eer ‘ic Dimensioning & e MO le ire ae zi Be RL Sue ee ALEX KRULIKOWSKiABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS USED IN THE TEXT AME ASME, ASAt cad cM cr DIA FIM Fos Gpat 1B D Iso, LMc MAX MIL-STD MIN MMc OB op RFS SAE TR Tor ve wes yids ar Actual Mating Envelope American Society of Mechanical Engineers American Standards Association Computer Aided Design Coordinate Measuring Machine Controlted Radius Diameter Full Indicator Movement Feature of Size Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing Inner Boundary Inside Diameter International Standards Organization Least Material Condition Maximum Military Standard Minimum oe Maximum Material Condition Outer Boundary Outside Diameter Regardless of Feature Size Society of Automotive Engineers ‘Total Indicator Reading Tolerance of Position Virtual Condition Worst-Case Boundary ASME Y14.5M-1994 Zero Tolerance © 9 2.9.9.8 Be Ae 6, are Tee Ce Pe aUo 4 See on Mos Wohnen ne NOTE TO THE READER Publisher does not warrant or guarantee any of the products described herein or perform any independent analysis in connection with any of the product information contained herein, Publisher does not assume, and expressly disclaims; any obligation to obtain and include information other than that provided to it by the manufacturer. ‘The reader is expressly warned to consider and adopt all safety precautions that might be indicated by the activities described herein and to avoid all potential hazards. By following the instructions contained herein, the reader willingly assumes all risks in connection with such instructions ‘The publisher makes no representations or warranties of any kind, including but not limited to, the warranties of fitness for particular purpose or merchantability, nor as any such representations implied with respect to the material set forth herein, and the publisher takes no-responsibility with respect to such material. The publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the reader's use of, or reliance upon, this material For information, address: Hective Training Inc. PO Box 756 o Wayne, MI 48184 (734) 728-0909 FAX: (734) 728-1260 www etinews.com COPYRIGHT © 1997 BY ALEX KRULIKOWSKI AND EFFECTIVE TRAINING INC. Alll rights reserved. Certain portions of this work copyright © 1989 by Effective Training Inc. No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means—graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or information storage and retrieval systems—without written permission of the publisher. Printed in the United States of America 1098 7@5 43210 | |To; Donna, Jamy, and Mark ‘Thanks for all your love, patience, and understanding. Me PP A a te ferae SP oT ¥F a Pal i Par od ir FG bea = TABLE OF CONSENTS ‘Acknowledgments Special Note co the Student. ‘Note tothe Instructor, ‘Text Conventions. Icon Definitions Chapter 1 Engineering Drawings and Tolerancing Introduction Chapter Goals and Objectives Engineering Dravvings Introduction to Dimansioning Dimensioning Standards. Fundamental Dimensioning Rulos The Coordinate Tolerencing System Shortcomings of Coordinate Tolerancing The Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing System. GOST Benefits... Comparison Between GD&T and Coordinate Teterancing The Great Myth of GD&T, Vocabulary List Additional Related Topics Questions end Problems... 2 introduction to Geometric Tolerancing | Symbols and Terms Introduction . on Chapter Goals and Objectives Definitions Material Conditions Modifiers... Radius and Controlled Radius Intreduction to Geometric Tolerances Vocabulary List.......2... Additional Related Topics Questions and Problems. 3 Rules and Concepts of GD&T Introduction . Chapter Goals and Objectives Rules Inttoduction to Basic Dimensions Introduction to: Virtual Condition, Inner and Outer Boundary Introduction to Bonus Tolerance. Vocabulary List Additional Related Topies Questions and Problems... 45- 46 47 56 66 66 674 Form Controls We Introduction... 7 Chapter Goals and Objectives 3 Flainess Control 74 Streighiness 9s 8 Surface Element Control y Straighiness as an Axis or Centarplane Control. 33 Gireularty Control 89 Cylindriety Control 94 . Vocabulary List 29 Additional Refated Topics 99 ‘Questions and Problems 100 5 Datums (Planar) Wm Introduction cones 112 Chapter Goals and Objectives rn 112 Implied Datums....... ] 14 Planar Datums 115 Datum Targets 128 Vocabulary List. : 134 Additional Related Topics a 2434 Questions and Problems 200135 6 Datums (Axis and Centerplane) 143 + Introduction... . 144 Chapter Goals and Objectives “14a FOS Datum Features : 146 FOS Datum Feature Applications (RFS) 2 148 FOS Datum Feature Referenced af MMC 153 FOS Datum Feature Applications (MMC). 158 Vocabulary List. on 185 ‘Additional Related Topics oo 185 Questions and Problems 166. 7 Orientation Controls 175 Introduction 176 Chapter Goals and Objectives oe 176 Perpendiculanty Control 1 178 Angularty Control. | Parallelism Control Vocabulary List 199 ‘Additional Related Topics : 199 Questions and Problems , 200 8 Tolerance of Position, Part 4 200 / Introduction 210 Chapter Goals and Objectives 210 TOP Genaral Information att TOP Theories : 216 Common TOP RFS Applications 221 Inspecting TOP Applied at RES. 227 Common TOP MMC Applications. 228 inspecting TOP Applied at MMC 235 Vocabulary List 239 ‘Acsltional Related Topics 239 Questions and Problems 240agGge a 9 Tolerance of Position, Part 2 249 Introduction 250 Chapter Goats and Objectives L250 TOP Special Applications 251 TOP Caleutations 262 Fixed and Floating Fastener Calculations 266 Vocabutary Uist 270 Additional Related Topics 270 ‘Questions and Probioms era 410 Concentricity and Symmetry Controls 281 Introduction 282 Chapter Goals and Objectives 282 Concentricity Contr! 283 Symmetry Contro! | 288 Vocabulary List 293 Additional Related Topic 293 Questions and Problems 298 411 Runout Controls: 299 Introduction 300 Chapter Goals and Objectives. 300 Gireuiar Runout : 301 Total Runout 310 Runout Calculations. 318 Vocabulary List 320 Additonal Related Topic. a 2320 Questions and Problems. 324 12 Profile Controls i 327 Introduction. beste 328 Chapter Gocis and Objectives 328 General information on Profle an 329 Profie of a Surface. WOU 335 Profile of a Line 343 Part Caloulations 346 Vocabulary List 348 Additional Retated Topics. 348 Questions and Problems 349 43 Appendices 357 ‘Appendix A - Answers to Selocted Quastions ..... 358 ‘Appendix B - Feature Control Frame Proportion Charts... 2370 Appendix C - iSO Dimensioning Standards . +. 372 Appendix D- ASME Y14.5SO Comparison Chart... 373 Appendix E Bibliography 574we ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Ever hear the joke about how many __ it takes to sorew in a lightbulb? (You fill in the blank: engineers, managers, computer programmers, etc.) Seriously, have you ever wondered about how many people it takes to write a-book? Many people think an author writes a book single-handedly. Writing @ book is a team effort. Yes, I (the author) have the skills necessary to write the technical content of this book. After all, I have already written several other books on this topic: I am able to write the first draft, but as the job progresses, it takes many different skills to write the finished book Lam very fortunate to have a staff of talented people working for me: a technical writer/editor, Katherine Billings; a graphics expert, Jamy Krulikowski (yes, he’s my son); and several more bright young men on my staff—Matthew Pride, Paul Moore, and Brandon Billings. This talented group was successful in overcoming several hardships during the writing of this book, from interpreting my markups or drawings to reconstructing (and retyping) lost data files when our office was plagued with the virus from hell. THEY did it! They worked days and evenings and late nights and weekends, I thank each and every one of you for your assistance during this project. want to tell the world about a very special person, my son Jamy. Simply put, this young ‘man—at an age when most young men are pursuing their own personal ambitions—has taken the time to help his father realize his. Jamy, you are one of a kind; I thank you There is another part of my team who deserves credit. While I was spending much of my time working on this book for the last twelve months, several people on my staff have kept this company flinctioning. The people I am referring to are Donna Pokrywki, Kathy Darfler, and Tina White. These hardworking individuals have literally run Effective Training while I was working on the book. I thank you for your help. And that's not all; also had a crack team of technical proofteaders who were willing to pitch in and use their valuable time to read the drafts and offer suggestions on the technical content of this book. The technical proofreaders have many areas of expertise. ‘The following list shows the individuals and their affiliations to colleges or industries.