Powder Bed Fusion (PBF):

4.1 Selective Laser Sintering

Introduction
 Parts is built by sintering when CO2 laser beam hit a thin layer of powdered
material. That raises the temperature of powder to near its melting point.
 It resulting in particle bonding, fusing the particles to themselves and
previous layer to form a solid layer.
 The building of part is done layer by layer. Each layer is consist of cross
section of solid model (.STL file). Next layer is applied by roller & sintering.
 The packing density of powder particles affects the part density obtained.
Packing densities are in range of 50 to 60 %.

Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) Technology (1).mp4

Fig. SLS Technology setup

 Process:
N Particles (~0.1mm) in each layer are fused to each other and previous layer
by raising their temperature by laser beam to above glass transition.

N Glass transition temperature: at which material begins to soften from solid

state to jelly like condition. It occur prior melting of powder.

N Hot closed Chamber: use of infrared heaters / resistive heaters for bed.
Filled with Nitrogen gas.

N Deformation and fusing of powder occurs. In sintering particles are fused

together/solid part in solid state, without going into liquid phase.

N Support: surrounding material is loose and it serves.

N Layers: after one layer, build platform moves down (Z) and 2nd layer is
laid. Beam scan slice file and process is repeated…. till completion.

N Energy required in sinter bonding is approx. 300 to 500 times higher than
photo-polymerization.

N Post-processing: Part removal from bed. Losses powder, cleaning and

further finishing operations if necessary…
Materials: Polymers and Composites
 Thermoplastics: are well suited due to their relatively low melting temp.
low thermal conductivities, and low tendency for balling. e.g. Nylon.
 Thermoset polymers: not processed, as they degrade, but do not melt easily.
 Amorphous polymers have a random molecular structure, with polymer
chains randomly intertwined. In contrast, crystalline polymers have a regular
molecular structure, but this is uncommon.
 Much more common are semi-crystalline polymers which have regions of
regular structure, called crystallites.
 Most polyamides have fairly high crystallinity and are classified as semi-
crystalline materials. They have distinct melting points that enable them to
be processed reliably. E.g.Polyamide 11 and polyamide 12

 Polystyrene-based materials with low residual ash content are particularly

suitable for making sacrificial patterns for investment casting using pLS.
Polystyrene is an amorphous poly., but is used due to intended application.
 Porosity in precision investment casting pattern aids in melting out the
pattern after the ceramic shell is created.
 Elastomeric thermoplastic polymers are available for producing highly
flexible parts with rubber-like characteristics.
Used to produce gaskets, industrial seals, shoe soles, and other components.
 PBF can have fillers that enhance their mechanical properties.
 Composite materials consisting of PCL and ceramic particles, including
hydroxyapatite and calcium silicate, e.g. bone replacement tissue scaffolds.
Hardware components:

1. Pro SLS system: Manufacture part from 3D model.

2. Rapid change module (RCM): Build module is mounted on wheels.
Other are Offline thermal station and break out station
3. Nitrogen generator: to keep fabrication inert and prevent oxidation.
4. Offline thermal station (OTS): preheating and cooling after build.
5. Break-out station (BOS): Build parts are extracted from powder cake.
Non sintered powder get sifted.
6. Integrated recycling station (IRS): blends and recycle powder after BOS.
7. Intelligent power cartridge (IPC): new powder loaded into IRS from
returnable powder cartridge. Information is auto transferred to SLS system.
Materials: Polymer: DuraFoam, LaserFoam and CastFoam materials.

1. DuraFoam GF Plastic: Glass filled polyamide (nylon)

Real world physical testing and functional applications. Housing and
Enclosures. Parts with stiffness and thermal stress.
DuraFoam PA plastic: polyamide (nylon) material. Good surface resolution
and feature details. e. g. Impellors, connectors, vehicle dashboards, Medical.

