs.

Track offset:
- It is also possible to offset the whole track.
- Geographic offsets the whole track a bearing and distance, to make an exact copy of the
track.
- Parallel offsets each leg a set distance to the left or the right. The leg lengths will change
using this strategy.

Reverse:
- It is possible to follow the track forwards or reverse.
- The vessel may be able to reverse or turn to port or starboard to head the opposite way
down the track.

Stop or Tracking:
- This allows the vessel to be stopped at any time.
- It may be possible to specify the percentage power used when stopping the vessel.
- It may be possible to get the vessel to back up to the position at which the stop command
was given.

Loading Tracks:
- It may be possible to save tracks to, and load tracks from disk or charting package.
- It may be possible to load tracks from a remote computer.
- There has been a case of a pipeline laid in the wrong place because difference in
spheroid or projection between what the DP system uses, and what the track was written
in.

Pipe lay functions:

- Move up functions are available that will move the vessel up a single length of pipe.
- Speed set points can come from cable lay computers.
- Monitoring of cable or pipe tensions.
- Automatic slow down in the event over tension.

Turn Radius:
- Generally used to allow vessel to round a waypoint without the need to slow down.
- Used during a heading change as vessel passes a way point.
- This may be set for each way point, or for the whole track.
- There may be an automatic function that uses the heading change speed as set for
normal heading changes. This should used with caution, if rotation speed is set very low
the vessel may start to change heading long before the vessel reaches the waypoint.

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Turn radius method

Follow track turn radius method

3.3.2 High Speed Auto Track.

Mode of operation:
- The track is programmed, or loaded into the DP system.
- The vessel is set up in DP auto position.
- If necessary the vessel is moved into the vicinity of the first waypoint.
- High speed mode is selected.
- The vessel will start to follow the track as programmed.
- The vessel can be stopped on the track at any time.

3.3.3 Auto Sail Function.

Cross between auto-track and auto-pilot.

Mode of operation:
- A track is programmed.
- Vessel needs only main propulsion (azimuths, or main engines and rudders)
- A position reference is needed.
- Auto sail mode is selected.
- Speed along the track is controlled using the joystick.
- The DP keeps the vessel on track by adjusting the set heading.

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3.3.4 Auto Pilot.

The same as auto pilot using the DP system.

Mode of operation:
- DP system is initialized, no reference systems are needed.
- A gyro input, and main propulsion ( engines and rudders or azimuths).
- Auto pilot is selected the vessels speed is set in using the joystick.
- Heading is controlled using the yaw function, the joystick or heading control knob are
normally disabled.

3.3.5 Auto Speed.

DP without a position reference system.

Mode of operation:
- Vessel is set up in manual DP.
- The Doppler log input is enabled.
- The operator can select zero speed.
- The operator can select to move the vessel using the joystick and the log input will be
used to move the vessel.
- The amount the vessel moves in zero speed will depend on variables such as log
accuracy, bottom lock water lock, etc.

3.3.6 Follow Target (Follow ROV etc.).

There are two methods of achieving this, with a fixed reference system, and without a fixed
reference system.

Follow Target (with a fixed position reference system).

- The vessel is set up in DP as for position keeping.
- The ROV is deployed; it must have a mobile acoustic beacon fitted.
- The vessel is moved to a location so that the ROV is in the required position relative to the
vessel.
- The operator sets a "reaction radius" this is a dead-band so long as the ROV stays within
this dead-band the vessel will not move.
- "Follow target" mode is selected, and the operator specifies which beacon it is required to
follow.
- If the ROV move outside the dead-band the vessels set point will change so as to keep
the ROV at the same relative distance.

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Operational notes:
- If the ROV is working in one location then the reaction radius can be relatively large, then
the vessel will not have to move to often.
- If the ROV is following a track the reaction radius should be reduced, otherwise the vessel
may start to lag.
- Heading can be changed, unless the vessel rotates about the ROV the relative positions
will change.
- On older systems the change position functions are disabled in follow target, so to regain
relative position it would be necessary to come out of Follow target.
- The ship speed needs to be set correctly if it is set lower than the ROV speed, the ROV
will pull away from the ship.

Follow Target (without a fixed reference system- fixed distance).

- The vessel is set up in DP as for position keeping, if reference systems are available, if
they are not the vessel is held in position using manual control.
- The ROV is deployed with an acoustic beacon set to fixed.
- The vessel is moved so that the ROV is in the required position relative to the vessel
- The acoustic beacon is then selected into the DP system and vessel put into DP auto
positioning mode.
- The ROV is the given permission to move.
- As the ROV move away from the vessel, the DP system assumes that the vessel is
moving away from the ROV.
- The DP system then applies thrust to keep the vessel in the required relative position.
- Also known as Poor-mans ROV.

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Operational notes
- The operator is lying to the DP, telling it that a mobile beacon is fixed. This will cause a
false current to build up. If the ROV changes course and/or speed position keeping may
be unstable for a while.
- The ship follows the ROV completely; ROV's can turn quicker than ships.
- Relative position will be lost if the ROV executes sudden changes in speed or course.
- Ships speed needs to be set correctly or ROV can pull away.
- If vessels heading is changed, it is possible to regain relative position as position change
functions are active.

3.3.7 Tanker Mode.

Shuttle Tanker Pick Up.
This is used for shuttle tankers for picking up buoys.
Mode of operation:
- Vessel is set up and pickup mode selected.
- The vessel can then be positioned at a specific location relative to the loading point.
- This allows vessel to approach pick up buoy and/or hawser.
- Heading is fixed in this mode, (unlike normal approach and loading modes).
- In light condition fixed heading may be selected in approach or loading.

Shuttle Tanker Approach Mode.

Takes vessel from outer perimeter to the offloading point, heading is into prevailing
conditions. If approaching an FSU the approach arc is limited to the stern of the FSU.

Mode of operation:
1. Vessel is set up at a safe location.
2. Approach mode is selected.
3. The radius is reduced and the vessel approaches the loading point.
4. Speed is reduced as vessel get closer.
5. when on location vessel can either go into loading, or pickup then loading as required.
6. Approach mode can be used to back away from the loading point.
7. An Articulated Loading point is always approached with boom to port side.
8. In calm conditions a fixed heading may be selected.

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Shuttle Tanker Loading.

Holds vessel at a suitable position, and heading for offloading

Mode of operation:
- Once approach and pick up procedures have been completed vessel enters loading
mode.
- Vessel rotates around the loading point.
- Vessel is kept heading towards loading point and prevailing conditions (sometimes called
weathervane mode).
- With an FSU the arc of rotation is limited.
- There are emergency shut down limits, the vessel may have to emergency breakaway if
these areas are breached.
- In calm conditions fixed heading option may be selected.

3.3.8 Riser Follow.

Can be used by drill ships, and DP semi submersibles to keep the vessel in a position where
the riser angle is kept to a minimum.

Mode of operation:
- Vessel sets up in DP, and the BOP is deployed.
- Once latched on riser angle information is needed this can be from acoustic beacons or
electronic riser angle modules.
- This can be used as a standalone reference, or in the normal position reference pool.
- If standalone a dead band similar to the reaction radius used in ROV follow is used to stop
the vessel constantly moving location.
- There has been an instance of hunting motions with high thruster loads being set up in
this mode, low gain settings may reduce this, as may the use of real time riser
management systems.

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3.3.9 Simulator – Trainer Mode.

An option that may be available to allow operators to practice use of the DP desk

Points of interest:
- Setting that are changed in trainer mode may be left in the system when it is put back to
standby.
- The input signals for sensors are clean, i.e. there is no noise.
- Some sensors are not simulated.
- There are random elements in the wind and wave input.

Model Control:
- This is an emergency mode.
- The DP will automatically enter this mode if PRS are lost.
- The operator will be warned if this happens.
- If position references are lost this is also called Dead Reckoning.
- In Dead Reckoning the effectiveness will depend on the accuracy of the information used
to calculate the model, or estimated position.

Section 3.4 Consequence Analysis.

One of the requirements of the IMO Class 2 and 3 guidelines, is a system of Online
Consequence Analysis to be incorporated in the DP system. This function continually
performs an analysis of the vessel’s ability to maintain its position and heading after a
predefined, worst case failure during operation. Possible consequences are based on the
actual weather conditions, enabled thrusters and power plant status. Typical worst-case
single failures are:
- failure in the most critical thruster
- failure in one thruster group
- failure in one power bus section

The typical redundant DP vessel is based on two almost identical half systems for power and
thruster configuration and is controlled by a dual control system. When setup properly each
half shall be able to continue operation after full failure of the other half. Both halves will
continue normally even after the failure of one control system.

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Section 3.5 Centre of Rotation / Alternative Centre of Rotation.

It shall be defined what position it is within the vessel that is positioning. This designated
spot is known as the Centre of Rotation. In some vessels, the Centre of Rotation is placed at
the Centre of Gravity. Other vessels may have more specific C of R arrangements.

A Dive Support Vessel may have the C of R located on the center of the moonpool - the
deployment location for the diving bell. This allows the vessel to alter her heading while
diving operations are underway without moving the bell.

Many vessels have more than one C of R programmed into the system. It is common for a
modern DP vessel to have a choice of up to ten Alternative Rotation Points (ARPs)
selectable. A cable lay and repair vessel may have C's of R located amidships, bow and
stern. Some vessels have a large array of ARPs covering such items as 'A' frame, crane
hook locations, pipe davit locations, diving bells and air diving davits.

Another facility allows the DPO to enter manually the offsets for a specific ARP, but there is
always the danger of human error creeping in. The DPO must be aware that the further the
APR is from the C of G, the greater the amounts of power the vessel will need to manoeuvre,
particularly heading changes.

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Chapter 4. POSITION REFERENCE SYSTEMS.

Section 4.1 General.
4.1.1 Type of Position Reference Systems.
Accurate, reliable and continuous position information is essential for dynamic positioning.
Some DP operations require better than 3 m relative accuracy. A DP control system requires
data at a rate of once per second to achieve high accuracy. Reliability is, of course, of vital
importance, to operations where life and property may be put at extreme risk through
incorrect position data.

All DP vessels have Position Reference Systems (PRS), (sometimes referred to as Position
Monitoring Equipment - PME), independent of the vessel's normal navigation suite. Five
types of PRS are in common use in DP vessels:
- Hydroacoustic Position Reference (HPR)
- Taut Wire
- Differential GPS
- Laser-based systems (Fanbeam and CyScan)
- Artemis.

DP control systems "pool", or combine, position reference data from two or more position
reference systems. If only one position reference system is enabled into the DP then it is
simply checked, filtered and used. If two or more are available, then the system needs to use
both equally or according to their individual performance.

In all modern DP systems the weighted average option can be selected, whereby individual
position references are weighted in inverse proportion to the variance or 'spread' of position
data; the higher the weighting for an individual position reference system, the greater the
influence of that system in the position calculation.

Early DP control systems did not have the capability to learn from the past performance
other than by the integral terms of the controller. Modern systems are able to improve station
keeping performance by using a Karman filter, which provides a model of recent
performance to improve present performance.

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For any operations requiring DP redundancy (equipment Class 2 or 3 operations) it is

necessary to utilize three position references. Two PRSs are not adequate, because if one
has failed, contradictory reference data provides an impasse, whereas three systems
provide two-out-of-three voting to identify a rogue sensor.

4.1.2 PRS handling.

Pooling of data.
Early DP systems (since 1970's) did not utilize this pooling technique, and reliance at any
time was upon one PRS only, with the obvious vulnerabilities. Such a system may have
been connected to two or more PRS, indeed, the operator may have two or more PRS
activated and running, but the DP system could only accept one PRS input, operator
selected. If that PRS failed, it was up to the operator to detect the failure, deselect the errant
PRS, and engage an alternative.

PRS queuing.
The arrangement described above is an example of a "queuing" system, in which the PRS
were placed in a queue with the best system at the head of the queue, and the worst last.
The queuing system may be via manual selection, or by an automatic queue. At any given
time the DP system was reliant upon only one PRS, although with an automatic queuing
arrangement there was automatic selection from the queue if that system suffered failure. An
even simpler (and less satisfactory) solution was that where the DPO selected one PRS
only, i.e. a queue of one - Reference Origin (RO).

PRS pooling.
Any modern DP system is able to pool position reference data from two or more position
reference systems. If only one position reference system is enabled into the DP then it is
simply calibrated, filtered and used, but if two or more are available, then some form of
pooling is required. In early DP systems without sophisticated mathematical modeling
techniques available, only one position reference input was possible, with the limitations
described in the above paragraph. For situations where two or more position references are
in use, a simple system of pooling was to average the output data from the PRS in use. This
method has disadvantages in that if one PRS drifts, then the averaged position will also drift.
Similarly, if one of three PRS being averaged is lost, then the resolved position will exhibit a
jump to the new average position.

In all modern DP systems the pooling is reliant upon Weighted averaging. Various methods
of weighted averaging are possible. Weighting may be manually achieved, or automatic. If
automatic weighting principles are used, the basis for the weighting may be Variance or
Frequency. With Variance-based weighting, the weighting value will depend upon the spread
or jitter exhibited with the positional data from each PRS, or it may be determined from the
offsets observed between successive measurements from an individual PRS as compared
with the modeled position.

A weighting system based upon this principle (Variance-based) may suffer problems. For
example, a very low value for Variance (thus high weighting) may result from a PRS which is
frozen, or has become a "perfect" position reference. For this reason, modem systems
incorporate a "freeze test" in order to allow detection of a frozen reference system, and it's
rejection from the pool. Also, Variance-based pooling is less useful when there are only two
PRS. Further, the data update rate must be taken into account, since a PRS with a high
update frequency may appear to have a higher apparent Variance than one with a slow
update.

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Frequency-based weighting differentiates between HF (high frequency) and LF (low

frequency) variations in the observed position data. Position reference systems are thus
given two separate weightings, one for HF and one for LF. The best estimate of position from
that PRS is then the sum of the weighted average HF plus the weighted average LF. Since
the value of LF weighting decays only slowly, then the problems arising from loss of one
PRS are eliminated. HF and LF characteristics may be illustrated as follows. With a Taut
Wire system, the HF is good with few excursions and positional jumps, but LF may be poor
due to changes in the set and rates of tidal streams. With an Acoustic system HF is poor,
since frequent jumps and excursions are experienced, while LF is usually good.

Kalman filtering of position data.

The Kalman filter is a mathematical method used in statistics, named after Rudolf E.Kalman
(Hungarian-American electrical engineer, mathematical system theorist). The mathematical
technique of Kalman filtering is to provide a method of combining measurements of data
from different sources in a statistically optimum manner. The requirement of combining two
or more PRS inputs within a DP system is an example of the use of Kalman filtering.

In any DP system two principal factors must be combined. One of these is the software
model of the vessel position. This is determined from a knowledge of the previous position
and velocity of the vessel, and of the forces acting on the vessel. The other factor is the
position measured from the position reference systems. These two (model and measured)
positions are combined to determine a best estimate of the vessel position. This estimated
position is then used to modify the model. The weighting within the Kalman filter upon model
or measurement will depend upon the expected performance of the PRS If the PRS in
question is "noisy", i.e. the variance is large, then greater weight should be placed upon the
model. If the PRS are accurate, then greater weighting can be allocated. The design of the
Kalman filter will determine the reactions of the control system in response to vessel
excursions and erratic position measurements.

PRS voting.
For redundant operation the DP vessel will, where possible, use three or more PRS, allowing
the DP system to apply Voting logic to the measurements. Voting will involve taking the
middle value, or Median of the three or more input values. The offsets from the Median value
of each PRS input are examined and checked against a preset reject limit. The Median is
used, not the average since if averaging was adopted, the inclusion of data from an
erroneous system would pollute the average value, and the good systems would then show
excessive offsets which might result in them being rejected also. The Median test limit will be
set at about 5 or 6 meters, and the maximum positional jump resulting from a PRS rejection
from this test will be about half the value of the median test limit.

Common-Mode Failure.
The DPO must be aware of the dangers associated with Common-Mode Failure. Voting can
be defeated if two PRS suffer common-mode failure, or if two PRS become that are
"perfect". The former may occur in the case of the DPO placing a transponder on the seabed
using the Taut wire depressor weight as an anchor point. If the weight drags, then the voting
may reject the third (good) system. A "perfect" reference is one that has failed (a strange
term under the circumstances!) and is giving fixed or frozen data.

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Common-mode failure situations are most prevalent where two or more PRS are deployed,
and two of them are of the same physical type. If three PRS are deployed, the DPO may feel
he is protected from problems relating to PRS failure because of the level of redundancy
and, of course, three PRS are the minimum requirement for Equipment Class 3 - the highest
standard. If, however, the three PRS include two which are the same (e.g. 2 DGPS and
Tautwire) then it is possible for the dual DGPS systems to both suffer the same failure. The
DP system voting logic will quite possible reject the one remaining "good" PRS, while
hanging on to the failed but agreeing DGPS.

PRS handling.
The following description relates to the Kongsberg Simrad process of automatic Variance-
based weighting involving Kalman filtering. The position reference data is handled as follows.

The first PRS selected causes the DP to read the data from that PRS and the PRS selection
button on the console will flash. The DP is looking for three successive returns within a
spread of 10m or less.

Once this is achieved, then the PRS is accepted into the DP system and the button lamp
stops flashing and shows a steady light. Note that the vessel must be in "Manual" control
during this procedure, and that she must be stationary. If the vessel is showing significant
movement, there will not be three successive returns within 10m, and the calibration will not
take place.

Once calibration is complete on the first PRS, the DP may be transferred to "Auto". That
PRS will show on-screen as "Reference Origin", indicated by a small circle around the
asterisk indicating the position of the reference sensor. Note that, in the latest systems, the
DPO is able to select PRS in a "Monitoring" mode, meaning that a PRS will be monitored on-
screen but not used for position reference, allowing the DPO to assess the quality before
starting to use it as a PRS.

When the second and subsequent PRS are selected, the acceptance criteria changes to 10
successive returns within 10 m before acceptance into the DP system. Once two or more
PRS are accepted, it is recommended that that the first-selected PRS be deselected, and re-
selected again. This allows a better calibration to take place, since the original calibration
was based on three returns only, while this later calibration is based on ten returns. In the
Kongsberg Simrad systems, if such a re calibration is made, the asterisk marking the actual
sensor position might take up a new location (relating to the better calibration of position),
while the reference origin circle will remain in it's original location. Thus the circle and
asterisk may be separated by a small distance. This could be confusing if the meanings of
the symbols are not clear to the DPO.

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For any PRS, windows are placed around a representative sample of position returns. The
size of the window relates to the spread, in metres, of the sample of position measurements.
The DP system then determines a value for the radius of the window, called the Standard
Deviation. The first stage of Kalman filtering deals with the Standard Deviation values; this is
the Prediction Test, for which limits are set against the vessel's modelled position. Any
returns yielding positions outside the Standard Deviation window are rejected. This allows
outliers (single spurious position fixes at some distance from the vessel position) to be
rejected. Further, any PRS which has a Standard Deviation value of greater than three times
that of the expected accuracy (defined by the operator, default 2.24m) is rejected.

This is the Variance Test, and generates the Standard Deviation Limit. This ensures that
PRS which do not have high intrinsic accuracy are not allowed to pollute the position fixing
from more accurate systems. Note also the principle of setting the minimum Standard
Deviation; even if the PRS is more accurate than this and would otherwise generate a much
smaller window of, say 0.5m. If this value (0.5m) was set as the limit, then the reject limit for
other PRS would be unrealistically low (1.5m) resulting in continuous rejection of perfectly
acceptable data from backup PRS.

In the Kongsberg Simrad SDP series equipment, the "RefSys" view gives a graphic
reference of PRS data, with information colour-coded for each reference. A circle is shown
for each PRS of the radius equal to the Standard Deviation for that PRS. Raw data for each
PRS are shown on a second-by-second basis, as are the individual filtered positions for each
PRS.

Konsberg SDP FRS display

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Each PRS is assigned a Weighting value; this is inversely proportional to the Variance value,
thus the weighting is based on the relative window sizes.

However many PRS are enabled, the weighting values always total 1.0. For all PRS the
measurements are filtered. Position reference inputs are sampled once per second. Raw
PRS data is shown on the RefSys View as letters in the colour corresponding to that PRS
This is unfiltered data so the letters may exhibit significant movement. Filtering is applied
such that the new filtered measurement is equal to nine times the old filtered measurements
(Northings and Eastings) plus the new measurements, divided by ten. This is the second
stage of filtering.