‘The technical proofreaders who contributed to the development of this book: Bourland, Robert General Motors Powertrain Bums, William - Macomb Community College Davis, Brent = Ford Motor Co. Day, Donald = Monroe Community College! Cavanaugh, Gerry - Schoolcraft College Ferguson, Chuck Steelcase Inc. Keith, James - Boeing Murphy, Michaet Griess, Dr. Gerald Honsinger, David General Motors Eastern Michigan University Watervliet Arsenal Hucbner, Glen Waukesha Community College Nirva, Raymond = Ford Motor Co. Smith, Larry = St. Clair College Smith, Nick - Boeing Young, Roger Storage Technology Corp. salute the proofteaders. What an outstanding job they did. They challenged the concepts, illustrations, and sometimes even my interpretation of Y14.5. They provided an invaluable service to the quality of the book. Several of the proofreaders are very close friends, and I sincerely appreciate the honesty in their comments Credit is gratefully given and acknowledgment made for the use of definitions and terms from the ASME Y14.5M-1994 Dimensioning and Tolerancing Standard. This standard is published by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), New York, NY. One more group whom I want to thank is all the students who used craft versions of this text and provided comments from a user’s perspective. Your comments and suggestions have improved the usability of this text. Thank you. Sincerely, a, Alex Krulikowski Jenuary, 1997 ¢ & r moo ae a6 nM LeSPECIAL NOTE TO THE STUDENT This section contains very important information about how to increase your succes learning GD&T Dear Student, Welcome to the world of geometric dimensioning and tolerancing. This textbook is designed to introduce you to the fundamentals of GD&T; however, only you éan ensure a successfull understanding of the topic through proper goal-setting and initiative, I can lead you into the world of GD&T, but you must make a conscious effort to do the work required (o successfully master the subject. Because of my firgy belief that success can be achieved through proper goal-setting and Giscipline, Ihave provided you with a list of goals and objectives at the beginning of each chapter. Acquire an understanding of these goals, step by step, end you will soon have mastered the world of GD&T. However, you must also set some goals: you must set aside a specific time each day to read, study, and practice the problems at the end of each chapter. ‘The results of your hard work and discipline will be apparent when you Successfully grasp each concept and topic. Best of all, you will soon realize the larger ‘goal—an understanding of GD&T as a whole. ‘The Levels of Learning ~ Psychological studies on learning have discovered that there are several levels involved in the Ieaming process. Many students try to leam by simply memorizing facts, without a ‘horough understanding of the topic at hand; however, these studies indicate that memorization alone will not properly prepare the student for tests or the application of any topic. The following list illustrates the levels of understanding: 1. Knowledge involves remembering (memorizing) factual material. 2. Comprehension involves interpreting information, changing it from one form to another, and/or making predictions 3. Application involves using facts and fundamental principles when solving problems, 4. Analysis involves identifying and sorting out relevant and irelevant facts to make comparisons, 5. Synthesis involves combining information and developing a plan or using original ideas. 6. Evaluation involves judging the value of observations and calculated results in order to reach a meaningful conclusion As you can see, memorization alone does not help with problera-solving or the application of concepts. t must be combined with other methods of learning before & real understanding of concepts can be accomplished.The “Ten Principles to Productive Study” Educators utilize many different study methods to assist students in the learning process. In order to assist you in this course, [ have adapted ten commonly known principles of productive study, These “Ten Principles” can assist you in successful goal-setting and ‘can lead the way to a proper understanding of GD&T. Before beginning your GD&T course, take time to read these concepts and make an effort to apply them to your study plan, 1. Leaming occurs in small steps. Begin here and now—not tomorrow—to study and to solve problems. 2. Study daily, Don't expect to learn a lot the night before a test. 3, First scan the performance objectives, then carefully read the material and ask yourself relevant questions. Write down questions you cannot answer. 4. Read the material again, take notes, and list key points. Learning is aided by repetition. 5. Think about interconnections with what you know, including on-the-job applications. 6. Visualize GD&T applications, formulas, and key points until you can “see” them with your eyes shut. 7. Write down key points. You really don’t know it if you can’t write it 8. Think about each key point. Say it! Write it! Review it! Relate key points to each other and compare their similarities and differences. 9. Study sample problems in the text. Consider the strategies used to solve these problems and how you would zecognize and approach similar problems presented in the text or om a test or on a job. 10. Solve problems included in the exercise workbook. Work problems daily. Become familiar with different types of problems. Your Commitment to Success Although these principles can work for you, you alone can decide to commit the time and. effort it will take to apply them, You must first commit yourself to attending the lectures. You must prepare for lectures by reading the list of performance objectives beforehand. ‘You should also read the text before lectures, note key points and ask questions during the lecture, and review your notes and the text afterwards. You must do the assigned problems and study daily. Remember, major geometric tolerancing topics are interrelated and build on one another, so after studying a chapter, review the performance objectives from the beginning of the chapter to be sure you know the major points and the terminology involved. Can you explain these terms and concepts to someone else? Try it! A person who understands a topic can use the vocabulary needed to discuss that topic.J wi OF s a Boar wo boas & uF a Exams Taking tests can be stressful; however, the more prepared you are, the less stress you will feel. Work the problems and answer the questions at the end of each chapter. Don't ‘waste time trying to guess what topics will or will not be included on exams. The exams are based on the performance objectives; study them and you'll do well. As the “Ten Principles” suggest, daily study, reading und rereading your topic, and trying practice problems assure successful study—and less stressful testetaking! Just as a marathion Tunner trains daily for an event, you should study daily for your “event.” With enough Preparation, a short review before the exam will be enough to guarantee successful results Thope you are eacouraged enough to begin the hard work needed to successfully accomplish the task at hand—if so, you will be well rewarded, Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing is a complex and exciting subject; understanding its principles is rewarding and profitable. In writing this text, I have done everything possible to assist you in your studies—the rest of the work is up to you! Sincerely yours, Alex Krulikowski ae Effective Training Inc. PO Box 756 Wayne, MI 48184 (734) 728-0909Organization Fundamentals of Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing is divided into twelve chapters. Each chapter has several goals described at the beginning of the chapter. These thirty goals are the major topics that must be mastered to be fluent in the fundamentals of ‘geometric tolerarcing, The course design is based on this set of goals. Bach chapter’s {goals are further defined and supported with a set of performance objectives. ‘The performance objectives describe specific, observable, measurable actions that the student must accomplish to demonstrate mastery of each goal. There are over 240 performance objectives in this text. These performance objectives are the Key fo success for both the student and the instructor. The text, problems, exercises, quizzes, and teaching materials are all based on the performance objectives. Using the performance objectives will make conducting the class easier for the instructor and will make attending the class more meaningful for the students. Suggestions for Course Planning Fundamentals of Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing is intended for a one semester college course in geometric tolerancing. The material can be divided in a variety of ways. It is designed to be segmented by chapter goals. The text contains thirty goals; the goals could easily be divided into two or three per class session ‘Supplements ‘This book has @ complete package of supplements, including an Instructor Answer Guide, Performance Based Instructor Kit, and a student Study Guide, . “The Instructor Aaswer Guide is an answer guide for the problems at the end of each chapter Of the text. It is available from Delmar Publishers. ‘The Performance Based Instructor Kit is a complete set of teaching materials for this course, It contains over 275 overhead transparency masters; detailed lesson plans; several Suggested course outlines; a complete set of quizzes and tests with answers; and answers toall the text and study guide problems. The Performance Based Instructor Kits only available from Bffective Training Inc. ‘The Fundamentals of GD&T Exercise Workbook is designed to reinforce the performance objectives for cach goal with a set of activities and problems that engage the student in using the skills associated with those goals. The workbook contains over 200 additional problems for the student to solve. The workbook can be used in the class as an activity to reinforce concepts and create discussion of topics being taught. Itis