D-EX plastic: toughness and impact resistance, e.g. unmanned air vehicle,
hinges, grills, bumpers, aerospace.
D-Flex plastic: thermoplastic elastomer material, flexible, durable, tear
resistance, finish and feature details. E.g. Athletic footwear, hoses and seals.

2. LaserFoam material
LaserFoam A6 metal is used in creation of rapid tooling and mfg.
High hardness, good features, metallic appearance.
e.g. complex tooling inserts for injection moulding.

LaserFoam ST-200 material: it is special stainless steel composite.

e.g. durability, functionality high quality inserts. Inserts with complex
geometry, Direct metal part fabrication, Tooling for injection molding.
3. CastFoam PS material:
Produce directly complex investment casting patterns without tooling.
Functions of wax and foundry friendly features. (Ash content 0.02%),
Designing for SLS
 SLS printing allows for a large amount of design freedom and produces
parts from functional polymers like nylon.
 Designs do not require support.
 Design center around reducing the likelihood of warping or distortion.
i. Shrinkage and warping
 SLS designs have overall dimensions increased by 3 - 3.5% at the
Pre-print analysis and conversion stage to accommodate for shrinkage.
 The shrinking is predictable and does not affect the design of a part. It
is automatically taken into account by the printer software.
 Thick, dense areas connected to thin features are at risk of warping.

ii. Part orientation

 How parts are orientated in the powder bin is up to the printer operator.
Printing a long thin component horizontally.
 This creates a temperature gradient across the part which can lead to
warping through differential cooling.
 Because of this, parts are often orientated in a position that will allow
heat to dissipate at the fastest rate.
 The size of the build volume also plays a role in how a part Orientated.
 Vertical axis holes have improved circularity as the entire cross section of
the hole is produced per layer.
 For holes (horizontal) with a high level of accuracy, drilled after printing.
Recycling of Polymer Material:
 Materials at elevated temperatures can change molecular weight of polymer.
 Properties of many different types of powders (particularly polymers) used
in PBF processes change their properties when they are recycled and reused.
 For some materials these changes are small, and thus are considered highly
recyclable or infinitely recyclable.
 In other materials these changes are dramatic, and thus a highly controlled
recycling methodology must be used to maintain consistent part properties.
 For the most popular PBF polymer material, Nylon polyamide, both the
effective particle size and molecular weight change during processing.
 (1/3 unused powder, 1/3 overflow/feed powder, 1/3 build platform powder.)
Applications of SLS:
SLS system can produce wide range of parts in broad variety of applications.
1. Concept models: physical Design and Architect to review idea, form style.
Architect: Design of carbon tower-40 story prototype-office building.
2. Functional models and working prototypes: parts with limited functional
testing, or fit and operate within an assembly.

3. Polycarbonate patterns: pattern for investment casting

Powder Fusion Mechanisms
i. Solid-State Sintering
 Indicates the fusion of powder particles without melting (i.e., in their “solid
state”) at elevated temperatures.
 This occurs at temperatures between one half of the absolute melting
temperature.
 The driving force for solid-state sintering is the minimization of total free
energy, Es, of the powder particles.
 The mechanism for sintering is primarily diffusion between powders.
Es = γs * SA (where γs is the surface energy per unit area).
Es = Surface energy. SA is fun. of particle size.
The larger surface area to volume ratio, greater the free energy driving force.
 Time it takes for fusion by sintering > melting.

ii. Liquid phase sintering (LPS) Or Partial Melting

N LPS is arguably the most versatile mechanism for PBF.

N LPS is fusion of powder particles when a portion of constituents within a

collection of powder particles become molten, other portions remain
solid. In LPS, the molten constituents act as the glue.

N As a result, high temperature particles can be bound together without

needing to melt or sinter those particles directly.