The third stage of filtering concerns the statistical mix of the two or more PRS enabled, in
order to provide the calculation of the vessel position. If, for example, three PRS are
engaged; Fanbeam, HPR and a Taut Wire, then we look separately at Northings and
Eastings. It may happen that the HPR system is giving noisy returns and is close to the
Variance Test reject limit. The statistical mix calculation (for Northing only, for illustration) is
as follows:

PRS NO System Northing Kalman Window Weighting Product

1 Art -22.0 m 4.0 m 0.30 = -6.6 m

2 TW -20.0 m 2.0 m 0.70 = -14.0 m
3
Fails HPR -27.0 m 7.0 m 0.00 = 0.0 m
variance

Total 1.00 = -20.6 m

An Example of Kongsberg Pooling + Weighting

From the above table we can see that the noisy measurements from the HPR are not
affecting the final position. The position is dependent upon measurements from both Artemis
and Taut Wire, with a bias toward the more accurate system.

Thus, from the above we can see that the noisy measurements from the HPR are not
affecting the final position, and that the position is dependent upon measurements from both
Artemis and Taut Wire, with a bias toward the more accurate system. When two or more
PRS are selected, the Bias or Divergence Test detects when measurements from one PRS
has an offset or bias from the model. This is one of two "slow drift-off" tests. The limit for the
test is less than that of the Prediction Test. The purpose of the test is to give early indication
of errors before the PRS is rejected by the Prediction Test.

The Bias Test generates the warning "Reference High Offset", and the warning message will
give details of the limit and the actual error. The Bias Test will not initiate an automatic
rejection of a PRS. The operator should check the reference system view to verity which
system(s) are drifting or biased. This is particularly important when only two PRS are
selected. The operator should consider deselecting the affected PRS.

When three or more PRS are deployed, a further reject limit is set and displayed. This is the
Median Test, and is the second of the "Slow drift-off' tests. The purpose of the test is
primarily to identify a slowly drifting PRS. The operator has the choice of being given a
Warning, or Warning and Reject as a result of the Median Test.
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This test, unlike the Prediction and the Bias Tests, is independent of the vessel model,
implying that a PRS could be rejected even though its measurements do not deviate from
the vessel model. This is often the case with a slowly drifting PRS. The Median Test limit is
80% of the minimum Prediction error limit, i.e. the limit for the PRS with the least variance.
The Prediction error limit is never less than 5 m; in order to avoid unnecessary rejection of
PRS when all those selected are performing well.

If the operator or the system has chosen to reject a PRS failing the Median Test, the warning
"Reference Median Rejected" is displayed, the alarm details giving the limit and the actual
median deviation. The operator should check that the test has detected the correct failure,
and check out the defective PRS. He should consider monitoring the PRS, or deselecting
and recalibrating the PRS. If the operator has chosen NOT to reject a PRS failing the Median
Test, the warning "Reference Median Deviation" will be displayed. The alarm details and the
action to be taken by the operator are the same as for the "Reference Median Rejected"
warning.

If two position references are deployed, one good and one poor, then it is possible for the
relative weightings to be 0.99 and 0.01. Under these circumstances the poor reference will
be frequently if not continually rejected. Another problem is that there is no link between
accuracy and reliability. It may happen that the good PRS is a Taut Wire, while the poor one
is HPR. The Taut Wire carries a large weighting. The depressor weight then starts to slowly
drag through soft mud on the seabed. The DP system knows only that the relative calibration
is no longer correct, thus the system with the lower weighting will be rejected - in this case,
the HPR. Thus, with two PRS only, there is a danger that a good PRS be rejected while a
poor or erroneous one be retained and used for positioning. This is a good argument for the
use of three PRS in any operation where positioning is vital or critical. It must be mentioned
here that when using HPR as a PRS the DP system will treat each transponder as a
separate PRS, each with it's own weighting. The DPO, however, must treat HPR as one
PRS only, however many transponders are deployed, as for redundancy purposes the
system operates through a common transducer and transceiver. This will not be the case if,
for example, two separate and independent HPR systems are in use, each interrogating one
transponder on the seabed.

Even if three PRS are deployed, it is possible to defeat the redundancy in the system
through poor working practice. One (once) common practice was to deploy the Taut Wire,
and locate a HPR transponder on the depressor weight before lowering. This gives two PRS
on the same down line which is most convenient. The third PRS may be the Artemis system.
The DP accepts all three PRS in the normal way, giving three steady lights on the console.
Then the Taut Wire weight starts to drag; the transponder goes with it, and the PRS rejected
is the Artemis; the only good one! The DP thinks the vessel is on location, with good HPR
and Taut Wire measurements. The reality is that the ship is driving off, and the (rejected)
Artemis is the remaining good system. This is another example of Common-Mode Failure
referred to earlier.

The DPO should use caution in his choice of position reference systems. For any operations
requiring system redundancy it is necessary to utilize three position references. Two PRS
are not adequate, since there will arise the question as to which one has failed when
contradictory reference data is received from the two systems. Three systems will give more
security against this possibility, especially if the DP system is programmed to apply a PRS
voting or median check.

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Where three PRS are required, the DPO should choose systems which have differing
principles, e.g. HPR, DGPS and Fanbeam; i.e. one acoustic underwater, one radio/satellite
system and one optical laser system. This reduces the probability of Common-mode failure,
where one event may result in the failure of multiple references. Common-mode failure is
more likely to occur in situations where the choice of PRS has included two or more systems
the same, i.e. Artemis and two Taut Wires. In the latter case, even though the taut wires are
separately located and powered through independent protected supplies, it is possible for a
vessel movement to cause both taut wires to drop out of angular limits together, leaving the
vessel with one PRS only. Likewise, a violent roll may cause the spool-rate of the winches to
be exceeded and (both) taut wires to break.

Despite the above comments, the DPO may be obliged to use a less-than satisfactory
combination of PRS simply because a better option is not available. In these circumstances
it is necessary that great care is taken in the deployment and operation of the available PRS
to ensure that they are not jeopardized for any for seeable reason.

When operations are underway requiring three PRS, and any reduction in PRS input will
result in the vessel operation being suspended, then consideration must be given to the
practice of operating with a spread of four PRS as the norm. This may seem a little
excessive but there is a logical reason. If we consider a deep water drilling operation with
riser connected, working fully redundant with three PRS the rig's procedures will demand a
riser disconnection for any degradation within the positioning capability. This disconnection
represents a considerable cost in terms of lost time. With three PRS, degraded status is
obtained if one of the three is lost. If, however, four PRS were deployed, then the loss of one
of them leaves the vessel operational (not degraded). There is now no lost time, and slightly
less urgency in getting the fourth PRS back on-line.

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Section 4.2. Hydro-acoustic position reference (HPR) system.

4.2.1 General.
Sound waves do not follow a straight path. Deflection occurs when the sound passes
through different thermo clines in the sea. Thermo clines are a result of differences in
temperature and salinity. The velocity of sound varies accordingly to these factors, and
shadow zones can occur. Another problem with sound in water is noise generated from the
vessel itself and surrounding objects.

Variety of alternative acoustic position reference systems are in use, or have been used in
the past. Most of them are based on the range measurement possible related to the time
travel of acoustic signals underwater. A variety of methods are used to determine this range
measurement, the commonest methods are:
- Ultrashort (or Super Short) Baseline (SSBL or USBL) - the calculation of positioning is
based on range, and on vertical and horizontal angle measurements, from a single multi
element transducer. The system provides three-dimensional transponder positions relative
to the vessel.
- Short Base Line (SBL) - the calculation of position is based on range, and vertical and
horizontal angle measurements from a minimum of three hull mounted transducers. The
system provides three-dimensional transponder positions relative to the vessel.
- Long Base Line (LBL) - the calculation of position is based on range measurements only.
The vessel is positioned relative to a calibrated array of transponders.

Any combination of the three principles above secures flexibility as well as a high degree of
redundancy and accuracy.

4.2.2 Ultrashort (or Supershort) Baseline Position Reference (baseline is the distance
between receiver elements, a few sm).

The terms SSBL and USBL (Supershort and Ultrashort baseline) are synonymous. The
principle is referred to as SSBL by the manufacturers Kongsberg Simrad while Sonardyne
Limited refer to their systems as USBL. This variety of HPR is the most commonly used one
for DP position reference purposes. Three manufacturers dominate this market area;
Kongsberg Simrad (www.km.kongsberg.com), Sonardyne (www.sonardyne.com), and
Nautronix (www.nautronix.com).

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In the SSBL system acoustic transmit and receive elements are combined into one hull-
mounted transducer. This communicates at acoustic frequencies with one (or more) subsea
transponders in order to provide positioning. In its basic configuration the system consists of
a control and display unit, a transceiver unit, a transducer unit mounted on the end of a
probe in the ship's bottom, and a transponder located on the seabed.

Konsberg Simrad HiPAP USBL system outline

The SSBL (USBL) principle is clearly the simplest underwater positioning principle in
operation. The SSBL refers to the very short distance between the active piezo-electric
elements in the transducer, which is mounted under the vessel. The SSBL principle has the
obvious advantage that it requires no installation of calibrated array transponders on the
seabed. Only the targets that are to be positioned (one may well be at the seabed) must be
equipped with a transponder. A SSBL system measures the horizontal and vertical angles
together with the range to the transponder(s) giving a 3D position projection of the
transponder(s) relative the vessel (vessel’s reference point). An error in the angle
measurement causes the position error to be a function of the range to the transponder, so
SSBL has therefore an accuracy error increasing with the range. To obtain better position
accuracy in deep water with an SSBL system it is necessary to increase the angle
measurement accuracy.

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4.2.3 SBL - Short Base Line (baseline is the distance between the hydrophones 10-15 m).
The calculation of position is based on range, and vertical and horizontal angle
measurements from a minimum of three hull mounted transducers. The baselines are
between transducers on the vessel. A transponder is positioned relative to the vessel. The
system provides three-dimensional transponder positions relative to the vessel.

Short baseline systems are typically installed in drilling rigs and semisubmersible barges. A
number of different principles have been used, but all are based upon hydrophones or
transducers located in an array upon the vessel bottom. The distance between the individual
elements of the array is made as large as practicable; these distances form the baselines.

The simplest SBL system involves using a "pinger" or acoustic beacon located upon the
seabed. The acoustic pulses or 'pings' are emitted at regular intervals; the beacon is not
interrogated by the vessel. The received pings are compared for time-of-arrival differences,
from which the geometry of the hydrophones determines a relative position of the pinger.
The actual distances of the pinger from individual hydrophones are not known, but the
distance differences are determined, allowing a position calculation. A minimum of three
hydrophones are required, with four typically being fitted for redundancy purposes. Pingers
are available able to operate to water depths of 3,000m or greater. In comparison with USBL
systems, SBL systems show greater accuracies in deeper water due to the lower impact of
water noise, also as a result of the longer baselines possible. Achieved accuracies are within
0.1% to 0.2% of slant range.

5.2.4 LBL - Long Base Line (baseline is the distance between the beacons – 500-1000 m).
The Long BaseLine (LBL) acoustic method provides accurate positioning over a wide area
by measuring ranges to three or more transponders deployed at known locations on the
seabed or on a subsea structure.

LBL is designed to position multiple subsea targets and structures with the highest attainable
levels of accuracy independent of water depth. The technique offers the highest degree of
positioning repeatability available and with range redundancy, an estimation of the position
quality can also be made.

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The system can be configured to support simple tracking tasks through to the most complex
deep water construction project. Typical operations might involve positioning multiple subsea
vehicles working in close proximity to each other as well as streaming sensor data from
gyros, digiquartz depth sensors, inclinometers and the like.

An LBL system has two main elements. The first element comprises a number of acoustic
transponders moored in fixed locations on the seabed. The positions of the transponders are
described in a co-ordinate frame fixed to the seabed. The distances between them form the
'baselines' used by the system.

The second segment comprises an acoustic transceiver which is normally installed on the
vessel or on a towfish. The distance from the transducer to a transponder can be measured
by commanding the transceiver to transmit a short acoustic signal which the transponder
detects and causes it to transmit an acoustic signal in response. The time from the
transmission of the first signal to the reception of the second is measured. As sound travels
through the water at a known speed, the distance (range) between the transducer and the
transponder can be estimated. The process is repeated for the remaining transponders and
the position of the vessel relative to the array of transponders is then calculated or
estimated.

Sonardune Fusion LBL System

The positioning technique employed in the Sonardy LBL solution is trilateration, a method of
determining the relative positions of objects using the geometry of triangles in a similar
fashion to triangulation. Unlike triangulation, which uses angle measurements (together with
at least one known distance) to calculate the subject's location, trilateration uses the known
locations of two or more reference points, and the measured distance between the subject
and each reference point.

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To accurately and uniquely determine the relative location of a point using trilateration alone,
generally at least three reference points are needed. In LBL the depths of the array
transponders and mobile unit are also required.

As trilateration is a range-only solution geometry has a significant effect on the quality of a

position fix. The optimal angle subtended by the intersection of lines of position (LOP)
formed by circles of constant range from two reference points is 90°. The uncertainty (error)
associated with each LOP means that the possible position of the ‘fix’ lies within an ‘error
diamond’ the dimensions of which will increase as the angle of cut becomes more
acute. For this reason the angle of cut between LOPs should be limited to between 45° and
135°.

As all observations contain errors a positioning system should be designed to minimize the
effect of those errors and to eliminate gross error where possible. However, it is not possible
to eliminate an observation if only 3 reference points are used as this is the minimum
number required to compute a unique solution. The introduction of a ‘redundant’ fourth
observation enables the detection of discrepancies and inconsistencies in observed
values. This, in turn, makes possible the practice of adjustment computations for obtaining
the most probable values based on the measured quantities. Redundancy is therefore a key
requirement in applications for which the reliability of the position solution is important.

Konsberg Simrad High Precision Acoustic Positioning (HiPAP) LBL system

4.2.5 Multi-User System.

A problem area currently making itself felt, especially in deep-water oilfield areas, is that of
acoustic saturation. In these areas (eg. Brazilian oilfield development areas) the water depth
severely restricts the range of position-references available or suitable. A large proportion of
vessels will be using DP so there will be heavy usage of acoustic techniques. This will
inevitably lead to interference between different vessels and systems, as the number of
acoustic LF and MF channels is limited.

A possible solution to deep water DP position reference problems is the Multi-User system.
This principle has been developed by all the major concerns manufacturing acoustic
positioning systems. Nautronix produce the NASNet multi-user acoustic system, whilst
Kongsberg-Simrad market the Multi-User Long Baseline system (MULBL).

The Kongsberg Simrad system consists of an array of (minimum) five transponders laid in a
rough square pattern on the seabed. The Master acoustic beacon is located at the centre of
the square, and emits acoustic interrogation signals at regular intervals on a specific
interrogation frequency.
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These signals are received by the other transponders in the array, and by the surface vessel.
There is no interrogation from the surface. The slave transponders receive the interrogation
signals, and each transmit reply signals after a specific coding delay and at specific acoustic
frequencies. The slave coding (time) delays are incorporated into the response such that the
surface vessel does not receive the reply pings from more than one slave transponder
simultaneously, which would cause interference.

The observed time differences measured at the surface vessel define the position of the
vessel relative to the array. Prior to use the system must be calibrated to ensure accurate
relative positions of the array elements.

This system has the advantage that more than one surface vessel may use the system
simultaneously, since there is no interrogation needed from the vessels. ROVs may also use
the system for positioning. The update rate may be increased, where, in comparison with
surface-interrogated acoustic systems, the ping rate is dependent upon water depth. This is
not the case in the multi-user system. If a slave transponder fails, then the system contains
redundancy, while if the Master beacon fails it is possible to designate, by surface command,
one of the slaves to act as Master, and to re-configure itself as a beacon.

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4.2.6 System components.

Operating station - allows the operator

to configure the system, and turn
beacons on, and off.

Transceiver Unit and Signal processing unit (SPU) – manipulates signals

between different modes. Mounted close to the hull unit and contains
advanced digital transmitters, preamplifiers and beam-forming electronics.
The transceiver communicates with the Operating System (OS) via fiber
optic cable(s).

Transducer mounted on a hull unit, allowing it to be

lowered several meters under the vessel’s hull. The
transducer’s hull unit is mounted on a gate valve and
takes the transducer down to a depth free from the
aerated water created by the hull, propellers and
thrusters, and also below the most critical surface
water layers.

KONSBERG SIMRAD HiPAP 501 transducer beam coverage

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Beacons - transmits and receives the acoustic signal, can be either,

transponder, responder or pinger, there are other beacon types but
these are usually special function.

Type of the beacons:

- Transponders - act as a stand alone unit and interrogated by a pulse sent through the
water. A reply pulse is generated internally, and transmitted back through the water
to the ship, and received at the transducer pole.

Examples of transponder frames

- Responders - used in situations, where there is an umbilical connection between vessel,

and sub-sea. "Triggers" are fitted at the surface, the interrogation command travels via the
"triggers and the umbilical which is hard wired to the beacon on the sub-sea unit. The
beacon then generates a reply which is transmitted back to the vessel through the water,
and the transducer. Using the hardwired link reduces the errors as there is only one path
through the water. The battery may also have a trickle charge. This type of beacon will
normally reply as a transponder if interrogated in that mode.
- Pingers - not interrogated. Once they are switched on they transmit a pulse at a preset
interval.
- Telemetry - transmit information such as depth, temperature, etc.
- Inclinometers - specialized beacons that measure angles, they are used for drilling for
measuring flex-joint angles. They can be used for construction (ensuring lift lowered to
seabed are up right).

Batteries. Two main types, whichever type is used, you need to log battery use to avoid
sending a "dead" battery subsea.
- Rechargeable - usually Nickel Cadmium. Unless a discharger is fitted ensure battery is
used before recharging, or a "charge memory" can build up. The more often you
interrogate the quicker the battery runs out.
- Lithium – a replaceable battery pack. Once used whole pack is replaced. Pack lasts "X"
amount of hours at say 1 interrogation every 4 seconds, or a set number of "pings". The
more often you interrogate the quicker the battery runs out.
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Operational notes.
Beacons are depth rated, and may implode if you send them below rated
depth, if they don't implode they may explode when recovered. Beacons have a reception
cone either 45, 60 or 90 degrees, either side of upright. The shallower the operating depth
the larger the reception cone needs to be. Accuracy varies from 0.2% slant range on a Hi
Pap system with 2 beacons to 3% of slant range with an older fixed head system.

4.2.7 Beacon deployment and recovery.

Beacons can be deployed in many ways, the beacon needs a stand or an anchor, with a line
to the beacon which is supported by a flotation collar. The following are some examples of
methods that can be used:
- Put on the seabed by a diver or an ROV.
- Having an acoustic release that can be commanded to open and allow the beacon to float
to the surface.
- By a wire from a winch on the ship, the beacon is connected to the ship by the wire, so
sufficient slack must be deployed so the beacon is not dragged as the ship moves.
- With a wire to a buoy on the surface, which can be used to recover the beacon at the end
of the operation.

Care must be taken when deploying transponders. The DPO must ensure that the mud
weight is not being lowered onto any seabed hardware, or into a location where there will be
acoustic shadowing. It is a good idea not to deploy transponders too close to10 diver or ROV
operations as it can happen that the ROV unwittingly drags the transponder away in it's
travels, or it may be fouled by the divers' or ROV umbilical’s. Transponder acoustics can also
be interfered with by noise from ROV thrusters, tooling or machinery.

Perhaps the biggest source of interference is noise and aeration from the vessel's thrusters
and propellers. In this respect it is interesting to note that propellers are orders of magnitude
noisier than fixed-pitch units. Further to this, propellers are generally running at full revs at all
times, often making more noise at zero pitch than at full pitch. Fixed-pitch propellers are
normally revolving much more slowly than maximum revs, thus much quieter.

The DPO must consider the acoustic path between Transducer and Transponder, and
arrange, as far as possible, that turbulent water such as thruster wash is not directed into
that path. This requires a knowledge of current and tidal conditions, and weather conditions
in order to predict the way that thruster and propeller wash will be directed. Further, the DPO
must look ahead to see the results of the change of tide, and predicted weather changes,
both of which will affect the wash pattern. It may be necessary to deploy two or more
transponders, one for use on the flood, the other for the ebb.

Transponders are usually stored in a deck locker where they may be maintained and kept on
charge. A useful feature here is a status whiteboard on which is recorded the current status
of all transponders carried or in use. Information recorded may include serial numbers of all
transponders in use, together with channel numbers assigned, battery/ping count status,
locations and deployment dates of transponders currently in the water, status of spare
equipment (batteries, new transponders, floats).

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4.2.8 Source of error.

