C

ER
T,
TE
LA
N
G
AN
A
 A
Energized Text Books facilitate the students in understanding the concepts clearly, accurately and effectively.
Content in the QR Codes can be read with the help of any smart phone or can as well be presented on the Screen with
LCD projector/K-Yan projector. The content in the QR Codes is mostly in the form of videos, animations and slides,
and is an additional information to what is already there in the text books. INSPIRE AWARDS

AN
This additional content will help the students understand the concepts clearly and will also help the teachers in
making their interaction with the students more meaningful.
At the end of each chapter, questions are provided in a separate QR Code which can assess the level of learning
Inspire is a National level programme to strengthen the
outcomes achieved by the students.
We expect the students and the teachers to use the content available in the QR Codes optimally and make their
roots of our traditional and technological development.
class room interaction more enjoyable and educative. The major aims of Innovations in Science Pursuit for
Let us know how to use QR codes Inspired Research (INSPIRE) programme are...

G
In this textbook, you will see many printed QR (Quick Response) codes, such as • Attract intelligent students towards sciences
Use your mobile phone or tablet or computer to see interesting lessons, videos, documents, etc. linked to the QR code.
• Identifying intelligent students and encourage them to study
Step Description science from early age
• Develop complex human resources to promote scientific, technological

N
A. Use Android mobile phone or tablet to view content linked to QR Code:
1. Click on Play Store on your mobile/ tablet. development and research
2. In the search bar type DIKSHA. Inspire is a competitive examination. It is an innovative programme to make
3. younger generation learn science interestingly. In 11th five year plan nearly Ten

LA
Lakhs of students were selected during 12th five year plan (2012-17) Twenty
Lakhs of students will be selected under this programme.
Two students from each high school (One student from 6 - 8 classes and
one from 9 - 10 classes) and one student from each upper primary school are
selected for this award.
Each selected student is awarded with Rs. 5000/-. One should utilize 50%

TE
will appear on your screen.
of amount for making project or model remaining for display at district level
4. Click Install
Inspire programme. Selected students will be sent to State level as well as
5. After successful download and installation, Click Open National level.
6. Choose your prefered Language - Click English Participate in Inspire programme - Develop our country.
7. Click Continue
8. Select Student/ Teacher (as the case may be) and Click on Continue
9. On the top right, click on the QR code scanner icon and scan a QR code
T,
printed in your book
OR
Click on the search icon and type the code printed below the QR code,
in the search bar ( )
ER

10. A list of linked topics is displayed

11. Click on any link to view the desired content
B. Use Computer to view content linked to QR code:
1. Go to [Link]
2. Click on Explore DIKSHA-TELANGANA
3. Enter the code printed below the QR code in the browser search bar ( )
C

4. A list of linked topics is displayed

5. Click on any link to view the desired content
 PHYSICAL SCIENCES
CLASS X
Editors
Prof. Kamal Mahendroo,
Vidya Bhawan Education Resource Centre,
Udaipur, Rajasthan.

A
Dr.B. Krishnarajulu Naidu, Dr.M. Adinarayana,
Retd., Professor of Physics Retd., Professor of Chemistry

AN
Osmania University, Hyderabad. Osmania University, Hyderabad.
Dr. M. Salagram Dr. K. Venkateswara Rao
Retd., Professor of Physics Retd., Reader in Chemistry
New Science College, Hyderabad.

G
Osmania University, Hyderabad.
Dr. C.V. Sarveswara Sharma Dr. Nannuru Upendar Reddy,
Retd., Reader in Physics
Amalapuram. N Professor & Head C&T Dept.,
SCERT., Hyderabad.
LA
Academic Support
Miss. Preeti Misra,
TE

Vidya Bhawan Education Resource Centre, Udaipur, Rajasthan.

Co-ordinators

Sri M. Ramabrahmam, Lecturer, Dr. TVS Ramesh,

T,

Govt. IASE, Masabtank, Co-ordinator, C&T Dept.,

Hyderabad. QR CODE TEAM SCERT, Hyderabad.
ER
SC

Published by the Government of Telangana, Hyderabad.

Respect the Law Grow by Education
Get the Rights Behave Humbly
Free distribution by Govt. of T.S. 2021-22 i
 © Government of Telangana, Hyderabad.

First Published 2014

A
New Impressions 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021

AN
All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by

G
any means without the prior permission in writing of the
publisher, nor be otherwise circulated in any form of
binding or cover other than that in which it is published
N
and without a similar condition including this condition
being imposed on the subsequent purchaser.
LA
The copy right holder of this book is the Director
of School Education, Hyderabad, Telangana.
We have used some photographs which are under
TE

creative common licence. They are acknowledged

at the end of the book.
T,

This Book has been printed on 70 G.S.M. Maplitho,

Title Page 200 G.S.M. White Art Card
ER
SC

Free Distribution by Government of Telangana 2021-22

Printed in India
at the Telangana Govt. Text Book Press,
Mint Compound, Hyderabad,
Telangana.

ii
 Text Book Development Committee

Sri G. Gopal Reddy, Director, Sri B. Sudhakar, Director,

S.C.E.R.T. , Hyderabad. Govt. Textbook printing press,
Hyderabad.
Dr. Nannuru Upendar Reddy,
Professor & Head C&T Dept.,
S.C.E.R.T., Hyderabad.

A
Writers

AN
Sri M. Ramabrahmam, Lecturer,
Govt. IASE, Masabtank, Hyderabad.

G
Sri S.U. Siva Ram Prasad, SA, Sri R. Ananda Kumar, SA,
GBHS Sultan Bazar, Hyderabad. ZPHS Gavaravaram, Visakhapatnam.
Sri Madhusudhana Reddy Dandala, SA, N Sri S. Naushad Ali, SA,
LA
ZPHS Munagala, Nalgonda. ZPHS G.D. Nellore, Chittoor.
Sri Y. Venkat Reddy, SA, Sri S. Brahmananda Reddy, SA,
TE

ZPHS Chivemla, Nalgonda ZPHS Immadicheruvu, Prakasam.

Sri K. Gagan Kumar, SA, Sri V. Yekambareswararao, SA,
ZPHS Mirzapur, Nizamabad. ZPHS Lingaraopalem, Guntur.
T,

Dr.K. Suresh, SA, Sri K.V.K. Srikanth, SA,

ZPHS Pasaragonda, Warangal. GTWAHS [Link], Srikakulam.
ER

Sri Tirumala Srinivasa Chary, SA, Sri M. Eswara Rao, SA,

ZPHS Kapra, Medchal Dist. GHS Sompeta, Srikakulam
SC

Cover page, Graphics & Designing

Sri K. Sudhakara Chary, SGT, Sri Kishan Thatoju, Graphic Designer,

UPS Neelikurthy, Warangal. C&T Dept.,SCERT, Hyderabad.
Sri Kurra Suresh Babu, [Link], MA., MPhill. Sri Md. Ayyub Ahmed, S.A.,
Mana Media Graphics, Hyderabad. Z.P. H.S U/M, Atmakur, Mahbubnagar.

Free distribution by Govt. of T.S. 2021-22 iii

 Intro ...

We believe that class-10 education is a key aspect of school education and a

turning point in student’s life. The present tenth class Science textbook in your
hands is developed in accordance with the National and State Curriculum Framework
and the Right to Education Act. This book helps the student to review various
concepts that were learned through the learning experiences provided in the school

A
and to get comprehensive knowledge about these conecepts. The lessons in the
textbooks are presented in such way that they help in preparing the student for

AN
competitive examinations and also to prepare him/her for intermediate education.
The new science textbooks are specially designed with suitable pedagogy in
tune with Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) which we are right now
implementing in school education. These textbooks help the teacher to assess

G
students learning during teaching learning processes. They facilitate effective learning
of various concepts of science in scientific method apart from getting knowledge

N
about concepts. It is essential to complete the syllabus in the stipulated time as
students have to write the Board Examination in class-10. But don’t forget that
LA
completion of syllabus means making the students understand the concepts and
trying to achieve the learning competencies. It is mandatory on the part of teacher
to implement teaching strategies like, making the student to read the content of
the textbook, do discussion, analysis, lab activity, field trips, preparing reports, etc.
TE

Teacher must take special care to avoid the practice of rote memorisation of
scientific information from guides and question banks.
The classroom teaching of science must be in such a way that it encourages
children to think and work scientifically. Also, it must enhance love towards nature.
T,

Even it should enable to comprehend and appreciate the laws governing the nature
in constructing so much diversity all around. Scientific learning is not just disclosing
new things. It is also necessary to step forward without interrupting the
ER

interrelationship and interdependency along with understanding of the nature’s

intrinsic [Link] School children possess cognitive capacity of comprehending
the nature and characteristics of the transforming world surrounding them. And
they are able to analyze abstract concepts.
SC

At this level, we cannot quench their sharp thinking capability with the dry
teaching of mere equations and theoretic principles. For that, we should create a
learning environment in the classroom which provides an opportunity for them to
apply the scientific knowledge, explore multiple alternatives in solving problems and
establish new relations.
Scientific learning is not just confined to the four walls of classroom. It has a
definite connection to lab and field as well. Therefore, there is a lot of importance
to field experience/ experiments in science teaching.

iv
 There is a great need for compulsory implementation of instructions of the
National Curriculum Framework- 2005 which emphasizes linking of the science teaching
with local environment. The Right to Education Act- 2009 also suggested that
priority should be given to the achievement of learning competencies among children.
Likewise, science teaching should be in such a way that it would help cultivate a
new generation with scientific thinking.
The key aspect of science teaching is to make the children understand the
thinking process of scientists and their efforts behind each discovery. The State

A
Curriculum Framework- 2011 stated that children should be able to express their
own ideas and opinions on various aspects. These Science Text Books are prepared

AN
to meet the standards set by the SCF and thus assist children in becoming self-
reliant researchers capable of thinking intensely in scientific terms.
The new textbooks are developed to achieve desired academic standards. So
teachers should develop various teaching learning strategies to make their students

G
to achieve class specific academic standards. We should avoid rote learning methods
for the successful implementation of Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE).

N
It is very important to know more about different methods to assess students’
progress by summative and formative evaluation. The new textbooks reflect
LA
Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation and teaching method with respect to discussed
concepts. This is very useful to teachers and students.
In the new textbooks, the design of concepts and activities help in achieving
TE

the specified academic standards and learning outcomes. Teachers need to plan
appropriate teaching strategies to improve the academic standards and learning
outcomes among the students by the end of teaching the lesson. For effective
implementation of continuous comprehensive evaluation the teaching must move
away from the methods of rote memorisation of concepts. There is a need for
T,

teachers to have a good understanding of the methods of evaluation which help

them in assessing the progress of children in a constructive and comprehensive
way. The new textbooks are not confined to simply provide necessary informations
ER

about concepts. Instead they focus on the new teaching strategies and evaluation
techniques which are very important for both teachers and students.
We thank the VidyaBhavan Society, Rajasthan for their cooperation in designing
SC

these new text books,the writers for preparing the lessons, the editors for checking
the textual matters and the DTP group for cutely composing the textbook. We
invite suggestions from educationists, teachers, parents, students and others to
make this book more meaningful.
Teachers play a pivotal role in children’s comprehensive use of the text book.
We hope, teachers will make their best efforts for proper utilization of the text book
so as to inculcate scientific thinking among children and inspire them to be great
scientists.
Director,
SCERT, Hyderabad

Free distribution by Govt. of T.S. 2021-22 v

 Dear teachers...
New Science Text Books are prepared in such a way that they develop children’s observation
power and research enthusiasm. The official documents of National and State Curriculum Frame
Works and the Right to Education Act are aspairing to bring gross route changes in science
teaching. These textbooks are adopted in accordance with such an aspiration. Hence, science
teachers need to adapt to the new approach in their teaching.
In view of this, let us observe certain Dos and Don’ts:

A
• There is an immediate need to discard the practices adopted in the schools on a false belief
that teaching of 10th class means preparing the children for public examination. In 10th

AN
class the teaching learning process should focus on achieving the academic standards and
learning outcomes rather winning race of scoring marks.
• Avoid practices like using guides and question banks, asking the children to read only
important questions, focussing on lessons which help in scoring more marks.

G
• Read the lesson thoroughly before you start teaching and ask the children to read the text.
Then initiate a discussion to make the children understand the concepts in the lessons.
N
• Encourage children to express their own views and ideas while writing the answers. Give
weightage to such type of writing in examination.
LA
• Some instructions are given in the textbook regarding the collection of certain information
by the teacher. Collect such information and make it available to students.
• In public examination, the weightage will be given to all aspects of the syllabus. Except
TE

foreword of the textbook everything else must be treated as a part of the curriculum.
• Textual concepts are presented in two ways: one as the classroom teaching and the other
as the laboratory performance.
• Lab activities are part and parcel of a lesson. So, teachers must make the children conduct
T,

all such activities during the lesson itself, but not separately.
• Teachers are advised to follow the following teaching steps while transacting lessons-mind
ER

mapping, reading lesson and identifyng new words by children, performing activities,
demonstration and discussion, conclusion and evaluation.
• In the text, some special activities are presented as box items: ‘think and discuss, let us do,
conduct interview, prepare report, display in wall magazine, participate in Theatre Day, do
SC

field observation, organize special days’. To perform all of them is compulsory.

• The abbreviation (A.S.) given at the end of each question in the section “Improve your
learning” indicates academic standard.
• Collect information of relevant website addresses and pass on to students so that they can
utilize internet services for learning science on their own.
• Plan and execute activities like science club, elocution, drawing, writing poetry on science,
making models [Link] develop positive attitude among children about environment,
biodiversity, ecological balance etc.

vi
 • As a part of continuous comprehensive evaluation, observe and record children’s
learning abilities during various activities conducted in classroom, laboratory and field.
We believe, you must have realized that the learning of science and scientific thinking are
not mere drilling of the lessons but, in fact, a valuable exercise in motivating the children to
explore for solutions to the problems systematically and preparing them to meet life’s challenges
properly.
Dear Students...
Learning science does not mean scoring good marks in the subject. Competencies like

A
thinking logically and working systematically, learned through it,have to be practiced in daily
life. To achieve this, instead of memorizing the scientific theories by rote, one must be able to

AN
study them analytically. That means, in order to understand the concepts of science, you need
to proceed by discussing, describing, conducting experiments to verify, making observations,
confirming with your own ideas and drawing conclusions. This textbook helps you to learn in

G
that way.
What you need to do to achieve such things:
• In 10th class the range of concepts is wide. So go through each lesson thoroughly
N
before the teacher actually deals with it.
LA
• Note down the points you came across so that you can grasp the lesson better.
• Think of the principles in the lesson. Identify the concepts you need to know further,
to understand the lesson in depth.
• Do not hesitate to discuss analytically about the questions given under the sub-heading
TE

‘Think and Discuss’ with your friends or teachers.