only available from Effective Training Inc.Ow a ED oe wis ue s es > NOTE TO THE INSTRUCTOR This second edition of Fundamentals of Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing preserves the ‘best qualities of the first edition while adding new material that reflects the dynamic changes in the field of geometric tolerancing. We have adhered to two ideas from the first edition: first, the use of the Y145 dimensioning standard as a basis for the text; and second, the building block approach to leaming geometric tolerancing. New to This Edition ‘The second edition of Fundamentals of Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing continues to be the most practical and up-to-date text on the market. We discuss each dimensioning topic in a ‘manner that is understandable and useful to the reader, New to the second edition are: ‘+ A list of abbreviations and acronyms on the inside front cover + A special note to the student explaining how to maximize leaming from this course © Anew format that is easier to read and allows room for notes in the page margin + Toons for study tips, author’s comments, design tips, and “for more info" tips; the use of these icons helps the reader study the material and understand how it can be used in industry + A list of text conventions that explain drawing conventions used in the text ‘+ The textis divided into twelve chapters to allow for shorter, more specific lessons * The integration of goals and objectives to aid the learning process; this is a major step to help the student understand what the important concepts are in each chapter, on what they will be tested, and on what they should focus their efforts Isometric drawings added to many of the figures to aid in the visualization of the part + Information on how to inspect each geometric tolerance * Information on when each geometric control is used in a part design © Technical content updated to include the latest information from ASME Y14.5M-1994 © Specific references to the Y14.5 standard are included to allow the student to find additional information on a particular concept ‘+ Problems that involve dimensioning drawings are included to allow the students to apply geometric tolerances to drawings * Numerous comparison charts to understand trade-offs between using various symbols in a design application ‘* Appendices contain selected answers, a bibliography, comparison charts, ISO referencesPeis s ‘ “= "> = PEE SE bse) bond Sg be} s sae = S The Ultimate Pocket Guide on Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing is a 77-page rmini-book that is a great reference for GD&T. This pocket guide covers the definitions, rules, and major concepts—and also explains each symbol. The Ultimate Pocket Guide on GD&T is only available from Effective Training, Inc. The Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing Self-Study Workbook, 2" Edition, is a + start-to-finish self-training course in Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing that has become a classic in its field. The self-study workbook is only available from Effective Training, Inc. A Few Comments from the Author Thope you enjoy teaching this course and using the materials I have designed. If you would like to contact me with a comment or suggestion, I can be reached at Effective ‘Training Inc., PO Box 756., Wayne, MI 48184. I can also be reached at my E-mail address: GDT MAN@ AOL.COM Over twenty proofreaders have reviewed this textbook prior to publication, We have ‘made numerous improvements and corrections as a result of their efforts. However, a few errors may have slipped through in the final stages of the book production, I apologize for any inconvenience this may cause. If you find an error, please send it to ‘me, Twill maintain an errata sheet and send it upon request. Asa parting thought, I want to share a quotation with all of you: “He who dares to teach must never cease to learn.” . John Cotton DanaTEXT CONVENTIONS Drawing Conventions Thore are many engineering drawings used in this book. In order to focus on the dimfnsioning topic being discussed, many of the drawings are partial drawings. In some instances, figures show added detsil for emphasis; in some instances, figures are incomplete by intent. Numerical values for dimensions and tolerances are only. Notes stiown in capital letters on drawings are intended to appear on actual industry drawings. Notes shown in lowercase letters are for explanatory purposes only and are not intended to appear on industry drawings. All drawings are in accordance with ASME Y14.5M-1994. Unless otherwise specified, all angles + 5°. All units are metric. ‘The name of the dimensioning and tolerancing standard is ASME Y14.SM-1994, Itis referred to inthe text as Y14.5. 0 ~ Gage Tolerances ‘The gages used in this text are described with basic dimensions; no tolerances are shown. In the prodiict desiga field, gages are considered to have no tolerances; however, in industry, gages do have tolerances. The gage tolerances are usually quite small compared to part tolerances. A rule of thumb is that gage tolerances are 10% of the part tolerances. Gage tolerances are usually arranged so that a (marginally) good part may be rejected, but a bad part will never be accepted. (From paragraph 2.5.4.1 MIL-HDBK-204A[AR] Design of Inspection Equipment for Dimensional Characteristics.) Technotes ‘Throughout the book you will find “Technotes.” These are important facts that should be noted and remembered for better understanding of the text. These notes contain technical definitions and specific cules that are applied to information within the lessons. Technotes are easy ‘0 locate in the chapters because they are highlighted by shadowed boxes. Each note is clearly labeled with a technote number that corresponds to the chapter where it is found and near the information where it will be of the most help.FALUN “ Study Tip 0 + Author's Comment For More info. . Design Tip ICON DEFINITIONS Study Tip. When this symbol appears on a page, itis accompanied by a tip. This tip provides advice on how to maximize your learning while using the text. Author’s Comment. In various places throughout this book, the author provides comments. Author's comments are strictly advisory and are not part of the Y14.5M-1994 dimensioning standard. When an author's comment is made, a symbol like the one shown here is shown adjacent to the text material to which the comment applies. The comments usually fall into one of two categories: - They discuss a dimensioning situation that is not covered in the Y14.5M-1994 dimensioning standard. ~ They offer the reader opinions, insights, or tips about the topic being discussed. For More Info. .. When this symbol appears on a page, itis accompanied by page references in this text which contain information related to the topic. On a few occasions, this icon may refer to other sources for additional information. Design Tip. In various places throughout the book. the author provides design tips. These tips are strictly advisory and are not part of the ¥14.5M-1994 dimensioning standard. The design tips help designers to apply this tolerancing information in a cost-effective manner.wba ar f 3 Gddagg Fa aa Fr f og Pay Ps \ al a fu a — aaa u ‘ is gus an Chapter Enginee ings and Tolerancinged INTRODUCTION An engineering drawing is a tool that is used:to communicate the design and manufacturing information for a part. Important elements of an engi- . neering drawing are the dimensions and tolerances. This chapter intro- duces engineering drawings, dimensions, geometric tolerances, and coor- dinate tolerances. CHAPTER GOALS AND OBJECTIVES There are Two Goals in this Chapter: 1-1. Understand what an engineering drawing is. 1-2. Understand why geometric tolerancing is superior to coordinate tolerancing. Performance Objectives that Demonstrate Mastery of These Goals Upon completion of this chapter, each student should be able to: Goal 1-1 (pp. 3-12) ~ Explain what an engineering drawing is, ~ Describe how precisely drawings should communicate. | ~ List at least four consequences of drawing errors. ~ Describe what a dimension is. - Describe what a tolerance is. Study Tip ‘Take afew minutes to fully understand these objectives, When ~ Deseribe what a limit tolerance is. reading thischapter, | ~ Describe what a plus-minus tolerance is. look for information | - Explain three conventions in the specification of metric unit ‘o help you master these objectives dimensions on drawings. ~ Bxplain how dimensional limits are interpreted, ~ Explain ASME Y14.5M-1994 ~ Describe seven of the ten fundamental dimensioning rules. Goal 1-2 (pp. 13-22) ~ Explain what coordinate tolerancing is. ~ Explain’ the three major shortcomings of coordinate tolerancing. ~ Explain three appropriate uses for coordinate tolerancing. ~ Explain what the geometric tolerancing dimensioning system is, ~ List three major benefits of geometric tolerancing. ~ Explain how geometric tolerancing eliminates the shortcomings of coordinate tolerancing, ~ Explain why the “great myth” about geometric tolerancing is untrue. ARAR LALA LAD AD LAAN LADD eelamatetal $sIE ES “ag ¢ = a ENGINEERING DRAWINGS What is an Engineering Drawing? ‘An engineering drawing is a document that communicates a precise de- scription of a part. This description consists of pictures, words, numbers, and symbols. Together, these elements communicate part information to all drawing users. Engineering drawing information includes: - Geometry (shape, size, and