- Multipath - the acoustic signals are reflected off nearby object(s) and interfere with the
main signal, can cause loss of accuracy or total loss of signal.
- Noise - this can be acoustic noise, from other beacons, ships, wind on the water, and can
cause weakening of signal, and so reduce operating range of system. It can also be
onboard electronic, or electrical noise that interferes with the operation of the system.
- Aeration - bubbles in the water caused by thrusters or main engine wash, ROV wash,
Diver operations such as grout bagging. The acoustic signals cannot travel through
bubbles, and can be blocked, causing loss of signal

4.2.9 Ray bending.

As acoustic signals travel through the water, they are bent, the amount of bending depends
on temperature and salinity (TS), which affects velocity of sound in water. For DP positioning
this is not critical, unless the TS is constantly changing. For survey operations it is critical as
we are now concerned with absolute positioning.

To deal with this a TS dip is taken, a probe is lowered to the seabed which measures depth,
temperature, and salinity. With this information the velocity at various depths can be
calculated. This can then be applied to beacon signals to correct for differing velocities. This
information can be used in the HPR system, what information is input depends on the
system. On older systems, a surface, seabed, and average reading are input. On newer
systems it may be possible to input a sound profile, and/or ray diagrams.

In the example shown below, data for the water column temperature and velocity of sound
was collected off the coast of Western Australia in water of 200 m depth. The signalling
remains well defined along the sea floor to a distance in excess of 2500m, whereas the
signals to the surface are less well defined beyond 1300m. In deeper areas the effects can
be more complex, especially when relatively well stratified bodies of water converge and
overlap one another.

Layering in the water can produce significant ray bending effects

In the next example the deep water velocity profile off the coast of West Africa appears to be
good to the surface but does not offer signalling across the seafloor beyond 1,000m and for
a cautious approach only as much as 700 m. In such a deep water area, the use of LBL
would require special attention to avoid the loss of ranges and acoustic signalling.

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Deep water conditions resulting in poor signalling at the seabed

4.2.10 Absorption.
Not so much an error as a source of interference, that can cause weakening or loss of
signals. As acoustic signals travel through water they expend energy. The higher the
frequency the greater the energy expended. Low frequency signals travel further through
water than higher frequency signals. Lower frequency beacons would be larger in size.

4.2.11 System Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages of HPR:
- Independence of a fixed station.
- The system is under the ships control.
- Beacons can be redeployed, and left at work site.
- Can be deployed so that there is no physical link to seabed.
- Reasonable accuracy.
- Lots of different uses.

Disadvantages of HPR:
- Suffers from interference from, refraction, noise, absorption.
- Affected by multipath.
- Some systems have beacons that operate on the same frequencies, and will interfere with
each other.
- There are reports that equipment made by different manufacturers interferes with other
systems.
- Batteries run out.
- Beacons need to be deployed.

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Section 4.3 Artemis.

4.3.1 General.
Artemis is a trade name for a system produced by the Christian Huygenslaboritorium BV in
the Netherlands (in our days also by Simrad Konsberg in Norway). It has been extensively
used in the past as a PRS for DP operations, and, although its popularity is on the wane, it is
still regarded as a frontline PRS for many operations and vessels, particularly those related
to offshore loading operations. As well as being used as a position reference for DP, Artemis
is also used for short range hydrographic and seismic survey.

4.3.2 Principle of Operation.

The Artemis Mk V operates with very low energy microwave radiations, using antennae on
fixed and mobile stations which can track each other. The mobile unit determines range and
bearing from the fixed station by detection of the difference from parallel that the two
antennae are to each other.

The derived signal is amplified and used to drive two coupled servo motors to move the
antenna on the station to bring the antenna parallel to the counter station.

The microwave link is thus used for tracking, distance measurement and data transmission
between stations.

The Artemis Mk V is available in two variations:

- The standard system of two identical user-configurable stations, the mobile station and
the fixed station;
- The beacon system, consisting of the standard mobile station and a beacon.

It is compatible with the Mk IV in that Mk V mobile station can work with a Mk IV fixed station
or beacon. A Mk V fixed station can also work with a Mk IV mobile station. With the system
‘in lock’, the antennae of the mobile and fixed stations will track one another in similar
fashion to previous models, by maintaining a continuous wave (cw) microwave link.

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4.3.3 Range and Accuracy.

The standard system has a range of 10 to 5000 m with an overall accuracy of one m, and an
azimuth range of 0° to 360°, with an overall accuracy of 0.02°.

The Beacon System has a range of 10 to 3500 m (depending on the beacon antenna type,
see below) with an overall accuracy of 1.0 m. Unlike the standard system, the beacon
system only provides the distance to the mobile station. The azimuth is obtained by
combining the relative mobile antenna bearing with the heading of the vessel as measured
by its gyro compass. To obtain a true relative mobile antenna bearing the mobile antenna
must be compared with the vessel’s centre line. The accuracy therefore relies on the
individual accuracies of the relative mobile antenna bearing and the input heading. An
overall accuracy of 0.4 degrees is possible and this is stated by the manufacturer to be
acceptable as the beacon system is used for short range applications.

The system is unaffected by rain, fog or haze, but can be subject to some interference
resulting from reflection of the microwaves against the water surface. These reflections are
strongest from a smooth surface, but mainly exist at a greater range than 5000 m, which is
out of range of the Artemis Mk V system. At closer ranges the signal strength is still relatively
high, thus the interference is easier to overcome.

Areas where this phenomenon occurs are known as ‘range holes,’ ‘dip zones’ or
‘interference zones’ and are dependent upon the antennae heights and the wavelength of
the transmitted signal. Lower antennae positions have less wide interference zones than
high antennae configurations.

4.3.4 Operation of More Than One System in the Same Area.

The system features selectable microwave frequency pairs, so that mutual interference
between two systems in the same area can be avoided. Four fixed/mobile station frequency
pairs are available and the frequency pair selection is from a Windows PC or control panel.

Automatic frequency control at the mobile station keeps the frequencies of the two stations
exactly 30 MHz apart.

By giving the mobile and the fixed stations an identical address code, they will only lock and
respectively transmit when they receive the address code given. This avoids both a mobile
station locking onto someone else’s fixed station and a fixed station transmitting when it
does not receive the correct address code.

Further precautions are also necessary. To avoid interference between two fixed stations,
they should be located at least 2 m from each other in a vertical direction and no more than 6
m in a horizontal direction. The best place for two fixed stations working in the same
direction is above each other. Vessels need to stay in their own sectors as shown below.

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Two vessels using Artemis in different sectors (beam sectors should not come within 10° of each other)

Two vessels working in the same direction, but with different frequency pairs

4.3.5 System Description.

Standard System comprises a mobile and a fixed station each consisting of an antenna unit
with an operating panel, a tracking antenna and an optional telescope for referencing the
antenna.
Beacon system consists of a beacon antenna unit with an external operating panel and
beacon antenna. The beacon antenna unit is based on the standard Artemis Mk V antenna
unit.

Range of Beacon Antenna Types:

- Omni-directional: 10 - 1750 m
- Semi-omni-directional: 10 - 3500 m
- Horn antenna: 15 - 1000 m

Simrad Konsberg Artemis Mk5 antennas

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4.3.6 Installation of mobile station.

There are some basic precautions to take regarding the installation of the mobile station.
Shall be avoided:
- objects such as masts, poles and other large structures in the direct vicinity or in front of
the antenna. Apart from the antenna being able to rotate freely, the Artemis positioning
system requires line of sight between the antennae of the two stations;
- mounting the antenna unit in such way that its antenna is in the same horizontal plane as
the ship’s radar antennae.

For permanent installations the ideal mounting position is on top of the vessel’s main mast.
The distance between the platform and the mounting bracket should be at least 0.8 m.

The mobile station and the other station should be at approximately the same height when
the system is used at very short ranges. This is because of the vertical beam width of ±11° of
the antenna and to avoid that the horizontal range between the two antennae differs too
much from the slant range as measured.

The antenna unit should be mounted:

- on a torsion-free stand or bracket;
- in a position where the antenna has 360° clear line of sight.

Alignment of the Mobile Antenna

The direction of the antenna mounted on the antenna unit is defined by the position of the
main shaft of the antenna unit. To compute the vessel's heading from the angle of the mobile
antenna (the relative mobile antenna bearing) and the azimuth as received from the fixed
station, the mobile antenna must be aligned with the centre line of the vessel. If the mobile
station is mounted at the centre line of the vessel, the bow or the stern can be used for
alignment.

Alignment Procedure
1. Bolt the telescope to its attachment on top of the antenna;
2. Turn the antenna towards the reference object, using the arrow keys on the operating
panel;
3. Turn the antenna gently by hand until the telescope’s vertical hairline is aligned with the
reference object;
4. Enter the bearing reference on the operating panel:
- ’0’ if the antenna is aimed at the bow, or at a reference mark near the bow of the
vessel;
- ’180’ if the antenna is aimed at the stern or at a reference mark near the stern of the
vessel;
5. Remove the telescope from the antenna (and store in a safe place).

All other settings can be entered from the Windows workstation. If this workstation is not
available, these settings can be entered from the operating panel.

4.3.7 Installation of Fixed Station.

There are some basic precautions to take regarding the installation of the fixed station:
- Avoid objects such as poles or structures in the direct vicinity or in front of the antenna.
Apart from the antenna being able to rotate freely, a free line of sight between the antenna
of the fixed station and the mobile station must exist;
- Avoid a relatively large (deck) area in front of the fixed station.

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Influence of Antennae Height.

The manufacturer’s computer calculations show that the major interference zones are out of
range of the Artemis system as they fall at a distance over 5 km. Nevertheless, a general
rule is that lower fixed and mobile station positions are preferable, because:
– The interference zones (see under Range and Accuracy above) fall closer and hence are
easier to overcome because the signal strength is still relatively high;
– The interference zones are less wide than for higher antenna positions;

Alignment of the Fixed Antenna.

To obtain an azimuth, i.e. a bearing with respect to north, for the fixed station a reference
object with known azimuth is required. The fixed station’s antenna must be aligned with this
reference object prior to putting the Artemis system into operation. The further away the
reference object is, the more accurate the referencing will be. The reference object should,
however, still be visible with the telescope. If grid coordinates of the reference object and the
position of the fixed station are known, then the reference azimuth can easily be calculated.

For absolute and accurate positioning it is important that the antenna is levelled and
referenced accurately and that the exact position of the fixed station is known.

For relative positioning a reference object as such is not required. A reasonably correct
azimuth can be obtained by using the mobile station itself as a reference object and obtain
the azimuth of the mobile station by taking a radar bearing. An alternative way is to compute
the azimuth from the vessel’s heading and the relative mobile antenna bearing.

Alignment Procedure for Absolute Positioning.

1. Bolt the telescope to its attachment on top of the antenna;
2. Turn the antenna towards the reference object, using the arrow keys on the operating
panel;
3. Turn the antenna gently by hand until the telescope’s vertical hairline is aligned with the
reference object;
4. Enter the reference azimuth on the operating panel;
5. Remove the telescope from the antenna (and store in a safe place).

4.3.8 Operation.
The Artemis control software consists of two parts – the actual control software that
communicates with the Artemis MkV and the human interface, called the control panel
software. The control panel software can run on a multiple computer system to allow
monitoring from different places. However, full control is only allowed from one system – the
master system. A maximum of five control panels can be active at the same time.

Auto search for automatic locking. If the signal is lost, the fixed and the mobile station
antennae will start scanning (if set in Auto search mode) over a preset sector to search for
the signal and regain lock. At first the antennae will start scanning over a small sector and
gradually increase the scan sector until lock is regained or the preset scan sector is reached.
Manually scanning the mobile station’s antenna is always possible and is in general
advisable to speed up re-locking the system.

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Display of Artemis Mk V

4.3.9 System Advantages and Disadvantages.

Advantages:
- Relatively long range (up to 30km).
- High accuracy.
- Possibility to geographically reference the system.
- Very convenient inside the 500m zone, or any other controlled area.

Disadvantages:
- Requires a fixed location nearby to set up the fixed station.
- Unit needs to be calibrated and configured, this needs experience and skill.
- Special unit needed for hazardous areas.
- Assistance required from platform personnel.
- Can be interfered with by platform personnel.
- Can suffer interference from heat haze, or precipitation.
- Signal lost with line of sight interference.
- 3cm radar interferes with Artemis.
- Vulnerable to power supply problems at fixed end.

Why or when to use Artemis Mk V?

- in equatorial areas, where sun-spot activity causes DGPS to be instable;
- in high latitudes, where the GPS satellite constellation is poor;
- when vessels are positioned up against a platform for long periods, and DGPS suffers
from the screening effect of the large steel structures;
- in foggy and/or rainy environments, where alternative laser based range and bearing
systems fail.

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Section 4.4 Taut Wire Position Reference Systems.

A variety of Taut Wire systems are used in DP vessels: moon-pool taut wire, horizontal taut
wire and gangway reference. A taut wire is a useful short range position reference with a
number of advantages compared with more complex systems. They are particularly useful
where the vessel may spend long periods in a static location, and where the water depth is
limited. Not all taut wire systems are seabed-based; the Horizontal or Surface taut wire being
an alternative arrangement. Also, taut wire-based references may be used on mobile
equipment, where the vessel needs to maintain a location relative to a moving vehicle.

4.4.1 Principles of taut wire PRS.

Taut wire systems may take a number of configurations, but the commonest consists of a
crane assembly on deck, usually mounted at the side of the vessel. A depressor weight on a
wire rope is handled by a constant-tension winch. The wire passes from a spooling drum,
over lead sheaves onto a boom or 'A' frame projecting over the side of the vessel. At the end
of the boom are located angle sensors, which detect the angle of the wire when the system
is in operation. The weight is lowered to the seabed, at which point the system switches to
constant tension, or "Mooring" mode. From then on, the winch spools in order to maintain
constant tension on the wire against the movements of the vessel. The length of wire
deployed, together with the sensor angles of the wire, both alongships and athwartships,
define the position of the sensor head with reference to the depressor weight.

Bandak MK12 Taut Wire system

This information is fed to the DP system via a suitable interface. It is common for the DP
system to "read" the wire length at the moment the system switches to "Mooring" mode, as
this will be the vertical distance of the sensor head above the depressor weight. The sensor
head consists of alongships and athwartships potentiometers outputting voltages
proportional to the measured angles.

These angles are measured relative to the local or ship vertical. They are corrected within
the DP system by integrating them with the values of Roll and Pitch measured concurrently
by the VRS/VRU, converting them into angles relative to the True Vertical. Another
correction automatically applied within the system is the x/y offset in m between the location
of the sensor head, and that of the vessel Centre of Rotation. If more than one C. of R.
exists, and more than one Taut Wire system is fitted, then a table of x/y offsets will be
required

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Bandak MK4 Taut Wire system Bandak MK5 Taut Wire system

Components of taut wire system:

1. Constant tension motor
2. Wire on a drum
3. Spooling gear
4. Sensor head
5. Deployment boom
6. Clump weight
7. A system of measuring and correcting for the effects of pitch and roll

4.4.2 Operation of taut wire system.

- Before use the system will need to be switched on and allowed to warm up, this includes
cooling water on some systems.
- The system will also need any fastenings releasing.
- An idea of the water depth is useful.
- When on location the weight is raised clear of its holder.
- The boom is then lowered, or swung out.
- Lower the weight to the seabed.
- Switch to constant tension, or "mooring", this function may be automatic
- Advise DP control, who can then select the taut wire into the system.
- The sensor then measures the fore and aft, and port and starboard angles and use these
signals to maintain position or move the vessel.

To make life easy people have been known to attach HPR beacons to the taut wire. This is a
very BAD practice. Should the taut wire drag both references will move, this could defeat
voting used by 3 enabled reference systems.

When the taut wire is at a large angle if the weight is lifted it will swing back in, allow for this.
If the vessel is rolling and pitching when the clump weight is recovered, as it clears the water
it may start to swing. This may cause problems when trying to stow the weight. If this
happens one solution is to try and throw a line round the wire and control the weight.

If the seabed is soft, the clump weight may sink in and not lift by the raise action. You can try
putting strain on the wire and let the movement of the vessel break it out, or try breaking the
weight out using the boom up action. It is quite possible the wire will break in this situation.
For that reason always keep a spare weight, wire, and fittings onboard.

The wire wears as it runs over the pullies, it is usual practice to crop (cut a length off the end
of the wire) at intervals to move the wire along. Keep a note of taut wire use and cropping, so
that you know when to crop, and how much wire is left. Not knowing the length of wire can
be embarrassing.

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4.4.3 Sources of error and operational constraints.

Water column - the constant tension motor keeps the wire as straight as possible, however
the column of water pushes on the wire, and if the flow is strong enough or the column of
water big enough (in deeper water), it can cause the wire to bow out in an erratic manner.

Ship structure - if the vessel moves towards the position that the clump weight is deployed,
eventually the wire will touch the ships side. At that time the reference will become "perfect"
in that the angle at the sensor head will now not change no matter how far the ship travels.
There is usually an alarm that causes the taut wire to be rejected by the DP system if this
happens.

Angular limits - as the wire moves away from the vertical, there is a gradual decrease in
resolution, there is also an increased risk of dragging the clump weight. To keep the
resolution within acceptable limits an angular limit of about 10 to 20 degrees (depending on
system) is applied. If the wire reaches this limit, there is usually a warning. The system may
still use the taut wire depending on circumstances.

Pitch and roll - the constant tension motor picks up slack, or pays out wire as the vessel
pitches and rolls. However there are limits to the speed, if the vessel rolls, or pitches to quick
it is possible to put extra tension on the wire and lift the weight, this will cause the weight to
be repositioned, and cause the vessel to be reposition, as the DP computer will think that the
vessel, not the weight has moved.

Sub-sea damage - the clump weight weighs in the region of 500 kg, if this is landed on
subsea equipment, or dragged into it, damage may be caused. Care must be taken when
deploying or repositioning the taut wire weight.

Range of movement - as previously mentioned there are angular limits set into the taut wire,
this means that the amount the vessel can move before a warning or alarm sounds
decreases as water depth decreases, until a point is reached that the taut wire will not
calibrate into the DP system due to the normal movement of the vessel.

Information - the taut wire systems only give positioning information relative to the clump
weight, there is no geographic information.

4.4.4 Power supply.

The taut wire demand is normally too much for the UPS, so the taut wire normally runs off
the ships main supply. Taut wire may be lost in the event of a black-out.

4.4.5 Type of taut wire systems.

Moon Pool Taut Wire.
The Moon Pool Taut Wire is mounted inboard with a clump weight deployed through the
bottom of the vessel through a small moon pool or wet well. The gimbal head is incorporated
into an elevator unit that is lowered from the stowage level down to the keel level, from
where the weight and wire are lowered. Movement compensation is provided by hydraulic
accumulator, and positioning data is obtained and processed in the same way as in the Light
Weight Taut Wire system.

For the Moon Pool Taut Wire a disadvantage arises in shallow water. Since the gimbal head
is that much closer to the seabed than with a deck mounted unit, the horizontal scope of the
system, which already is limited in shallow water, is further reduced

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The Surface Taut Wire.

The Surface Taut Wire gives position reference relative to a fixed structure (platform, buoy,
etc.). The wire is passed across to the platform adjacent and secured. No boom is needed,
instead the sensor is located atop a short vertical tower. The principles are the same as for
the vertical taut wire systems. The range for a Surface Taut Wire System is around 50 m.
For longer distances the accuracy would be reduced due to the curvature of the wire.

The Surface taut wire is generally an accurate device, but requires co-ordination with the
platform to connect, and some method must be found of passing the wire across in the
setting-up phase. Obviously it is not a long-range system, only really being of use once the
vessel is set up in or close to her final working position.

Gangway position reference.

A number of DP-capable Flotel (accommodation barge) vessels are able to operate close to
a fixed installation with a rigid gangway connected. The gangway allows easy access
between platform and Flotel unit for operational purposes. The gangway may be actively
motion-compensated allowing for Flotel movement against the fixed structure.

The gangway control system allows for maximum and minimum outreach, vertical and
horizontal angles. Warnings and alarms are activated in advance of these maxima being
reached. Sensors on the gangway feed back data on gangway extension and angles. This
data may be accessed by the DP system such that the gangway becomes position-reference
acting in a similar fashion to a taut wire system

4.4.6 System Advantages and Disadvantages.

The taut wire system exhibits the following advantages:
- High accuracy, especially in moderate depths of water
- Good reliability (provided regular maintenance carried out)
- Quick and easy to set up
- No need for assistance from external sources to set up or operate
- System is mechanical, so on-board repair possible

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While it suffers from the following limitations and disadvantages:

- The system is of a short range only, especially in shallow water
- Taut wire susceptible to strong tides, resulting in inaccuracies
- Accuracy deteriorates in deep water
- Maximum depth limitation, depending on type of system installed
- Adversely affected by surface debris or ice conditions
- Possibility of weight dragging, resulting in positional errors
- Wire may be fouled by ROV, divers or other underwater activity
- Wire may provide obstruction to underwater operations
- Possibility of depressor weight landing on seabed hardware, causing damage
- System is not geographically referenced - relative positioning only
- If the vessel needs to move, the taut wire must be continually re-plumbed
- Susceptible to mechanical damage, i.e. frayed or broken wire/lost weight
- Limitations in range due to bilge keel or other vessel structure limits
- Wire cannot be "eyeballed", thus fouling or other problems are not apparent
- Reliant upon vessel main power (not normally connected to UPS), and cooling

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Section 4.5 Differential Global Positioning System.