• You may get some doubts while conducting an experiment or discussing about a lesson.
Express them freely and clearly.
• Plan to implement experiment/lab periods together with teachers, to understand the
T,

concepts clearly. While learning through the experiments you may come to know
many more things.
ER

• Observe how each lesson is helpful to conserve nature. Put what you learnt into practice.
• Analyse how each teaching point has relation with daily life and discuss the things you
learned in your science class with farmers, artisans etc.
• Work as a group during interviews and field trips. Preparing reports and displaying
SC

them is a must. Discuss on the report prepared.

• List out the observations regarding each lesson to be carried through internet, school
library and laboratory.
• Whether in note book or exams, write analytically, expressing your own opinions.
• Read books related to your text book, as many as you can.
• You organize yourself the Science Club programs in your school.
• Observe problems faced by the people in your locality and find out what solutions you
can suggest through your science classroom.

Free distribution by Govt. of T.S. 2021-22 vii

 ACADEMIC STANDARDS

[Link]. Academic Standard Explanation

1. Conceptual understanding Children are able to explain, cite examples, give reasons,
and give comparison and differences, explain the process

A
of given concepts in the textbook. Children are able to
develop their own brain mappings.

AN
Children are able to ask questions to understand
2. Asking questions and concepts, to clarify doubts about the concepts and to
making hypothesis participate in discussions. They are able to guess the

G
results of an issue with proper reasoning, able to predict
the results of experiments.

3. Experimentation and field

investigation. N
Children are able to do the experiments given in the
text book and developed on their own. Able to arrange
LA
the apparatus, record the observational findings, suggest
alternative apparatus, takes necessary precautions while
doing the experiments, able to do alternate experiments
by changing variables. They are able to participate in
TE

field investigation and prepare reports.

4. Information skills and Children are able to collect information related to the
Projects concepts given in the text book by using various methods
T,

(eg. interviews, checklist & questionnaire) analyse the

information and interpret it. Able to conduct project works.
ER

5. Communication through Children are able to comunicate their conceptual

drawing, model making understanding by the way of drawing pictures labeling
the parts of the diagram by drawing graphs, flow charts
and making models.
SC

6. Appreciation and Children are able to appreciate the nature and efforts of
aesthetic sense, values scientists and human beings in the development of
science and have aesthetic sense towards nature. They
are also able to follow constitutional values

7. Application to daily life, Children are able to apply the knowledge of scientific
concern to bio diversity. concept they learned, to solve the problem faced in daily
life situations. Recognise the importance of biodiversity
and takes measures to protect the biodiversity.

viii
 INDEX
Periods Month Page No.

1 Reflection of light at curved surfaces 6 June 1-19

A
2 Chemical Equations 5 June 20-32

AN
3 Acids, Bases and Salts 9 July 33-56

G
4 Refraction of Light at Curved Surfaces 9 July 57-80

5 Human Eye and Colourful world N 10 August 81-106

LA
6 Structure of Atom 7 Aug./Sept. 107-122
TE

7 Classification of Elements- The Periodic Table 10 September 123-149

8 Chemical Bonding 12 October 150-175

T,

9 Electric Current 10 Oct./Nov. 176-208

ER

10 Electromagnetism 14 November 209-236

SC

11 Principles of Metallurgy 7 December 237-252

12 Carbon and its Compounds 15 Dec./Jan. 253-292

Revision Feb./Mar.

Free distribution by Govt. of T.S. 2021-22 ix

 OUR NATIONAL ANTHEM

- Rabindranath Tagore

Jana-gana-mana-adhinayaka, jaya he
Bharata-bhagya-vidhata.

A
Punjab-Sindh-Gujarat-Maratha
Dravida-Utkala-Banga

AN
Vindhya-Himachala-Yamuna-Ganga
Uchchhala-jaladhi-taranga.
Tava shubha name jage,

G
Tava shubha asisa mage,

N
Gahe tava jaya gatha,
Jana-gana-mangala-dayaka jaya he
LA
Bharata-bhagya-vidhata.
Jaya he! jaya he! jaya he!
Jaya jaya jaya, jaya he!!
TE

PLEDGE
T,
ER

- Pydimarri Venkata Subba Rao

“India is my country; all Indians are my brothers and sisters.

I love my country, and I am proud of its rich and varied heritage.
SC

I shall always strive to be worthy of it.

I shall give my parents, teachers and all elders respect,
and treat everyone with courtesy. I shall be kind to animals.
To my country and my people, I pledge my devotion.
In their well-being and prosperity alone lies my happiness.”

x
 Chapter

1
Reflection of light at

A
curved surfaces

AN
G
N
In class 7 and 8 you have learnt about the image formation in plane
mirrors. You also discussed about the spherical mirrors. You know that
LA
why the curved surfaces are known as spherical mirrors.

You might have got many doubts while observing your image in
TE

bulged surfaces.

• Is the image formed by a bulged surface same as the image formed by

a plane mirror?
T,

• Is the mirror used in automobiles a plane mirror? Why it is showing

small images?
ER

• Why does our image appear thin or bulged out in some mirrors?

• Can we see inverted image in any mirror?

SC

• Can we focus sun light at a point using a mirror instead of magnifying

glass?

• Are the angle of reflection and angle of incidence also equal for
reflection by curved surfaces?

Let us discuss about the reflection of light by spherical mirrors in this

lesson to get clarity for the above questions.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 1

 Reflection of light by spherical mirrors
The first law of reflection tells us;
A light ray incident at an angle with the normal at the point of incidence
will get reflected making equal angle with the normal.
This law is true for all surfaces, be it a plane surface or a curved one.
The important words here are ‘the angle made with normal at the point of
incidence’. If for any surface one can decide the normal and find the incident

A
angle, it is possible to deduce the angle made by the reflected ray. It is very
easy to find a normal at any point on the plane surface but for a curved or

AN
uneven surface it is not straight forward.

Activity 1

G
Finding the normal to a curved surface
Take a small piece of thin foam or rubber (like the sole of a slipper).
N
Put some pins along a straight line on the foam as shown in the fig.-1(a).
LA
TE

fig-1(a) fig-1(b) fig-1(c)

All these pins are perpendicular to the plane of foam. If the foam is
T,

considered as a mirror, each pin would represent the normal at that point.
Any ray incident at the point where the pin makes contact with the surface
ER

will reflect with the same angle as the incident ray made with the pin-
normal.
Now bend the foam piece inwards as shown in fig.-1(b), what happens
SC

to the pins?
They still represent the normal at various points, but you will notice
that all the pins tend to converge at a point (or intersect at a point).
If we bend the foam piece outwards, we will see that the pins seem to
move away from each other or in other words they diverge as shown in
fig.-1(c).
This gives us an idea of what is likely to happen with a spherical mirror.
A concave mirror will be like the rubber sole bent inwards (fig-1(b)) and
the convex mirror will be like the rubber sole bent out wards (fig-1(c)).

2 X Class Reflection of light at curved surfaces

 For a concave mirror, like these pins in fig.-1(b), all normals will
converge towards a point. This point is called centre of curvature(C) of
the mirror.

Recall a little bit of geometry: while learning about circles

and tangents, you have learnt that a radius is always perpendicular
to the tangent to the circle drawn at the point.

A
This gives us a clue about how we can find normal to any point on a

AN
spherical mirror. All that we have to do is to draw a
line from the point on the mirror to centre of the Normal
sphere. principal axis

G
It is much easier to imagine this in a two P (pole) C

dimensional fig. as shown in fig.-2(a). The concave fig-2(a)

N
mirror is actually a part of a big sphere. In order to
find this centre point (centre of curvature) we have
LA
to think of the centre of the sphere to which the R
concave mirror belongs. The line drawn from C to i
r
any point on the mirror gives the normal at that
TE

P C
point.
For the ray R, the incident angle is the angle it
makes with the normal shown as i and the reflected fig-2(b)
angle is shown as r in fig.-2(b). We know by first
T,

law of reflection i = r.
The mid point (Geometrical centre) of the mirror is called pole (P) of
ER

the mirror. The horizontal line shown in the fig.s which passes through the
centre of curvature and pole is called principal axis of the mirror. The
distance between P and C is radius of curvature (R) of the mirror.
SC

Try to construct different reflected rays for any array of rays that are
parallel to the principal axis as shown in fig. 2(b). What is your conclusion?
Verifying your drawing with experiment:
To verify this we must first find out some way of obtaining a beam of
parallel rays. How do we do that?
First we need to create a situation in which one gets parallel rays of
light.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 3

 In the fig.-3 we have stuck two pins on a thermocole block. The pins
are parallel to each other. As we see in the fig., when a source of light is
kept very near, we see the shadows diverging (from
the base of the pins). As we move the source away
from the pins, the angle of divergence gets reduced.
If we move the source far away we will get parallel
shadows. But as we move the candle away, the light
fig-3 intensity becomes low. That means to get a beam of
parallel rays the source should be at a long distance

A
and it must be of sufficient intensity.
Where do we find one such source?

AN
Yes, we have one easily available source, you probably have guessed
it: The Sun.
Let us do an experiment with sun rays and a concave mirror.

G
Activity 2
N
Hold a concave mirror such that sunlight falls on it. Take a small paper
LA
and slowly move it in front of the mirror and find out the point where you
get the smallest and brightest spot, which will be the image of the sun.
(See to it that your paper is small so that it does not obstruct the incoming
TE

sun rays.)
The rays coming from the sun parallel to the
principal axis of concave mirror converge to a point
P (see fig.-4). This point is called Focus or focal point
T,

F C
(F) of the concave mirror. Measure the distance of
fig-4 this spot from the pole of the mirror. This distance
ER

is the focal length (f) of the mirror. The radius of

curvature will be twice this distance (R=2f).
Does this help you to verify the conclusions you arrived at, with your
SC

drawing?
• What happens if you hold the paper at a distance shorter than the focal
length from the mirror and move it away?
• Does the image of the sun become smaller or bigger?
You will notice that the image of the sun first keeps on becoming small,
beyond the focal point it keeps on becoming enlarged.
Note: while drawing a ray diagram sometimes it is not clear which is
the reflecting side of the mirror. Hence we follow a convention of showing
lines on the non-reflecting side(coated side).
4 X Class Reflection of light at curved surfaces
Can you draw the same diagram for a convex
mirror?
See fig.-5 The parallel rays appear to diverge after
reflection. If we extend the reflected rays backwards C F P
they meet at ‘F’ i.e. focus of the convex mirror.

fig-5

A
Think and discuss

AN
• See fig.-5. A set of parallel rays are falling on a convex mirror. What
conclusions can you draw from this?

G
• Will you get a point image if you place a paper at the focal point?

N
When parallel rays are incident on a concave mirror, on reflection they
meet at the focus.
LA
• Do we get an image with a concave mirror at the focus every time? Let
us find out.
TE

Lab Activity

Aim: Observing the types of images and measuring the object distance
T,

and image distance from the mirror.

Material required: A candle, paper, concave mirror (known focal
length), V-stand, measuring tape or meter scale.
ER

Procedure: Place the concave mirror on V-stand, arrange a candle and

meter scale as shown in fig.-6.
Keep the candle at different distances from the mirror (10cm to 80cm)
SC

along the axis and by moving the paper (screen) find the position where
you get the sharp image on paper. (Take care that flame is above the axis of
mirror, paper is below the axis).

fig-6

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 5

 Note down your observations in table-1.
Table-1
Distance of candle Distance of paper Enlarged/ Inverted or
from mirror from mirror
(object distance-u) (image distance-v) diminished erect

1
2
3

A
4

AN
Group your observations based on the type of image you see (e.g. Image
is bigger and inverted). It is possible you may not get any image at some
positions, note down that too!
Since we know the focal point and centre of curvature, we can reclassify

G
our above observations as shown in table-2. What do you infer from this
table?.
N
At this point we suggest that you make one more observation. You
LA
have been trying to get the image on a paper when the object is at different
positions. At the same time also look into the mirror and note your
observations about how the image appears.
TE

• Is it inverted or erect, enlarged or diminished?

Table - 2
Position of the Position of Enlarged/ Inverted or Real or
candle (object) the image diminished erect virtual
T,

Between mirror & F

ER

At focal point
Between F and C
At centre of curvature
SC

Beyond C

What do you infer from the table-2?

Let us try to draw ray diagrams with concave mirrors and compare
them with your inferences.
Ray diagrams for concave mirror
In activity-5 we saw the ray diagram of sunrays parallel to the concave
mirror and the image of the sun was very small at the focal point

6 X Class Reflection of light at curved surfaces

(See fig.-4). Now we shall develop a technique to draw ray diagrams when
an object is placed anywhere on the axis of the mirror and validate the
above observations.
Here we will take at least two rays originating from the same point on
the object but with different direction, see how they get reflected from the
mirror and find out the point where they meet to form the image.
Let us take an example.
As shown in the fig.-7, assume a concave mirror and

A
a candle placed at some distance along the axis of the
mirror.

AN
The diagram shows two rays coming from the tip of
the flame (object). The reflected rays are constructed B
A fig-7
based on the laws of [Link] meet at point A. The

G
tip of the flame of the reflected image will be at the point
of intersection, A.
• Why only at point A?
N
If we hold the screen at any point before or beyond point A (for example
LA
at point B), we see that the rays will meet the screen at different points.
Therefore, the image of the tip of the flame will be formed at different
points due to these rays. If we draw more rays emanating from the same tip
TE

we will see that at point A they will meet but at point B they won’t. So, the
image of the tip of the flame will be sharp if we hold the screen at point A
and will become blurred (due to overlaping of multiple images) when we
move the paper slightly in any direction (forward or backward). Is this not
T,

something that you observed during the previous experiment with sun rays?
However, it is not going to be easy to evaluate the angle of reflection
ER

for any arbitrary ray, every time we will have to find the normal, measure
the incident angle and construct a ray with equal angle on the other side.
This would be a tedious task, can we find any other simpler method?
Yes, there are a few. Based on our discussion so far, we can identify
SC

some appropriate rays which we can take as representative rays to find the
point ‘A’.
We have seen that all rays that are parallel to the
axis get reflected such that they pass through the focal R1
point of the mirror. So, for drawing any diagram the
most suitable ray to draw will be the one that comes
P F C
from the object and goes parallel to the axis of the
mirror. The reflected ray will be the line drawn from
fig-8
the point of incidence on the mirror and passes through
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 7
 the focal point of the mirror. To make it more convenient we will always
take rays that come from the tip of the object. See the ray R1 in fig.-8.
The converse situation of previous one is also true; that is, a ray that
passes through the focal point of the mirror will
travel parallel to the axis after reflection.
This gives us our second ray. This will be the
R2
ray coming from the tip of the flame and going
P F C through the focal point and falling on the mirror.