form of the part) - Gritical functional relationships - Tolerances allowed for proper function - Material, heat treat, surface coatings - Part documentation information (part number, revision level) For the last hundred years, most engineeting drawings have been created by manual methods. The designer used tools like drafting boards, T-squares, compasses, triangles, ete. The drawing original was created on paper, linen, mylar, or other materials that could be used for making reproductions. The reproductions were generally referred to as “prints.” ‘Today, many engineering drawings are created electronically. The designer uses a computer to create an electronic version “of a drawing. Often, no physicel original drawing exists; the original is a computer file. Copies (prints) are made through the use of a printer/plotter. Whether engineering Grawings are manual drawings or electronic computer files, their basic pur- pose remains essentially the same: to record and communicate important partinformation. =~precise — sous tvmcs — cau vasue Eowveisarion Inna FIGURE 1 Communications Model The Need for Precise Communications ‘There are many kinds of communications; some are formal and some are informal. Figure 1-1 shows a scale with different types of communica- tions, A casual conversation -and song lyrics are examples of informal communi- cations. They do not need to be very precise. However, other communica- tions may be very formal and precise. The United States Constitution is an example of a formal communication. The interpretation of the Constitution has been challenged in courtrooms for over a bundred years. It is common that communications that need to be precise are often the subject of con- siderable debate. Engineering drawings are legal documents. Therefore, they should be treated as formal, precise documents. An engineering Grawing should fully define the part. Each specification should be measur- able, Engineering drawings are a communications tool. Engineering drawings affect many parts of an organization. They have a major impact on costs. Consequences of Poor Drawings Engineering drawings not only need to communicate precisely, they also need to be correct. A drawing error can be very costly to an organization. The following analysis is an example based on a medium-sized manufac~ turing firm. Figure 1-2 shows typical costs resulting from a drawing error. Ifa drawing error is found within the design department, it can be corrected for a few dollars. The cost is simply the time required to fix the error; let's say $1-10 to correct the drawing error. 4 MAR BON 0.0 a‘COST OF A DRAWING ERROR \WHEN DISCOVERED SY THE DESIGN, | MODEL SHOP j PRODUCTION | ‘EPT. roving Error cus Increase a the Drawing Moves Through the Organization If the drawing error is missed in the design department and is discovered in the model shop, it may cost several hundred dollars to fix the error. This is because, now-—in addition to the time to fix the drawing—additional costs may be involved in loss of material, machine time, and machinist's time, Worse yet, let’s say a part described on a drawing that contains an error gets into’ production. Now the costs escalate quickly. The cost to process the paperwork for fixing the drawing error may be several thousand dol- lars. In addition, gaging costs, tooling costs, and scrap costs can easily bring the ‘otal to over a hundred thousand dollars. If a drawing error gets into the final product and it’s shipped to the cus- tomer, the costs that result from the error can be much higher. If a product recall is involved, it can easily cost the organization over a million dollars. If a product liability lawsuit is involved, the costs that result from the drawing error can ran into millions of dollars. Drawing errors cost the organization in four ways: 1. Money 2, Time 3. Material 4, Unhappy customersk : INTRODUCTION TO DIMENSIONING ‘ ~ What are Dimensions and Tolerances? 4 A dimension is a numerical value expressed in appropriate units of mei | Q e OM ae, | ure and used to define the size, location, orientation, form, or other geo e | metric characteristics of a part. 7 | A tolerance is the total amount that features of the part are permitted tc Author's Comment | vary from the specified dimension. The tolerance is the difference betwe’ Alesse | the maximum and minimum limits. dimensions that are ‘identified as reference, Types of Tolerances Two common methods used to specify tolerances are limit tolerances 2" plus-minus tolerances. A limit tolerance is when a dimension has its high and low limits state Iva limit tolerance, the high value is placed of top, and the low value. ‘placed on the botiam. Figure 1-34 shows an example of a limit tolerance “The high limit for this dimension is 12.5. The low limit for this dimensi is 12.0. The tolerance for this dimension is the total amount of varia. permitted ot 12.5 minus 12.0 = 0.5. When limit tolerances are expressed ir a single line, the low limit is stated first, then a dash, followed by the hi limit (for example, 12.0-12.5). A plus-minus tolerance is the nominal or target value of the dimensi | given first, followed by a plus-minus expression of a tolerance. An exaitt ple of a plus-minus dimension is shown in Figure 1-3B. For this dimer; sion, the nominal value is 12.25. The plus-minus tolerance is 0.25. T total tolerance for this dimension is 0.5. A | 3 Dimension with ' Dimension with | nce [FIGURE 3 Examples of Limit Tolerances and Pas Minws Tolerances‘A tolerance for a plus-minus dimension can be expressed in several ways. {] déxbilesana! tolerance is one that allows the dimension to vary in both the | i plus and minus directions. An equal bilateral tolerance is where the p> allowable variation from the nominal value is the same in both directions. |‘ i Figure 1-4A shows an example. : | i | + hb ; A unilateral tolerance is where the allowable variation from the target | Author's Comment value ig all in one direction and zero in the other direction, Figure 1-48 | Most of industry vane considers target value shows an example, the value around ‘which manafactaring SF e-U 4 An unequal bilateral tolerance is where the allowable variation is from | centers the process ~ the target value, and the variation is not the same in both directions, | distribution. b Figure 1-4C shows an example. -—~ ey — ? ere ae Taqetin * | agetvaue | . f a rr, — frtessoas | 888 | det 5 | A 8 | c { , | El Batra Telerane UnfatealTelearee Unequal Tolerance P AGURETA Beales ety Ug tr Taras ney a \ Metric Dimension Specifications Qo ‘The dimensions in this text are shown in metric units. The Metric Interna- “> tional System of Units (SD) is used. The millimeter is the common unit of ‘measurement used on engineering drawings made to the metric system. oly : In industry, a general note would be shown on the drawing to invoke the b metric system. A typical general note is: “UNLESS OTHERWISE ay SPECIFIED, ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN MILLIMETERS.” > Three conventions are used when specifying dimensions in metric units. s Examples of these conventions are shown in Figure 1-5. wi , the dec fe . 5 1. When metic dimension is a whole number, the decimal point and_oy Qua f° zero are omitted. 5 2, When a metric dimension is less than one millimeter, a zero precedes the decimal point. For example, the dimension “0.2” has a zero to the “> left of the decimal point. . 3. When a metric dimension is not a whol number, a decimal point > with the portion of a millimeter (10ths or 100ths) is specified, as ws shown in Figure 1-5, > 7 2Dinensoniees han | p= : | pois | t f © gh e0.25 Stones em ues Sige ie Seen Interpreting Dimensional Limits All dimensional limits are absolute. In other words, a dimension is consid- ered to be followed with zeros after the last specified digit (significant fig- ure). See Figure 1-6 for examples. To determine part acceptance, the measured value is compared directly to the specified print dimension, and any deviation outside the specified dimension signifies an unacceptable par. nn 26.2 For this dimension 38-5 26.02 means 26.020...0 26 means 26.0....0 16.54 means 16.540....0 185 means 16,50...0 A part measuring 26.201 would be rejected and 25.999 would be rejected [FIGURE 1-6 Interpreting Dimensional Las TECHNOTE 1-1 Dimensional Limits All dimensional limits are absolute, A dimension is considered to be | followed by zeros after the last specified digit. 