4.5.1 General.
GPS is a satellite-based positioning system (The Navigation Satellite Timing and Ranging
Global Positioning System - NAVSTAR GPS) operated by the United States Department of
Defense (DoD). GPS encompasses three segments - space, control, and user. The space
segment includes the 24 operational NAVSTAR satellites that orbit the earth every 12 hours
at an altitude of approximately 20200 kilometers. Each satellite contains several high-
precision atomic clocks and constantly transmits radio signals using a unique identifying
code. The GPS system operates at two frequencies; 1575.42 MHz (L1 - 19cm wavelength)
and 1227.60 MHz (L2 - 25cm wavelength). All satellites transmit both L1 and L2 frequencies.
The L1 transmissions are modulated by a precise code (P-code) and a Coarse Acquisition
code (C/A-Code). The L2 frequency carries the P-code only. The P-code provides the
Precise Positioning Service (PPS) which is only available to military users and provides an
accuracy of 20 m (2 drms). Civilian users are thus restricted the Standard Positioning
Service (SPS) obtained from the C/A-Code signals transmitted on the L1 frequency.

One Master Control Station, five Monitor Stations, and Ground Antennas comprise the
control segment. The Monitor Stations passively track each satellite continuously and
provide this data to the Master Control Station. The Master Control Station calculates any
changes in each satellite's position and timing. These changes are forwarded to the Ground
Antennas and transmitted to each satellite daily. This ensures that each satellite is
transmitting accurate information about its orbital path.
The first GPS satellite was launched in 1978. A full constellation of 24 satellites was
achieved in 1994. Each satellite is built to last about 10 years. Replacements are constantly
being built and launched into orbit. Transmitter power is only 50 watts or less.

The user segment, comprised of both civilian and military users worldwide, acquires signals
sent from the NAVSTAR satellites with GPS receivers. The GPS receiver uses these signals
to determine where the satellites are located. With this data and information stored internally,
the receiver can calculate its own position on earth. This positional information can be used
in many applications such as mapping, surveying, navigation, and mobile GIS.

4.5.2 Sources of GPS signal errors.

Factors that can degrade the GPS signal and thus affect accuracy include the following:
Ionosphere and troposphere delays - The satellite signal slows as it passes through the
atmosphere. The GPS system uses a built-in model that calculates an average amount of
delay to partially correct for this type of error.

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Signal multipath - This occurs when the GPS signal is reflected off objects such as tall
buildings or large rock surfaces before it reaches the receiver. This increases the travel time
of the signal, thereby causing errors.

Receiver clock errors - A receiver's built-in clock is not as accurate as the atomic clocks
onboard the GPS satellites. Therefore, it may have very slight timing errors.

Orbital errors - Also known as ephemeris errors, these are inaccuracies of the satellite's
reported location.

Number of satellites visible - The more satellites a GPS receiver can "see," the better the
accuracy. Buildings, terrain, electronic interference, or sometimes even dense foliage can
block signal reception, causing position errors or possibly no position reading at all. GPS
units typically will not work indoors, underwater or underground.

Satellite geometry/shading - This refers to the relative position of the satellites at any given
time. Ideal satellite geometry exists when the satellites are located at wide angles relative to
each other. Poor geometry results when the satellites are located in a line or in a tight
grouping.

Intentional degradation of the satellite signal - Selective Availability (SA) is an intentional

degradation of the signal once imposed by the U.S. Department of Defense. SA was
intended to prevent military adversaries from using the highly accurate GPS signals. The
government turned off SA in May 2000, which significantly improved the accuracy of civilian
GPS receivers.

4.5.3 Differential GPS.

Due to military concerns when GPS was first introduced, the signals were deliberately
degraded, by dithering; this was a random rapidly varying timing error, called Selective
Availability (SA). This reduced the accuracy of GPS to about 30 m which was not good
enough for DP. Commercial companies set up a system to correct for SA, and while SA was
removed in 2001 Differential is still used as it helps improve reliability and correct for other
sources of error.

In order to enhance the accuracy from the GPS a differential technique is used. This is done
by establishing reference stations at points whose positions are accurately known on the
WGS 84 spheroid (the working spheroid of the GPS system). The pseudo ranges derived by
the receiver are compared with those computed from the known locations of the satellites
and reference station, and a Pseudo-Range Correction (PRC) derived for each satellite.
These corrections are then included in a telemetry message sent to the ships receiver by a
data link. The receiver then applies the PRCs to the observed pseudo ranges to compute a
differentially corrected position. The use of PRCs instead of geographical corrections
(lat/long differences) allows the reference station and ship receivers to observe different
satellites, allowing greater flexibility.

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The user in the vessel will apply the PRCs in one of two ways. Direct Injection involves
interfacing the PRCs directly to the GPS receiver, which corrects its pseudo ranges, deriving
a differentially corrected position. The second method is to supply both pseudo-ranges from
the GPS receiver, and the PRCs to a PC running DGPS software which combines the two
sets of data to derive the corrected position.

The use of differential techniques may potentially result in system accuracies superior to
those obtained from the P-code. One source of error in the GPS system is that relating to
errors in satellite position within it's orbit. Using the P-code and no differential corrections,
orbital errors will appear within the error budget of the final positioning. Using the C/A code
with differential corrections, the effects of orbital errors are reduced.

The differential link used to transmit the corrections varies from HF and UHF short range
radio links to communications satellite links providing longer range or even global coverage.
The type of differential link selected will depend upon circumstances and location but an
essential requirement is a high update rate for the corrections; for DP purposes, update rates
of less than 5 seconds are necessary. Longer update intervals will result in erratic
positioning.

FURUNO GP37 GPS/DGPS receiver

Differential GPS services are available form a number of sources. The commonest (and
cheapest) are those transmitted using the MF 300 KHz band by the stations that provide (or
provided) radiobeacon services. These services are provided free of charge by the members
of IALA (the International Association of Lighthouse Authorities) such as Trinity House. The
IALA DGPS corrections are an easily-accessed method of enhancing GPS accuracy, but
suffer from a number of drawbacks. Using MF, range is limited to around 300 - 400 km, with
problems at periods of twilight and night time. The MF signals are not particularly robust, and
suffer attenuation during rainstorms and other atmospheric interference. Generally, the IALA
service is not regarded as adequate for position-reference for any safety-critical DP
operations, and users are recommended to avail themselves of one of the commercial
DGPS services from available from Fugro, Thales and others. These are subscription
services.

The accuracy quoted for DGPS varies from 1 to 5 m (2 drms). Within a particular
constellation of satellites the accuracy varies between 1 and 3 m, rising to 5 m during a
constellation change.

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4.5.4 Different uses and new methods.

Relative GPS - DARPS (Differential Absolute and Relative Positioning System) - Some DP
functions require the positioning of a vessel relative to a moving, rather than fixed, position.
An example of this is the operation of a DP shuttle tanker loading via a bow loading hose
from the stern of a floating production vessel or FPSO. The FPSO may be turret-moored and
in a continuous weathervane mode. As well as the FPSO having a certain amount of
positional wander, the stern of the FPSO describes the arc of a circle providing a complex
positioning problem for the shuttle tanker.

Seatex DARPS system is configured to handle this problem. The storage tanker or FPSO
uses DGPS to monitor its absolute position using Skyfix DGPS. This enables the shuttle
tanker to dermine both its Absolute and its Relative position. For the measurement of relative
position differential corrections are not used, as the local errors are the same for the shuttle
tanker as they are for the FPSO. A dual UHF transponder is placed on the point of reference
(FPSO) and telemeters received GPS data to the UHF transceiver aboard the shuttle tanker.
The computer aboard the shuttle tanker then makes a comparison between the GPS position
of the transponder and the GPS position of the tanker, deriving a range/bearing vector which
may be input to the DP system as position reference.

Relative GPS

A higher-spec version of DARPS is able to improve on the accuracy of the basic system by
the use of dual-frequency GPS. The built-in L1/L2 GPS receiver allows real-time
compensation of errors introduced by high ionospheric activity. Corrections are input from
one or more dual-frequency reference stations, up to 20 reference stations can be accessed.
With this differential input available, accuracies of 1.0m in position and 0.05m/sec in velocity
are claimed (95% CEP). With no differential input, the figures are 4 m and 0.1 m/sec.

When the shuttle tanker is in the approach mode it will initiate the UHF comes with its
transceiver, activating the FPSO DARPS transponder. This link has a range of some 2-3 km.
and remains active until loading completes and the tanker moves off.

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--------- Standard DGPS --------- SkyFix XP

Dual Frequency Systems - if both L1 and the L2 frequencies are used it is possible to
calculate actual ray bending. At the Reference station both signals are received, by
measuring the difference in rate of bending of the two signals the actual bending at the
reference station can be calculated. This can then be applied to the SV signals to remove
the effect, and then the fix is calculated and residual errors calculated, and transmitted. At
the user end both frequencies are received, the signal bending at the user is calculated and
its effect removed. The corrections from the reference station are applied to give a fix that
has no ionospheric-tropospheric-scintillation errors.

Single frequency with scintillation Dual frequency with scintillation

Real Time Kinematic – measures Carrier Phase Difference – 500 km system with decimetre
accuracy available Offshore from Fugro, and Thales now available, gives position, Heading,
VRU, and height of tide information.

Sea Path a Short Range Carrier Phase Difference System – 10 km range needs a local
reference station, gives position, Heading, VRU, and height of tide information.

Realtime Gypsy-A World Wide Dual Frequency System - uses the NASA system of
reference stations, collects data from all GPS satellites sends it to a hub that calculates a
single set of corrections that are broadcast via INMARSAT.

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EGNOS / WAAS / MSAS (European/USA/JAPAN) - augment GPS and Glonass signals

using a DGPS style set up. The next phase, a stand alone GPS system called Galileo has
just been given the go ahead, with multiple frequencies, and better atomic clocks, it is
expected to exceed GPS standards.

GPS-INS combination - a combination of ships inertial navigation system (SINS) and GPS,
should the GPS dropout the SINS component can be used to provide a reference signal, that
will hopefully not degrade before either GPS is regained or the DP is safely terminated.

4.5.5 System Advantages and Disadvantages.

Advantages:
- Once set up it is easy to use.
- Signals monitored and problems promulgated.
- Water depth (shallow or deep) not a concern.
- No physical links to anything.
- No need to reset within normal operational moves.
- Helps to correct for all sources of error.
- Some systems will give indication of multi-path.
- Dual frequency systems available, which are more reliable and can, reduce the effects of
scintillation.

Disadvantages:
- Systems can be affected by multi-path.
- May need to set for different areas of operations, trial points, reference stations, height
aiding etc.
- Can be affected by sunspot activity especially single frequency systems.
- Corrections can be blocked line of sight.
- If operating close to large tall structures SV's can be blocked reducing the number of
satellites available, to the extent that fixes become unusable.
- Correction links can be knocked out by microwave interference.
- Corrections become less relevant as you move away from reference stations (you would
not operate in the Pacific using corrections for Aberdeen).
- Corrections need to be up to date, before SA was removed this was about 30 seconds.
Now SA is gone this is not so relevant.
- Must have 3 or 4 satellites for a fix.
- Cannot use satellites that are too high or too low.
- System interfaces vary, some are quite complex, others are just a black box with the
operator having no insight into processing.
- Systems can be jammed, a 1 watt jammer could effectively jam a coastal port).

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Section 4.6 Laser Positioning Reference Systems.

4.6.1 General.
There are two major systems in operational use; Cyscan made by Guidance Navigation
(www.guidance.eu.com), and Fanbeam made by MDL (www.fanbeam.com), they both give
a relative range and bearing, to a reflector, or reflectors. The systems have multiple uses, it
can be used to provide fixing information for a DP vessel, it can be used to track targets
relative to a vessel e.g. a seismic boat can track the relative position of tail buoys, or a pipe-
laying barge can track the position of anchor handling vessels relative to the barge. Systems
may track single or multiple targets.

4.6.2 Principle of operation.

The system uses the principle of laser range finding by measuring the time taken for a pulse
of laser light to travel from the laser source to a target and back to the detector. The
disadvantage of using a traditional narrow beam laser is that the laser has to be accurately
pointed at the target. The system overcomes this problem by using special laser optics that
produce a laser beam in a 20º vertical fan at the system optics. It should be noted that the
vertical beam is reduced, due to dissipation, to 6° at 2000 m. By scanning this fan
horizontally in a controlled manner a fixed target can be tracked from a moving vessel and its
bearing, relative to the vessels heading, and range, can be determined.

The system comprises a laser/scanning unit mounted on a motorized yoke that can rotate
360º at up to 50º per second. The laser unit measures ranges up to 2000 m, and the scanner
unit measures the bearing, to a target, relative to the vessels heading.

The laser systems offers a useful, relatively cheap and transportable positioning reference,
for use in conjunction with other positioning reference systems, for the dynamic positioning
of marine vessels. The system utilises non-powered static targets that are intrinsically safe
and can be easily mounted in almost all areas of an offshore platform or drilling rig. Fog,
heavy rain and snow will reduce the operating range of the laser system but with visibility of
between 30% and 50% better than the human eye, close range working is usually possible.

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4.6.3 Range and Accuracy.

Using retro prisms in good visibility, the maximum range stated by the manufacturer,
depending on the version used, is currently 2000 m. The range accuracy is stated as ±20 cm
and the bearing resolution from the bearing encoder is stated as ±0.02º, both values based
on receiving five returns from a target. The bearing is measured relative to the vessel’s
heading, and therefore the accuracy and resolution of the vessel’s gyrocompass will affect
the overall bearing accuracy measured to the target. The combined repeatable bearing
accuracy will limit the range at which stable position inputs can be obtained, suitable for
automatic dynamic positioning. The maximum range for use with DP is therefore likely to be
< 150 m using reflective targets and < 500 m using retro prisms. Use of a “few inches of
reflective tape”, regardless of type or quality, can produce unreliable results and should not
be contemplated.

Fanbeam laser system

CyScan laser system

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4.6.4 System Description.

Fanbeam laser system configuration CyScan laser system configuration

The Laser System components:

- The operating station.
- The laser device that transmits and receives the laser pulse.
- The reflector (either tube, prismatic type, or combined type).

4.6.5 Mode of operation.

1. The reflector is deployed.
2. The operating station is switched to search.
3. The unit will complete a 360 degree sweep and report all objects that reflect.
4. The laser device send pulses of light out these strike the reflector and are returned.
5. As the pulse arrives at the laser device, the round trip of the pulse is noted, and with the
known speed of light the range is calculated.
6. As the return pulse arrives, there is a device that measures the direction the laser device
is pointing (the electro optical encoder) this is noted and using a gyro input bearing is
derived.
7. The operator then selects the reflector from the reported objects.
8. The operator tells the system to track that object.
9. Operational limits can then be set such as minimum range, minimum signal strength, and
"range gates", these will alarm if limits exceed.

4.6.6 Sources of error and operational constraint.

Following false targets - manufacturers say this cannot happen, the scenario is that
someone in a shiny jacket walks past the reflector, the laser device locks onto the retro
reflective tape on the jacket, and the vessel follows the "jacket". The risk can be reduced by
setting the range gates to a minimum, and siting the reflector away from areas where people
normally walk.

Wind causing signal drop out - if the tube style reflectors are not tied down top and bottom
they can get blown about in the wind, pulses are not reflected properly and the laser system
is rejected.

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Line of sight - this has many causes:

- People or objects in front of the target
- other vessels passing between the reflector and laser
- Dirt on the lenses, or reflector
- Rain, snow, or fog etc.
- Discharges such as barites, cement etc

Difference in height - the laser beam is horizontally narrow (1 milli radian) vertically it is about
20 degrees wide, this is to allow for differences in height between the laser and the reflector,
and pitch and roll. However if the height difference is too great, as the vessel gets closer the
reflector will be outside the lasers beam, and the reference will be lost. Some systems can
tilt the laser head to compensate for this.

Light interference - the sun shining directly on the laser or bright lights close to the reflector
can cause loss of signal.

4.6.7 Tube style target.

These can be supplied by the manufacturer; it is recommended that the targets are a metre
in length, and not more than 25cm in diameter. The use of a good quality retro reflective tape
is recommended, such as diamond grade white reflective tape or something similar. Tube
targets should have fastenings top and bottom so that will not be blown about in the wind.
These give useable signals up to about 200-300m depending on conditions.

Prisms. Prismatic reflectors are optical devices that are designed to reflect the laser pulse
back along the path it was received on. Prisms need to used when operating at distances
from targets outside the tube target ranges.

Range Prisms Notes

Up1 km 3 stack vertically

Up to 2 km 6 stack vertically

Single prism 3 stack prism 6 stack prism

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4.6.8 Operational Notes.

- When siting the laser unit remember that the lenses have to be cleaned, a laser at the top
of the mast gives an all round view but may be difficult to clean.
- Prisms can be bought in prefabricated stacks.
- You have to clean the reflectors as well as the laser.
- Put reflectors as near to same height as laser as possible.
- If possible site reflectors away from where people normally walk and where slung loads
will not block signals.
- Site reflectors where so they will be in view through out operation, if this is not possible
site extra reflectors, or allow for repositioning in the planning.
- Site reflectors further away rather than closer to the laser, hopefully the reflector being
designed for purpose will always have a higher return and so be easier to pick out.
- Site reflectors as far away as possible away from other reflective items so again they are
easier to pick out.
- Cyscan can track multiple reflectors, and remember their relative positions, should a
reflector be moved or the laser lock onto a moving reflector the system can give a
warning.

4.6.9 Laser System Advantages and Disadvantages.

Advantages:
- Low cost compared to other reference systems
- Ease of installation
- Passive target, no power supply required, intrinsically safe
- Target does not require any support services once installed
- High accuracy

Disadvantages:
- Will not operate with the sun shining directly into the lenses.
- The lenses can be affected by condensation, rain and salt spray
- The system operation is impaired by fog, snow or heavy rain
- The system may be confused by bright lights close to the target at night
- The system may suffer interference from reflective items in the area of the target
- In earlier models the UDU was not easily read in full daylight conditions. This drawback
has been addressed in later models

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Chapter 5. ENVIRONMENT REFERENCE.

Section 5.1 Wind sensors.
All DP systems carry wind sensors, providing feedback as to the direction and strength of the
wind. This data is then used to calculate wind-induced forces acting upon the vessels hull
and structure, allowing these forces to be included in the positioning calculation. Typically, a
wind sensor consists of a simple transmitting anemometer, usually of the rotating-cup type
with a separate wind-hawk indicating direction.

The input of data from the wind sensor fulfills a number of functions, some more vital than
others. In addition to the provision of data allowing compensation of wind forces within the
positioning calculation, the speed and direction of the wind is one important factor in the
calculation of the Weathervane, or Minimum Power Heading. A correct assessment of this
heading is vitally important to some vessels, e.g. the shuttle tanker and floating production
vessels, which are reliant upon the maintenance of a weathervane attitude at all times.
Vessels of this type generally do not have sufficient power to maintain position on any
beading other than the weathervane in any but the lightest of wind and tide conditions. In
vessels of this type, the weathervane heading is calculated from a combination of the wind
sensor input, the computation of current direction and rate, and the draught of the vessel.

This latter value, either input manually or fed from draught sensors located forward and aft,
will modify the weathervane calculation in the light of the ratio between draught and
freeboard; the deeper the vessel is in the water, the greater the influence of tide and the less
that of wind. Old-fashioned seafaring expressions such as "wind-rode" and "tide-rode" spring
to mind.

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The wind sensors are coupled into the DP system by means of a "feed forward" function,
which by-passes the mathematical model, in addition to being included into the modeling
process. This sounds a little confusing, but it is vitally important to the performance of the DP
system during conditions of radical changes in wind direction, strength or both. This feed
forward function is best described as ”gust/thruster compensation".

The mathematical model in general reacts to changes in the vessel/ environment only slowly,
a period of twenty minutes is being required to completely update to any change. This period
of time is necessary to provide a representative sample of the variable being measured (e.g.
current value). Unfortunately, the wind can change much faster than this, and large changes
in wind speed or direction can cause major disturbances in the quality of position and
heading control. Without immediate thruster compensation, an unexpected and strong gust
of wind can cause a significant and unacceptable excursion.