A
After reflection, this ray travels parallel to the axis.
So we draw the reflected ray as a line parallel to

AN
fig-9
the axis coming from the point where the incident
ray meets the mirror. See R2 in fig.-9.
Using the rays R1, R2 and finding the point where they intersect we

G
know the point where the image of the tip is formed.
There is one more ray which is convenient to draw.
N
We have seen earlier that any ray that is normal to the surface, on
LA
reflection, will travel along the same path but in the opposite direction.
Which ray can such a one be for a spherical mirror?
We know that a line drawn from the centre of
TE

curvature to the mirror is perpendicular to the tangent

R3 at the point where the line meets the curve. So if we
draw a ray coming from the tip of the object going
P F C
through the centre of curvature to meet the mirror, it
T,

fig-10 will get reflected along the same line. This ray is shown
as R3 in the fig.-10. In general, a ray travelling along
ER

normal retraces its path.

Along with these three rays ‘the ray which comes from the object and
reaches the pole of the mirror’ is also useful in drawing ray diagrams. For
SC

this ray, the principal axis is the normal.

If we have our object (candle) placed as shown in fig.-11, we can draw
the ray diagram to get the point
R1 of intersection A, of any two rays
B R 2 coming from the top of the object
and point of intersection B, of any
P F C

R2
two rays coming from the bottom
A
of the object. We notice that
R1 fig-11
8 X Class Reflection of light at curved surfaces
point B is exactly at the same distance from mirror as point A. Hence the
image is vertical and inverted.
• Where is the base of the candle expected to be in the image when the
candle is placed on the axis of the mirror?
Since any ray coming from any point on the axis and travelling along
the axis will get reflected on the axis itself, we can conclude that the base
of the image is going to be on the axis. Using the knowledge, that if the
object is placed vertically on the axis, the image is going to be vertical, all

A
that we need to do, is to draw a perpendicular from point A to the axis. The
intersection point is the point where the base of the image of the candle is

AN
likely to be formed. See fig.-12. Hence, as shown in the diagram the image
will be inverted and diminished.
Fig.-12 is drawn for the case where the object is

G
placed beyond the centre of curvature. R1

Does this conclusion match with your

observations? (Lab Activity) N P
F C
R2
LA
Draw similar diagrams for other cases and verify A
that they match with your observations. fig-12
• During the experiment, did you get any positions
TE

where you could not get an image on the screen?

Consider the case shown in the fig.-13. The R1

candle object (O) is placed at a distance less than the

T,

focal length of the mirror. P O F C

The first ray (R1) will start from tip of the object
ER

and run parallel to axis to get reflected so as to pass

through the focal point. This one is easy to draw. The fig-13
second ray that we chose for earlier ray diagrams is
the ray coming from the tip of the object and going through the focal point
SC

but it is not possible as such a ray will not meet the mirror. So we must use
the third ray, a ray coming from the tip of the object and going through the
centre of curvature.
But that to does not seem to be possible. So we make a small change.
Instead of drawing a ray from the candle tip to centre of curvature,
we consider a ray that comes from the tip and goes in such a direction
that it would go through the centre of curvature if extended backwards.
This ray is normal to the surface and so will be reflected along the same
line in opposite direction and will go through centre of curvature.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 9

 We notice that the two reflected rays (fig.-13) diverge and will not
meet. While doing the experiments for a case such as this we were unable
to find any place where we get a sharp image on the screen. This ray diagram
tells us that since the reflected rays are diverging we will not get an image
anywhere. So even if we had moved the screen much away from the mirror,
we would not have found an image.
In such situations, however, we do see an image when we look in the
mirror. Is it possible to explain this image with a ray diagram?
Remember what we did to find the image in a plane mirror. To decide

A
the position of image we extended the reflected rays backwards till they
meet. We will do the same here. When we look in the mirror we are looking

AN
at these diverging reflected rays. They appear to be coming from one point.
We can get this point by extending the rays backwards as shown in fig.-14.
The image does not really exist the way we see in other cases, but it is

G
visible to us.
As seen in the fig.-14, the image will be erect
R1
R3 N
and enlarged. Does this match with your
observations?
LA
I P O F C This image that we get by extending the rays
backwards is called a virtual image. We cannot
fig-14 get this on a screen like a real image.
TE

The case in which the object is at the centre

of curvature is another interesting situation. See
R1
fig.-15.
T,

R2
From the ray diagram (fig.-15) we conclude
P F C that the image of the object will be formed at
ER

the same distance as the object and it will be

fig-15 inverted and of the same size. What is your
observation?
SC

Think and discuss

Do you get an image when object is placed at F?
Draw a ray diagram. Do the experiment.

From the ray diagrams and the observations you may have noticed some
peculiar properties of concave mirrors. They enlarge the image when the
object is held close to the mirror (less than the focal length). Also, the
image is erect. This property is used at many places and most commonly
in shaving mirrors and mirrors used by dentists.
10 X Class Reflection of light at curved surfaces
 Another property is the way that it can converge the rays to its focal
point. This is extensively used in many places. Look at the shape of TV
dish antennas.
If you look around you will see many curved surfaces but all surfaces
are not concave, many of these are convex.
Have you observed the rare view mirrors of a car?
What type of surface do they have?

A
Have you observed images formed on the rear and
window glasses of a car? What type of surfaces are

AN
these? See fig. -16.
Can we draw ray diagrams for convex surfaces? fig-16

G
Ray diagrams for convex mirrors
One can draw ray diagrams for a convex mirror too. The ‘easy’ rays
N
that we identified earlier can be used in this case with small modification.
LA
Here there are three rules which describe these rays. The procedure for
drawing the diagram is similar and is not repeated here.
TE

Rule 1: A ray parallel to the axis, on meeting the

R1
convex mirror will get reflected so as to appear as if P
C F
it is coming from the focal point. See fig.-17.
T,

fig-17

Rule 2: This is converse of Rule 1. A ray travelling in

ER

the direction of the focal point, after reflection, will R2

C F P
become parallel to the axis. See fig.-18.
fig-18
SC

Rule 3: A ray travelling in the direction of the R3

centre of curvature will, on reflection, travel in the

opposite direction and appears to be coming from C F P
the centre of curvature. See fig.-19. fig-19

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 11

 Now let us use these rules to show the
R1 formation of images when the object is
B
R3
placed at different places infront of the
BI
convex mirror (see fig.-20)
C F AI P A

AB is the object placed at any point on

fig-20
the principal axis infront of the convex
mirror. Using Rule (1) and Rule (3), we get an erected, diminished, and

A
virtual image between P and F on the back side of the mirror. This image

AN
can not be caught on screen and visible only in the mirror. Hence this is a
virtual image. Verify this with an experiment.
Using these rules, draw ray diagrams to show formation of images
when an object is placed at different positions and note down your

G
conclusions. Verify your results experimentally.
You may get the image at a particular distance when you place the object
N
at a certain distance. Do you find any relation between the object distance(u)
LA
and the image distance(v)?
Derivation of formula for curved mirrors
Observe fig. 21.
TE

X B
The ray from the tip (B) of the object AB
AI
P PI F C is emanating parallel to principle axis and striking
A
BI the mirror at X. This ray passes through F after
T,

Y
reflection. Another ray starting from B, passes
fig-21
through centre of curvature (C) and strikes the
ER

mirror at Y. This ray returns back in the same direction after reflection.
There two rays XBI and YBI are meeting at BI . So BI is the image of B. Hence
the image of AB is AIBI .
SC

From the above fig. - 21.

ΔABC and ΔAIBIC are similar triangles
AB AC
I I
= I ..... (1)
AB AC
Draw a line XPI perpendicular to the principle axis.
Similar ΔPI XF and ΔAIBIF are similar triangles
PIX PI F
= ..... (2)
AIBI AIF

12 X Class Reflection of light at curved surfaces

 From the fig. - 21, we can say that PI X = AB

AB PI F
= ..... (3)
AIBI AIF
from the equations (1), (3) we can write

AC PIF
= ..... (4)
AIC AIF
If the paraxial rays (rays which are travelling very near to principal axis) are

A
considered, we can say that PI coincides with P

AN
Then PIF = PF
AC PF
I
= I ..... (5)
AC AF

G
We can observe from fig. 21, that
AC = PA − PC
AIC = PC − PAI N
LA
AIF = PAI − PF
by substituting these in equation (5)
PA − PC PF
TE

I
= ..... (6)
PC − PA PAI − PF
we know that PA = u, PC = R = 2f, PAI = v, PF = f
u − 2f f
=
T,

2f − v v−f
(u − 2f) (v − f) = f(2f − v)
ER

2
uv − uf − 2vf + 2f 2 = 2f − vf
2
uv = 2f 2 − vf + uf + 2vf − 2f
uv = uf + vf ..... (7)
SC

Divide equation (7) with uvf

uv uf vf
= +
uvf uvf uvf
1 1 1
= +
f v u

1 1 1
The relation is = + which is known as mirror formula. While using this
f v u
formula, we have to use sign convension in every situation.
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 13
 Sign convention for the parameters related to the mirror equation
1. All distances should be measured from the pole.
2. The distances measured in the direction of incident light, to be taken
positive and those measured in the direction opposite to incident light
to be taken negative.
3. Height of object (ho) and height of image (hi) are positive if measured
upwards from the axis and negative if measured downwards.
Now let us understand magnification, i.e. the relation between the size

A
of the object and the size of the image.
Magnification (m)

AN
The image formed by a spherical mirror varies in size, here we discuss
the variation in height only.
Observe fig. 22.

G
A ray coming from OI is incident at pole with an angle of incidence θ,
and get reflected with same angle θ.

N
From fig. 22 we can say that ΔPOOI and ΔPIII
are similar triangles. So
LA
II| PI
| = ................(1)
OO PO
OI
according to sign convention
TE

P θ F I C PO = –u; PI = –v; OO| = h0; II| = –hi

θ O
I
Substuting the above values in equation (3).
I
−hi −v hi −v
=  =
ho −u ho u
T,

fig-22 hi −v
∴ Magnification m = =
ho u
We define the magnification,
ER

height of image(h i )
m = height of object (h )
0

In all cases it can be shown that

SC

image distance (v)

m = – object distance (u)

Calculate the magnifications with the information you have in table-2,

for all the five cases.
Example
An object 4cm in size, is placed at 25cm infront of a concave mirror
of focal length 15cm. At what distance from the mirror whould a screen be
placed in order to obtain a sharp image?Find the nature and the size of the
image.
14 X Class Reflection of light at curved surfaces
Solution
Accordint to sign convention: OI
focal length (f) = –15cm
P F O C
object distance (u) = –25cm
object height (ho) = +4cm fig-E
image distance (v) = ?
image height (hi) = ?
Substitute the above values in the equation

A
 1  1 1
  = + 

AN
 f  u v
 1  1 1 1  1  1
 = + =   −
 −15  v −25 v  25  15
1 −2
=

G
v 75
v = –37.5cm

N
So the screen should be placed at 37.5cm from the pole of the mirror.
The image is real.
LA
hi −v
magnification m = =
ho u
h i −(−37.5)
=
TE

by substituting the above values 4 (−25)

−(37.5 × 4)
hi =
(25)
T,

hi = –6cm
So, the image is inverted and enlarged.
ER

We have learnt the phenomenon of reflection of light by curved mirrors.

Let us make use of it in our daily life.
Making of solar cooker
SC

You might have heard the story of Archimedes burning ships using mirrors.
Can we at least heat up a vessel using a mirror?
Let us try:
We have already learnt that a concave mirror focuses F
P C
parallel sun rays at the focal point of the mirror. So with a
small concave mirror we can heat up and burn paper as shown
in the fig.-23. (Try this with convex mirror also. What do
fig-23
you observe?)
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 15
 In the same way make a big concave mirror to heat up a vessel.
You might have observed the TV dish antenna. Make a wooden/ iron
frame in the shape of TV dish. Cut acrylic mirror sheets in to
8 or 12 pieces in the shape of isosceles triangles with a height
equal to the radius of your dish antenna. The bases of 8 or 12
triangles together make the circumference of the dish. Stick
the triangle mirrors to the dish as shown in fig.-24.

A
fig-24 Your solar heater/cooker is ready.

AN
Arrange it so that concave part faces sun. Find its focal
point and place a vessel at that point. The vessel gets heated
enough to cook rice.

G
P F
In practical applications (like in car-headlights), concave
mirrors are of parabolic shape (see fig. 25)
fig-25 N
LA
Key words
TE

centre of curvature, radius of curvature, principal axis, pole, focus/focal point,

focal length, object distance, image distance, virtual image, real image,
magnification
T,
ER

What we have learnt

• Normal to the curved surface at a point on it is the line joining the centre of curvature and that
SC

point.