209 3 4 wo ~ 13 Tt ce I 2 to| se nA A DIMENSIONING STANDARDS ‘The information in this book is based on ASME Y14.5M-1994, ASME | for American Society of Mechanical Engineers. The Y14 5 is the standard’ number. "M" is to indicate the standard is metric, and. 1994 sndard ‘was officially approved. The Y14.5M=[904 slandard is | Considered the national standard for dimensioning and tolerarcing in the { United States. the year the t \ ¥14.5M-1994 is « dimensioning and tolerancing standard. ASME stands ( ‘There is another predominant standard used in parts of the world. The In- ternational Standards Organization (ISO) is an organization that has published an associated series of standards on dimensioning and tolerancing. A list of the ISO dimensioning standards is shown in Appendix C. The ISO dimensioning standards and the Y14.5M-1994 Dimensioning Standard are about 90% common. A comparison chart of these standards is shown in Appendix D. History of GD&T As long as people have made things, they have used measurements, draw- ing methods, and drawings. Drawings existed as far back as six thousand B.C,, when a unit of measure in the Nile and Chaldean civilizations was a “royal cubit.” For thousands of years it fluctuated anywhere from 18 to 19 inches in length. Then, around four thousand B.C., the royal cubit was standardized at 18.24 inches. This set a pattern that ha held true for nearly six thousand years. As long as there are measurements, drawing methods ‘and drawings, there will be Controversies, committees, and standards. Manufecturing as we know it began with the Industrial Revolution in the 1800s. There were, of course, drawings, but these drawings were very dif- ferent fcom the ones we use today. A typical drawing from the 1800s was a neatly inked, multi-viewed artistic masterpiece that portrayed the part with almost pictorial precision. Occasionally, the designer would write in a di- ‘mension, but generally such things were considered unnecessary. Way? They were unnecessary because the manufacturing process was dif- ferent then. There were no assembly lines, no widely dispersed departments or corporate units scattered across the nation or even world- wide as there are today. In those days, manufacturing was a cottage industry employing artisans who did it all, from parts fabrication to final assembly. These craftsmen passed their hard-won skills down from generation to generation. To them, there was no such thing as variation, Nothing less than perfection was good enough. | autnors comment ASME Y14.5M-1994 is a revision of ANSI Yd SM-1982. / —LE Of course there was variation, but back then the measuring instruments ‘were not precise enough to identify it. When misfits and assembly prob- lems occurred (which they routinely did), the craftsmen would simply cut- and-y, file-and-fi until the assembly worked perfectly. The total process = was conducted under one roof, and communication among craftsmen was immediate and constant: “Keep that on the high side.” “That edge has plenty of clearance.” “That fit is OK now.” eA YS a You can sce that manufacturing back then was a quality process, but also slow, laborious and consequently quite an expensive one. The advent of the assembly line and other improved technologies revolutionized manu- facturing. The assembly line created specialists to take the place of arti- sans, and these people did not have the time or skills for “file-and-fit.” Improved methods of measurement also helped to do away with the myth of “perfection.” Now, engineers understand that variation is unavoidable. Moreover, in every dimension of every part in every assembly, some variation is acceptable without impairing the function of the assembly, as long as the limit of that variation—the “tolerance” —is identified, under- stood and controlled. This variation led to the development of the plus- minus (or coordinate) system. of tolerancing, and-to-the determination that the logical place to record these tolerances and other information was on the engineering or design drawing, * Od Dok bh wy With this development, drawings became more than just pretty pictures of parts; they became the main means of communication among manuféc- turing departments that were increasingly less centralized, more special- ized, and subject to siricter demands. = Engineering Drawing Standards ~ To improve the quality of drawings, an effort was made to standardize ”" them. In 1935, after years of discussion, the American Standards Associa- od tion (ASA) published the first recognized standard for drawings, “American Drawing and Drafting Room Practices.” Of its eighteen short pages, just five discussed dimensioning; tolerancing was covered in just two paragraphs. It was 4 beginning, but its deficiencies became obvious with the start of World War I, In Britain, wartime production was seriously hampered by high scrap rates due to parts that would not assemble properly. The British determined that this was caused by weakness in the plus-minus system of coordinate tolerancing, and more critically, by the absence of full and complete information on engineering drawings. iDriven by the demands of war, the British innovated and standardized. Stanley Parker of the Royal Torpedo Factory in Alexandria, Scotland, cre- aied a positional colerancing system that called for cylindrical (rather than square) tolerance zones. The British went on to publish a sct of pioneering drawings’ standards in 1944, and in (948 they published “Dimensional Analysis Of Engineering Design.” This was the first comprehensive stan- dard that used fundamental concepts of true position tolerancing, GDA&T in the United States Im the United States, Chevrolet published the Draftsman's Handbook in 1940, the first publication with any significant discussion of position toler- ancing. In 1945, the U.S. Amy published an ordinance manual on dimen- sioning and tolerancing that introduced the use of symbols (rather than notes) for specifying form and positioning tolerances. Even so, the second edition of the American Standard Association's “American Standard Drawing and Drafting Room Practice,” published in 1946, made minimal mention of tolerancing. That same year, however, the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) expanded coverage of dimension- ing practices as applied in the aircraft industry in its “SAB Aeronautical Drafting Manual.” An automotive version of this standard was published in 1952, . In 1949, the U.S. military followed the lead of the British by publishing the first standard for dimensioning and tolerancing, known as MIL-STD-8. Its successor, MIL-STD-8A, published in 1953, authorized seven basic draw- ing symbols and introduced a methodology of functional dimensioning, As a result, there were three different groups in the United States publish- ing standards for drawings: the ASA, the SAE, and the military. This led to years of wrmoil about the inconsistencies among the standards and resulted in slow, but measured progress in uniting those standards. Jn 1957, the ASA (in coordination with the British and Canadians) ap- proved the first American standard devoted to dimensioning and toleranc- ing. The 1959 MIL-STD-8B brought the military standards closer to ASA and SAE standards, and in 1966—after years of debate—the first united standard was published by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), successor to the ASA. It was known as ANSI Y14.5, This first standard was updated in 1973 to replace notes with symbols in all toler- ancing, and an updated standard was also published in 1982, The current 14.5 standard was published in 1994.Chapter | - Engineering Drawings and Tolerancing FUNDAMENTAL DIMENSIONING RULES areas The Fundamental Dimensioning Rules are a set of general rules for di- . menstoning and interpreting drawings. ASME Y14.5M-1994 has defined a6 set of fundamental rules for this purpose. The ten rules that apply to this text are paraphrased in the list below: e sion -, except those dimensions & | specifically identified a Maximum, minimum, or stock (Commer a — ~ | 2. Dittiensioning and tolerancing shall be complete so there is full @ definition of each part feature. | 3. Dimensions shal be selected and arranged to suit the function and. & | tating relationship of @ pat and shall not be subject to more than gt | besign Tip one interpretation | Dimensioning Role | 4, The drawing should define a part without specifying manufacturing 4 | slo is now in VIA ‘nethods | hen sng V8 5. A.90° angte applies where centerlines and lines depicting features | ust show dimensions ae shown on a drawing at right angles, and no dimensionis | om ne cea shown, | Seawingsiftheyare | 6, A 90° basic angle applies where centerlines of features in 8 4 | required to be pattern—or surfaces shown at right angles on a drawing—are | Semi located and defined by basic dimensions, and no angle is specified. 7. Unless otherwise specified, all dimensions ae applicable at 20° Cg (68°F) 8. All dimensions and tolerances apply in the free-state condition. - This principle does not apply to non-rigid parts. i 9. Unless otherwise specified, all geometric tolerances apply tothe | full depth, length, and width of the feature, | 10. Dimensions and tolerances apply only at the drawing level where 4. they are specified. dimension specified on a detail drawing is not g@ mandatory for that feature on the assembly drawing, | _ For more info... & | See Paragraph 1.4 ‘The first three rules establish dimensioning conventions; rule four states oF YS. | that manufacturing methods should not be specified. Rules five and six — establish conventions for implied 90° angles. Rules seven, eight, and nine establish default conditions for dimensions and tolerance zones. Rule ten establishes @ convention for which drawing level dimensions and toler ances apply. t u CI J. | maintained inthe~ ‘Chapter 1 - Engineering Drawings and Tolerancing ° CL THE COORDINATE TOLERANCING SYSTEM Definition For about one hundred fifty years, a tolerancing approach called “coordinate tolerancing” was the predominant tolerancing system wsed on engineering drawings. Coordinate tolerancing is a dimensioning system where a part feature is located (or defined) by means of rectangular dimensions with given tolerances. An example of coordinate tolerancing is shown in Figure 1-7. fb oanmu-anoces 3B veer esas fe Ace Vise Co. FA vise PAD FIGUREI-T Goordiane Folerancng Drawing SHORTCOMINGS OF COORDINATE TOLERANCING Coordinate tolerancing was very successful when companies were small, because it was easy to talk to the machinist to explain