The amount of thruster compensation would be in proportion to the distance that the vessel
is from the set point, and the velocity of the vessel. Without a wind feed-forward function, the
compensation thrust would be small until the excursion was unacceptably large. However,
the wind feed-forward allows an immediate compensation thrust to be applied in direct
proportion to the change detected in the wind speed and/or direction. This prevents the
vessel from being "blown away" from set point. Once steady conditions obtain, the feed-
forward factor decays as the wind values build into the mathematical model. This function
very elegantly solves the problem of gusting wind conditions provided that the wind sensor is
detecting representative wind values, and that the feed-forward compensation factors have
been correctly tuned.

The detection of representative wind values is sometimes difficult, and is often a factor of
correct siting or location of the wind sensors. In general they must be above and clear of any
structure that would provide wind shadow. Such wind shadow may stem from masts, funnels
or any other structure, including that on adjacent platforms. It is usual to site wind sensors on
either end of a transverse yardarm, with the DPO able to select the most suitable one into
the system, usually the windward one. If all wind sensors are de-selected, the DP system will
use the value of the wind contained in the model, i.e. a constant value. Under these
conditions there will be no update of wind values, and feed-forward facility, so no direct
compensation for gusting conditions. The DPO must be aware of this. It may be that he has
de-selected both wind sensors for an impending helicopter visit, in order to prevent
disruption of the positioning due to draft from the helicopter's rotors affecting the L wind
sensors. If this is the case, the DPO must also be aware of the hazards involved in the re-
selection of the wind sensor.

If the value for the wind on re-selection is different to that contained in the model, then the
DP system will treat the apparent change as an instantaneous gust, and the feed-forward
may initiate a drive-off. Unless the change in wind speed during the period of de selection
has been radical, the drive should not be particularly violent, but it is something the DPO
must be prepared for.

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Section 5.2 Reference Origin.

Each position reference system provides position measurements relative to a known
reference point. The reference point of the first position-reference system that is selected
becomes the Reference Origin, or the origin within the internal Cartesian co-ordinate system.
Position reference from any other reference system are then calibrated against the
Reference Origin.

The reference origin may be the location of the Taut wire depressor weight, or the Artemis
Fix station, or an HPR transponder location. It may also be the origin for the DGPS system, if
that was the first selected. In that case, if the UTM co-ordinate system is in use, the
Reference Origin will be the point on the equator (zero northing) corresponding to the central
meridian (zero easting, or 500,000 false easting). The DPO must not misunderstand the
significance of the "Reference Origin" tag on any position reference symbol. This does not
mean that it is the most reliable, or the most accurate reference available. The fact that a
particular system has been selected as Reference Origin does not mean that it is treated by
the DP system as being better or more reliable than any other position reference system. It
concerns only the location of the reference origin, which is used as a datum zero, northing
and easting, for all displayed positions and calibrated position data. In most systems the
reference origin is affixed to the first position reference accepted into the DP system. If the
DPO wishes to change the position reference carrying reference origin, it is necessary to
deselect all position references, wait for Position Dropout (30 sec. to 1 min.), and then select
the position reference he wishes to take reference origin. Once this is accepted into the DP it
will carry the reference origin tag, and further position references may be taken into the DP.

Section 5.3 Heading Reference (GYRO).

Heading reference is provided from the gyro compass, which transmits data into the DP
system in the same way that it transmits data to any other heading-stabilised equipment
(radar, repeater, etc.).

In vessels where redundancy is necessary, then two or three gyros are fitted. If only two
gyros are fitted, the problem still exists of determining which unit has failed. All the DP
system can do is to monitor the difference in heading readout between the two gyros, and
flag up a warning if that difference exceeds a certain value. This puts the ball firmly back into
the DPO's court regarding the selection of the correct gyro; it may be that the backup has
failed. This leaves a less than satisfactory situation for the DPO, as it may be impossible for
him to tell immediately which compass is giving problems.

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The traditional methods of determining compass error (azimuth observation, amplitude or

transit) may not be possible at a short notice. In vessels with two gyros, it is strongly
recommended that the DPO makes a note of the magnetic compass heading when the
vessel is set up on DP and settled. This may provide a quick solution to the problem, but the
DPO must not forget that the magnetic compass may be affected by the vessel's operation,
which may involve movements of large masses of steelwork (cranebarge operations, etc.).

If two gyros are fitted, the DPO has a selector switch on the DP allowing him to select one or
other for input into the DP. If that compass suffers catastrophic failure resulting in the loss of
signals from it, the DP will automatically default to read the other gyro, but some position
references may fail. This happens because a heading input is a fundamental requirement of
some position references (e.g. HPR) and the PRS is only configured to "read" the selected
gyro.

The DPO must select the alternative gyro in order to preserve input from all his position
references. If three gyros are fitted, then the DP system may use Voting logic to detect a
gyro failure, and give an appropriate warning to the DPO. Three gyros are typically fitted in
vessels complying with Equipment Class 3, where triple modular redundancy is the norm in
the DP system. Three gyros are also fitted in vessels of Equipment Class 2. It is not normal
that the DP system is configured to accept input from magnetic compasses. The latest
generation of gyrocompass technology is typified by the Sperry SR 2100 solid-state digital
gyrocompass. Perhaps the word "gyro" is misleading here, as new technology has
eliminated the spinning rotor and all other moving parts. This compass uses fibre optic
elements arranged in a ring. Light enters the ring at a fixed point, circulating in both
directions simultaneously. Phase comparison between the clockwise and anticlockwise light
beams will yield information on the rate of turn of the device. This is known as the "Sagnac"
effect, and is utilised here in an instrument that outputs not only rate-of-turn, but also
heading, roll and pitch data. Heading reference may be available from devices other than
gyro compasses.

Section 5.4 Vertical Reference Unit (VRU).

VRU's or MRU's or VRS's, determine the ship's roll, pitch and heave. The VRU is specifically
designed to measure roll, pitch, yaw and heave motion in marine applications. It utilizes
military-grade accelerometers and several models of quality gyros, depending on the
application, to meet customers' accuracy and cost requirements.

The VRU provides high performance motion data for various marine applications ranging
from small underwater vehicles to large ship motion control.

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Very high reliability is achieved by using solid state sensors with no moving parts and the
proven MRU electrical and mechanical construction. The roll, pitch and heave motions of the
vessel are not compensated for by the DP control system, but it is necessary for the DP
control system to be provided with accurate values of roll and pitch. This is to allow
compensation to be applied to all the various position reference sensor inputs for their offset
from the centre of gravity of the vessel. Instrumentation to measure these values is provided
in the form of a VRS, VRU or MRU. The MRU measures accelerations by the use of linear
accelerometers and calculates inclination angles.

Section 5.5 Functions and capabilities of a modern DP system.

Any DP system has a number of basic capabilities, while most of them feature a number of
optional functions relating to the specialist nature of the vessel in which the system is fitted.
As in any other technology, the more modern systems tend to have greater capabilities and
be more "user friendly" while the earlier systems were often more difficult to operate. Another
factor is the make and "model" of system installed, as different manufacturers tend to use
different philosophies, mainly in the MMI (man/machine interface or control panels and
displays).

What follows is a simplified run-through the features and functions found in modern DP
systems. The descriptions mostly relate to modern Kongsberg K-Pos system, but likewise,
most of the comments could equally apply to other manufacturer's equipment. It is important
that the DPO refers to the operator's handbook and other documentation for his own
systems for detailed instructions for operation. What follows is only a guide to the range of
capabilities found in a typical system.

5.5.1 The Controller.

The controller calculates the resulting force to be produced by the thrusters/propellers in
order for the vessel to remain on station. In station-keeping operations, the K-Pos DP
Controller can be working in several of the following modes, all with special characteristics:
- High Precision control
- Relaxed control
- Green control

High Precision control provides high accuracy station-keeping in any weather condition at
the expense of power consumption and exposure to wear and tear of machinery and
thrusters. Relaxed control uses the thrusters more smoothly, at the expense of station-
keeping accuracy. However, this type of control cannot guarantee that the vessel will stay
within its operational area, and is only applicable for calm weather conditions.

Green control uses a different control technology called non-linear Model Predictive Control,
which is optimized for precise area keeping with minimum power consumption. Green
control is applicable in all weather conditions. The transition between K-Pos DP controller
modes is bumpless.

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5.5.2 High Precision and Relaxed Control.

The controller consists of the following parts:
1. Excursion Feedback.
The deviation between the operator-specified position/heading setpoints and the actual
position/heading data, and similar deviations with respect to the vessel’s velocity/heading
rate, drive the excursion feedback. The differences are multiplied by gain factors giving a
force setpoint (restoring setpoint and damping setpoint) required to bring the vessel back to
its setpoint values while also slowing down its movements. The main difference between
High Precision control and Relaxed control is the restoring characteristics of the two
controller types as indicated.

2. Wind Feed-Forward.
In order to counteract the wind forces as quickly as possible, the feed-forward concept is
used. This means that the K-Pos DP system will not allow the vessel to drift away from the
required position, but counteracts the wind-induced forces as soon as they are detected.

Current Feedback.
The excursion feedback and wind feed-forward are not sufficient to bring the vessel back to
the desired setpoints due to unmeasured external forces (such as waves and current). The
system estimates these forces over time, and calculates the force setpoint required to
counteract them.

5.5.3 Green control.

In the Green control mode, the system maintains the vessel within an allowed area with
minimum use of power. The controller design consists of two main parts, each giving its
contribution to the control:
- The Environment Compensator is designed to compensate for the averaged
environmental forces, which will maintain the required position under averaged conditions.
- The Model Predictive Controller (MPC) uses a prediction (Position Predictor) of the vessel
movement as input for the control. When the operational boundaries are predicted to be
exceeded, the controller reacts to ensure that the vessel stays within the operational area.

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The very smooth control actions reduce wear and tear on mechanical parts of the power and
thruster system and reduce fuel consumption and greenhouse gases. A simplified block
diagram of the MPC Green control is shown.

Due to its nature, the MPC will not instantaneously react to sudden changes in external
forces, such as wind gusts, unless the Position Predictor detects that actions must be taken
immediately. Unnecessary sudden use of thrust is therefore avoided. The Position Predictor
includes the mathematical model of the vessel used in the Extended Kalman Filter of the DP.
The position and heading of the vessel are predicted over a period of 1 to 2 minutes. The
non-linear Model Predictive Controller is an online optimization function, finding the best
compromise between using thrust and predicted crossing of operational boundaries.

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Chapter 6. POWER GENERATION AND SUPPLY AND PROPULSION.

Section 6.1 General.
Power is defined as the motive system that drives the thrusters and provides electrical
supply to the remainder of the equipment. In some vessels these power supplies may be
separate. Individual engines could power the thrusters with a normal generator supplying
power to the rest of the vessel. The DP system may have a dedicated power system,
dedicate engine room for DP or it may share the power available with the normal vessel
requirements, on some vessel the generated power would be shared between DP machinery
and equipment, Drilling drives and vessel accommodation load.

6.6.1 Generators.
In a diesel electric installation, a number of generators provide power to a switchboard on a
„power station” basis. Typically the voltage generated in a diesel-electric installation is high
tension, main and axillary switchboard run at 440V or 240V with power fed from the
switchboard via transformers. The generators are driven by diesel engines, each of which
should be provided with independent services such as fuel, cooling and lubrication. Failure of
one generator will leave a number of other online, and normal margins of working should
ensure that loss of one generator does not result in an emergency status. The number of
generators running can be changed to match the power requirements.

6.6.2 Switchboards.
Beside the direct driven propellers all power generated on board has to go through a
switchboard. In order to provide redundancy on every vessel there are at least two main
switchboards and one emergency switchboard. Different equipment is connected to either
one of the main switchboard and normally in a way so as to provide greatest redundancy, for
each equipment there is automatic circuit breaker protecting the switchboard if there is a
short-circuit somewhere in the system. Between the two main switchboards there is a circuit
breaker switch, which enables the two switchboards to be linked together, during DP
operation this tie switch is normally open, and the ship can still have power on one
switchboard if there is problem on other. Some new system are designed to operate with bus
tie closed, this can give greater flexibility, there is the risk that a „dead short” can couse a
black out. The FMEA should give the operating position of the bus tie for operating classes.

Power plant safety hierarchy

1. Primary protection system in breakers and switchboards.
2. Power management system and blackout prevention / consumer control system.
3. Load sharing monitoring system.

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Section 6.2 Power Management System (PMS).

The primary function of a power management system is to ensure continuity of electrical
supply under all operating conditions. As a secondary function, it should also ensure rapid
black out recovery in the event that it fails in its primary function for whatever reason.
Basically Power management systems are intended to ensure that critical power shortages
or blackout are avoided.

Vessels of equipment class 2 may have bus-bar section connected by bus tie breakers, but
these breakers must separate automatically upon overload or short circuit failure within one
section. Vessels of Equipment Class 3 must operate with bus tie breakers open, with each
section of bus-bar isolated from the remainder.

- Load sharing. Symmetric and asymmetric.

- Reactive load sharing (power factor control).
- Load dependent start and stop.
- Alarm changeover.
- Blackout reconnection.
- Fast consumer load limitation & reduction.
- Close interaction with DP and thruster control systems.
- Signal verification.
- Measurement validation, calculation of illegal values.
- Breaker position and kW validation
- Redundancy and segregation.

To maintain position azimuth thrusters, azipods, bow and stern thrusters, stern thrusters,
water jets, rudders and propellers are used. DP ships are usually at least partially diesel-
electric, as this allows a more flexible set-up and is better able to handle the large changes
in power demand, typical for DP operations.

The set-up depends on the DP class of the ship. A Class 1 can be relatively simple, whereas
the system of a Class 3 ship is quite complex.

On Class 2 and 3 ships, all computers and reference systems should be powered through a
UPS.

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Section 6.3 Automated Power Management System.

The power plant in question consists of nine generators producing a total of 21,000 KW at
6kV. The vessel is configured to operate to equipment class 3 levels. The generators are
installed in three independent machinery spaces. Two of the generators (in different spaces)
are designated emergency generators. The 6kV power busbar is split into three sections by
two bus tie breakers, these sections are installed in three separate independent high voltage
switchboard rooms.

During non-critical operations the bus ties are closed; the switchboards operating as a single
unit. A fault in one switchboard will not result in a total black-out, as the affected switchboard
will be isolated. During critical operations the switchboards will be operated as single units,
with bus ties open. This configuration is a requirement for Class 3 operations.

Section 6.4 Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS).

For Equipment Class 2 and 3 systems, the power supply must be fully redundant with no
single point failures. The battery backup supply must have a minimum duration of 30
minutes.

UPS facility is provided by a major power system providing UPS function to a number of
operating areas of the vessel. Thus critical operating capability relating to drill floor or pipelay
facilities, as well as the Dynamic Positioning, are provided from a large-capacity UPS
system.

In a simple UPS, two independent supplies, Master and Slave, are taken from separate bus-
bars. One of these supplies is fed into a charging rectifier, turning the ship's AC into 120v.
DC. This DC, in addition to supplying the inverter, is also fed to a battery supply. In the event
of loss of power from the ships supply, these batteries will power the system for approx. 30
min. (NOTE: the batteries only supply the DP system electronics - not the Thrusters).

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Section 6.5 Propulsion system.

Requirements:
„3.3 Thruster system
3.3.1 The thruster system should provide adequate thrust in longitudinal and lateral
directions, and provide yawing moment for heading control.

3.3.2 For equipment classes 2 and 3, the thruster system should be connected to the power
system in such a way that 3.3.1 can be complied with even after failure of one of the
constituent power systems and the thrusters connected to that system.

3.3.3 The values of thruster force used in the consequence analysis (see 3.4.2.4) should be
corrected for interference between thrusters and other effects which would reduce the
effective force.

3.3.4 Failure of thruster system including pitch, azimuth or speed control, should not make
the thruster rotate or go to uncontrolled full pitch and speed.”

IMO MSC Circular 645 „Guidelines for Vessels with Dynamic Positioning Systems „

The manoeuvring capability of the vessel is provided by the thrusters. In general, three main
types of thruster are fitted in DP vessels; main propellers, tunnel thrusters and azimuth
thrusters.

Main propellers, either single or twin screw are provided in a similar fashion to conventional
vessels. In DP vessels where such main propulsion forms part of the DP function propellers
are usually controllable pitch running at constant RPM. This facilitates the use of shaft driven
alternators as these could not be used if the shaft drive is not at constant RPM.

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A more recent development is the installation of frequency-converter systems allowing

variable speed AC motors to be used in conjunction with fixed-pitch propellers. Main
propellers are usually accompanied by conventional rudders and steering gear.

In earlier vessels the DP system will not include rudder control; the autopilot being
disconnected and the rudder set amidships when in DP mode. In more modern vessels,
however, the rudder(s) form part of the DP system, with command and feedback integrated
with the thruster/propeller installation.

Gill Jet

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Becker Rudder

Section 6.6 Thrusters allocation.

The Thruster Allocation distributes these setpoints as pitch/rpm/force/load and azimuth

control signals to each thruster/propeller, thus obtaining the force and moment required for
the position and heading control.

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The setpoint is distributed in such a way as to obtain the force and turning moment required
for position and heading control, while also ensuring optimum thruster/propeller use with
minimum power consumption and minimum wear and tear on the propulsion equipment.

If it is not possible to maintain both the turning moment and the force setpoint due to
insufficient available thrust, priority is normally set to obtain the turning moment setpoint
(heading). If a thruster/propeller is out of service or deselected, the “lost” thrust is
automatically redistributed to the remaining thrusters/propellers. The magnitude of thrust
allocated is reduced if the available power is too low to meet the thrust demand. The
allocated thrust will however still be correct with respect to the direction of thrust. Heading (or
position) priority is also kept in such a situation. Power optimal thruster allocation is the
primary barrier for preventing blackouts and requires the same information as that required
for Power Load Monitoring and Blackout Prevention.

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Chapter 7. OPERATIONS USING DP.

Section 7.1 Geodetic systems.
Position information from position-reference systems may be received by the DP system in
many forms. The type of co-ordinate system may be Cartesian or Geodetic, and a modern
DP system is able to handle information based on either co-ordinate system. A Cartesian, or
local, co-ordinate system is based upon a flat-surface two-dimensional measurement of the
North/South (X) and East/West (Y) distances from a locally denned Reference Origin. This
Reference Origin will be one of the Position Reference system transponders or reference
points (e.g. HPR transponder, Artemis Fix station, Taut wire depressor weight location). This
type of co-ordinate reference system is purely local, or relative, with no indication of any
earth-fixed location reference. For the DP system to handle earth-referenced type of data it
is necessary to configure the DP system to accept Geodetic data, or Global references.

Geodetic systems may be based upon a geographic co-ordinate system, such as Latitude
and Longitude. In order to avoid position anomalies, the reference datum must be specified.
A variety of datums are in use in different parts of the world, examples are WGS84, WGS72,
ED50, ED87. Each one of these datums (and there are many others) consists of a
description of the form of the earth, optimised for position measurement either globally, or for
a particular area. The ED50 and ED87 datums are optimized for the European area.

It is important that the system is configured for the correct datum, as the position relating to a
given set of co-ordinates may differ by tens of metres, if not hundreds, using different
datums. Position reference may be accepted from a DGPS system, with co-ordinates given
in terms of Latitude and Longitude referenced to the WGS84 datum.

Another Geodetic co-ordinate system in widespread use is UTM, or Universal Transverse

Mercator. This is a flat-surface, square-grid projection defined by a UTM zone number, and a
Northing and Easting distance from the zero point of the zone. Some position reference
systems, such as DGPS, may provide positions in UTM co-ordinates.

7.1.1 UTM coordinate system.

The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) geographic coordinate system is a grid-based
method of specifying locations on the surface of the Earth that is a practical application of a
2-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system. It is a horizontal position representation, i.e. it is
used to identify locations on the earth independently of vertical position, but differs from the
traditional method of latitude and longitude in several respects.

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UTM projection is used extensively for survey and other offshore work. Much DP related
navigation will be based on the UTM system, so a description is given here.

UTM is a grid system based upon Northings and Eastings, in meters. The intention is to
reduce the distortion present in the traditional Mercator projection, based upon Latitude,
Longitude and True North. UTM is, like Mercator, a cylindrical projection, but in UTM the axis
of the cylinder runs along the plane of the equator; the line of contact between the cylinder
and | the sphere is thus a meridian and its anti-meridian.