N e. g. Cemented carbide Cutting tools where Co is used as the lower-

melting point constituent to glue together particles of WC.
There are many ways in which LPS utilized as a fusion mechanism.
iii. Full Melting
 Engineering metal alloys and semi-crystalline polymers.
 In these materials, the entire region of material subjected to impinging
heat energy is melted to a depth exceeding the layer thickness.
 Thermal energy of subsequent scans of a laser is typically sufficient to re-
melt a portion of the previously solidified solid structure.
 This type of full melting is very effective at creating well-bonded, high-
density structures from engineering metals and polymers.
 The most common material used in PBF processing is nylon polyamide.
 Alloys (Ti, Stainless Steel, CoCr, etc.) are fully melted.
Distinct Binder and Structural Materials
Combined in three different ways:
as Separate particles, as Composite particles, or as Coated particles.
i. Separate Particles
Well-mixed combination of binder and structural powder particles is essential.
Structural material with binder particles (smaller size): Better binding.
e.g. steel powder with polymer binder.
Laser source passes by quickly, less time for binder to flow and surface tension.
So binder: with low viscosity.
It results in Porous Components (Green Parts), are post-processed.
If densities are different for structural and binder powder then?...may separate?
If particle sizes are too small then? Dispensing and levelling?

Fig. Separate, Composite, Coated and Indistinct mixtures Powders variations in LPS.
 ii. Composite particles:
Composite particles contain both the binder and structural material within each
powder particle.

The benefits of composite particles are that they typically form higher density
green parts and typically have better surface finish after processing.

Composite particles: of polymer binders with higher melting point polymer,

metal, or ceramic structural materials.
Metal binders with higher melting point metal or ceramic materials.

e.g. glass-filled nylon. In this case, the structural material (glass beads) is used
to enhance the properties of the binding material (nylon), rather than the typical
use of LPS where the binder is simply a necessary glue.

iii. Coated particles:

 Coated particles can help to overcome the structural material heating
problem associated with random constituent mixtures and agglomerates.
 If a structural particle is coated with the binder, impinging energy must
first pass through coating before affecting the structural material.
 As melting of the binder and not the structural material is the objective of
LPS, this helps ensure that the proper constituent melts.
As a result, the binder % content required for effective fusion of coated
particles is usually less than the binder content required for effective
fusion of randomly mixed particles.
 Coated particles retain the spherical shape, easier to handle and spread.
 Part Fabrication Approaches: Metal parts
 Common approaches for using PBF processes in the creation of complex
metal components: i. Full melting ii. LPS,
iii. Indirect processing iv. Pattern methods.
 In the full melting and LPS (with metal powders) approaches, a metal
part is typically usable in the state in which it comes out of the machine.
 In indirect processing, a polymer coated metallic powder or a mixture of
metallic and polymer powders are used for part construction.
 The parts produced are generally porous (>50 %), furnace processed.
Furnace stages: (1) Debinding and (2) Infiltration or Consolidation.

In Pattern approach, the part created in the PBF process is a pattern used to create
the metal part. Used for Investment casting-pattern, Sand casting-cores.
Process Parameters
In PBF, process parameters can be lumped into four categories:
(1) Laser-parameters (laser power, spot size, pulse duration, pulse frequency),
(2) Scan parameters (scan speed, scan spacing, and scan pattern),
(3) Powder-parameters (particle shape, size, and distribution, powder bed
density, layer thickness, material properties, etc.),
(4) Temperature- parameters (bed & powder feeder temperature, uniformity)
Most of these parameters are strongly interdependent, are mutually interacting.
A typical PBF m/c includes two galvanometers (for X and Y-axis motion).