what the drawing intent was. Over the years, a companies grew in size, parts were obtained from many sources. The ability for the designer and machinist to communicate directly had diminished, and the shortcomings of the coordinate tolerancing system became evident. Coordinate tolerancing simply does not have the completeness to precisely communicate the part requirements, Coordinate tolerancing contains three major shortcomings. They are: 2 Fixed.size tolerance-zones Setar PP Pree \ak \E a 1 i ilChapter | - Engineering Drawings and Tolerancing ‘ Coordinate Tolerancing and | Square (or illogical) Tolerance Zones ‘ 1 Let's look at the coordinate tolerancing shortcomings in more depth. First, . let's examine the tolecance zone for the 8.0-8.4 dia. hole locations from | the part in Figure 1-7, The hole location tolerance zone is formed by the max. and min. of the vertical and horizontal location dimensions. | Figure 1-8 shows that a 0.5 square tolerance zone would be formed. The illogical aspect of a square tolerance zone is that the hole can be off its | nominal location in the diagonal directions a greater distance than in the vertical and horizontal directions. A more logical and functional approach is to allow the same tolerance for 2 hole location in all directions, creating | a cylindrical tolerance zone. : | ossauare TOLERANCE 20Ne i, 025 CENCE \ Ae mr « | FIGURE 18 Square Tolerance Zaos that Rev from Coordinate Dineuions . € Coordinate Tolerancing and Fixed-Size Tolerance Zones 4 Next, let’s discuss how coordinate tolerancing uses fixed-size tolerance zones. The print specification requires the center of the hole to be within a a 0.5 square tolerance zone, whether the hole is at its smallest size limit or A its largest size limit, When the important function of the holes is assembly, the hole location is most critical when the hole is’at its minimum limit of \ size, If the actual hole size is larger than its minimum, size limit, its Toca- tion tolerance cari be Corespondingly larger without affecting the part function. Square and fixed-size tolerance zones can cause functional parts to be scrapped. Since coordinate tolerancing does not allow for cylindrical toler- ance zones or tolerance zones that increase with-the hole size, lengthy , notes would have to be added to a drawing to allow for these conditions. “CChapier 1 - Engineesing Drawings and Tolerancing Coordinate Tolerancing and Ambiguous Instructions for Inspection SURFACE PLATE OR Ramat pan ease? FIGURES Methods of Impection A third major shortcoming of coordinate tolerancing is that it has ambigu- us instructions for inspection. Figure 1-9 shows two logical methods an inspector could use to set up the part from Figure 1-7 for inspecting the holes. The inspector could rest the part on the face first, long side second and the short side third, or the inspector could rest the part on the face first, the short side second and the long side third. Because there are different ways to hold the part for inspection, two in- spectors could get different measurements from the same part. This can re~ sult in two problems: good parts may be rejected or, worse yet, bad parts could be accepted as good parts. The problem is that the drawing does not communicate to the inspector which surfaces should touch the gaging equipment first, second, and third. ry ‘When using coordinate tolerancing, additional notes would be required to ‘ communicate this important information to the inspector. 1 t As you can see, coordinate tolerancing has some very significant short- ; comings. That's why its use is rapidly diminishing in industry. However, a coordinate tolerancing is not totally obsolete; it does have some useful ap- i plications on engineering drawings. The chart in Figure 1-10 shows appro- 4 priate uses for coordinate tolerances on engineering drawings. aCChapior 1 - Engineering Drawings and Tolerancing SR EN Coordinate Dimension Usage Type of Dimension | Appropriate Use Poor Use “ * Tee x / ‘Chamfer x ‘ Radius x e Locating Part Features x 5 Controlling Angular X e Relationships e Defining the Form of X 7 Part Features ¢ FIGURE 110 Appropriate es fo CoordiateToeraocng a & € TECHNOTE 1-2: Coordinate Tolerancing ae # e Coordinate tolerancing is a dimensioning system where a part feature is located (or defined) by means of rectangulardimensions with given ‘ tolerances. Coordinate’tolerancing has three shortcomings: e . 1. Square or rectangular tolerance zones & 2. Fixed-size tolerance zones 3. Ambiguous instructions for inspection € e ¢ e & e Of 4 ® a aChapter 1 - Engineering Drawings and Tolerancing Fa Oe ip ty ame pS yyy er on oe ee THE GEOMETRIC DIMENSIONING AND TOLERANCING SYSTEM Definition Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD&T) is an international language that is used on engineering drawings to accurately describe @ part. The GD&T language consists of a well-defined set of symbols, rules, definitions, and conventions. GD&T is a precise mathematical language that can be used to describe the size, form, orientation, and location of part features. GDA&T is also a design philosophy on how to design and dimen- sion parts. Figure 1-11 shows an example of an engineering drawing that is toleranced with GD&T. a ew ee 38 ea i LL) peers Ace Vise Co. 7 ee ae Pr vise PAD FIGURE TIT Enginering Drawing Example Design Philosophy of Geometric Tolerancing Geometric tolerancing encourages a dimensioning philosophy called “functional dimensioning.” Functional dimensioning is a dimensioning philosophy that defines a part based on how it functions in the final prod- uct. The functional dimensioning philosophy is encouraged in many places throughout the Y14.5 standard. Although fimetional dimensioning is the philosophy, it does not mean the designer should design the component without taking other factors into consideration, Many companies find it 2 ye great advantage to use a process called “simultaneous engineering.” Sin - Coneant Ey ty multancous engineering is a process w! ign is @ result of input ffom marketing, engineering, manufacturing, inspection, assembly, and service. Simultaneous engineering often results in better products at lower cost.Chapicr | - Engineering Drawings and Tolerancing LOT RENEE LE GD&T BENEFITS - Improves Communication GD&T can provide uniformity in drawing specifications and interpretation, thereby reducing controversy, guesswork and assumptions. Design, production, and inspection all work in the same language. Provides Better Product Design ‘The use of GD&T can improve your product designs by providing designers with the tools to ‘say what they mean,” and by following the functional dimensioning philosophy. ~ Increases Production Tolerances ‘There are two ways tolerances are increased through the use of GDAT, First, under certain conditions, GD&T provides “bonus"— or extra—tolerance for manufacturing. This additional tolerance can make a significant savings in production costs. Second, by the use of functional dimensioning, the tolerances are assigned to the part based upon its functional requirements. This often results in a larger tolerance for manufacturing. It eliminates the problems that resuit when designers copy existing tolerances, or assign tight tolerances, because they don’t know how to determine a reasonable (functional) tolerance, COMPARISON BETWEEN GD&T AND COORDINATE TOLERANCING ‘Sometimes designers think that itis faster to dimension a part with coor dinate tolerancing than by using geometric tolerancing. This is not true. Let's take the drawing from Figure 1-7 and add geomettic tolerances to eliminate the major shortcomings of the coordinate dimensions. ‘The first major shortcoming of coordinate tolerancing is “square tolerance ‘Fores Let's Took at Tow geometric tolerancing eliminates this short- coming. In Figure -12, the arrow labeled “A” points to a GD&T symbol, This symbol specifies a cylindrica) tolerance zone, The square tolerance zone from the coordinate toleranced version Figure 1-7) is converted into a cylindrical tolerance zone. Notice that the tolerance value is larger than the 0.5 tolerance allowed in Figure 1-7. Figure 1-13 shows how the cylin- drical zone provides additional tolerance in comparison with the square tolerance zone. The additional tolerance gained from using cylindrical tolerance zones can reduce manufacturing costs, eee O Hap eeopopgapargonanga hep Qe bsChapter | - Engineering Drawings and Tolerancing feigr OrTstee— & lot | “Ace Vise Co. ay pee VISE PAD ‘FIGURE 11? Vie Pad Drawing Using GD&T ‘The second major shortcoming of coordinate tolerancing is “fixed-size tolerance zones.” Let's look at how geometric tolerancing eliminates this shortcoming. In Figure 1-12 the arrow labeled “B” points to a GD&T symbol. This symbol specifies @ tolerance zone that applies when the holes are their smallest diameter. When the holes are larger, this GD&T symbol allows the hole location to have additional tolerance. This additional tolerance allowed by the GD&T symbol can reduce manufacturing costs. jos ‘Square tolerance zone that sul from coordinate tolerances — cyinctcatterance zone that results tom goometic toleancing (57% addon tolerance)Chapter | - Enginoering Drawings and Tolerancing NOT ‘The third major shortcoming of coordinate tolerancing is that it has “ambiguous instructions for inspection.” Let's look at how geometric tol- erancing eliminates this shortcoming, Geometric tolerancing contains a concept called the “datum system.” The datum system allows the designer