Obviously a single cylindrical projection of this type cannot be used to chart the whole
terrestrial surface, and if the difference in longitude between the contact meridian and the
charted area were great, then distortion would be great also. The useful scope of the
projection consists of a zone approximately 6 degrees of longitude in width, centered upon
the contact meridian, known as the Central Meridian. Within this zone distortions are
minimal. Zones are identified by a number. The numbering scheme is based upon Zone 1
being the area between the 180° meridian and Longitude 174° West, with the central
meridian at 177°W.

Successive zones are numbered in an easterly direction, with the North Sea generally being
covered by Zone 31, ranging from the Greenwich Meridian to 6°E, with the Central Meridian
at 3°E. There are sixty zones in total. Some oil operating and survey companies like to use
their own variants of UTM; Shell work in the North Sea is often based upon a UTM type
projection, but based upon a central meridian of 0° longitude.

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Within a particular zone, the Northings and Eastings (in metres) are arranged to increase in
a Northward and an Eastward direction, respectively, irrespective of position upon the globe.
For Northings the datum is the equator, with Northern hemisphere Northings having a value
of zero on the equator, and increasing northwards. For the Southern hemisphere, a False
Northing of 10,000,000 is established on the equator, with northing values decreasing from
this as one moves south. This resolves the problem of requiring positive values increasing
northwards throughout.

For Eastings, a False Easting value of 500,000 is established on the central meridian, with
Easting values increasing in an easterly direction. This allows the whole zone to be covered
by positive Easting values.

Because UTM is a grid system there is no convergence of meridians and the map gratitude
is a true 90 degree square grid. There is thus a difference in direction between Grid North
and True North, and this difference itself will vary across the area. The difference will be zero
on the Central Meridian. For DP work it is important that this difference is a known value, and
also whether Artemis fixed stations are calibrated to True or Grid bearings. For short range
work, or relative, long range work there is no problem, but if a worksite location is being
established by a DP vessel at a long range from an Artemis reference origin, using Artemis
co-ordinates, then considerable positional error can appear.

It is important to realize that UTM co-ordinates from one zone (i.e. based upon a particular
central meridian) will not in any way match up with co-ordinates for the same location based
upon another central meridian. When planning a task it is necessary to check that all
worksite diagrams and plans supplied are drawn to the same projection and central meridian
datum.

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In any modern DP system, the DPO is able to select the type of presentation required, e.g.
Cartesian, Geographic (Lat/Long) or UTM, and, if the latter, he may also select the
hemisphere and zone number. He is also able to select the datum required from a menu. A
further facility allows automatic calculation of UTM zone from received geodetic position
measurements.

It is important that this latter facility is not used if the vessel is working close to the boundary
meridian between two zones, as it is possible for the wrong zone to be automatically
selected, with consequent position errors. A further input facility is the selection of False
Easting, and False Northing. Selecting the False Easting facility adds 500,000 to the easting
component of the UTM position before it is displayed, likewise, if in the Southern
hemisphere, a fixed offset of 10,000,000 is added to the northing component before display.
This avoids negative values of easting/northing being displayed, and brings the display into
line with the system described above.

Whatever type of position-reference systems are enabled, and whatever co-ordinate system
is configured, the DP system will convert all position input into an internal Cartesian co-
ordinate system.

Section 7.2 DP capability plot.

DP Capability Plots should be calculated for the vessel. Guidance is provided on DP
Capability Plots in IMCA M140 Rev 1, “Specification for DP Capability Plots”. These
theoretical plots are calculated from detailed information of the vessel’s hull and upper
structure form and available thruster power. The calculations should use environmental data
(sea state, wind and current) appropriate to the area in which the DP vessel is to operate.
These plots should show the limiting wind speed 360 degree envelopes for the scenarios
below, where each point on the envelope represents the wind speed at which it is calculated
that the vessel will be unable to maintain position in DP. DP Capability Plots should include
the following scenarios at current speeds of 0,1 and 2 knots, or at other current speeds that
are representative of the location in which the DP vessel is to operate:
- Fully intact power generation and thrusters.
- Loss of most effective thruster(s).
- Following the worst case failure.

Sample capability plot with corresponding power consumption graph shown below

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Section 7.3 DP Footprit Plot.

DP Footprint Plots should also be produced on board. DP Footprint Plots are not theoretical.
They are actual measurements of the vessel’s DP station keeping performance in the actual
environmental conditions and thruster configuration at the time the plot was taken. DP
Footprint Plots should be taken whenever opportunities arise, such as during standby
periods, weather downtime or on arrival at the field. Plots should be taken for the thruster
configurations used in the DP Capability Plots, i.e. fully intact, loss of most effective
thruster(s) and after worst case failure. Some DP systems have a software application that
produces DP Footprint Plots electronically. DPOs can also produce DP Footprint Plots by
manual methods using a plotting sheet. DP Footprint Plots serve two main purposes.

They provide a scatter plot of vessel positions at regular intervals around the required set
position (this shows accuracy of station keeping)

They also provide comparison points on the limiting wind speed envelope given in the
theoretical DP Capability Plots (this shows wind speeds at which it was seen that the vessel
was unable to maintain position, thus validating or contradicting the theoretical DP Capability
Plots for the various thruster configurations.)

DP Footprint Plots serve other purposes, including learning and familiarization opportunities
for DPOs and in providing snapshots of vessel station keeping behavior for specific locations
and activities. Theoretical DP Capability Plots and DP Footprint Plots combine together to
enhance knowledge and understanding of the vessel’s DP station keeping ability.

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Section 7.4 Trials and Checklists.

A range of trials and checklists is to be provided for each DP vessel and implemented as a
verification that the vessel’s DP system complies with and, is operated in accordance with,
applicable standards and guidelines. Being part of their scope, these trials may be subject to
survey and approval by class.

This verification process should confirm the failure modes and their effects on the systems
and equipment analyzed in the DP FMEA document (to include the Worst Case Failure) and
the vessel’s station keeping ability following its Worst Case Failure. Owners/ operators
should refer to the following list of trials and checklists when developing an appropriate
regime for their own DP vessels. The list below is a typical list for a DP dive support vessel.
This may be different from the regime as defined by class.

DP FMEA Proving Trials: A series of tests used to prove expected effects of failure modes
found in the FMEA desktop analysis. These tests should also include the testing of interfaces
between different vendor systems and equipment. These tests should be conducted
immediately following launching of a new build vessel and following modifications, additions,
upgrades repairs.

Endurance Trials: (new build/ system modifications class requirement): To prove the
operation of the DP system under load conditions for at least 4 hours without significant
alarms of the DP system.

Annual DP Trials: A series of tests of fault and failure conditions relevant to the DP System.
The tests should be designed to prove system redundancy, as defined in the DP FMEA,
system performance and equipment functionality, to validate repairs and preventive
maintenance, and test the operation of protection and detection devices and responses so
as to demonstrate that the vessel’s DP system remains fit for purpose. Annual DP Trials
should be performed at a specific occasion once a year and within 3 months of the
anniversary of the previous year’s trials. Annual DP Trials also provide the opportunities for
training of the vessel’s crew and enhancement of their knowledge of failure modes and their
effects.

Note: Experience has shown that, owing to heavy operational demands, DP drilling units are
not usually able to meet the above criteria for conducting Annual DP Trials at a specific time
once a year. This has been recognized by the industry with publication of specific guidance
relating to the conduct of Annual DP Trials for DP MODUs. This is given in IMCA M191,
“Guidelines for Annual DP Trials for DP Mobile Offshore Drilling Units”. The guidance sets out a
regime of annual testing that is conducted on an incremental basis throughout the year as
opportunities arise but needs to be completed within a twelve month period.

DP Mobilization Trials: A series of tests to be carried out at the start of a contract, subject to
client requirements, to demonstrate redundancy and functional limitations of the DP system.

DP Field Arrival Trials: A series of checks and tests that confirm satisfactory performance of
the DP system and verify the set up mode of operation and DP functions.

DP Location Set Up Checklist: A series of checks to demonstrate that the vessel is properly
set up for the location, in particular the satisfactory performance of the position reference
systems.

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Pre-Dive Checklist: A series of checks performed prior to commencing diving operations.

Main and back up communication tests should be included in this process.

ECR Checklists: A series of checks and tests that verify that the vessel’s set up and
configuration of systems and equipment meet the requirements of the necessary mode of
operation as determined by the Safest Mode of Operation (SMO) and the DP Class or the
Task Appropriate Mode (TAM).

500 m Checks: A series of checks and tests performed before entering the 500 m zone of an
asset in which set up mode and functions are verified and confirmed. Approval is then
obtained to operate in close proximity to the asset. Main and back up communication tests
should be included in this process.

Watch Status/ 6 Hour Checklist: A series of checks and tests performed by the DPOs to
verify and confirm the set up of the DP system prior to taking over the DP watch.

Post DP Incident Trials: Tests performed to ensure that the corrective/ repair measures
taken following a DP incident have properly addressed the causes of the incident and that
the vessel’s DP system is in a safe and operable condition.

Post DP Modification Trials: A series of checks and tests that are used to determine the
effects of modifications and/ or additions on the DP system and the vessel’s subsequent
station keeping performance.

Hardware in the Loop (HIL) tests: extensive testing of functionality, failures and performance
by using advanced simulation techniques and embedded systems. It can be used in factory
acceptance tests, sea trials, annual tests, periodical tests and testing after upgrades.

Note: The nomenclature used for the trials and checklists listed above is based on the
guideline document, IMCA M112: “Guidelines for Auditing Vessels with DP Systems”. It is
recognized that these trials and checklists could be given other titles.

Section 7.5 DP Operation Manual.

A vessel specific DP Operations Manual should be prepared for each DP vessel. The vessel
specific DP Operations Manual is the most important operational document in the list of
required documents. The requirement for a manual has its origins in IMO MSC/Circ 645
(1994) “Guidelines for Vessels with Dynamic Positioning Systems”.

The IMO Guidelines require a series of checklists, test procedures and DP operating
instructions to be incorporated into one manual. Each Classification Society has its own
specific requirements for a DP Operations Manual, each with different requirements for
content. The recommendations set out below address areas that are not necessarily
required by class. They are based on current industry practices.

The manual should contain sufficiently detailed instruction and guidance to enable the vessel
to be operated safely in DP and safely execute its intended activities. This will include a clear
statement on the DP philosophy for the vessel, the organization, responsibilities and roles of
key DP personnel, training and competency, watchkeeping and manning, vessel technical
data and layout, vessel DP capabilities, operating limits, operating modes, the planning and
preparation of DP operations, DP operating procedures, emergency procedures, DP incident
handling and alert systems and vessel specific trials and checklists that apply uniquely to the
vessel.
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The manual should specifically address operational interfaces between different vendor
systems and equipment to ensure that they are configured and operated properly. This
should include interfaces between systems and equipment that are not part of the DP
system but which may affect the DP system, such as Emergency Disconnect Systems
(EDS(disconnect sequence)) on MODUs, tensioner systems on pipelay vessels, etc.

The vessel specific manual may also contain generic content, such as company policies,
procedures and standing orders. The manual should represent the way the vessel is
operated in DP. For complicated power systems and/ or thruster configurations, it may be
useful provide the operator with a thruster and generator operating strategy (TAGOS) to
assist in the decision on what generators and thrusters to se for different circumstances and
different equipment availabilities.

Guidance on the contents of vessel specific DP Operations Manuals is provided in the

following IMCA guidelines, M103, M109, M117 (contingency training) and in class society DP
rules.

Section 7.6 List of DP Operational Procedures.

IMCA M182 “International Guidelines for Safe Operation of Dynamically Positioned Offshore Supply Vessels”
Arrival Checks.
Arrival checks should be carried out before the vessel comes within 500 metres of the
installation. The purpose of the arrival checks is to ensure satisfactory operation of the DP
system and should include full functional checks of the operation of the thrusters, power
generation, auto DP and joystick/manual controls. The checks should also ensure that the
DP system is set up correctly for the appropriate DP capability class, e.g. the bridge manning
should be in accordance with DP capability class requirements. These checks should be
documented and kept on board the vessel and are done once for each location/operation.

Communications.
There should be an effective means of communication between the DP OSV and the
offshore installation. In most cases this will be by VHF and will link the DP control console
with appropriate personnel on the installation. These are likely to be the crane driver, deck
foreman and radio room. Communications should be tested before arrival. There should also
be effective communications between the DP console and the vessel crew on deck.

Approaching the Installation.

The vessel should be manoeuvred at a safe speed when inside 500 metres of the
installation. The vessel should not approach the installation unless authorised to do so.
When making a final approach to the installation the vessel should not head directly towards
it. Where a final approach is made to the installation having conducted DP set up checks,
this approach should be conducted on DP or in manual control using the DP joystick.

DP Location Setup Checks.

Location setup checks should be carried out on every occasion and before the vessel moves
into the final working location. The principal objectives of these checks are to assess the
vessel’s station keeping performance at the working location and to ensure that the position
reference systems are properly set up. These checks should be carried out at a safe
distance from the installation, in the region of 50 metres. They should also be carried out,
wherever possible, at a location where, in the event of a loss of thrust, the vessel would drift
clear of the installation. These checks should be documented and kept on board the vessel.

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Close Proximity Time.

Close proximity time at the working location should be kept to a minimum. The vessel should
only remain in the working location when supply operations are being carried out. During
periods of inactivity, e.g. when the installation crane is not available for cargo transfers, the
vessel should move a safe distance away from the installation. Wherever possible, when
undertaking hose transfers, sufficient hose length should be given to allow the vessel to
increase the separation distance.

Separation Distance.
The separation distance at set up between the vessel and the installation should be carefully
selected. The distance should be agreed between the vessel and offshore installation before
the start of operations. The separation distance should take account of the combined
movements of the vessel and the installation, where the installation is not fixed in position
(such as an FPSO, spar buoy, TLP, etc.). The separation distance should be as large as is
attainable in the circumstances, without adversely affecting the safety of the supply
operation. Wherever possible, such as when hose transfers alone are being carried out,
consideration should be given to maximising the distance by extending hose length.

Selecting a Safe Working Location.

A safe working location should be selected for every supply operation. It is safer to work on
the lee side of the installation than on the weather side. Even where Table 6 shows that
vessels may operate on the weather side, it is always preferable to set up on the lee side.
Other elements to be considered in selecting a safe working location
include the position and reach of the installation cranes, obstructions on the installation and
interaction with installation thrusters.

Safe Working Heading.

The most appropriate vessel heading should be selected on the basis that it may be
necessary to make a rapid escape from the installation by driving ahead or astern. It can be
an advantage to provide a good steadying vector by placing the vessel such that
environmental forces are opposed by a steady state thrust output.

Escape Route.
An escape route should be identified. The escape route should provide a clear path for the
vessel to follow when making a routine or emergency departure from the installation. Other
vessels should stay clear of the escape route. The escape route should, if possible, extend
500 metres from the installation.

Environmental Forces Monitoring.

Environmental forces are never constant. Wind, current and swell should be monitored
continuously as should their effects on position keeping. Electronic monitoring methods,
such as wind sensors and resultant force vectors, provide the DP control system with inputs,
but these methods should be supported by visual monitoring and forecasting. Great care
should be taken where there is likely to be sudden wind and/or current changes.
Preventative measures may require the vessel to cease operations during these periods and
move off to a safe location. Great care should also be taken in areas where lightning strikes
are likely. Preventative measures may also require the vessel to cease operations during
these periods and move off to a safe location.

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Maintaining a Safe Working Location.

A safe working location should be maintained at all times at the installation. In particular this
will require constant vigilance in respect of a possible cumulation of a number of hazards.
These could include, for example, those from environmental forces and other potential
dangers, such as marine and airborne traffic, or cargo operations. It will also require the
vessel to operate within its design parameters and within the range of the vessel’s DP
capability plots. Consideration should be given to unrestricted view of the work area from the
DPO position. CCTV or an observer could be of assistance.

DP Watchkeeping Handovers.
Wherever possible, watch handovers should take place when the vessel is in a steady state
and where the vessel is settled in position. Using a checklist handover ensures that all
relevant information is passed on to the oncoming watchkeeper.

Onboard Engineering, Electrical and Electronics Support.

An engineer should be available when the vessel is within 500 metres of the installation. On
an UMS vessel it may not be necessary for the engineer to be in the engine room, subject to
charterer’s agreement. For a vessel without UMS the engineer would need to be in the
engine room. Wherever possible, electricians and, where carried, electronics officers should
be on call when the vessel is inside the 500 metre zone. Engineers, electricians and
electronics officers should take account of the following when the vessel is inside the 500
metre zone:
- Do not start, stop or carry out maintenance on any machinery or equipment that could
affect the DP system while the vessel is in DP, when in doubt a check should be made
with the DP bridge watchkeeper.
- If problems or potential problems are detected with any DP or associated equipment
during a DP operation then the DP bridge watchkeeper is to be informed immediately.

Critical and Allowable Vessel Excursions.

Critical and allowable excursion limits should be set. The critical limit should not exceed half
of separation distance between the vessel and the installation. The allowable limit should not
exceed half of the critical limit.

Electronic Off Position Warning and Alarm Limits.

The electronic warning limit should not exceed the allowable excursion limit above. The
electronic alarm limit should not exceed the critical excursion limit above. For example,
where the separation distance is 10 metres, the warning limit should not exceed 2.5 metres
and the alarm limit should not exceed 5 metres. However, wherever possible, the warning
and alarm limits should be less than the critical and allowable excursion limits.

Electronic Off-Heading Warning and Alarm Limits.

The electronic off-heading warning limit should be set at a value that does not result in
movement of any part of the vessel greater than the allowable excursion limit. The electronic
off-heading alarm limit should be set at a value that does not result in movement of any part
of the vessel greater than the critical excursion limit. However, wherever possible, the off-
heading warning and alarm limits should be set at lower values. In setting the off-heading
limits consideration should be given to the alignment of the vessel and the installation and
the vessel’s point of rotation.

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Position and Heading Changes.

Changes in vessel position and heading are frequently necessary during supply operations
when supply vessels are longside fixed installations, typically because of wind and/or current
changes, or for operational reasons. Such changes should be carried out in small
increments. Operators should be aware of the potential dangers of a number of cumulative
changes, e.g. that they may affect the line of sight for some position reference systems, such
as Fanbeam.

Power Consumption and Thruster Output Limits.

The power and thruster limits will depend on the nature of the vessel/installation interface.
Vessels with DP class notations 2 and 3 can, if agreement is reached with the installation
OIM and or charterer, if applicable, operate to DP class 1 standards on those occasions
when a DP class 1 vessel would be permitted alongside. For vessels that are operating to
DP class 2 or 3 standards, the limits should be set so that the vessel will be left with
sufficient power and thrusters to maintain position after worst case failure. The guidelines
thus provide two possible limits. For DP OSV capability 2 and 3, the vessel operates to worst
case failure in the given environmental conditions, typically half the propulsion. For DP OSV
capability 1, the vessel operates to the intact capability in given environmental conditions.
Methods of monitoring power consumption and thruster output limits include the use of the
DP computer system’s consequence analyser and effective DPO watchkeeping. After a
failure the main objective would be to make the situation safe. The route to getting back to
work again is to carry out a risk assessment, taking account of all possibilities. The risk
assessment should determine whether it is safe to do so. Regional and or charterer’s
guidelines may take precedence.

Consequence Analyzer.
Where classification societies require consequence analysers to be fitted, to IMO DP
equipment class 2 and 3 Vessels and classification society equivalents (see MSC Circ.645
3.4.2.4), to remain in class it is a requirement for these vessels to operate with the
consequence analyser switched on. The consequence analyser monitors power and thrust
output and gives a warning to the operator when it is calculated that the vessel will lose
position if the worse case failure occurs. Whenever the consequence analyser alarms, the
vessel is in a degraded operational condition and appropriate action should then be taken to
ensure the safety of the vessel. Appropriate action will include a degraded condition risk
assessment.

Safe Operating Limits.

Safe operating limits are not solely based on power consumption and thruster output levels.
In setting safe operating limits consideration should be given to other relevant factors such
as a mariner’s awareness of the weather environment, the nature of the operation, the safety
of the crew and the time needed to move clear. The safe operating limits should be governed
by risk assessment.

Position Reference Systems.

Wherever possible, if multiple position references are in use, they should be independent of
each other and should be based on different principles. Relative position references should
be used at installations that are not fixed in position, such as FPSOs, spar buoys, TLPs, etc.
Relative systems include, for example, Fanbeam, CyScan and DARPS. The use of relative
and absolute position reference systems can cause conflicts. A possible example of ‘three
position references’ could be a dual laser system operating on independent targets on
different lines of sight with one DGPS.

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Change of Operating Control Mode.