 Laser power, spot size and scan speed, and bed temperature together
determine the energy input needed to fuse the powder into a useable part.
 The longer the laser (CW) dwells in a particular location, the deeper the
fusion depth and the larger the melt pool diameter.
 Typical layer thicknesses range from 0.02 to 0.15 mm.
 Operating at lower laser powers requires the use of lower scan speeds in
order to ensure proper particle fusion.
 The powder bed density, as governed by powder shape, size, distribution,
and spreading mechanism, influence the part quality. (50 to 60 %)
 Higher the powder packing density, the higher the bed thermal
conductivity and the better the part mechanical properties.
Applied Energy Correlations and Scan Patterns
 Both melt pool size and depth are a function of Absorbed energy density.
 A simplified energy density equation for correlating input process
parameters to the density and strength of produced parts is:
 Applied Energy Density, EA is
𝑃
EA = where, P = laser power, U= Scan velocity
(𝑈∗𝑆𝑃)
SP = Scan spacing of parallel lines.
 For pLS., typical SP is ~100 μm, whereas typical laser spot sizes are
~300 μm. Thus, typically every point is scanned by multiple passes.
 Above equation, does not include powder absorptivity, heat of fusion,
laser spot size, bed temperature, or other important characteristics.
Powder Handling Challenges:
Any powder delivery system for PBF must meet at least four characteristics.
1. It must have a powder reservoir of sufficient to maximum build height.
2. Volume of layer transported must cover the previous layer, without wasteful.
3. The powder must be spread to form a smooth, thin, repeatable layer.
4. Spreading should not create excessive shear forces to disturb previous layer.
Universal characteristics of powder feeding must deal with:
1. As particle size decreases, inter particle friction and electrostatic forces
increase. These result in a situation where powder can lose its flowability.
2. When the surface area to volume ratio of a particle increases, its surface
energy increases and becomes more reactive. Kept inert atmosphere.
3. Small particles have a tendency to become airborne and float as a cloud.
4. Smaller powder sizes enable better surface finish, high accuracy, thin layer.

Powder Handling Systems

 The two feed cartridges represent the powder reservoir.
 The correct amount of powder for each layer is provided by accurately
incrementing the feed cartridge up a prescribed amount& platform down.
 The raised powder is then pushed by the counter-rotating roller.
The shear forces on the previously processed layers created by this counter-
rotating roller are small, and thus previous layer is undisturbed.
 The counter-rotation pushes the powder up, fluidizing the powder being
pushed, making it more flowable for a particular particle size and shape.
 A doctor blade is simply a thin piece of metal that is used to scrape
material across the surface of a powder bed.
  When a doctor blade is used, the powder is not fluidized. The shear
forces applied to the previously deposited layer are > Roller
 Shear force can be reduced if the doctor blade is ultrasonically vibrated.

DMLS/SLM
 Both Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS) and Selective Laser Melting
(SLM) produce parts via similar method as SLS.
 DMLS and SLM are used in the production of metal parts.
 DMLS does not melt the powder but instead heats it to a point so that it
can fuse together on a molecular level. (Solid state sintering)
 SLM uses the laser to achieve a full melt of the metal powder forming a
homogenous part. (Liquid phase sintering and full melting).
 Unlike SLS, the DMLS and SLM processes require structural support, in
order to limit the likelihood of any distortion that may occur.
 Risk of warping due to the residual stresses produced during printing due
to the high processing temperatures. Printed parts are typically heat treated.
Directed Energy Deposition
It refer to processes where the raw material is directed into a spatial location
where the energy input and the desired material deposition site are co-located.
Two processes currently can be categorized under this type:
The Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS),
The Electron Beam Freeform Fabrication (EBF3),
The Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM).
These processes are similar in working principles but differ in the energy
source used and the form of the raw materials used.
In LENS, a laser beam and powder raw material is typically used in an
articulating tool head where the powder is injected into a spot on a surface
where the laser beam focuses its energy onto.
LENS Process:
 The melt-pool formed at this spot allows the material to be metallurgically
added into the existing surface and fused into the part being built.
 By manipulating the spatial locations of the melt-pool, a complete 3D article can
be built spot-by-spot, line-by-line, and then layer-by-layer.
WAAM:
 Following the similar working principle, but different raw material form and
energy input.
 The WAAM process feeds a metal wire into the melt-pool that is produced by
the arc struck between the feed wire and the substrate/existing surface.
 It’s an automated Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding process in which weld
tool is controlled to follow paths that fill up a 3D part with weld lines.
The EBF3
 Process was first developed by the NASA and is intrinsically a space-
compatible technology.
 It uses the working principles that combine LENS and WAAM in that it
uses a wire feed system to introduce materials into a melt-pool generated
by an energy source.
 In EBF3, the energy source used is an electron beam and the build
environment is under high vacuum to ensure focusing the operation.
 The processes in the Direct Energy Deposition category all fall into the
category of Direct-Write technology.
 Where the material of a 3D part is introduced locally into the part by
continuously directing both energy input and material into the same site.