1  1  1
• Mirror formula:   =   +  
 f   v  u

 size of the image   hi 

• Magnification m =  size of the object  =  h  (or)
   o

 image distance  v

m = –  object distance  = −  
  u

16 X Class Reflection of light at curved surfaces

• The image formed by actual intersection of reflection rays is called real image. This can be
caught on screen.
• The image formed by controlled rays of reflection is called virtual image. It can not be caught
on screen.
Position of the Position of Enlarged?/ Inverted or Real or
candle (object) the image diminished? erect virtual

Between mirror & F Behind the mirror Enlarged Erect Virtual

A
On focal point At infinity - - -

AN
Between F and C Beyond C Enlarged Inverted Real
On centre of curvature At C Same size Inverted Real

G
Beyond C Between F and C Diminished Inverted Real
At infinity At focus point - Real

Improve your learning

N
LA
I. Reflections on concepts
TE

1. Where will the image be formed when we place an

object on the principal axis of a concave mirror at a
point between focus and centre of curvature?(AS1)
2. State the differences between convex and concave mirrors? (AS1)
T,

3. Distinguish between real and virtual images. (AS1)

4. How do you get a virtual image using a concave mirror? (AS1)
ER

5. What do you know about the terms given below related to spherical mirrors? (AS1)
a) Pole b) Centre of curvature c) Focus
d) Radius of curvature e) Focal length f) Principal axis
SC

g) Object distance h) Image distance i) Magnification

6. What do you infer from the experiment which you did to measure the object distance and
image distance? (AS3)

II. Application of concepts

1. Find the distance of the image when an object is placed on the principal axis at a distance
of 10 cm infront of a concave mirror whose radius of curvature is 8 cm. (AS1)
2. The magnification product by a mirror is +1. What does it mean?(AS1)

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 17

 3. If the spherical mirrors were not known to human beings, guess the consequences.(AS2)
4. Draw suitable rays by which we can guess the position of image formed by a concave
mirror? (AS5)
5. Show the formation of image with a ray diagram when an object is placed on the principal
axis of a concave mirror away from the centre of curvature? (AS5)
6. Why do prefer a convex mirror as a rear-view mirror in the vehicles? (AS7)

III. Higher Order Thinking Questions

A
1. A convex mirror with a radius of curvature of 3 m is used as rear view mirror for a vehicle.

AN
If a bus is located at 5 m from this mirror, find the position, nature and size of the image?
(AS7)
2. To form the image on the object itself, how should we place the object infront of a concave
mirror? Explain with a ray diagram? (AS5)

G
s
Multiple choice question
N
LA
IV. Multiple choices questions
1. If an object is placed at C on the principal axis in front of a concave mirror, the position of the
image is [ ]
TE

a) at infinity b) between F and C c) at C d) beyond C

2. We get a diminished image with a concave mirror when the object is placed [ ]
a) at F b) between the pole and F c) at C d) beyond C
T,

3. We get a virtual image in a concave mirror when the object is placed [ ]

ER

a) at F b) between the pole and F c) at C d) beyond C

4. Which of the following represents Magnification ‘m’

v −v hi h0
SC

i) ii) iii) h iv) h [ ]

u u 0 i

a) (i) & (ii) b) (ii) & (iii) c) (iii) & (iv) d) (iv) & (i)
5. Ray which seems to be travelling through the focus of a convex mirror, path of the reflected ray
of an incident [ ]
a) parallel to the axis b) along the same path in opposite direction
c) through F d) through C

18 X Class Reflection of light at curved surfaces

6. Size of image formed by a convex mirror is always [ ]
a) enlarged b) diminished
c) equal to the size of object d) depends on position of object
7. An object is placed at a certain distance on the principal axis of a concave mirror. The image is
formed at a distance of 30 cm from the mirror. Find the object distance if radius of curvature R =
15 cm [ ]
a) 15 cm b) 10 cm c) 30 cm d) 7.5 cm

A
8. All the distances related to spherical mirrors will be measured from [ ]
a) object to image b) focus of the mirror

AN
c) pole of the mirror d) image to object
9. The minimum distance from real object to a real image in a concave mirror is [ ]
a) 2f b) f c) 0 d) f/2

G
Suggested Experiments

N
1. Conduct an experiment to find the focal length of concave mirror.
2. Find the nature and position of images, when an object is placed at different places on the
LA
principal axis of a concave mirror.

Suggested Project Works

TE

1. Collect information about the history of spherical mirrors in human civilization, write a report
on it.
2. Think about the objects which acts as concave or convex mirrors in your surroundings? Make
T,

a table of these objects and display in your classroom.

3. Collect photographs from your daily life where you use convex and concave mirrors and
ER

display in your class room.

SC

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 19

 Chapter

2
Chemical

A
Equations

AN
G
We had discussed in the previous classes on different changes that
N
occur around us and we have classified those changes into Physical and
LA
Chemical changes.
Now, just think about the changes involved in the following processes
in our daily life.
TE

• The process of digestion.

• Burning of the crackers.
• The process of Respiration.
T,

• Powdered lime added to water.

ER

• Ripening of the Mango.

• Exposing iron nails to moisture in air for longer period.
What changes do you notice? Are they physical changes or chemical
SC

changes ? Are they temporary changes or permanent changes?

In all the above processes, the nature of original substance would be
changed. If new substances are formed with properties completely unlike
to those of the original substances, we say that a chemical change has
taken place.
• How do we know that a chemical reaction has taken place?
Let us perform some activities to know this.

20 X Class Chemical reactions and Equations

 Activity 1
Take about 1 g of quick lime (calcium oxide) in a beaker. Add 10 ml of
water to this. Touch the beaker with your finger.
• What do you notice?
You notice that the beaker is hot. The reason is that the calcium oxide
(quick lime) reacts with water with the liberation of heat energy. Calcium
oxide dissolves in water producing colourless solution. Test the nature of
solution with litmus papers.

A
• What is the nature of the solution?
A red litmus paper turns blue when dipped in the above solution. A

AN
blue litmus does not change its colour. Hence, the solution is a basic
solution.
Activity 2

G
Take about 100 ml of water in a beaker and dissolve a
small quantity of sodium sulphate (Na2SO4).
N
Take about 100ml of water in another beaker and
LA
dissolve a small quantity of barium chloride (BaCl2).
Observe the colours of the solutions obtained. Na2SO4

• What are the colours of the above solutions?

TE

• Can you name the solutions obtained? BaCl2

Add Na2SO4 solution to BaCl2 solution and observe.

fig-1:Formation of barium
• Do you observe any change on mixing these solutions? sulphate precipitate
T,

Activity 3
Take some zinc granules in a conical flask.
ER

Add about 20 ml of dilute hydrochloric acid to

the zinc granules in the conical flask.
Observe the changes in the conical flask.
SC

• What changes do you notice?

Now keep a burning match stick near the Glass tube
mouth of the conical flask.
• What happens to burning match stick? H2 gas

• Touch the bottom of the conical flask with Conical plask

your fingers. What do you notice?

Dil. HCl
• Is it hot? Zinc granules
From the above activities you can fig-2:Formation of hydrogen gas by the action
conclude that during a chemical change: of dilute HCl on zinc and testing of H2 gas
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 21
 1. The original substances lose their characteristic properties. Hence
these may be products with different physical states and colours.
2. Chemical changes may be exothermic or endothermic i.e, heat may
be liberated or absorbed.
3. They may form an insoluble substance known as precipitate.
4. Gas may be evolved
In our daily life we observe variety of changes taking place around us.
In this chapter we study various types of chemical reactions and their

A
symbolic representation.

AN
Chemical Equations
In activity 1, when calcium oxide reacts with water a new substance is
formed which is unlike to either calcium oxide or water. The description

G
of chemical reactions in a sentence in activity-1 is quite long. It can be
written in shorter form as a word equation.
N
The word equation of the above reaction is,
LA
calcium oxide + water calcium hydroxide ......................... (1)
(Reactants) (Product)

The substances which undergo chemical change in the reaction are

TE

called reactants and the new substances formed are called products.
A chemical reaction written in the form of word equation shows the
change of reactants to products by an arrow placed between them. The
reactants, are written on the left side of the arrow and the final substances,
T,

or products are written on the right side of the arrow. The arrow head
point faces the products showing the direction of the reaction.
ER

If there is more than one reactant or product involved in the reaction,

they are indicated with a plus (+) sign between them.
Writing a Chemical Equation
SC

• Can you write a chemical reaction in any other shorter way other than
the way we discussed above?
Chemical equations can be made more precise and useful if we use
chemical formulae instead of words.
Generally, a compound is written by giving its chemical formula,
which lists the symbols of the constituent elements and uses the subscript
to indicate the number of atoms of each element present in the compound.
If no subscript is written the number 1 is understood. Thus we can write

22 X Class Chemical reactions and Equations

calcium oxide as CaO, water as H2O and the compound formed by the
reaction of these two compounds is calcium hydroxide Ca (OH) 2.
Now the reaction of calcium oxide with water can be written as:
CaO + H2O Ca (OH)2 ............................ (2)
In the above chemical equation, count the number of atoms of each
element on left side and right side of arrow.
• Is the number of atoms of each element are equal on both sides?

A
Observe the following reactions and their chemical equations. Zinc
metal reacts with dilute HCl to yield ZnCl2 and liberates Hydrogen gas.

AN
Zn + HCl ZnCl2 + H2 ............................ (3)
Sodium sulphate reacts with barium chloride to give white precipitate,
barium sulphate and sodium chloride.

G
Na2SO4 + BaCl2 BaSO4 + NaCl ............................. (4)
•
N
Do the atoms of each element on left side equal to the atoms of the
element on the right side of the equation?
LA
THINK AND WRITE
You have brushed the wall with an aqueous suspension of Ca(OH)2. After two
TE

days the wall turned to white colour.

• Write the balanced chemical reactions for the above changes using the
appropriate symbols and formulae?.
T,

Balancing Chemical Equations

According to the law of conservation of mass, the total mass of the
ER

products formed in chemical reaction must be equal to the total mass of

reactants consumed. You know that an atom is the smallest particle of an
element that takes part in a chemical reaction. It is the atom which accounts
SC

for the mass of any substance. As per the law of conservatioin of mass the
number of atoms of each element before and after reaction must be the
same.
All the chemical equations must be balanced, because atoms are neither
created nor destroyed in chemical reactions. A chemical equation in which
the number of atoms of different elements on the reactant side (left side)
are same as those on product side (right side) is called a balanced reaction.
Formula units: Balancing a chemical equation involves finding out
how many formula units of each substance take part in the [Link] the
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 23
 name implies, is one unit – whether atom, ion or molecule – corresponding
to a given formula. One formula unit of NaCl for example is one Na+
(Sodium ion) and one Cl– (Chlorine ion); one formula unit of MgBr2 is
one Mg2+ ion and two Br – ions and one formula unit of water is one H2O
molecule.
Now let us balance the chemical equation using a systematic method.
For this take the example of hydrogen reacting with oxygen to form water.
Step 1: Write the equation with the correct chemical formulae for

A
each reactant and product.

AN
Eg: In the reaction of hydrogen with oxygen to yield water, you can
write chemical equations as follow:
Element No of atoms H2 + O2 H2O ……(5)
LHS RHS Step 2: After writing the molecular formulae

G
of the substances the equation is to be balanced.
H 2 2
For this we should not touch the ratio of atoms in
O 2 1
N
the molecules of the susbtances but we may assign
LA
suitable numbers as the coefficients before the formulae.
In the above equation write ‘2’ before the molecular formula of
hydrogen and also ‘2’ before the molecular formula of water. Observe
TE

whether atoms of both the elements hydrogen and oxyen are same (or)
different on both the sides. They are in the same number on both sides.
Therefore, the equation is balanced.
2H2 + O2 2H2O …………..(6)
T,

Step 3: Sometimes there is a possibility that the coefficients of all the

substances getting divided with a suitable number. Since we require the
ER

lowest ratio of coefficient for reactants and products the above operation
is to be done. If no common factor is there, there is no need to divide the
equation. The above equation needs no division of the coefficients of the
substances.
SC

Step 4: Verify the equation for the balancing of atoms on both sides of
the equations. The above equation (6) is a balanced equation.
Let us work out some more examples to see how equations are
balanced.
Eg-1: Combustion of propane (C3H8)
Propane, C 3 H8 is a colourless, odourless gas often used as a heating
and cooking fuel. Write the chemical equation for the combustion reaction
of propane. The reactants are propane and oxygen and the products are

24 X Class Chemical reactions and Equations

carbon dioxide and water.
Write the reaction in terms of symbols and formulae of the substances
involved and follow the four steps described in previous discussion.
Step 1: Write the unbalanced equation using correct chemical formulae
for all substances.
C3H8 + O2 CO2 + H2O ............(7), (Skeleton equation)
Note: Unbalanced chemical equation containing molecular formulae
of the substances is known as skeleton equation.

A
Step 2: Compare number of atoms
of each element on both sides. Element No of atoms

AN
Find the coefficients to balance the LHS RHS
equation. It is better to start with the C 3(in C3H8) 1 (in CO2)
most complex substance – in this case H 8 (in C3H8) 2(in H2O)

G
C3H8. Look at the skeleton equation, and
O 2 (in O2) 3 (in CO2, H2O)
note that there are 3 carbon atoms on the
left side of the equation but only 1 on
N
the right side. If we add a coefficient of 3 to CO2 on the right side the
LA
carbon atoms get balanced.
C3H8 + O2 3CO2 + H2O ................... (8)
Now, look at the number of hydrogen atoms. There are 8 hydrogens
TE

on the left but only 2 on the right side. By adding a coefficient of 4 to the
H2O on the right, the hydrogen atoms get balanced.
C3H8 + O2 3CO2 + 4H2O .................(9)
T,

Finally, look at the number of oxygen atoms. There are 2 on the left
side but 10 on the right side, by adding a coefficient of 5 to the O2 on the
left, the oxygen atoms get balanced.
ER

C3H8 + 5O2 3CO2 + 4H2O .....................(10)

Step 3: Make sure the coefficients are reduced to their smallest whole-
number values. In fact, the equation (10) is already with the coefficients
SC

in smallest whole number. There is no need to reduce its coefficients, but

this might not be achieved in each chemical reaction.
Let us assume that you have got chemical equation as shown below:
2C3H8 + 10O2 6CO2 + 8H2O ................... (11)
• Is it a balanced equation as per rules?
• How do you say?
Though the equation (11) is balanced, the coefficients are not the
smallest whole numbers. It would be necessary to divide all coefficients
of equation (11) by 2 to reach the final equation.
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 25
 C3H8 + 5O2 3CO2 + 4H2O ................... (12)
Step 4: Check the answer. Count the numbers and kinds of atoms on
both sides of the equation to make sure they are the same.
Eg-2:
Iron oxide reacts with Aluminum to form iron and Aluminum trioxide.
Write the chemical equation to show the reaction and balance it.
Step 1: Write the equation using the correct chemical symbols and
formulae for all the reactants and products.

A
Fe2O3 + Al Fe + Al2O3 ................. (13)

AN
Step 2: Find the suitable coefficient for the reactants and products, to
equate the number of atoms of each element on both sides.
i. Examine the number of atoms of each element present in
equation (13) on both sides.