to communicate the appropriate method of part setup to the inspector. First, symbols are added to the drawing to denote which surfaces touch the gage. See Figure 1-12, arrows labeled “C” and “D.” Then, inside the fea- ture control frame (see arrow labeled “E"), the sequence is given for the inspector to address the part to gage surfaces. Using the geometric toler- ancing specifications from Figure 1-12, the inspection method would be the one shown in Figure 1-94 Hg eacooesnous pases Ace Vise Co. Fe Lkmoae EPR tesSteieabemeneicn cance ene Pam vise pao FIGURE I-14 Notes Reqired ve Make Coordinate Dimensoned Drawing Equivalent to ODRT Drawing Now, through the use of geometric tolerancing, the dimensioning short- comings are eliminated, Let’s take a look at what the drawing would look like if we tried to accomplish the same level of drawing completeness with coordinate tolerancing, Figure 1-14 shows the vise pad drawing from Figure 1-12, This time the part is dimensioned with coordinate dimen- sions to the same level of completeness as the GD&T version, but using words instead of symbols. Now, which drawing do you think would be easier to create? When the goal is to dimension both drawings to the same degree of completeness, itis faster to use geometric tolerances, 20 a oChapter 1 - Engineering Drawings and Toles The differences between coordinate tolerancing and geometric tolerancing are summarized in Figure 1-15. When comparing these tolerancing meth- ods, it is easy to understand why geometric tolerancing is replacing coor- dinate (olerancing, DRAWING COORDINATE GEOMETRIC CONCEPT TOLERANCING TOLERANCING ‘CONDITION ‘CONDITION » Square or rectanguar tolerance * Cenuse diameter symbot to alow zones for hole locations round tlerance zones TOLERANCE + ZONE SHAPE RESULTS RESULTS Le9s tolerance available fr hole 57% more tolerance for hoe locaton ‘Higher manufacturing costs Lower manutacturing costs ‘CONDITION ‘CONDITION » Tolerance zone is fxedin size Use of MMC moder alows toirence zones to increase under centain TOLERANCE condos ZONE ~ FLEXIBILITY RESULTS RESULTS >» Functional parts sorapped Functional pats used Higher operating costs oo Lowar operating costs ‘CONDITION ‘CONDITION * Implied datum allows choices for The datum system communicates one setup when inspecting the part setup for inspection EASE OF INSPECTION RESULTS ‘RESULTS Nut inspectors may got * Clear instnutons for inspection diferent results| + Eliminates csputes over part +» Good pats scrapped ‘acceptance: » Bad pans accepted FIGURE 1-15 Comparison Between Coordinate Toleranciag aed Gromer Tolerancing aChapter t-E incering Drawings and Tolerancing THE GREAT MYTH OF GD&T ~ Even though geometric tolerancing has been accepted by many companies oO and individuals, itis still associated with a great myth. The Great Myth of GD&T is the misconception that: geometric tolerancing raises product |coas | | he myth stems from two factors. The first is the fear of the unknown; it is Author's Comment | common to be skeptical of things that are not well understood, When 2 ‘This myth is often Part dimensioned with GD&T is sent out for a cost estimate, people tend airene by people who | to inflate their assessment of how-much the part will cost simply because geometric tolerancing, | they are fearful that the drawing contains requirements they may not be able to easily meet. Geometric tolerancing gets the blame for the higher cost, but in reality, geometric tolerancing probably allowed the part more tolerance, and the drawing user did not understand how to read the draw- ing. The second factor that helps to create the myth is poor design practices. ‘Many drawings contain tolerances that are very difficult to achieve in pro- duction, regardless of what dimensioning system is used. This stems from designers who simply do not use due care in assigning the tolerances. Somehow the language of GD&T gets the blame. It’s not the fault of the language; it is the fault of the designer. The fact is, that when properly used, GD&T SAVES MONEY. The great myth about geometric tolerancing can be eliminated with a bet- ter understanding of geometric tolerancing by both drawing makers and drawing users. Simply put, knowledge is the key to eliminating We Tayi ~ — Let's review a few FACTS about geometric tolerancing: ~ GDAT increases tolerances with cylindrica tolerance zones, 7” ~ GD&T allows additional (bonus) tolerances. ~ GDRT allows the designer to communicate more clearly. ~ GD&T eliminates confusion at inspection. 2 AAPAMNPGKAAAReaPAaHaPhRagannAHanoaaan LChapter 1 - Enginoering Drawings and Tolerancing ey ~ VOCABULARY LIST . New Terms Introduced in this Chapter ~ ASME Y14.5N-1994— . he Bilateral tolerance “ ~ Coordinate tolerancing system = Dimension” study Tip _ Engineering drawing y~ Read each term. If = Equal bilateral tolerance ~~ you don’t recall the — Fanctional dimensioning meaning of aterm, i Fundamental Dimensioning Rules ee en the me. Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD&T) ial tn, Great Myth of GD&T ad International Standards Organization (ISO) Limit tolerance ~ Plus-minus tolerance“ =“ ‘Simultaneous engineering ~ Tolerance ~ > Unequal bilateral tolerance“ os Unilateral tolerance ~ so . a = *s ADDITIONAL RELATED TOPICS ey - = Topic ASME Y14.5M-1994 im Reference Author's Comment ‘These topes, plus anced coverage of os + ASME Y14.5M & ISO standards Appendix D (pg. 372) mary ofthe wpe — comparison ienzoduced inthis . text, wil be covered a + Metric limits and fics Paragraph 2.2.1 my new book on ‘at concept. = * Plated or coated parts Paragraph 2.4.1 fod me pe 2 aaChapter 1 - Engineering Drawings and Tolerancing QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS . ‘ ‘ ‘ i é & ‘ < ‘ FIGURE 1 « ‘The questions refer to Figure 1 . 8 ~? é 1. Dimension A contains a tolerance. (Lithit/plus-minus) ¢ . a 2. Dimension B contains a tolerance. (limit / plus-fninus) | - 4 3. Dimension C contains a tolerance. (Limit / plus-mfaus) e 4 Dimension Dcontainsa______ tolerance, ih, plus-minus) ‘ a 5. Dimension B contains an bilateral tolerance. (equal / unequal) & 6. Dimension C contains a tolerance. —_(unilatefal / bilateral) ¢ 7. Dimension E contains an bilateral tolerance. (equal / unequal) a 8. What isthe convention for a whole number metric dimension? dnd fF tbe, & 7 < 9 Whats the convention for a metic dimension less than one millimeter? a o 4ings and Tolerancing 10. Fill in the chart using the drawing from Figure | LL. What does ASME Y14.5M-1994 stand for? ASME __femutition foddy % de" Sy xass feted co Mtg hse 1594 eek 4 ee SS z 12. What is coordinate tolerancing? iment” | Mite? |"Area naeee | aa] (&| 1352001 — ie B x 93.9999 a | we SS ee ~ c 5 | 627001 v ae es Pyare D fata | 40.1999 “ ys tae E ie 16.80 uw s tral ies “te PEM a direwapy 2D wg skem Qluer pert produ i Logakd 13. The three major shortcomings of coordinate tolerancing are: Fiuid Cte tobe Jets Steal gus 3 anh" _4ey OGURA 14, The “Great Myth of GD& Asse 2 He WABCO NLR dHrock pridus Cagtt Fort quem tabermunyChapter ; Introduc’ ‘ometric Tolerancing Symbol Ss 4 size eo, geature Ye, , % oe 08 . Mee 2s lo. (i 0.05 [A Actual Local Size "Satu [So aal e|o8 @lAbO feos Te gifierS (Joa Mo ~ [-Jo2/ala} LAPLAND teethChapter 2 - Introduction to Geometric Tolerancing Symbols and Terms DEFINITIONS Features and Features of Size This section contains definitions of six important GD&T terms. These terms are used throughout the text. A feature is a gencral term applied to a physical portion of a part, such as a surface, hole, or slot. An easy way to remeniber this term is to think of a feature as a part surface. The part in Figure 2-1 contains seven features: the top and bottom, the left and right sides, the front and back, and the hole surface, nol surace —! TE seton (This part nas seven features) FIGUREDI Erampl of Feature TECHNOTE 2-1 Feature AA feature is any surface on a part. A feature of size (FOS) is one cylindrical or spherical surface, or a set of two opposed elements oF opposed parallel surfaces, associated with a size Gimgasion“A Key part of the FOS definition is that the surfaces or ele- Tents must be opposed. An axis, median plane or centerpoint can be de- rived froma Feature of size. TECHNOTE 2-2 Feature of Size A feature of size. - Contains opposing elements or surfaces, | - Can be used to establish an axis, median plane, or centerpoint. ~ Ts associated with a size dimension aa nn »oe ‘Chapter 2 Intcoduction o Geometric Tolerancing Symbols and Terms SE ET INTRODUCTION Studying geometric tolerancing is like constructing a building: if you want the building to be strong and last a long time, you must begin by laying a solid foundation. Likewise, if you want to build an understanding of geo- metric tolerancing that will be strong and long lasting, you should begin by establishing a solid foundation. The terms and symbols in this chapter lay the foundation for understanding the concepts in the following chapters. CHAPTER GOALS AND OBJECTIVES There are Two Goals in this Chapter: 2-1. Understand eight key terms and how they affect the interpretation of a drawing, 2-2. Understand the modifiers and symbols used in geomettic tolerancing. Performance Objectives that Demonstrate Mastery of These Goals > Upon completion of this chapter, cach student should be able to: |. Study Tip ‘Take a few minutes to | fully understand these | objectives. When | reading this chapter, * look for information | to heip you master | these objectives, | Goat 2-1(pp.29-35) * ~ Define a feature. ~ Define a FOS, ~ Describe cylindrical and planar features of size. ~ Distinguish between feature of size and non-feature of size dimensions. | ~ Define actual local size. | ~ Define the actual mating envelope of an external feature of size. ~ Define the actual mating envelope of an internal feature of size. ~ Describe the maximum material condition of a feature of size. ~ Describe the least material condition of a feature of size. ~ Describe the term, “regardless of feature size.” ~ Identify the maximum and least material condition of a feature of size. Goal 2-2 (pp. 36-40) Identify the eight common modifiers used in geometric tolerancing, ~ Describe the tolerance conditions for a radius. ~ Describe the tolerance conditions for a controlled radius. ~ Name the fourteen geometric characteristic symbols, ~ List the five categories of geometric controls. ~ Identify the pans of a feature control frame. 