There may be occasions during a normal supply operation when it is appropriate to change
over from auto DP control to joystick/ manual control. In this case the vessel will revert to
conventional supply vessel mode and will be subject to appropriate controls. Where the
vessel transfers control from DP to manual or conventional control, transfer back to DP
control should be subject to a repeat of location set up checks. Another possible issue in
relation to control is that the preferred location for the DP control console would be the aft
end of the bridge to allow unrestricted view for the DPO of the work deck and the installation.
Where this is not possible some other means should be available to observe external
conditions, e.g. CCTV at the DP control console or an observer on the bridge with
unrestricted view.

Standby Time.
There are frequently occasions when the vessel is stood down for a period of time. Standby
time should be put to good use. Standby time is useful since it provides opportunities to
practice skills, such as
(a) ship handling,
(b) DP operating experience and
(c) taking DP footprint plots away from the installation.

Vessel Thruster Efficiency at Different Drafts and Trims.

Changes in vessel draft/trim usually occur at an installation. A shallower draft can have an
adverse effect on thruster efficiency, particularly for bow tunnel thrusters. This can result in a
significant loss of thruster effect, resulting in poor station keeping as well as impacting on
thruster redundancy. Wherever possible, measures should be taken to maintain an
appropriate draft/trim at all times when at an installation. This may mean taking in water
ballast.

DP Alert Status.
The operational status of the vessel in DP control should be monitored continuously. Owners
should consider a monitoring system already in use in the industry, to ensure a consistency
of understanding with operators and charterers. The commonly understood system, used
internationally in the offshore industry utilises a concept of red, yellow and green status
levels. This system does not necessarily need a system of lights or alarms, although it is
useful to have an appropriate method on board to alert the relevant crew to changes in
status level as shown below.

Section 7.7 DP Incidents.

DP vessels should be provided with and operate appropriate DP incident reporting,
investigation and closing out procedures. This should be in accordance with vessel owner or
operators’ and, if applicable, clients’ processes. Documented records should be kept and be
capable of auditing. Where SMO, TAM and WSOG are used as tools to manage DP
operations a suggested approach is that, apart from the exceptions in the notes below, any
reactive change of DP status from GREEN to YELLOW or RED should be regarded as a DP
incident, and should be reported, recorded and investigated.

Note: A change of status triggered by prearranged agreement between the Master, and senior
onboard decision makers, allowing the vessel to exceed environmental limits should not be
regarded as a DP incident.

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Note: An operator initiated change of status as a result of a conscious decision based on risk
analysis of the circumstances where the trigger points have not been reached should not be
regarded as a DP incident. It is recommended that reactive YELLOW and RED DP incidents
are investigated as soon as practicable after the DP incident and, where relevant, trials are
carried out as part of the investigation process.

The purpose of the investigation and the trials should be:

- to assist in identifying the root causes of the incident
- to verify and validate that measures to address the root cause are effective
- to validate that effective measures have not introduced any additional potential to cause
failures (both hidden and apparent).

In the event of the occurrence of a DP incident relating to the vessel’s configuration as

described in the DP FMEA and other documents, it is suggested that the FMEA provider is
involved in the incident investigation. This will facilitate lessons learnt to be implemented into
the DP FMEA and proving trials program.

Owners/ operators of DP vessels are encouraged to share lessons learned from DP

incidents with the wider DP community. DP systems and equipment vendors are also
encouraged to do likewise and to share information on unexpected faults, features and
failures that are identified in operation. IMCA’s station keeping incident reporting scheme
provides a suitable channel for disseminating relevant information throughout the DP sector.

DP Incident Reporting.
Background.
IMCA (and its predecessor DPVOA) has been collecting DP incident reports provided by
members and publishing them as annual reports since 1991. During this time, the format of
the IMCA report has changed little – using the categorization of ‘Loss of Position 1’ (LOP1)
for major loss of position, ‘Loss of Position 2’ (LOP2) for minor loss of position and ‘Lost
Time Incident’ (LTI) for downtime as a result of loss of redundancy but where loss of position
has not occurred.

The IMCA Marine Division Management Committee reviewed the system in 2005 and
concurred that, since the system at that time could be considered to be somewhat subjective
and that there could be some confusion as to when an incident should be reported to IMCA
or not, it would be better to replace the reporting categories with those set out below. The
aim of the change of format is to help people who are reporting incidents to have a better
idea whether to report the incident and in which category it would fall and also to help those
reading the annual report as it provides a wider range of incident types.

Further the IMCA Marine Division Management Committee decided in 2007 that DP incident
reports would also be accepted in the submitting company’s format providing the necessary
details can be extracted from these.

New Categorizations.
The following new categories of DP incidents have been proposed and agreed by the IMCA
Marine Division Management Committee. These categories should be used in conjunction
with the revised IMCA Station Keeping Incident Form. These new categorizations will be
used to replace the ‘Loss of Position 1’ and ‘Loss of Position 2’ incident categorization
currently used in the IMCA annual DP incident reports.

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DP Incident.
Loss of automatic DP control, loss of position or any other incident which has resulted in or
should have resulted in a ‘Red Alert’ status.

DP Undesired Event.
Loss of position keeping stability or other event which is unexpected/uncontrolled and has
resulted in or should have resulted in a ‘Yellow Alert’ status.

DP Downtime.
Position keeping problem or loss of redundancy which would not warrant either a ‘Red’ or
‘Yellow’ alert, but where loss of confidence in the DP has resulted in a stand-down from
operational status for investigation, rectification, trials, etc.

DP Near-Miss.
Occurrence which has had a detrimental effect on DP performance, reliability or redundancy
but has not escalated into ‘DP Incident’, ‘Undesired Event’ or ‘Downtime’, such as:
- crane or load interfering with Artemis line of sight;
- scintillation.

DP Hazard Observation.
Set of circumstances identified which have had the potential to escalate to ‘Near-Miss’ status
or more serious, such as:
- Fanbeam laser target being placed in a position on handrails of a busy walkway where
heavy traffic of personnel wearing PPE with retro reflective tape is identified;
- crane lift being swung close to Artemis line of sight.

This category should also capture relevant occurrences even when not operating in DP
mode, such as:
- speed and latitude corrections supplied to all gyros from single DGPS by installation
engineer;
- unexpected loss of essential DP components which would have had the potential to result
in ‘DP Incident’, ‘Undesired Event’ or ‘Downtime’ if vessel had been operating in DP
mode.

IMCA M182 “International Guidelines for Safe Operation of Dynamically Positioned Offshore Supply Vessels”

Record keeping.
Owners or operators of DP vessels should have an effective reporting and record keeping
system. There should be a clear line of reporting DP related items onboard the DP vessel
and between each department and this should involve key DP personnel. There should also
be a clear line of reporting between the DP vessel and the company’s shore side
management. DP related records should be maintained onboard and, where appropriate, at
the company’s premises. DP vessels, on occasion, carry out activities which may be unique
to project requirements.

Records of these activities including pertinent information from Hazards and Risk
Identification (HIRAs) should be made and kept onboard for future reference, both for
training and familiarization processes as well as for reference in case of similar project
requirements in the future.

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Section 7.8 Competence.

Definition: Competence is the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities at a level of
expertise sufficient to be able to perform in an appropriate work setting.

DP vessel owners/ operators should operate a structured competence assurance program

that is applied to all key DP personnel with special focus on ensuring vessel and task
specific competence. Guidance is provided in M103, M117 (IMO738).

Vessel specific competency should, as a minimum, be demonstrated in the following areas:

- Operational modes
- DP FMEA familiarization
- DP Operations Manual familiarization
- Project/ activity requirements
- Contingency plans, modes and drills.

Section 7.9 Manning.

Vessels must comply with the statutory requirements for safe manning. Additionally, for DP
operations, manning should be in accordance with the following:

DP Bridge crew

Section 7.10 DP Operational Documentation.

7.10.1 General
It is recommended that DP vessel owners/ operators should maintain the documentation
listed in the table below and should develop and implement associated processes for the
purposes of:
- ensuring the safe and effective management of the vessel in DP
- ensuring the technical suitability of the vessel for each DP activity it is required to carry out
- determining the configuration for the safest mode of operation and the task appropriate
mode
- understanding the vessel’s station keeping capabilities following the worst case failure
- ensuring compliance with appropriate standards and guidelines
- providing training and familiarization material to vessel crews.

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7.10.2 Recommended Documentation

Current versions of the documents in the list below should be kept on board and, in addition,
where feasible, at the shore based centers of technical management. Documents that have
been superseded should be clearly marked and kept separate from current versions.
Documents may be in electronic or, hard copy format or, both.

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Section 7.11 DP Classes.

The requirements of the client, the Classification Society, National and International
legislation must all be considered when establishing the hardware/software configuration and
when choosing the appropriate level of redundancy. Some examples of configurations follow.
There are 3 accepted classes of dynamic positioning setups, each relating to the level of
redundancy that system provides.

Class 1 offers no redundancy. A single failure in the system will result in a loss of station
keeping ability. A class 1 vessel will be equipped with a single control computer & associated
systems.

Class 2 is set up so that any single equipment fault will not cause the system to fail. This is a
fully redundant system. Class 2 vessels have dual control computers & enough thrusters that
the vessel will still retain position even if you lose half of them, provided the operator ensures
Redundancy is maintained.

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Class 3 systems take class 2 a step further by adding a 3rd control station, so that even a
completely burnt or flooded compartment will not cause a failure. Drill ships are a good
example of class 3. A control room equipped with an additional control station is stationed
separate from the main bridge. This way in the event of a flooding or fire that affects the
main bridge, control can be transferred to the auxiliary station & position keeping should not
be compromised.

In basic terms, equipment Class 1 refers to non-redundant vessels, Class 2 relates to

vessels with full redundancy of systems and equipment, while vessels built or fitted to
equipment Class 3 are able to withstand the loss of all systems in any one compartment
from the effects of fire or flooding.

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DP 1

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DP 2

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DP 3

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Section 7.12 DP Operations.

As a navigational technique, Dynamic Positioning has been established for over thirty years,
and rarely does a month go by without some new application of DP being discovered. For
many years, the technique was almost exclusively the preserve of the offshore oil and gas
industries, but in recent years a whole range of vessel types are making use of DP abilities
as an enhancement to their normal capabilities. More newbuilds are specified with DP as a
matter of course whereas a few years ago DP would only be fitted as a specialist function.
DP is being increasing used in military applications and in survey and research vessels.
Cruise ships, heavy-lift transport vessels, buoy tenders, and even an offshore rocket launch
platform are all making good use of DP capabilities. During the last 20 years, DP capable
vessels have represented a huge growth area in commercial shipping.

7.12.1 Dive Operations.

The divers are conducting operations underwater, and those operations need to be
supported from the surface. The variety of work that may be conducted by a diver is almost
endless; he may be carrying out inspection or survey work, installation and configuration of
equipment, monitoring of an operation, or recovery of lost or abandoned equipment. Much of
the work hitherto conducted by diver is now carried out by ROV (Remotely Operated Vehicle,
or unmanned submersible vehicle) but there are still tasks which cannot be completed
remotely, and which require human intervention.

Frequently an ROV may be used in conjunction with human divers, to provide light or to
enable the dive supervisor aboard the vessel to monitor the divers work. Occasionally an
ROV may become entangled in seabed hardware, and the intervention of a diver is
necessary to rescue it.

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Wet Bell System

Diving Alerts.
A system of alarms must be fitted to allow immediate indication to dive control of status and
changes in status of the DP capability of the vessel. Three status are defined; Green, Yellow
and Red alert. Criteria must be agreed and included within the DP and diving procedures as
to what conditions constitute a Yellow or Red alert status. On initiation of alert levels by the
DPO, the diving team should respond as follows:
- Green - normal operational status full diving operations may be undertaken.

- Yellow – degraded operational status, the diving supervisor should instruct

the divers to suspend operations and, where practical in terms of speed and
safety, make safe any work or items of equipment that could offer a further
hazard before moving to an agreed safe location. The safe location must be
identified and agreed by the diving supervisor, diver and the Master before
commencing the dive. The safe location may be the diving bell, or it's clump
weight.

- Red - emergency status, the diving supervisor must instruct the divers to
return immediately to the bell or basket and prepare to return to the surface.
The divers should be recovered to the surface as soon as possible. Due
consideration must be given to potential hazards in relation to the recovery of
the divers, such as the presence of anchor/mooring wires and chains or
adjacent platform or other structure. The DPO must use all available means
to limit vessel position loss during the recovery of the divers.

Diver’s umbilical length restrictions.

Divers are at particular risk from the dangers of having their umbilical tethers coming into
contact with thrusters, propellers, sea water intakes or any other underwater hardware. This
hardware includes position reference elements or down lines, mooring or anchor lines, and
tethers for other deployed equipment, e.g. ROV's. Many thrusters will be fitted with grille or
guard arrangements. It must be realized that, although these guards may prevent entry into
the propeller of floating debris, they will not necessarily protect the diver, and his umbilical
can easily feed through grillwork.

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There must be provided, both on the bridge and in dive control, diagrams specific to the
vessel showing the locations of all such hazards relating to the vessel. These diagrams
should show the locations of all diving bells and baskets, together with positions of
propellers, thrusters, rudders, sea water intakes and any other underwater obstruction that
may present a hazard to the diver.

Also shown on this diagram should be distances from diving bell

and basket locations to the nearest thrusters, tabulated for
depths of 10 meters and 10 meter intervals. It is vitally important
that the information contained in these diagrams is accurate, so
every opportunity should be taken of verifying the distances.
Where the diving depth is shallow and the diver could come into
contact with thrusters or propellers, the umbilical length must be
restrained to prevent the diver from coming within 5 meters of
any such hazard. Consideration should be given to a larger
margin of safety than 5 meters if the circumstances demand. in
strong tidal conditions the bell or basket may not locate vertically
beneath its suspension point.

A few degrees rake in the bell cables caused by tidal offset, may take the bell/basket closer
to a thruster than expected from inspection of the appropriate diagram. Umbilical should be
marked at every 5 or 10 meters. Whilst umbilical’s should be kept as short as possible,
compatible with the task, allowance must be made for the vessel's movement when on DP,
depending on circumstances, the vessel may be oscillating between three and six meters.

Problems related to shallow water.

It must be remembered that some of the problems relating to shallow water operations apply
equally to deeper water locations, where the diving task is shallow. The draught of the vessel
in relation to under keel clearance must be considered. It must not be forgotten that the
effective draught of the vessel will be increased by such elements as HPR transducer
probes.

Underwater hardware such as templates, habitats or wellhead structures will further reduce
under keel clearance. Clearance must also be maintained at a safe level between the diving
bell or basket, and the vessel structure. Vessel movement in adverse sea states may also
affect clearance values.

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The problems regarding underwater position references are well known. When divers are in
the water a minimum of three position reference systems must be in use, and at least one of
them should be a surface or radio position reference. In shallow water, taut wire systems
suffer from a reduced horizontal working range, necessitating frequent resetting if moving the
vessel. The working range may not be within the natural DP footprint of the vessel.

Hydroacoustic references are unreliable because of noise interference from the vessel and
her thrusters, and horizontal range may be limited, especially if tracking transducers are not
in use or available. If position references are proving to be troublesome, consideration
should be given to deploying a fourth reference, such that the vessel is not reduced to
degraded status on the loss of one of the three, and further insuring against simultaneous
loss of two references. Underwater references provide their own hazards to diving
operations. Because of the umbilical length restrictions, the divers are constrained to working
close alongside the vessel. Likewise, because of the range limitations associated with
underwater references, they also must be deployed close to the vessel. It is possible for a
diver to tangle with the various downlines and wires, and this could well lead to an incident.

For example, diving operations are taking place on a jacket structure, from a diving hell The
vessel has a taut wire deployed but for operational reasons, the taut wire system on the side
of the vessel away from the jacket is not available. She is thus constrained to using the taut
wire system on the side toward the structure. The divers are properly informed of the
presence of the depressor weight and it's wire, and initially, all is well. Then the vessel has
an excursion, the divers being recalled to the bell. Due to the vessel movement, the diver
passes the wrong side of the taut wire while attempting to return to the bell. The wire is
almost invisible to him at close range, and his visibility is less than five metres anyhow.
Worst case scenario has the diver unable to regain the safety of the bell, and his umbilical
fouled and possibly damaged by the taut wire.

Other hazards to divers.

DP vessels are particularly vulnerable to interference from other vessels in the vicinity. When
diving operations are being conducted the bridge team must be fully aware of any other
vessels working locally. The position-keeping capability of the DP vessel may be adversely
affected by the propeller wash from a nearby vessel, e.g. a supply boat working an adjacent
face of the platform. Reduced capability may result from water movement itself causing
position or heading instability, or from reduced efficiency from position references.

The wash from the propellers of a nearby vessel may cause a taut wire system to become
unstable, or may generate noise or aeration adversely affecting hydroacoustic systems.
Similarly, a nearby vessel may cause problems with radio references, particularly Artemis,
from line-of-sight breaks or from 3cm (X-band) radar interference. It is on record that a DP
DS V suffered loss of the taut wire system when the stand-by vessel passed close alongside,
close enough to physically carry away the wire and boom.

When diving operations are being conducted on jacket structures, the OIM should be
advised to isolate any impressed current corrosion protection system, as the electrical
currents involved may hazard the divers. Also, any automatic fire protection drencher
systems aboard the platform must be switched to manual operation (or isolated) so that the
divers are not hazarded by the large-diameter suctions.

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DP diving operations on subsea structures and habitats.

Particular hazards exist where the subsea structure is totally submerged and thus not visible
on the surface. In these cases, the structure should be marked by acoustic transponder or
marker buoy to provide an immediate location reference. The location of the underwater
structure should be marked on the diagrams and plots used by the bridge and diving teams.
Some structures are enclosed by framework with specific diver entry locations. Likewise,
underwater habitats are particularly tortuous of entry and exit. These operations need
particular care in planning regarding the risk assessment. Diver return times are liable to be
greater and long umbilicals may be necessary.

The structure may extend some height from the seabed, and it may be necessary to deploy
the bell above the structure, or to one side. If the diver has to work inside a complex
structure, a second diver may be required to tend the umbilical at the entry point. The
excursion footprint of the DP vessel should not be allowed to cause umbilical length
problems. If the structure is a habitat, with hyperbaric operations underway, then it must be
remembered that the diver inside has removed his diving suit and helmet and is working in a
dry environment. He cannot quickly return to the bell. Wellheads and other subsea structures
may be liable to leak oil or gases, and it may be necessary to plan for this by locating the
diving bell uptide of the structure.

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Saturation diving system

ROV support operations from DP vessels.

Many DP-capable vessels will carry ROV systems, either as their primary function, or in
support of other operations. The range of vessels operating one form or another of ROV
include Survey vessels, Dive support vessels, Crane barges, Cable lay/repair vessels,
Pipelay and trenching vessels, and drillships.

Remotely operated vehicles.

ROVs are extensively used in the offshore world, not just in the
deep water areas where human divers cannot work. In the mid
1970's saturation and air diving were the key elements in most
underwater tasks, but they were challenged in many areas by
the introduction of ever more sophisticated ROVs. The earliest
ROV devices were limited to providing a television feed from
cameras to the dive control station, and the ROVs were
considered an extra facility to assist the divers. The earlier
ROVs were lacking in reliability and capability, and much diver
time was spent in recovering lost or trapped ROVs.

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As technology developed, ROVs became far more capable. Manipulator tooling and
advanced instrumentation allowed ROVs to undertake a wide variety of tasks originally only
capable of being completed by divers. ROVs are operated by pilots located in a control cabin
("ROV shack") in the vessel, consequently they are remote from the vehicle and cannot
obtain first-hand "feel" of what is going on. Visibility is often poor, thus ROV piloting is a
skilled art. Deployment of the ROV may be from an 'A' frame over the stern of the vessel, or
from a gantry or davit arm over the side. Control is entirely by umbilical, which may extend
up to 200 meters from the vessel.

An alternative deployment method is by Tether Management System (TMS) in which the

ROV is housed in a cage or garage, containing the umbilical handling winch. The cage is
deployed into the water on its own crane or 'A' frame, and is suspended at the required
depth. The ROV is then able to exit the cage and go walkabout. One advantage of this form
of deployment is the safer transfer of the system to and from the water, especially in rough
weather. Also, the umbilical is less vulnerable to fouling on the vessel's propellers and
thrusters.

In all cases the ROV is controlled and operated through an umbilical or tether. The distance
that the ROV is able to work is dependent upon the size and power of the ROV, the weight of
the umbilical, and the strength of tide. A typical maximum figure is around 100 metres,
although it is often much less than this.