G
Elements No. of atoms in reactants No. of atoms in products
Fe
O N
2 (in Fe2O3)
3 (in Fe2O3)
1 (in Fe)
3 (in Al2O3)
LA
Al 1 (in Al) 2 (in Al2O3)

In the above equation (13), Number of oxygen atoms is equal on both

TE

sides. We have to balance the remaining atoms.

ii. There are 2 Fe atoms on left side(on reactant side). There is one Fe
atom on right side(on products side). To equate number of Fe atoms,
multiply Fe by 2 on product side.
T,

Now the partially balanced equation is:

Fe2O3 + Al 2Fe + Al2O3 .................. (14)
ER

iii. In the above equation(14) number of Aluminum atoms still

unbalanced.
There is one ‘Al’ atom on left side and 2 ‘Al’ atoms on the right side
SC

(in Al2O3), to balance ‘Al’ atoms on both sides multiply ‘Al’ by 2 on left
side of arrow mark.
Now the partially balanced equation:
Fe2O3 + 2Al 2Fe + Al2O3 ................ (15)
The above equation(15), the number of atoms of each element is same
on both sides of arrow mark. This is a balanced chemical equation.
Step 3: The above equation(15) is balanced and coefficients are also
smallest whole numbers.

26 X Class Chemical reactions and Equations

 Step4: Finally to check the correctness of balanced equation, count
the number of atoms of each element on both sides of equation.
Fe2O3 + 2Al 2Fe + Al2O3 ................. (16)

Elements No of Atoms of Reactants No. of Atoms in products

Fe 2 (in Fe2O3) 2(in Fe)
O 3 (in Fe2O3) 3(in Al2O3 )
Al 2 (in 2 Al) 2(in Al2O3 )

A
(Note: The above method of balancing is called trial and error method
only. Sometimes you may have to take more care to balance the equation.)

AN
Making Chemical Equations more informative:
Chemical equations can be made more informative by expressing

G
following characteristics of the reactants and products.
i. Physical state

N
ii. Heat changes (exothermic or endothermic change)
iii. Gas evolved (if any)
LA
iv. Precipitate formed (if any)
i. Expressing the physical state: To make the chemical equation
TE

more informative, the physical states of the substances may be mentioned

along with their chemical formulae. The different states ie., gaseous, liquid,
and solid states are represented by the notations (g), (l) and (s) respectively.
If the substance is present as a solution in water, the word ‘aqueous’ is
T,

written. In the short form it is written as (aq).

The balanced equation(16) is written along with the physical states as:
ER

Δ
Fe2O3(s) + 2Al(s) 2Fe(s) + Al2O3 (s) ...... (17) ; Δ represents heating.
SC

ii. Expressing the heat changes: Heat is liberated in exothermic

reactions and heat is absorbed in endothermic reactions. See the following
examples.
1. C(s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g) + Q (exothermic reaction)
2. N2 (g) + O2 (g) 2NO (g) - Q (endothermic reaction)
‘Q’ is heat energy which is shown with plus (+) sign on product side
for exothermic reactions and minus (–) sign on product side for
endothermic reactions.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 27

 iii. Expressing the gas evolved: If a gas is evolved in a reaction, it is
denoted by an upward arrow ‘ ’or (g)
Eg: Zn (s) + H2SO4 (aq) ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
iv. Expressing precipitate formed: If a precipitate is formed in the
reactions it is denoted by a downward arrow ↓.
Eg: AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) AgCl(s) ↓ + NaNO3 (aq)
Sometimes the reaction conditions such as temperature, pressure,
catalyst etc., are indicated above and/or below the arrow in the equation.

A
For example,

AN
sunlight
2AgCl(s) ––––– 2 Ag (s) + Cl2(g)

Sunlight
6CO2 (g) + 6 H2O (l) ––––– C6H12O6 (s) + 6O2 (g)

G
Chlorophyll
(glucose)

Interpreting a balanced chemical equation

N
i. A chemical equation gives information about the reactants and
LA
products through their symbols and formulae.
ii. It gives the ratio of molecules of reactants and products.
iii. As molecular masses are expressed in ‘Unified Masses’ (U), the
TE

relative masses of reactants and products are known from the equation.
iv. If the masses are expressed in grams then the equation also gives
the molar ratios of reactants and products.
v. If gases are involved, we can equate their masses to their volumes
T,

and calculate the volumes or those gases liberated at given condition of

temperature and pressure using molar mass and molar volume relationship.
ER

vi. Using molar mass and Avagadro’s number we can calculate the
number of molecules and atoms of different substances from the equation.
It gives information about relative masses of reactants and products.
SC

from the equation we get,

a) mass - mass relationship
b) mass - volume relationship
c) volume - volume relationship
d) mass - volume - number of molecules relationship etc.,
Eg-1: Al (s) + Fe2O3 (s) Al2O3 (s) + Fe (s)
(atomic masses of Al = 27U, Fe = 56U, and O = 16U)
2Al (s) + Fe2O3 (s) Al2O3 (s) + 2Fe (s) , is a balanced equation.

28 X Class Chemical reactions and Equations

(2x27)U + (2x56+3x16)U (2x27+3x16)U + (2x56)U
54 U + 160 U 102 U + 112 U
or 2 mol + 1 mol 1 mol + 2 mol
54 g + 160 g 102 g + 112 g
Suppose that you are asked to calculate the amount of aluminium,
required to get 1120 kg of iron by the above reaction.
Solution: As per the balanced equation
Aluminium Iron

A
54 g 112 g

AN
xg (1120 x 1000)g
(1120x1000)g x 54 g
∴ x g = ––––––––––––––––––
112 g

G
= 10000 x 54 g
= 540000 g or 540 kg
N
∴ to get 1120 kg of iron we have to use 540 kg of aluminium.
Eg-2: Calculate the volume, mass and number of molecules of hydrogen
LA
liberated when 230 g of sodium reacts with excess of water at STP.(atomic
masses of Na = 23U, O = 16U, and H = 1U)
The balanced equation for the above reaction is,
TE

2Na (s) + 2H2O (l) 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)

(2x23)U + 2(2x1+1x16)U 2(23+16+1)U + (2x1)U
46 U + 36 U 80 U + 2U
T,

or 46 g + 36 g 80 g + 2g
Solution: As per the balanced equation:
ER

46 g of Na gives 2g of hydrogen
230g of Na gives ______? g of hydrogen.
230 g x 2g
SC

––––––––––– = 10g of hydrogen

46 g
1 gram molar mass of any gas at STP i.e, standard temperature 273K
and standard pressure 1 bar (760 mm of Hg) occupies 22.4 litres known
as gram molar volume.
∴ 2.0g of hydrogen occupies 22.4 litres at STP.
10.0g of hydrogen occupies ........? litres at STP.
10.0g x 22.4 litres
––––––––––––––––– = 112 litres
2.0g

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 29

 2 g of hydrogen i.e, 1 mole of H2 contains 6.02x1023 (NA) molecules
10 g of hydrogen contain ....................?
10.0g x 6.02x1023 molecules
–––––––––––––––––––––––––
2.0g
= 30.10 x 1023 molecules
= 3.01 x 1024 molecules
Eg 3- Calculate the volume and No. of molecules of CO2 liberated at STP.
If 50 g. of CaCO3 is treated with dilute hydrochloric acid which contains

A
7.3 g of dissolved HCl gas.

AN
The Chemical equation for the above the reaction is
CaCO3 + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2 + H2O (l) + CO2
(S) (aq) (g)

As per the metric staichio equation 100g of CaCO3 reacts with 73g of HCl

G
to liberate 44 g of CO2
In the above problem the amount of CaCO3 taken is 50g and HCl availble
is 7.3g. N
LA
100g of CaCO3 require 73g of HCl and 50g of CaCO3 required 36.5g of
HCl but, only 7.3g of HCl is available.
Hence the product CO2 formed depends only on the amount of HCl which
TE

is in the least amount but not on the amount of CaCO3 which is an excess.
The reactant available in less amount is called limiting reagent as it limits
the amount of product formed.
T,

therefore, we can write

73 g of HCl 44 g of CO2
ER

7.3 g of HCl - ?
7.3g x 44g
––––––––––– = 4.4 g
73g
SC

44 g of CO2 occupies 22.4 L volume at STP

4.4 g of CO2 occupies - ?
4.4g x 22.4 litres
––––––––––– = 2.24 litres
44g
44 g of CO2 contain 6.022x1023 molecules of CO2
4.4 g Contains - ?
4.4g x 6.022 x 1023
––––––––––––––– = 6.022 x 1022 molecules
44 g
30 X Class Chemical reactions and Equations
 Key words
Reactants, products, exothermic reaction, endothermic reaction Physical and
chemical changes Primary or skelton Equation unit forumula, Precipitation,
Co-efficient, atomic mass, standard temperature and pressure (STP) molar
mass, avagadro’s number, gram molar volume.

What we have learnt

A
• A Chemical equation is the symbolic representation of a chemical change.

AN
• A balanced chemical equation explains about reactants, products and their physical states during
the reaction.
• A chemical equation should always be balanced according to the Law of conservation of mass.

G
• The chemical reaction in which heat is absorbed are called endothermic reactions and in which heat
is evolved are exothermic reactions.
• N
A chemical equation containing simply symbols of elements and molecular formulae of the substances
LA
without balancing is known as primary or skeleton equation.
• The symbols of elements and formulae of the compounds should not be changed but only their co-
efficient should be altered while balancing the chemical equation.
TE

• Co-efficient should be least possible whole numbers.

Improve your learning

T,

I. Reflections on concepts
1. What information do you get from a balanced chemical
ER

equation? (AS1)
2. Why should we balance a chemical equation? (AS1)
3. Balance the following chemical equations. (AS1)
SC

(a) NaOH+ H2SO4 Na2SO4 +H2O

(b) KClO3 KCl + O2
(c) Hg (NO3)2+ KI HgI2+KNO3
4. Mention the physical states of the reactants and products of the following chemical reactions and
balance the equatins. (AS1)
(a) C6H12O6 C2H5OH + CO2
(b) NH3 + Cl2 N2 + NH4Cl
(c) Na + H2O NaOH + H2
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 31
II. Application of Concepts
1. Balance the following chemical equation after writing the symbolic representation. (AS1)
(a) Calcium hydroxide (s) + Nitric acid (aq) Water (l) + Calcium Nitrate (aq)
(b) Magnesium (s) + lodine (s) Magnesium lodide (s)
2. Write the following chemical reactions including the physical states of the substances and
balance chemical equations. (AS1)
(a) Sodium Hydroxide reacts with Hydrochloric acid to form Sodium Chloride and Water.

A
(b) Barium Chloride reacts with liquid Sodium Sulphate to leave Barium Sulphate as a
precipitate and also form liquid Sodium Chloride.

AN
III. Higher Order Thinking Questions
1. 2 moles of Zinc reacts with a cupric choloride solution containing 6.023x1022

G
formula units of CuCl2 Calculate the moles of copper obtained (AS1)
Zn(s) + CuCl2
(aq)
N
ZnCl2(aq) + Cu(s)
2. 1 mole of propane (C3H8) on combustion at STP gives ‘A’ kilo joules of heat energy.
LA
Caliculate the heat libarated when 2.4 ltrs of propane on combustion at STP. (AS1)
3. Caliculate the mass and volume of oxygen required at STP to convert 2.4 kg of
TE

graphite into carbon dioxide. (AS1)

T,
ER
SC

32 X Class Chemical reactions and Equations

 Chapter

A
Acids, Bases and Salts

AN
G
In class VII you learnt about acids, bases and salts.
N
You know that acids are sour to taste and turn blue litmus to red, bases
LA
are soapy to touch and turn red litmus to blue.
You noticed that the person suffering from a problem of acidity, takes
antacid tonic or chewing tablets.
TE

• What checmical reaction takes place ?

There are many natural materials like litmus, extract of red cabbage,
turmeric solution and extracts of coloured petals of some flowers contain
T,

dye molecules which are weak acids or bases. These can be used as acid-
base indicators to detect the nature of the solution for acidity or basicity.
In adition to the above natural acid-base indicators, there are some synthetic
ER

indicators such as methyl orange and phenolphthalein that can be used to

test for acids and bases.
In this chapter you study the reactions of acids and bases. How do
SC

acids neutralize bases? Many more interesting activities that we use and
see in our day-to-day life are also studied.

Do you know?
Litmus solution is a dye extracted from lichen, a plant belonging to the division
of Thallophyta and is used as indicator. In neutral solution litmus colour is purple.
Coloured petals of some flowers such as Hydrangea, Petunia and Geranium are also
used as indicators.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 33

 Chemical properties of Acids and Bases
Response of various laboratory substances with indicators.
Activity 1
Collect the following samples from the science laboratory;
hydrochloric acid (HCl), sulphuric acid (H2SO4), nitric acid (HNO3),
acetic acid (CH3COOH), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), calcium hydroxide
[Ca(OH)2], magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)2],ammonium hydroxide

A
(NH4OH) and potassium hydroxide (KOH), prepare dilute solutions of
the respective substances.

AN
Take four watch glasses and put one drop of the first solution in each
one of them and test the solution as follows.
i. dip the blue litmus paper in the first watch glass.

G
ii. dip the red litmus paper in the second watch glass.
iii. add a drop of methyle organge to the third watch glass, and

N
iv. add a drop of phenolphthalein to the fourth watch glass.
Observe the respective colour changes and note down in Table-1. Do
LA
the same with all the above dilute solutions.
Table-1
TE

[Link]. Sample Red litmus Blue litmus Phenolphthalein Methyl

solution paper paper orange
solution solution
1 HCl
T,

2 H2SO4
3 HNO3
ER

4 CH3COOH
5 NaOH
6 KOH
SC

7 Mg(OH)2
8 NH4OH
9 Ca(OH)2

• What do you conclude from the observations noted in table-1?

• Identify the sample as acidic or basic solution.
There are some substances whose odour changes in acidic or basic
media. These are called olfactory indicators.
Let us work with some of such indicators.

34 X Class Acids, Bases and Salts

 Activity 2
- Put some finely chopped onions in a plastic bag along with some clean
cloth. Tie up the bag tightly and keep it overnight in the fridge. The
cloth strips can now be used to test for acid or base.
- Check the odour of the cloth strips.
- Keep two strips on a clean surface and put a few drops of dilute HCl
on one strip and a few drops of dilute NaOH on the other.
- Rinse both the strips separately with distilled water and again check

A
their odour and note the observation.
- Take some clove oil and vanilla essence.