Applications of SLM (Selective laser melting-Metals)

Tyre Mould.

Metal tools (RT): RP of tools of molds for short production runs.

Electron Beam Melting (EBM)
Electron beam melting (EBM) has become a successful approach to PBF.
In contrast to laser-based systems, EBM uses a high-energy electron beam to
induce fusion between metal powder particles.

This process was developed at Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden,

and was commercialized by Arcam AB, Sweden, in 2001.

Similarly to mLS, in the EBM process, a focused electron beam scans across a
thin layer of pre-laid powder, causing localized melting and resolidification per
the slice cross section.
Laser beams heat the powder when photons are absorbed by powder particles.
Electron beams, however, heat powder by transfer of kinetic energy from
incoming electrons into powder particles.
 As powder particles absorb electrons they gain higher negative charge.
 This has two potentially detrimental effects:
(1) If the repulsive force of neighboring negatively charged particles
overcomes the gravitational and frictional forces holding them in place,
there will be a rapid expulsion of powder particles from powder bed,
creating a powder cloud.
 (2) Increasing negative charges in the powder particles will tend to repel the
incoming negatively charged electrons, thus creating a more diffuse beam.
 There are no such complimentary phenomena with photons.
As a result, the conductivity of the powder bed in EBM must be high
enough that powder particles do not become highly negatively charged.
 Scan strategies must be used to avoid build-up of regions of -ve charged.

 In practice, electron beam energy is more diffuse, in part, so as not to build

up too great a negative charge in any one location.
 So, effective melt pool size increases, create a larger heat-affected zone.
 Consequently, the minimum feature size, median powder particle size,
layer thickness, resolution, and surface finish of an EBM process are
typically larger than for an mLS process.
 EBM the powder bed must be conductive. Thus, EBM can only be used
to process conductive materials (e.g., metals). SS, tool steel, AL, Inconel,
cobalt chrome, or Cu that features high electrical conductivity.
 Whereas, lasers can be used with any material that absorbs energy at the
laser wavelength (e.g., metals, polymers, and ceramics).
Pros
 High density (and therefore strength) due to a full melt of the powder
 Faster printing process
 Non-sintered powder can be recycled
 Fewer supports required compared to laser powder bed fusion
Cons
 Small print volume (max. 350-mm diameter and 380-mm height)
 Limited material selection ( Titanium or chromium-cobalt alloys)
 Expensive machines and materials
Applications:

One of the best known is Arcam EBM, a GE Additive company which,

naturally, is a leader when EBM is concerned.
Apart from Arcam, there’s also Japan-based JEOL, Freemelt,
Chinese manufacturers, like Sailong Metal.
Source: https://www.i3d.online/slm-printers

Fig. Metal parts by PBF

CASE STUDY:
The Blade Runners: This Factory is 3D Printing Turbine Parts for the
World’s Largest Jet Engine
Mar 20, 2018 by Tomas Kellner