An unmanned submersible may be operated direct from the deck, or through a cage or
garage. If operated directly from the deck it may be that the umbilical itself doubles up as the
hoist cable for purposes of launch and recovery, or there may be separate arrangements for
handling the ROV in to and out of the water. This is the most hazardous period for ROV
operations from a DP vessel, as the thrusters and propellers are in close proximity. The ROV
operation must be planned with care, such that the tide does not take the ROV into the
vicinity of propellers. The vessel heading may also need to be chosen to give the ROV a lee
for launch and recovery.

Once on depth, the direction of movement of the ROV will dictate the position, heading and
movements of the vessel. If the ROV is following a pipeline, for example, the vessel should
be positioned such that the ROV is moving away from the ship's side, and away from
propellers.

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The direction of the tide will be considered, such that the ROV is not swept into a dangerous
location. Acoustic comms with the ROV must also be considered, such that the effects of
aeration and noise from propellers are minimized. The DPO can predict the direction that
propeller and thruster wash will go, and try to plan that the ROV is working away from this
area. The situation should be arranged such that if the ROV loses power or manoeuvrability,
it's safety is not immediately threatened. Unless specially configured to handle ROV input in
this way, the movement of the ROV will be deduced by the DP as a cu or tide component.
This is because the DP system is programmed to consider all and any position-reference
element as feeds stationary.

Any movement of the ROV will simply register as water movement in the opposite direction.
The problem is that the DP tide model is programmed to treat tide as a value which only
changes slowly, over a relatively long period of time. Thus, who operating in this fashion, if
the ROV stops or starts suddenly, or changes direction radically, the DP will suffer a
degradation the quality of the model with a resultant deterioration in her position-keeping
capability. A totally erroneous value of tide' build up and be shown on the DP screen.

The "Follow Sub" function is entered, and the DPO specifies an Operational Radius, or
React Radius. This is the radius of a circle which delineates the ROVs "playing area". The
circle can be set to any required radius and is centered on the location of the ROV
transponder at the moment the DPO enters the Follow Sub mode. On the screen appears
the react circle, with the ROV working within it. The vessel remains on station. If and when
the ROV breaks the circle and moves out with it, the circle disappears and a new one is
created, again centered upon the (new) ROV transponder location. The playing area has
effectively jumped position by the circle radius, and the vessel DP setpoint moves a
corresponding amount. The vessel now automatically completes a controlled move to the
newly-generated setpoint location, and stays there until the circle is again broken. If the DPO
does not want the vessel to move at that point, he simply deselects the "Follow-Sub"
function; the setpoint is then generated at the position of the vessel at that time, and the
vessel just stays where she is.

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Seabet tractors and trenchers.

These machines must also be regarded as ROVs, although operations with them may be
very different from those with a submersible. A seabed tractor may be configured to lay a
cable and complete a bury operation. This type of vehicle will consist of a tracked crawler
device, built and configured to carry out the job required. Controlled and tended from the
vessel by umbilical, operating them shows some similarity with the operation of ROVs. The
vehicle will be controlled from it's own control location, with the operators "driving" the unit as
if they were on board. There may be more down lines involved; if the unit is laying a cable,
then the cable itself will form a hazard, in addition to the umbilical. These units usually move
somewhat slower, being less agile than ROVs. In some cases an ROV is deployed
independently, to provide a view of progress.

7.12.2 DP drilling operations

It is not necessary here to enter into the detail of establishing, drilling and completing a well.
We are only concerned with the DP-related aspects of the job. In simple terms, it may be
thought that the positioning problem is essentially that of maintaining] location directly over
the wellhead for the duration of the drilling operation. In shallower waters this may be the
case. There is no need to consider any other options than to position the rig thus. The
Centre of Rotation of the vessel or rig is located on the Centre of the drill floor rotary table.
DP-capable rigs may be mono hull or semisubmersible in form.

From the viewpoint of all DPO, an important factor is the position-keeping capability, in the
case of a monohull, the vessel may need to weathervane toll the obtaining environment in
order to reduce the power consumption, and the loads on her thrusters. This weather
vanning may be restricted, as often the riser configuration will not permit full 360° rotation
about the drilling axis. This is due to the danger of wrapping the well kill and choke lines
around the riser. Typically, a 270° maximum heading deviation is allowed from the set
heading. Also, in practice, the calculated minimum power heading may not be that leading to
the most efficient positioning. If the vessel is head-to-wind, then she may yaw continually,
necessitating frequent changes in the thrust pattern. The DPO may select a heading with the
weather approximately 30° on the bow, at which her station keeping will be improved and the
thrusters will suffer less wear and tear.

If the vessel is a semisubmersible, then the weathervane heading is of less account. Usually
the silhouette of such a rig is similar from all directions, i.e. there is no real advantage to any
particular wind-related heading. Instead, the direction and rate of tide or current will have a
much greater effect upon choice of heading, it being more important to place the submarine
pontoons, "floaters" into the tide. The same principle applies, i.e. a more favorable heading
may obtain with the pontoons 30° or so to direction. The DPO will be familiar with the tidal or
current patterns, i.e. whether there is a continuously running current varying seasonally or
with changes in weather conditions, or whether the tide is diurnal. In deep water, the
situation with a drilling unit becomes more complex, due to the suspended length of the riser
and drill string, and the strength and pattern of surface and sub-sea tides or currents. The
critical point is at the Lower Marine Riser Package (LMRP) which comprises the gravity
base, the wellhead and the "stack" or Blow-out Preventer (BOP).

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To this is coupled the Marine Riser, which is an assembly of concentric pipes with the drill
string running down the centre. The various pipes conduct the drilling mud down hole from
the rig to lubricate and cool the drill bit, with the return mud carrying the rock chippings
conducted up the riser back to the rig for processing and re-use. The considerable weight of
the riser and drill string is suspended from the drilling derrick by means of a heave-
compensated travelling block. The lower end of the riser couples to the Stack by means of a
flex-joint allowing angular deflection in any direction. It is vital, however, that the Stack and
the Riser are continuously aligned; any misalignment will cause wear and other damage to
the flex-joint and the drill string. The critical angles may be 3° and 7°. The maximum
allowable stack/riser angle for normal working is 3°, while an angle of 7° dictates that the
riser be unlatched and disconnected.

If the vessel is suffering a positional loss, it is important that the correct actions are taken at
the right times, as if the angle reaches 30°, thereafter it may be impossible to unlatch the
riser, leading to a major emergency on board the rig. A pair of cones may be visualised, with
their points located on the seabed at the BOP, with 3° and 7° "watch" circles projected onto
the surface. These watch circles describe the positional limits for the positioning of the rig. In
effect the 3° circle is a warning limit, linked to a "Yellow Alert", under which the drill floor crew
will prepare to uncouple the riser from the LMRP, while the 7° watch circle constitutes the
“Red Alert”, on which the riser will be disconnected.

Deep water mooring systems

It must be said, however, that although a significant number of drilling units are DP-capable,
the vast majority are not. For shallower water applications the jack-up drilling rig is the most
efficient, while many rigs position by means of spread moorings. A recent development in the
latter area is the pre-laid rope/wire combination mooring spread known as a Taut Leg
Mooring (TLM). In the Gulf of Mexico, drilling will need to take place in water depths of
between 1300 and 3000m.

The methods described here are able to cope with depths up to about 2000m, with the
capability of being extended to 3000m within the next few years. Instead of the rig spending
valuable time laying its own moorings, using heavy chain and wire lines, with the attendant
problems of proving the spread and dealing with dragging anchors, the mooring spread will
be established prior to the rig arriving on the worksite.

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With the method described, a workboat will pre-lay the anchors, or install pile anchors in the
designated locations on the seabed. New developments in anchor technology have assisted
this process; both suction anchors and Vertically Loaded anchors are being used for these
applications.

Mooring line combinations carrying spring buoys are connected and deployed, ready for the
arrival of the rig. It is then a quick and simple process for the rig to position itself within the
pre-laid pattern. By this method, much of the mooring work is conducted off the critical path,
resulting in less rig time being wasted. This method of working is challenging DP as a
positioning technique in water depths where, only recently DP was the only option.

7.12.3 Cable Lay and Repair Operations.

Power and communication cables are transported on reels and are laid either over the stern
of the vessel as the vessel moves forward or over the side of the vessel as it moves
sideways. To ensure that the cables are undamaged as they are laid, various tension
systems are used. A tension system is designed to control the tension between the cable
that is already laid and the cable on the vessel that is waiting to be laid. Therefore the Cable
Tension Monitoring and Cable Tension Compensator functions have been designed
especially for cable laying operations. These functions, along with the Auto Track mode for
controlling the vessel's movements, improve safety and positioning performance when laying
cables.

Modern fibre-optic cables are more fragile than traditional cables, so they have more
limitations on loadings and bend radii. Thus it is now common to use DP vessels for cable
lay and repair.

For cable lay operations within coastal waters or other shallow-water areas, it is often
necessary to bury the cable in order to prevent damage from fishing gear. When a plough is
used, it is towed by the ship, in a similar manner to a tractor towing an agricultural plough
across a field. This reduces the power available for station keeping.

The phase of the operation where the DP capability proves most useful is the shore-end tie-
in. This is where the vessel comes to the end of the lay, a short distance from "the beach", to
complete the connection. This involves the vessel keeping a fixed location, close to the
shore, in shallow water, where strong tides may also stream.

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7.12.4 Pipelay operations

The majority of offshore oil and gas pipelines have been laid by dedicated laybarges or
pipelay vessels. The commonest method of installation is the on-board construction of the
pipeline by means of sequential welding of sections of the pipe string.

In a typical S-lay barge, the pipe is constructed in a

linear pipe fabrication facility called the "Firing Line"
in which a number of stages of welding take place.
Each operation is conducted at a "station". Further
stations conduct X-ray and NDT testing on the
welded joints, anti-corrosion coating, and weight-
coating if necessary. At intervals, the DPO initiates a
move ahead a distance equivalent to the joint-length.
Once the move ahead has been completed, the
firing-line operations continue.

It is essential that tension is maintained on the pipeline. At the back end of the firing line, the
pipe is held by a number of pipe tensioners, or caterpillar tracks clamping the pipe. The
tensioners control the movement of the pipe, maintaining a set tension on the pipe string.
The pipe is supported aft of the firing line by the "stinger", which is an open lattice gantry
extending beyond the stern of the vessel, sloping downwards. Tension on the pipe is needed
to prevent pipe damage from buckling. The set tension is to ensure a smooth catenary to the
touchdown point on the seabed. If tension is lost, then damage will occur at the touchdown
area.

Pipe tension values are communicated to the DP system which is continually providing thrust
commands to maintain tension, position and heading.

Pipelay operations are particularly dependent upon environmental conditions. The vessel
must be able to cope effectively with the tides, sea state and wind conditions from most
directions, because it is not possible to allow the vessel to weathervane.

J-Lay Operations.
In deeper water, S-lay is not feasible and J-lay is common. In J-lay operations, the stinger is
configured as a tower, angled between the vertical, and up to 20 degrees from the vertical.
Pipe lengths are pre-jointed into triple or quadruple joints before being raised to the vertical
for welding onto the pipestring.

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Reel-Lay Operations.
This type of operation varies from those described in that the pipestring is prefabricated in
one length at a shore-based factory. The vessel loads the pipeline straight from the factory,
spooling it onto a reel or into a carousel. The vessel can transit to site with the pipe to lay it
by feeding it off the reel/carousel via straighteners and tensioners, either singly or as a
bundle.

7.12.5 Rockdumping operations.

A small fleet of vessels exist for the purpose of dumping rock on the seabed for a variety of
purposes. They range from large bulk-carrier style vessels, able to carry out precision bury
operations using fall pipes, to smaller deck-loading vessels mainly used for erosion
rectification projects. All of these vessels are fitted with DP systems, although some of them
are simplex, non-redundant systems.

The commonest need for rock dumping is to provide protection to previously laid pipelines m
areas where they may suffer damage from fishing gear. Here we are talking of pipelines
which are not trenched, but remain on the surface. A number of methods of protection are
available, including the placing of concrete mattresses, but for areas where a sizeable
distance of pipeline has to be protected, a rock dumping operation may be preferable. These
vessels are properly described as Fall-pipe rock dumping vessels. Of mini bulk-carrier
construction, they are fitted with self-unloading hopper and conveyor facilities. The fall pipe
derrick is located at one side of the vessel, fed with stone from a hopper. The fall pipe is an
open chain-link affair, fully flexible, hanging beneath the derrick by gravity alone. At the
bottom end of the fall pipe is an ROV built into the fall pipe structure.

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The ROV has an aperture through the middle, through which the rock falls, onto the seabed.
The ROV is heave-compensated, and is motorized with thrusters enabling precision
positional control. Facilities contained aboard the ROV may include optical TV cameras;
sides can sonar, lights, and seabed pipe tracker unit, acoustic transponder and responders,
and depth meters. For a near operation, such as the protection of a specified length of
pipeline, a three-pass sequence may be adopted. The vessel tracks along a line allowing a
rock lay-down alongside the pipeline.

At the end of that pass, the vessel will be traversed a few metres to the other side of the
pipeline; she will then backtrack to the "start" position, laying down rock on the opposite side
of the pipeline to the previous pass. The third pass will be centred over the pipeline to fill in
between the previous two passes. This should completely cover the pipeline. A
comprehensive survey spread of tracking and recording equipment allows the whole
operation to be monitored and controlled from the ROV Control and Survey shack.

7.12.6 Dredging operations.

A large number of dredgers are in operation worldwide, with a variety of functions. Some are
engaged in the traditional business of channel and harbour maintenance, while others make
their profits from the recovery of road stone and building aggregates. In recent years a large
proportion of the world's dredger population was to be found in Hong Kong engaged in the
building of the new airport. Most new dredgers, of whatever type or function, will feature DP
capability. Dredged spoil is a very expensive commodity, and the precision positioning
available from DP is an insurance against expensive mistakes.

Most dredgers are of the trailing suction type, and the vessel will move along parallel tracks.
The tracks must be close together in order to provide continuity, but overlap between tracks
must be minimized.

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In a DP system optimized for dredger operations, the system's functions measure the
dredging forces, suction pipe elevation and azimuth, and automatically compensates for the
drag head forces. In addition, the DP system handles failure in drag head force
measurements in order to avoid loss of positional control and subsequent damage to the
drag heads.

The Drag head Position Control function, in combination with the Fast or Slow Auto track
function allows the operator to specify precisely the track followed by the drag head. If the
vessel is operating with both drag heads, one of them must be selected as the Master drag
head. Effectively, this places the vessel Centre of Rotation on the drag head, even though
the position of the drag head may not be fixed relative to the hull. Sensors attached to the
suction pipes provide the system with angular data allowing the determination of the position
of the drag head relative to the vessel at all times. Tension measurements allow the
dredging forces to be directly compensated by the DP system.

The tension will depend upon the consistency of the seabed, the trail speed and deflection
angles. The tension measurements allow the DP to calculate the horizontal force, it's
direction and turning moment. If tension measurements are lost, the system will continue on
modeled values, or allow the DPO to input manual values. This is to prevent any possibility
of astern movement of the drag heads which would result in damage. Dedicated display
pages on the DP system allow the DPO to monitor all vital information such as drag head
speed and forces, vessel speed, heading, position and cross-track error relative to the
waypoints.

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7.12.7 Shuttle Tanker and FPSO Operations.

When loading offshore, it is possible to reduce the thruster/propeller force required to retain
the vessel's position, relative to the offshore loading buoy, by utilising the stabilising effect of
the wind and wave forces acting to the vessel's hull. In order to achieve this reduction, the
vessel's bow must always face the environmental forces. Therefore the DP system includes
special Weather Vaning operation modes which cause the vessel to always point towards
the environmental forces.

The Weather Vaning operation modes cause the vessel to act like a weather vane. The
vessel is allowed to rotate with the wind and waves around a fixed point, called the terminal
point. Neither the heading nor the position of the vessel is fixed. The heading of the vessel is
controlled to point towards the terminal point, while the position is controlled to follow a
circle, called the set point circle, around the terminal point. Weather Vaning is illustrated in
the picture below.

Depending on the type of offshore loading operation, the following functions may also be
available:
- Terminal Point Selection
- Set Point Circle Radius
- Approach to Weather Vaning Location
- Propeller Bias
- Hawser Tension Compensation
- Manual Bias
- Mean Offset

Depending on the loading concept, different types of Weather Vaning operation modes may
be used:

Single Point Mooring

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Loading Buoy without Mooring

Floating Loading Tower

Floating Storage Unit

Submerged turret loading

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Floating production, storage and offloading units are becoming common in many parts of the
world. Many FPSOs are able to weathervane around the turret and maintain heading into the
weather.

Most FPSOs utilise offtake tankers for export of oil, and these tankers are usually DP-
capable. With any FPSO/offtake tanker operation, the tanker will experience more
positioning problems than when loading from an ALP. The offtake vessel keeps position
within a circle defined by the length of the loading hose. The reference position is the hose
terminal point on the stern of the FPSO. The mooring and positioning system in the FPSO
allows a degree of movement, especially in deep water, so the FPSO may be continually
weathervaning, so that the shuttle tanker reference point will be moving. The shuttle tanker
can try to follow this movement or position absolutely to pre-set limits.

In FPSO offtake operations, a relative position reference is essential. One such position
reference is the relative GPS (DARPS) system, yielding position information reduced to
range/bearing data from the FPSO terminal location. Another position reference is Artemis,
with the fixed station located on the FPSO and the mobile station located on the tanker. The
prime consideration is the clearance distance from the FPSO so that the collision risk is
minimized.

7.12.9 Accommodation and flotel units.

A number of DP-capable Flotel (accommodation barge) vessels are able to operate close to
a fixed installation with a rigid gangway connected. The gangway allows easy access
between platform and Flotel unit for operational purposes. The gangway may be actively
motion-compensated allowing for Flotel movement against the fixed structure. The gangway
control system allows for maximum and minimum outreach, vertical and horizontal angles.
Warnings and alarms are activated in advance of these maxima being reached. Sensors on
the gangway feed back data on gangway extension and angles. This data may be accessed
by the DP system such that the gangway becomes position-reference acting in a similar
fashion to a taut wire system.

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7.12.9 Crane barge operations.

The Crane Barge or Derrick Barge can be described as the workhorse of the offshore
industry. A large number of them are employed all over the world in construction and de-
commissioning operations relating to the oil and gas industries, and also in civil construction
projects.

They are also used in salvage and wreck removal operations. In the past, derrick and crane
barges positioned themselves by means of mooring lines and anchor spreads, but an
increasing number of them are DP-capable, and use that capability to best advantage. Best
known are the large, twin-crane installations in the "Thialf" and the "Balder", both owned by
Heerema, and the "Saipem 7000". The "Thialf has two cranes each of 7,200 tonne capacity
fully revolving (42m outreach), with a 14,400t tandem capacity. Other capacities on the same
cranes include 900t auxiliary hooks (to 79m outreach) and a 200t whip hoist.

The Saipem 7000 crane barge has two main cranes each of 7,000t capacity at 40m
outreach, with a tandem capacity of 14,000t. Auxiliary hooks are capable of lifting 2,500t at
74m outreach, and900tat 115m. The whip has a 120t capacity at 150m radius.

The above two examples are the world's largest crane facilities. Both are fully DP-capable to
IMO Equipment Class 3, having not only full redundancy, but a fire backup consisting of a
complete backup DP system located in a separate compartment from the main system.

The major advantage given to these vessels by their DP capability is the ability to complete a
task in a very short time span. If a large topside module, or a number of them, is to be
installed on an offshore worksite, a barge requiring a mooring spread to work may take
several days setting up on location. Often there is so much seabed hardware congestion that
it is not possible to run anchors in the most favourable configuration.

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In the North Sea, the amount of time deemed necessary to complete the task renders work
difficult or impossible during the winter months, as there must be a guarantee of a suitable I
weather window long enough to complete the task and move away. This means that major
contracts may be scheduled for the summer months. If, on the other hand, the barge is DP-
capable, then the job may be able to be completed in a few hours, without the need to lay an
extensive mooring spread. Thus a suitable weather window should be easier to find, allowing
the task to be completed in the winter months.

7.12.10 Cruise and passenger vessels.

Many cruise liners are currently being built for this rapidly-expanding market. A number of
cruise liners are specifying DP at the design stage. Modern cruise vessels have shallow
draughts to allow access to a greater range of cruise destinations, and ever larger
freeboards. This shallow-draught, high-freeboard configuration leads to shiphandling
problems in tight berthing locations. This, coupled with the very tight schedules to be
maintained by the vessel dictates a very high level of manoeuvrability. The addition of DP to
the suite of facilities available to the vessel allows a more reliable maintenance of cruise
schedules.

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