AN
- Take some dilute HCl in one test tube and dilute NaOH in another test
tube. Add a drop of dilute vanilla essence to both test tubes and stirr
well with glass rod. Check the odour and record your observations.
- Test the change of odour with clove oil using dilute HCl and dilute

G
NaOH and record your observations.
Suggest which of these- onion, vanilla essence and clove oil, can be
N
used as olfactory indicators on the basis of your observations.
• What do you conclude from above activity?
LA
Think and discuss
• Can you give example for use of olfactory indicators in daily life? Discuss with
TE

your teacher.
Why pickles and sour substances are not stored in brass and copper
vessels?
Reaction of Acids and Bases with Metals
T,

Lab Activity
ER

Aim: To observe the reaction of Acids with Metals.

Cork Delivery tube
Stand
SC

HCl H2
Test tube Testing of hydrogen gas

Zinc granules fig-1: Reaction of zinc

granules with dil. HCl
and testing hydrogen
gas by a burning
Soap water match stick

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 35

 Materials required: test tube, delivery tube, glass trough, candle,
soap water, dil. HCl, and zinc granules, cork.
Procedure: Set the apparatus as shown in fig. 1.
- Take about 10ml of dilute HCl in a test tube and add a few zinc
granules to it.
- What do you observe on the surface of the zinc granules?
- Pass the gas being evolved through the soap water.

A
- Why are bubbles formed in the soap solution?
- Bring a burning candle near the gas filled bubble.

AN
- What do you observe?
You will notice the gas evolved burns with a pop sound indicating H2 .
The chemical reaction of the above activity is:

G
Acid + Metal Salt + Hydrogen
2 HCl (aq) + Zn(s)
N Zn Cl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Repeat the above experiment with some other acids like H2SO4 and
LA
HNO3.
• What do you observe in all these cases?
TE

From the above activities you can conclude that generally H2 gas is
evolved when acid reacts with metal.

Activity 3
T,

Place a few granules of zinc metal in one of the test tubes and add
10 ml of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution and warm the contents of the
ER

test tube.
Repeat the rest of the steps as in activity-2 and record your
observations.
SC

In this activity also you will notice that evolved gas is hydrogen (H2)
and salt formed is sodium zincate.
The reaction is written as follows.
2 NaOH + Zn Na2 ZnO2 + H2
(Sodium zincate)

From the above activity you can conclude that generally H2 gas is
evolved when Acid reacts with metal.

36 X Class Acids, Bases and Salts

Reaction of acids with carbonates and metal hydrogen
carbonates
Activity 4
• Take two test tubes; label them as A and
Thistle
B. Take about 0.5 gm of sodium Stand funnel
carbonate (Na2CO3) in test tube A and Delivery tube
Cork
about 0.5 gm of sodium hydrogen

A
carbonate (NaHCO3) in test tube B.
• Add about 2 ml of dilute HCl to both CO2 gas

AN
the test tubes. Test tube
dil. HCl Ca(OH)2
• What do you observe? acid solution
• Pass the gas produced in each case Na2CO3

G
through lime water (calcium hydroxide
solution) as shown in Fig-2 and record
your observations. N fig-2: Passing CO2 gas through
Ca(OH)2 solution
LA
The reactions occurring in the above activities are as follows:
TE

Na2 CO3 (S) + 2 HCl (aq) 2 NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)↑

NaHCO3 (S) + HCl (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)↑
T,

Pass the gas evolved through lime water.

Ca (OH)2 (aq) + CO2 (g) CaCO3 + H2O (l)

ER

(White precipitate)
On passing excess carbon dioxide the following reaction takes place:
SC

CaCO3 (S) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g) Ca (HCO3)2 (aq)

(Soluble in water)
Thus from above activities you can conclude that the reaction of metal
carbonates and hydrogen carbonates with acids give a corresponding salt,
carbon dioxide and water. We can write generalized form of these chemical
reactions as shown below:
metal carbonate + acid salt + carbon dioxide + water
metal hydrogen carbonate + acid salt + carbon dioxide + water

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 37

 Neutralization reaction

Activity 5
Acid – base (Neutralization) reaction
Take about 2 ml of dilute NaOH solution in a test tube and add one
drop of phenolphthalein indicator. Observe the colour of the solution.
- Add dilute HCl solution to the above solution drop by drop. Is
there any change of colour of the solution?

A
• Why did the colour of the solution change after adding the HCl
solution?

AN
- Now add one or two drops of NaOH to the above mixture.
• Does the Pink colour reappear?
• Do you guess the reason for reappearance of pink colour?

G
In the above activity you observe that the pink colour disappears on
adding HCl because NaOH is completely reacted with HCl. The effect of
N
base is nullified by an acid. Pink colour reappears on adding a drop of
NaOH because the solution becomes basic once again. The reaction
LA
occuring between acid and base in the above activity can be written as:

NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

TE

The reaction of an acid with a base to give a salt and water is known as
a neutralization reaction. In general, a neutralization reaction can be written
as:
T,

Base + Acid Salt + Water

ER

Think and discuss

• Is the substance present in antacid tablet acidic or basic?

SC

• What type of reaction takes place in stomach when an antacid tablet is consumed?

Reaction of Acids with metal oxides

Acivity 6
• Take a small amount of copper oxide (CuO) in a beaker and slowly add
dilute hydrochloric acid while stirring. Observe the changes in the
solution.
• Note the colour of the solution.
38 X Class Acids, Bases and Salts
• What do you observe in the above reaction?
You will notice that the copper oxide present in the beaker dissolves
in dilute HCl and the colour of the solution becomes blueish-green. The
reason for this change is the formation of copper (II) chloride in the
reaction. The general reaction between a metal oxide and an acid can be
written as:
Metal oxide + Acid Salt + Water
Write the chemical equation for the reaction between copper oxide
and HCl and balance it.

A
In above reaction metal oxide reacts with acid to give salt and water.
This reaction is similar to the reaction of a base with an acid that we have

AN
observed in activity - 5.
• What do you conclude from the Activity-5 and 6?
In both the reactions salt and water are the products. Both metallic

G
oxides and metallic hydrides give salt and water when they react with an
acid. Thus we can conclude that metal oxides are basic in nature like the
metal hydroxides.
Reaction of base with non-metal oxide
N
LA
You saw the reaction between carbon dioxide and calcium hydroxide
(lime water) in activity-4. Calcium hydroxide, which is a base, reacts with
carbon dioxide to produce a salt and water. This reaction is similar to the
TE

reaction between a base and an acid. Thus we can conclude that carbon
dioxide which is a non metal oxide is acidic in nature. In general all non-
metal oxides are acidic in nature.
T,

Think and discuss

ER

• You are provided with three test tubes containing distilled water, an acid and a
base solution respectively. If you are given only blue litmus paper, how do you
identify the contents of each test tube?
SC

• A compound of Calcium reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to produce

effervescence. The gas evolved extinguishes a burning candle; turns lime water
milky. Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction if one of the
compounds formed is calcium chloride.

What do acids have in common?

In previous sections you have seen that acids have similar chemical
properties. In lab activity you have observed that acids generate hydrogen
gas on reacting with metals, so hydrogen seems to be common element to

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 39

 all acids. Let us perform an activity to investigate whether all compounds
containing hydrogen are acids or not.
Activity 7
Prepare solutions of glucose, alcohol, hydrochloric acid and sulphuric
acid etc.,
Connect two different coloured electrical wires to graphite rods
separately in a 100 ml beaker as shown in figure.
Connect free ends of the wire to 230 volts AC plug and complete the

A
circuit as shown in the fig-3 by connecting a bulb to one of the wires.
Now pour some dilute HCl in the beaker and switch on the current.

AN
• What do you notice?
Repeat activity with dilute sulphuric acid and glucose and alcohol
solutions separately.

G
AC plug
230 volt Bulb • What do you observe?
• Does the bulb glow in all cases?
N You will notice that the bulb glows only
in acid solutions but not in glucose and
LA
alcohol solutions. Glowing of bulb indicates
Beaker that there is flow of electric current through
the solution. Acid solutions have ions and the
TE

moment of these ions in solution helps for

flow of electric current through the solution.
dil. HCl solution
Graphite rods
The positive ion (cation) present in HCl
solution is H+. This suggests that acids
T,

fig-3: Acid solution in water produce hydrogen ions H+ in solution, which

conducts electricity are responsible for their acidic properties. In
ER

glucose and alcohol solution the bulb did not

glow indicating the absence of (H+) hydrogen ions in these solutions. The
acidity of acids is attributed to the (H+) hydrogen ions produced by them
in solutions.
SC

Properties of Bases
Repeat the Activity-7 using alkalis such as sodium hydroxide, calcium
hydroxide solutions etc., instead of acid solutions.
• Does the bulb glow?
• What do you conclude from the results of this activity?

In electrolysis blub glows as bases gives hydroxide (OH–) a nagative

ion (Anion)
40 X Class Acids, Bases and Salts
Do acids produce ions only in aqueous solution? Let us test this.
Activity 8
- Take about 1.0g of solid NaCl in a clean and dry test tube.
- Add some concentrated sulphuric acid to the test tube.
• What do you observe? Is there a gas coming out of the delivery tube?
Let us write chemical equation for the above reaction.
2NaCl(s) + H2SO4(l) 2HCl(g) + Na2SO4(s)

A
Test the gas evolved successively with dry and wet blue litmus paper. In
which case does the litmus paper change colour?

AN
• What do you infer from the above observation?
You can conclude that dry HCl gas (Hydrogen chloride) is not an acid
because you have noticed that there is no change in colour of dry litmus
paper but HCl aqueous solution is an acid because wet blue litmus paper

G
turned into red.

N
Note to teachers: If the climate is very humid, pass the gas produced thr-
ough a guard tube (drying tube) containing calcium chloride to dry the gas.
LA
• Can you write the chemical equation for the reaction takes place at the
mouth of delivery tube?
TE

Laboratory precautions : Observe the following pictures. Did you find

any problems with this? When ever you work with concentrated solutions
it is very important to use test tube holder. It is very dangerous to work
with bare hands in the laboratory.
T,
ER

Moist litmus paper

Delivery tube
Test tube Cork
Conical flask
SC

containing Test tube

conc H2SO4

NaCl

fig-4: Preparation of HCl gas

The HCl gas evolved at delivery tube dissociates in presence of water to

produce hydrogen ions. In the absence of water dissociation of HCl molecules
do not occur.
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 41
 The dissociation of HCl in water is shown below.

HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl –

Hydrogen ions cannot exist as bare ions. They associate with water
molecules and exist as hydrated ions with each H+ attached by 4 to 6 water
molecules. For this we represent H+ as hydronium ion, H3O+.
H+ + H2O H3O+
You have learnt that acids give H3O+ or H+ ion in water.

A
Let us see what happens when a base is dissolved in water.

AN
H2O
NaOH (s) ––––– Na + (aq) + OH – (aq)

H2O

G
KOH (s) ––––– K + (aq) + OH – (aq)

H2O
Mg (OH) 2(s) ––––– N Mg+2(aq) + 2OH – (aq)
LA
On dissolving bases in water produces hydroxide (OH-) ions. Bases
which are soluble in water are called alkalis. All bases do not dissolve in
TE

water. Be(OH)2 is slightly soluble in water.

What do you observe when water is mixed with acid or base?
Activity 9
T,

- Take 10 ml water in a test tube.

- Add a few drops of concentrated H2SO4 to it and swirl the test tube slowly.
ER

- Touch the bottom of the test tube.

• What do you feel?
• Is it an exothermic or endothermic process?
Carry out the above activity with sodium hydroxide
SC

pellets instead of H2SO4 and record your observation.

The process of dissolving an acid or a base in water is
an exothermic process. Care must be taken while mixing
concentrated nitric acid or sulphuric acid with water. The
acid must always be added slowly to water with constant
stirring. If water is added to a concentrated acid, the heat
fig-5: Warning sign generated may cause the mixture to splash out and cause
displayed on containers burns. The glass container may also break due to excessive
containing concentrated
Acids and Bases local heating. Look out for the warning sign (shown in
42 X Class Acids, Bases and Salts
Fig.5) on the can of concentrated sulphuric acid and on the bottle of sodium
hydroxide pellets.
Mixing an acid or base with water result in decrease in the concentration
of ions (H3O +/OH– ) per unit volume. Such a process is called dilution
and the acid or the base is said to be diluted.

Think and discuss

A
• Why do HCl, HNO3 etc., show acidic characters in aqueous solutions while
solutions of compounds like alcohol and glucose do not show acidic character?

AN
• While diluting an acid, why is it recommended that the acid should be added to
water and not water to the acid?
Can you decide the strength of an acid or base solutions?

G
Let us find.
Strength of acid or base:
Activity 10
N
LA
A test to know whether the Acid is strong or weak.
- Take two beakers A and B.
TE

- Fill the beaker A with dil. CH3 COOH (acetic acid) and beaker B
with dil. HCl (Hydrochloric Acid)
- Arrange the apparatus as used in activity-7, and pass electric current
through the solutions in separate beakers.
T,

• What do you observe?

• Can you guess the reason for the changes you observed?
ER

You notice that the bulb glows brightly in HCl solution while the
intensity of the bulb is low in acetic acid solution. This indicates that there
are more ions in HCl solution and fewer ions are present in acetic acid
solution. More ions in HCl solution mean more H3O+[Link] it is a
SC

strong acid. Whereas acetic acid has fewer H3O+ions and hence it is weak
acid.
Carry out the above experiment by taking bases like dil. NaOH (sodium
hydroxide) and dil. NH4OH (ammonium hydroxide) instead of acids.
• What do you observe? Explain your observations.
The universal indicator can also be used to know the strength of acid
or base. Universal indicator is a mixture of several indicators. The universal
indicator shows different colours at different concentrations of hydrogen
ions in a solution.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 43

 pH scale
A scale for measuring hydrogen ion concentration in a solution is called
pH scale. (The ‘p’ in pH stands for ‘Potenz’. In German Language ‘Potenz’
is power). pH value of a solution is simply a number which indicates the
acidic or basic nature of a solution.
The pH of neutral solutions is 7. Values less than 7 on the pH scale
represent an acidic solution. As the pH value increases from 7 to 14, it
represents a decrease in H3O+ ion concentration or an increase in OH– ion

A
concentration in the solution. pH value of a solution above ‘7’ represents
a basic solution.