GE Aviation acquired Avio Aero in 2013 and developed the GE9X engine for
Boeing’s next-generation 777X jets.
 The 3D-printed blades spin inside the engine at 2,500 times per minute and
face searing heat and titanic forces. “These are big blades”.
 The 3D printing factory, which looks like a blue and gray jewel box of steel
and glass from the outside, holds 20 black, wardrobe-sized 3D printers,
from Arcam.
 A single machine can simultaneously print six turbine blades directly from
a computer file by using a powerful 3-KW electron beam.
 The beam “grows” the blades, which are 40 centimeters long, by welding
together thin layers of titanium aluminide (TiAl) powder. (Brittle)
 It weighs 50 percent less than the metal alloys typically used in aviation.
 GE cast the blades in a foundry, but Avio Aero, which wanted to go after the
emerging TiAl market, bet on 3D printing.
 “We could see how difficult it was to make these blades,” Abrate says. “But
we had positive experiences with 3D printing on a military project.”
 https://www.ge.com/reports/future-manufacturing-take-look-inside-
factory-3d-printing-jet-engine-parts/
 But early runs with ProtoCast’s laser-powered printers failed. The blades
were cracking when Abrate and the team tried to separate them from the
platform on which they were printed.
 For submarine: a powerful Arcam printer that print parts from TiAl powder.
 Abrate reached out to make the powder layer thicker and speed up printing.
 Running more experiments preheating the powder before printing removed
much of the residual stress from the finished parts.
The blades from Cameri are already working inside the first GE9X engines,
which GE started testing last year.
These and other new materials and technologies will help make the engine 10
percent more fuel-efficient than its predecessor, the GE90.
That’s a big deal given that fuel accounts for about 19 percent of an airline’s
operating costs.
“You have the ultimate manufacturing freedom.”
Questions (SLS)
Q.1 Show block diagram representing different fusion mechanisms applied in
PBF process along with type of powder used if applicable.
2. Enlist powder handling challenges in PBF process.
3. Draw block diagram showing setup for SLS technology.
4. Brief about polymer materials applied in SLS printing machine.
5. Explain two important design considerations in designing SLS component.
6. Compare two powder binding mechanisms in PBF systems.
7. Discuss separate and coated particles in PBF system.
8. List powder handling challenges in PBF process.
9. Brief Powder handling systems in PBF process.
10.
 3D PRINTING

Principle of 3D ink Jet Printing (3DIJP) / Binder Jetting:

 The powder layer is selectively joined where part is to be formed, by ink-
jet printing of binder material.
 Packing density of powder particle has profound impact on adhesive
bonding. The density range from 50 to 62 %.
 When ink droplet impinges on powder layer, it form a spherical
aggregate of binder and powder.
 By capillary forces it causes adjacent aggregates including previous layer
to merge. Forms layer-model by binding energy from adhesive droplets.

Z corporation 3DP.mp4
Binding energy: its surface energy and kinetic energy.
Its amount is low, about 104 times more efficient than sinter binding (SLS).
Process Parameters: Properties of powder, Binder material and Accuracy of
XY table and Z axis control.

Fig. 3D ink-jet printing

Process:
1. Spread layer of powder from feed box to surface of build piston.
Ink-jet print head print binder solution on loose powder, build first c/s.
For multi-colour use of multiple print-heads.
2. Gluing of powder obtained by binder at specific printed position.
(Droplets: typically 80 microns in diameter)
Metal powder is bound using a polymer binding agent.
3. Other powder is loose and it gives supports to following layers.
4. For next layer, new powder layer is spread over build platform and binder
printing by ink-jet….. Component building.
5. Post processing: Loose powder is vacuumed away and part is ready.
Finishing of part-left raw (review), dipped in wax, sanding, painting.
 Fig. Binder jetting in 3D printing process.

Post processing: Infiltration

Initially metal particles are bound by binding agent form a green state part.
After fully cured, they are removed from the loose powder and placed in a
furnace, where the binder is burnt out leaving voids in part (60% density).
Bronze is then used to infiltrate the voids via capillary action (Figure 6.4),
resulting in parts with high density (> 90%) and good strength.
Binder jetting metal parts generally have lower mech. properties than PBF.
Table: Specifications of Z Corporations 3D Printers.

Inkjet printing.mp4
Video of Ink-jet 3d printing
Strength and Limitations
1. High speed: each layer is printed in few seconds in HS printers.
2. Versatile: parts are used for automotive, footwear, medical an aerospace
and telecommunication industry.
For Design, Communication and limited Functional testing.
Parts can be infiltered-changes its properties.
3. Simple to operate: Z corporation systems/machines are easy to operate.
System is standard and reliable and dependable 3d printing.
4. Minimal wastage of material: support/unused powder can be reused.
5. Color: it enable complex color schemes for RP parts with full 24-bit
palette of colors.