28‘Chapter 2 Inroduction to Geometric Tolerancing Symbols and Terms Figure 2-2 shows several examples of features of size. Notice that in each case, the feature of size contains opposed surfaces or elements and could be used to derive an axis, median plane, or centerpoint. + Every feature of size contains one or more features—surface(s)—within it. A cylindrical FOS contains one feature: the cylindrical surface, A planar FOS is a FOS that contains two features: the two parallel plane SurTacee- Feature” is a general term; it iS Often used when refering (0 @ FOS.) Internal and External Features of Size ‘There are two types of features of size—extemnal and internal. External features of size are comprised of part surfaces (or elements) that are exter- nal surfaces, like a shaft diameter or the overall width or height of a planar part. In Figure 2-2, the 34-36 dimension and the 24.0-24.2 dimension are size dimensions for external features of size. An intemal FOS is comprised of part surfaces (or elements) that are internal part surfaces, such as a hole diameter or the width of a slot. In Figure 2-2, the 4.2-4.8 diameter hole and the 10.2-10.8 diameter hole are size dimensions for internal features of size. Author's Comment | FIGURE22 tap at Fatwa ef Sc nd Now FeraofSae | Caualiy 9% oF te Lime) the opposing | lemons wit both be the same ype forexample,two | ture of size dimension is @ dimension that is associated with a fealuie of Feature of Size Dimensions Let's look at how the feature of size concept relates to dimensions. A fea- (onesingsucices or | Size. A nonsfeature of size dimension is a dimension that js not associated Gloments intead ora | With a fature-oF Size. In Figure 2-2 there are four feature of size dies- surface on one sive | Sins aad Three non-feature of size dimensions. Whether a dimension is or ‘opposing a line is not a feature of size dimension is an important concept in geometric tol- Sigmenton the other | erancing. Later in the course, you will learn that certain rules automatically side, apply when a feature of size dimension is specified on a drawing. _ ipply pec 8. 30 CRRAAANKRANNAHARAHAAAAARAHHABAHAHAR:ar rr J Pap s Pop PIGS oe 1 to Geometric Tolerancing Symbols a Actual Local Size and Actual Mating Envelope The next term is actual local size. Actual local size js the value of any i- dividual distance at any cross-section of a FOS. The actual local size is.a two-point measurem snt like a caliper or mi- Seromietertharig Checked at a point along the cross section of the part. A FOS may have several different values of actual local size. ‘The term, “actual mating envelope" is defined according to the type of feature of size being considered. The actual mating envelope (AME) of ani external feature of size is a similar perfect feature counterpart-of the Sualiest size that can be circumscribed about the feature so it just contacts the surfaces at the highest points. For exemple, a similar perfect counterpart could be: ~ a smallest cylinder of perfect form - nwo parallel planes of perfect form at a minimum separation “ that just contect(s) the highest points of the surfaces. AME is a vari- able value; it is derived from an actual part. See Figure 2-3 for examples. THis iN 1 145 acl mating envelope bis pan) | TI | cranes pore teat contrat | Tou | Ugur _? FIGURED} Aca Mating Envelope ofan Bxeral Featore oft If a feature of size is controlled by an orientation or positional tolerance. with the MMC or LMC modifier used, the AME is relative to the appro- priate datums. aChapter 2. Introduction to Geometric Tolerancing Symbols and Terms ‘The actual mating envelope (AME) of an internal feature of size is 2 Simla perfect feature counterpart of the largest size that can be inse \wthin-the- feature so thal it Just Goitaet tHe sUrfoces at their highest =Boins_A similar perfect feature counterpart Could be a largest cylinder of Perfect form. It could also be two parallel planes of perfect form at ‘maximum separation that just contact the highest points of the surfavee. AME isa vatiable value; itis derived from an actual pat. See Figure 2-4 for examples. 5 14.1 cnet mating evo dre pan) 2 14sr00 4 tas enim eg He FIGURE 2-4 Actual Mating Envelope of a nteral Fnture ofS {fa feature of size is controlled by an orientation or positional tolerance, with the MMC or LMC modifier, the actual mating envelope is telat to the appropriate datums, TECHNOTE 2-3 Actual Mating Envelope ~ Actual mating envelope is a variable value, derived from an actual | | part. ~ For an extemal feature, the actuel mating envelope isthe smallest perfect feature counterpart that can be cireumseribed about the feature, | | ~ For an intemal feature, the actual mating envelope is the | | {ar8est perfect feature counterpart that can be inscribed within the feature. : 2 Pippy pease wera nea ara nae‘Chapter 2 - Introduction to Geometric Tolerancing Symbols and Terms MATERIAL CONDITIONS A key concept in geometric tolerancing is the ability to specify tolerances at various part feature material conditions. A geometric tolerance can be specified to apply at the largest size, smallest size, or actual size of a fea- ture of size. This section provides definitions of the three common mate~ rial conditions used in GD&T. Maximum Material Condition (MMC) Maximum material condition is the condition in which a feature of size ial everywhere. within the stated limits ‘of size—for example, 1 ‘Giameter, Figure 2-5 shows examples of maximum material condition. ihe largest-shaft diameter or smallest hole | Author's Comment ‘These material condition concepts can only be used when referring 10 @ feature of size such as hole, shaft diameter, tab, ee, F102, “ SR HP we Se . sat | " une “oN +, ei 8 FIGURETS Maximum Material Condivon TECHNOTE 2-4 Maximum Material Condition ~ The maximum material condition of an extemal feature of size Ge., shaft) is its largest size limit, ~ The maximum material condition of an internal feature of size (i.c., hole) is its smallest size limit, 3Chapter 2 Introduction to Geometric Tolerancing Symbols and Terms Least Material Condition (LMC) Least material condition is the condition in which 2 feature of size con- {Ging THE Teast amount of material everywhere within the stated. limis of _Sige—for example, the smallest shaft diameter or the largest hole diameter. Figure 2-6 shows examples of the least material condition. FIGURE? Eanes of Musimam and Lean Material Condon TECHNOTE 2-5 Least Material Condition | ~ The léast material condition for an external feature of size Ge., shaft) is its smallest size limit. | ~ The least material condition for an internal feature of size L& ¢., hole) is its largest size limit. — of Feature Size (RFS) i | Regardless of feature sie is the term that indicates a geometsic tolerance | | SBDIES aC any increment of size of the feature within ts ize Tolerance: | other way to visualize RFS is that the geomelric tolerance: iS | ,Formore info... | Svar size the pat is produced. There is no symbol for RFS because itis the i #2A on page se. | default condition for all geometri¢ tolerances, a4 a Ranannanahkawan nna hAnRaARARAR an an %Sd dddd dd Fd FS EvU SE SUC VU Ud Chapter 2 - Introduction to Geometric Tolerancing Symbols and Terms Material Conditions and Part Dimensions ] Every feature of size has a maximum and least material condition. Limit dimensions directly specify the maximum and least material condition of a feature of size. When a drawing contains plus-minus dimensions, the | material conditfons may have to be derived from the dimensions. Figure | 2-7 shows examples of material conditions, | | Design Tip | Geometric tolerances specified at maximum Material Condition Usage or least material Each material condition is used for different functional reasons. Geomet- | condition have a ric tolerances are often specified to apply at MMC. when the function of a | significant cost, FOS is assembly. Geometric tc S are often specified to apply at | sdvantage over LM =e mi ‘par. Geometric Tolerances are | seometticwlernces ‘often specified to apply RFS to insure symmetrical relationships, | “fed reewss wee Oe meses nec A 3) EE] Be Lies Gen edd SF GT Ae FIGURED? Maximum and Laas Materia 35‘Chapter 2- introduction to Geometric Tolerancing Symbols and Terms For more info. .. j The projected tol- cerance zone modifier | is explained in Chap- ter 9. The tangent | plane modifier is ex- | plained in Chapter 7 MODIFIERS In the language of geometric tolerancing there are a set of symbols called “modifiers.” Modifiers communicate additional information about the

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