AN
Observe the following figure.

G
N
LA
TE
T,
ER

fig. - 6
SC

Activity 11
- Test the pH value of solutions given in table using pH paper.
- Record your observations in column three of Table – 2.
- Write approximate pH values in column 4 using Universal Indicator
solution.
• What is the nature of each substance on the basis of your observations?

44 X Class Acids, Bases and Salts

 Table-2
[Link]. Solution Colour pH Approximate Nature of
paper pH value substances
1 HCl
2 CH3COOH
3 NH4Cl
4 CH3COONa

A
5 NaHCO3

AN
6 Na2CO3
7 NaOH
8 Distilled water

G
9 Lemon juice
10 Carrot juice
11
12
Coffee
Tomato juice
N
LA
13 Tap water
14 Banana juice
15 Colourless aerated drink
TE

16 Saliva (before meal)

17 Saliva (after meal)
T,

ACID NEUTRAL ALKALI

ER

strong weak weak strong

SC

fig -7: pH value as shown by different colour in universal indicator

The strength of acid or base depends on the concentraction of H3O+

ions or OH– produced in solution. If we take hydrochloric acid and acetic
acid of the same concentration then they produce different concentration
of hydrogen ions. Acids that give more H3O+ ions are said to be strong
acids that give fewer H3O+ ions are said to be weak acid. Can you now
predict what weak and strong bases are?

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 45

 Do you know?

To avoid the negative powers battery acid

of H+ concentration in dilute acid
and base solutions Sorensen gastric fluid
introduced the concept of pH. Due carbonated
lemon juice beverages
to this pH concept may be vinger
restricted for solutions of [H+] orange juice

A
less than 1 molar. pure rain (H2O in
beer
coffee

AN
equilibrium with
atmospheric CO2 egg yolks
The pH scale is from 0-14.
The pH is an indication of freshly milk
distilled water blood
concentration of H+. For example,

G
seawater
at a pH of zero the hydronium ion
concentration is one molar. baking soda
Typically the concentrations of H+
in water in most solutions fall
N (NaHCO3 solution)
milk of
LA
household magnesia
between a range of 1 M (pH=0) ammonia (NH3) [Mg(OH)2]
and 10-14 M (pH=14). Figure 8 household bleach
solution
depicts the pH scale with common
TE

(Na2CO3 solution)
solutions. household lye
(NaOH solution)

fig -8: Solutions and the

placement of them on pH
T,

scale
ER

Importance of pH in everyday life

1. Are plants and animals pH sensitive?
Living organisms can survive only in a narrow range of pH change.
SC

When pH of rain water is less than 5.6, it is called acid rain. When acid
rain flows in to the rivers, it lowers the pH of the river water, the survival
of aquatic life in such rivers becomes difficult.

Think and discuss

• What will happen if the pH value in our body increases?

• Why do living organism have narrow pH range?

46 X Class Acids, Bases and Salts

2. Is pH change cause of tooth decay?
Tooth decay starts when the pH of the mouth is lower than 5.5. Tooth
enamel, made of calcium phosphate is the hardest substance in the body.
It does not dissolve in water, but is corroded when the pH in the mouth is
below 5.5. Bacteria present in the mouth produce acids by degradation of
sugar and food particles remaining in the mouth. The best way to prevent
this is to clean the mouth after eating food. Using tooth pastes, which are
generally basic neutralize the excess acid and prevent tooth decay.
3. pH in our digestive system:

A
It is very interesting to note that our stomach produces hydrochloric
acid. It helps in the digestion of food without harming the stomach. During

AN
indigestion the stomach produces too much acid and this causes pain and
irritation. To get rid of this pain, people use bases called antacids. These
antacids neutralize the excess acid in the stomach. Magnesium hydroxide

G
(milk of magnesia), a mild base, is often used for this purpose.
Activity 12
- N
Take dil. HCl in a beaker and add two to three drops methyl orange
LA
indicator. Note the colour of the solution
- Mix antacid tablet powder to the above solution in the beaker. Now
observe the change in colour of solution.
• What is the reason for the change in colour of solution?
TE

• Can you write the chemical equation for this reaction?

4. pH of the soil
Plants require a specific pH range for their healthy growth. To find
T,

out the pH required for the healthy growth of a plant, you can collect the
soil samples from various places and check the pH in the manner described
below in the following activity. Also you can note down what type of
ER

plants are growing in the region from which you have collected the soil.
Activity 13
SC

Put about 2g soil in a test tube and add 5ml water to it. Shake the
contents of the test tube. Filter the contents and collect the filtrate in a
test tube.
Check the pH of this filtrate with the help of universal indicator paper.

Think and discuss

• What can you conclude about the ideal soil pH for the growth of plants in your region?
• Under what soil conditions a farmer would treat the soil of his fields with quicklime or calcium
carbonate?
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 47
 Self defense by animals and plants through chemical war fare?
Have you ever been stung by a honey-bee? Bee sting leaves an acid
which causes pain and irritation. Use of a mild base like baking soda on
the stung area gives relief. Stinging hair of leaves of nettle plant, inject
methanoic acid (formic acid) causing burning pain.
A traditional remedy is rubbing the area with the base natured leaf of
the dock plant, which often grows besides the nettle in the wild.
Salts

A
In the previous sections you have studied the formation of salts by the

AN
neutralization reaction of base with an acid. Let us understand more about
the preparation, properties and uses of salts.
Family of salts

G
Activity 14
-
- N
Write the formulae of the following salts.
Potassium sulphate, sodium sulphate, calcium sulphate, magnesium
LA
sulphate, copper sulphate, sodium chloride, sodium nitrate, sodium
corbonate and ammonium chloride.
- Identify the acids and bases from which the above salts are obtained.
TE

- Salts having the same positive or negative radicals belong to a

family. For example, NaCl and Na2SO4 belong to the family of
sodium salts. Similarly, NaCl, and KCl belong to the family of
chloride salts.
T,

• How many families can you identify among the salts given above?
pH of Salts
ER

Activity 15
- Collect the salt samples like, sodium chloride, aluminum chloride,
SC

copper sulphate, sodium acetate, ammonium chloride, sodium

hydrogen carbonate and sodium carbonate.
- Dissolve them in distilled water.
- Check the action of these solutions with litmus papers.
- Find the pH using pH paper (universal indicator).
- Classify them into acidic, basic or neutral salts?
- Identify the acid and base used to form the above salts.
- Record your observations in Table-3 given below.

48 X Class Acids, Bases and Salts

 Table - 3
Salt pH Acidic Basic Neutral

Salts of a strong acid and a strong base are neutral and the pH value is
7. The salts of a strong acid and weak base are acidic and the pH value is

A
less than 7. The salts of a strong base and weak acid are basic in nature and
the pH value is more than 7.

AN
• What do you say about salts of both weak acid and weak base?
In such cases the pH depends on the relative strengths of acid and
base.

G
Chemicals from common salt

N
Salts are the ionic compounds which are produced by the neutralization
of acid with base. Salts are electrically neutral. There are number of salts
LA
but sodium chloride is the most common among them. Sodium chloride
is also known as table salt or common salt. Sodium chloride is used to
enhance the taste of food.
TE

Sea water contains many salts dissolved in it. Sodium chloride is the
predominant component and it is separated from these salts. Deposits of
solid salt are also found in several parts of the world. These deposits of
T,

large crystals are often brown due to impurities. This is called rock salt.
Beds of rock salt were formed when seas of bygone ages dried up. Rock
ER

salt is mined like coal.

Common salt – A raw material for chemicals
The common salt is an important raw material for various materials of
SC

daily use, such as sodium hydroxide, baking soda, washing soda, bleaching
powder and many more. Let us see how one substance is used for making
all these different substances.
Sodium hydroxide from common salt
When electricity is passed through an aqueous solution of sodium
chloride (called brine), it decomposes to form sodium hydroxide. The
process is called the chloro-alkali process – because of the products
formed chloro for chlorine and alkali for sodium hydroxide.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 49

 Do you know?
Salt – a symbol of freedom struggle: You
know common salt as a substance which enhances
the taste of food; it also has played a remarkable
role in motivating the people towards freedom
struggle. The tax levied by the British government
on common food substance (salt), for both the
poor and the rich, made them to become unite in

A
the freedom struggle.

AN
You must have heard about Mahatma Gandhi’s
Dandi March and about ‘salt satyagraha’ in the
struggle for freedom of India.

G
2 NaCl ( aq) + 2H2O (l) 2 NaOH (aq) + Cl2 (g) + H2 (g)
N
Chlorine gas is given off at the anode and hydrogen gas at the cathode,
LA
sodium hydroxide solution is formed near the cathode the three products
produced in this process are all useful Fig.-9 shows the different uses of
these products.
TE

at Cathode at Anode
T,

H2 Cl2
NaOH
ER

Fuels, margarine, Water treatment, swimming pools, PVC, De-greasing metals, soaps and detergents,
ammonia for fertilisers disinfectants, CFC’s, pesticides paper making, artificial fibres
SC

HYDROCHLORIC ACID BLEACH (CaOCl2)

For: cleaning steel, ammonium chloride, medicines, cosmetics For: household bleahes, bleaching fabric

fig-9: Important product from chloro-alkali process

Bleaching Powder
You know that chlorine is produced during the electrolysis of aqueous
sodium chloride (brine). This chlorine gas is used for the manufacture of
bleaching powder. Bleaching powder is produced by the action of chlorine

50 X Class Acids, Bases and Salts

on dry slaked lime [Ca(OH)2]. Bleaching powder is represented by formula
CaOCl2, though the actual composition is quite complex.

Ca (OH)2 + Cl2 CaOCl2 + H2O

Uses of Bleaching Powder:

1. It is used for bleaching cotton and linen in the textile industry for
bleaching wood pulp in paper industry and for bleaching washed
clothes in laundry.

A
2. Used as an oxidizing agent in many chemical industries.

AN
3. Used for disinfecting drinking water to make it free of germs.
4. Used as a reagent in the preparation of chloroform.

Baking soda

G
Baking soda is sometimes added for faster cooking. The chemical
N
name of the compound is sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3). It is
prepared as follows:
LA
NaCl + H2O + CO2 + NH3 NH4 Cl + NaHCO3
Can you find the pH of sodium hydrogen carbonate as you have done
TE

in activity-14? Can you predict the reason for using NaHCO3 to neutralize
an acid?
Baking soda is a mild non-corrosive base.
T,

The following reaction takes place when it is heated during cooking.

Heat
2NaHCO3 ––––– Na2CO3 + H2O+CO2
ER

Uses of sodium hydrogen carbonate

i) Baking powder mainly contains NaHCO3 and its other components
SC

are Ca(H2PO4)2 and starch. NaHCO3 produces CO2 which rises

through bubling dough into cake or bread. This results cake and
bread are smooth and spongy.
ii) Sodium hydrogen carbonate is also an ingredient in antacids. Being
alkaline, it neutralizes excess acid in the stomach and provides
relief.
iii) It is also used as soda-acid in fire extinguishers
iv) It acts as mild antiseptic.
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 51
 Washing soda (sodium carbonate)
Another chemical that can be obtained from sodium chloride is
Na2CO3. 10 H2O(washing soda). You have seen above that sodium
carbonate can be obtained by heating baking soda. Recrystallisation of
sodium carbonate gives washing soda. It is also a basic salt.

Na2 CO3 + 10 H2O J Na2 CO3·10 H2O

Sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogen carbonate are useful

A
chemicals for many industrial processes.
Uses of Washing soda

AN
i) Sodium carbonate (washing soda) is used in glass, soap and paper
industries.
ii) It is used in the manufacture of sodium compounds such as borax.

G
iii) Sodium carbonate can be used as a cleaning agent for domestic
purposes.
N
iv) It is used for removing permanent hardness of water.
LA
• What does 10 H2O signify from the above equation?
Does it make Na2CO3 wet?
Are the crystals of salts really dry?
TE

Let us find
Removing water of crystallisation
Activity 16
T,

- Take a few crystals of copper sulphate in a dry test tube and heat
the test tube.
ER

- What change did you

notice in the colour of the copper
sulphate after heating? Boiling
Test tube holder
Water droplets
• Did you notice water droplets
SC

tube
Copper sulphate
on sides of the test tube? crystals
Bunsen
Where did they come from? Burner
Add 2-3 drops of water on the
sample of copper sulphate obtained
after heating.
• What do you observe? Is the
blue colour of copper sulphate
fig-10: Removing water of
restored?
crystallisation

52 X Class Acids, Bases and Salts

 In the above activity copper sulphate crystals which seem to be dry
contain the water of crystallization, when these crystals are heated, water
present in crystals is evaporated and the salt turns white.
When the crystals are moistened with water, the blue colour reappears.
Water of crystallization is the fixed number of water molecules present
in one formula unit of a salt. Five water molecules are present in one
formula unit of copper sulphate. Chemical formula for hydrated copper
sulphate is CuSO4·5 H2O.

A
Now you would be able to answer the question whether the molecule

AN
of Na2 CO3·10 H2O is wet or not.
Another salt which possesses water of crystallisation is gypsum. It has
two water molecules in its crystals and the formula is CaSO4· 2H2O.

G
Let us see the use of this salt.

Plaster of paris (CaSO4 · ½ H2O)

N
On careful heating of gypsum (CaSO4 2 H2O) at 373 K it loses water
LA
molecules partially to become calcium sulphate hemihydrate
(CaSO4·½ H2O). This is called plaster of paris, the substance which
TE

doctors use as plaster for supporting fractured bones in the right position.
Plaster of paris is a white powder and on mixing with water, it sets into
hard solid mass due to the formation of gypsum.
T,

CaSO4· ½ H2O + 1½ H2O CaSO4· 2H2O

(Plaster of Paris) (Gypsum)
ER

Note: You might have noticed that only half a water molecule is shown
to be attached as water of crystallisation.
SC

• How can you get half a water molecule?

It is written in this form because two formula units of CaSO4 share
one molecule of water.
Plaster of paris is used for making toys, materials for decoration and
for making surfaces smooth.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 53

 Key words

Indicator, Acid, Base, Red litmus, Blue litmus, Phenolphthalein,

Methyl orange, Salts, Neutralization, Guard tube, Hydronium ion,
Alkali, Strong acid, Strong base, Universal indicator, pH scale,
Potenz, Antacids, tooth decay, Family of Salts, Common salt, Bleaching
powder, Baking soda, Washing soda,Hydrated salt, Water of
crystallization, Plaster of Paris.