Limitations:
1. Limited functional capability: relative to SLS process, parts build are
much weak, limits functional testing capability.
2. Poor surface finish: poor finish and need post processing.
Applications:
1. Concept and Functional models, Complex geometries.
2. CAD-casting metal parts:
3. Direct metal parts: limited
4. Structural Ceramics:
5. Functionally gradient materials: can create composite materials also.
Examples: Sports shoe industry
Used by designer, marketers and managers in footwear industry.
E.g. Adidas, Nike, New balance and Wolverine used to develop prototype

GE Additive: 100,000 patients later: The 3D-printed hip is a decade old and going strong
Automobile Industry
 Ford, Bentlee, F1 racing and Porsche: to enhance internal communication on
product enhancement.
 Direct metal casting: pour metal directly in moulds printed on Z Corp.
Developments of patterns for investment casting and sand casting process.
Creates sand-casting molds for non-ferrous metals.
Mould Material: blend of foundry sand, plaster, and other additives,
produce strong molds with good surface finishes.
Mould can withstand the heat required to cast non-ferrous metals.
Users of this “ZCast®” process can create prototype castings without
incurring the costs and lead-time delays of tooling

Binder Jetting (BJ) – Sand

 Sand Binder Jetting is a low cost method for producing parts from sand
(sandstone or gypsum are popular options). Two common methods are:
i. Full Color Models:
 For full color presentation models, parts are printed using a plaster based
or PMMA powder in conjunction with a binder liquid binding agent.
 A print head first jets the binding agent, while a secondary print head jets
in color allowing full color models to be printed (Figure 6.3).
 Once parts have fully cured, removed from the loose powder and cleaned.
 To enhance mechanical properties, parts are often exposed to an
infiltrant material. Coating as if required.
ii. Sand Casting Cores and Molds
 Binder Jetting is also used for the production of sand molds and cores.
 The cores and molds are generally printed with sand although artificial
sand (silica) can be used for special applications.
 After printing, the cores and molds are removed, and cleaned to remove
any loose sand. The molds are generally immediately ready for casting.
 The main advantage of process via Binder Jetting is the large, complex
geometries are able to produce at a relatively low cost.
 The process is typically able to integrate into existing manufacturing or
foundry process without any special requirements.
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=3&v=0Q0iHS-
9Ti0&feature=emb_logo
Aluminium Hub Made of Aerospace/defence application, Voxel-Jet (4*2*1) m3
CASE Study: from ExOne sand mould.
Overview: Metal 3D Printing for Production

Powder bed fusion (PBF), directed energy deposition (DED), binder jetting
(BJ). DED is also called laser cladding and is frequently used to add material
to an existing part, especially for part repair.

With the exception of binder jetting, most metal AM methods print with a
single point, or several fine points, within one printer, and are therefore
much slower than printing with a gantry covered in print heads. This limits
their ability to be considered for serial production.

Fig. Binder Jet metal 3D Printing

 Binder Jet 3D Printing

DEFINITION: A method of 3D printing in which an inkjet print head

quickly deposits a bonding agent onto a thin layer of powdered particles,
either metal, sand, ceramics or composites.

This process is repeated, layer-by-layer, using a map from a digital design

file, until the object is complete. For metals, this process creates a
“green” part that is then cured, or dried, in an oven.

Initially developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in

the early 1990s, ExOne obtained the exclusive license to this inkjet-in-
powder-bed approach in 1996. Two years later, ExOne launched the
market’s first commercial binder jet metal 3D printer, the RTS-300.
QB. SLS

1. What factors are taken into consideration while designing for SLS
process? Brief two factors and their role.

2. Brief various application fields along with example, where SLS process
is applied.