A
AN
What we have learnt

G
• Acid – base indicators are dyes or mixtures of dyes which are used to detect the presence of
acids and bases.
•
N
Acidic nature of a substance is due to the formation of H+ (aq) ions in solution. Formation of
OH- (aq) ions in solution is responsible for the basic nature of a substance.
LA
• When a base reacts with a metal with the evolution of hydrogen gas, a salt is formed.
• When an acid reacts with a metal carbonate or metal hydrogen carbonate gives the corresponding
salt, carbon dioxide gas and water.
TE

• Acidic and basic solutions in water conduct electricity because they produce hydrogen ions and
hydroxide ions respectively.
• The strength of an acid or an alkali can be tested by using a scale called the pH scale (0-14)
which gives the measure of hydrogen ion concentration in a solution.
T,

• A neutral solution has a pH of 7, while an acidic solution has a pH less than 7 and a basic
solution has a pH more than 7.
ER

• Living beings carry out their metabolic activities within an optimal pH range.
• Mixing concentrated acids or bases with water is a highly exothermic process.
• Acids and bases neutralize each other to form corresponding salts and water.
• Water of crystallization is the fixed number of water molecules chemically attached to each
SC

formula unit of a salt in its crystalline form.

• Salts have various uses in everyday life and in industries.

Improve your learning

Reflections on concepts
1. An acid or a base is mixed with water. Is this
process exothermic or endothermic one? (AS1)
2. Distilled water does not conduct electricity. Why? (AS1)
54 X Class Acids, Bases and Salts
3. Draw a neat diagram for showing acid solution in water conducting electricity. (AS5)
4. Why the flow of acid rain into a river make the survival of aquatic life in a river difficult? (AS7)
5. How does baking powder make the cake soft and spongy? (AS7)

Application of concepts
1. Five solutions A, B, C, D and E when tested with universal indicator showed pH as 4, 1, 11,
7 and 9, respectively, classify the solutions as given below.(AS1)
(a) neutral (b) strongly alkaline (c) strongly acidic (d) weakly acidic (e) weakly alkaline

A
2. Why does tooth decay start when the pH of mouth is lower than 5.5? (AS1)

AN
3. A milkman adds a very small amount of baking soda to fresh milk. Write reasons for the
following. (AS2)
a) Why does he shift the pH of the fresh milk from acidic nature to slightly alkaline?

G
b) Why does this milk take a long time to set as curd?
4. Plaster of Paris should be stored in moisture – proof container. Explain why? (AS1)
5. N
Magnesium ribbons of same size are taken in test tubes A and B. Hydrochloric acid is added
LA
to test tube A, while acetic acid is added to test tube B. The concentrations of both the acids
are the same. In which test tube will the fizzing occur more vigorously ? why? (AS3)

Higher Order Thinking Questions

TE

1. Fresh milk has a pH of 6.6. Explain why the pH changes as it turns into curd? (AS3)
2. How do you prepare an indicator using beetroot? Explain. (AS5)
T,

e questions
Multiple choic
ER

1. The colour of methyl orange indicator in acidic medium is [ ]

A) Yellow B) green C) orange D) red
2. The colour of phenolphthalein indicator in basic solution is [ ]
SC

A) yellow B) green C) pink D) orange

3. Colour of methyl orange in alkali conditions? [ ]
A) orange B) yellow C) red D) blue
4. A solution turns red litmus blue, its pH is likely to be [ ]
A) 1 B) 4 C) 5 D) 10
5. A solution reacts with crushed egg-shells to give a gas that turns lime-water milky. The
solution is of [ ]
A) NaCl B) HCl C) LiCl D) KCl

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 55

6. If a base dissolves in water by what name is it better known? [ ]
A) neutral B) base C) acid D) alkali
7. Which of the following substances when mixed together will produce table salt? [ ]
A. Sodium thiosulphate and sulphur dioxide
B. Hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide
C. Chlorine and oxygen
D. Nitric acid and sodium hydrogen carbonate
8. What colour would hydrochloric acid (pH=1) turn universal indicator? [ ]

A
A) orange B) purple C) yellow D) red
9. Which one of the following types of medicines is used for treating indigestion?[ ]

AN
A) antibiotic B) analgesic C) antacid D) antiseptic
10. What gas is produced when magnesium is made to react with hydrochloric acid?[ ]
A) hydrogen B) oxygen C) carbon dioxide D) chlorine

G
Suggested Experiments
1.
N
Compounds such as alcohols and glucose contain hydrogen but are not categorized as acids.
Describe an activity to prove it.
LA
2. What is meant by “water of crystallization” of a substance? Describe an activity to show the
water of crystallization.
TE

Suggested Projects
1. How do you Select a good place to plant a tree in your school / at [Link] the soil and
investigate and write a report on it.
2. Do all vegetables are acids?To find this investigate with pH paper and tabulate the values
T,

and write a report on it.

3. Collect information about importance of the pH value in daily life to human beings as
ER

well as plants.
4. Try to collect the information for calling calcium sulphate hemihydrates as Plaster
of Paris.
SC

56 X Class Acids, Bases and Salts

 Chapter

4
Refraction of Light at

A
Curved Surfaces

AN
G
It is a common observation that some people use spectacles for
N
reading. The watch repairer uses a small magnifying glass to see tiny parts
of a watch.
LA
• Have you ever touched a magnifying glass with your hand?
• Have you touched the glass in the spectacles used for reading with
your hand?
TE

• Is it a plane or curved surface?

• Is it thicker in the middle or at the edge?
We have learnt about refraction of light at a plane surface in the previous
class. Now let us understand refraction of light at curved surfaces.
T,

Let us do an activity to understand refraction of light at curved surfaces.

ER

Refraction of light at a curved surface

Activity 1
Draw an arrow of length 4 cm using a black sketch pen on a thick sheet
SC

of paper. Take an empty cylindrical-shaped transparent vessel such as glass

tumbler. Keep it on the table. Ask your friend to bring that sheet of paper
on which arrow was drawn behind the vessel while you looking at it from
the other side (The arrow mark should be in horizontal position).
• What do you see?
You will see a diminished (small-sized) image of the arrow
• Why do you see a diminished image?
• Is the image real or virtual?
• Can you draw a ray diagram showing how it is formed?
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 57
 Ask your friend to fill the vessel with water. Look at the fig.- of arrow
from the same position as before.
• What do you see now?
• Do you get an inverted image?
• How could this happen?
In the first case, when the vessel is empty, light from the arrow refracts
at the curved interface, moves through the glass and enters into air then it
again undergoes refraction on the opposite curved surface of the vessel

A
(at the other end from where we are looking) and comes out into the air. In

AN
this way light travels through two media and comes out of the vessel and
forms a diminished image.
In the second case, light enters through the curved
Air surface, moves through water, comes out of the glass

G
Water
and forms an inverted image.

N
When the vessel is filled with water, there is a
curved interface between two different media (air and
LA
Curved
surface water). Assume that the refractive indices of both
fig-1 water and glass are the same (they really are not equal).
This setup of air and water separated by a curved
TE

surface is shown in fig.- 1.

• What happens to a ray that is incident on a curved surface separating
the two media?
T,

• Are the laws of refraction still valid?

Let us find out.
ER

Consider a curved surface separating two

Light
rays
Normal different media as shown in fig.- 2. The centre of the
sphere, of which curved surface is a part, is called as
C
SC

P Principal the centre of curvature. It is denoted by letter ‘C’.

axis
Any line drawn from the centre of curvature to a
point on the curved surface becomes normal to the
curved surface at that point. The direction of the
fig-2
normal changes from one point to another point on
the curved surface. The centre of the curved surface is called the pole (P)
of the curved surface. The line that joins the centre of curvature and the
pole is called ‘principal axis’.
• How do rays bend when they are incident on a curved surface?
58 X Class Refraction of Light at Curved Surfaces
 As in the case of plane surfaces, a ray will bend towards the normal if
it travels from a rarer to denser medium and it bends away from the normal
if it travels from a denser to a rarer medium .
Let us see how we can draw ray diagrams for certain useful cases.
• What happens to a ray that travels along the principal axis? Similarly, a
ray that travels through the centre of curvature?
According to Snell’s law the ray which travels
along the normal drawn to the surface does not Ray passing

A
deviate from its path. Hence both rays mentioned thorugh C

above will travel along the normal (see fig.-3), so C

AN
P Ray passing
they do not deviate. along
principal
• What happens to a ray travelling parallel to the axis

principal axis?
fig-3

G
Observe the following figures 4(a), 4(b), 4(c),
and 4(d). In all the cases as represented by the

N
diagrams, the incident ray is parallel to the principal
axis.
LA
Case1: A ray travelling parallel to the principal
axis strikes a convex surface and passes from a rarer Normal
medium to denser medium. (see fig.-4(a))
TE

C
Case2: A ray travelling parallel to the principal Rarer
Denser
axis strikes a convex surface and passes from a
denser medium to rarer medium. (see fig.-4(b)) fig-4(a)
Case3: A ray travelling parallel to the principal
T,

axis strikes a concave surface and passes from a

denser medium to rarer medium. (see fig-4(c)) Normal
ER

Case4: A ray travelling parallel to the principal C

axis strikes a concave surface and passes from a Denser Rarer
rarer medium to denser medium. (see fig. 4(d))
SC

• What difference do you notice in the refracted fig-4(b)

rays in figures 4(a) and 4(b)?
Normal

Normal

C C

Denser Denser Rarer

Rarer

fig-4(c) fig-4(d)

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 59

 • What could be the reason for that difference?
• What difference do you notice in refracted rays in fig.- 4c and 4d?
• What could be the reasons for that difference?
You might have noticed that in figures 4(a) and 4(c) the refracted ray
reaches a particular point on the principal [Link] figures 4(b) and 4(d) the
refracted ray moves away from the principal axis. When you extend the
refracted ray backwards along the ray as shown in 4b and 4d, the extended
ray intersects the principal axis at some point. The point where refracted

A
ray intersects the axis in all the above cases is called the focal point.
You might have observed that a lemon in a glass of water appears bigger

AN
than its actual size, when viewed from the sides of tumbler.
• How can you explain this change in the size of lemon?
• Is the lemon that appears bigger in size an image of lemon or is it the real lemon?

G
• Can you draw a ray diagram to explain this phenomenon?
Let us find out.
Image formation N
LA
Consider a curved surface separating two media of refractive indices n1 and
n2 ( fig.- 5) . A point object is placed on the principal axis at point O. The ray,
which travels along the principal axis passes through the pole undeviated.
TE

The second ray, which forms an angle α with principal axis, meets the
interface (surface) at A. The angle of incidence is θ1. The ray bends and
passes through the second medium along the line AI. The angle of refraction
is θ2. The two refracted rays meet at I and the image is formed there.
T,

Derivation of curved surface formula

Let the angle made by the second
ER

A
θ1
2
θ refracted ray with principal axis be γ and
the angle between the normal and principal
α β γ
O P
N
C I
axis be β. (see fig.- 5)
SC

In fig.- 5,
n1
2
n PO is the object distance which we
denote as ‘u’
fig-5 PI is image distance which we denote
as ‘v’
PC is radius of curvature which we denote as ‘R’
n1, n2 are refractive indices of two media.
Can you establish any relation between the above mentioned quantities?
In the triangle ACO, θ1 = α + β

60 X Class Refraction of Light at Curved Surfaces

 and in the triangle ACI, β = θ2 + γ β – γ = θ2
According to Snell’s law, we know
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2
substituting the values of θ1 and θ2, we get,
n1 sin(α+ β) = n2 sin(β- γ) ................. (1)
If the rays move very close to the principal axis, the rays can be treated
as parallel and are called paraxial rays. Then the angles α, β and γ become
very small. This approximation is called paraxial approximation.
sin (α+ β) = α+β and sin (β- γ) = β- γ

A
Substituting in equation (1)

AN
n1 (α+ β) = n2 (β- γ) n1α + n1 β = n2 β – n2 γ ................(2)
since all angles are small, we can write
tan α = AN/NO = α
tan β = AN/NC = β

G
tan γ = AN/NI = γ
Substitute these in equation (2), we get,
n1 AN/NO + n1 AN/NC = n2 AN/NC – n2 AN/NIN ............... (3)
LA
As the rays move very close to the principal axis, the point N coincides
with pole of the interface (P). Therefore NI, NO, NC can be replaced by
PI, PO and PC respectively.
TE

After substituting these values in equation (3), we get,

n1/PO + n1/PC = n2/PC – n2/PI
n1/PO + n2/PI = (n2- n1) /PC ................(4)
Equation (4) shows the relation between refractive indices of two
T,

media, object distance, image distance and radius of curvature.

The above equation is true for the case we considered.
ER

We can generalize equation (4) if we use the following sign convention.

For all purposes of applications of refraction at curved surfaces and
through lenses following conventions are used.
– All distances are measured from the pole (or optic centre).
SC

– Distances measured along the direction of the incident light ray

are taken as positive
– Distances measured opposite to the direction of the incident light
ray are taken as negative
– The heights measured vertically above from the points on axis are
taken as positive
– The heights measured vertically down from points on axis are taken
as negative.
Here PO is called the object distance (u)
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 61
 PI is called the image distance (v)
PC is called radius of curvature (R)
According to sign convention mentioned above, we have
PO = -u ; PI = v ; PC = R
Substituting these values in equation (4) we get,
n2 n1
−
( n2 − n1 )
= ....................... (5)
v u R

A
n 2 n 1 (n 2 -n 1 )
- =
v u R

AN
This formula can also be used for plane surfaces. In the case of a plane
surface, radius of curvature (R) approaches infinity. Hence 1/R becomes
zero. Substituting this in equation 5, we get formula for the plane surfaces

G
n2 n1 n n
− =0 2 = 1
v u v u
N
NOTE: The distances u and v are measured from the plane interface.
LA
Let us consider the following examples.
Example 1
A bird is flying down vertically towards the surface of water in a pond
TE

with constant speed. There is a fish inside the water. If that fish is exactly
vertically below the bird, then the bird will appear to the fish to be:
a. farther away than its actual distance.
b. closer than its actual distance.
T,

I
c. moving faster than its actual speed.
d. moving slower than its actual speed.
ER

O
Which of the four options are true? How can you prove it?
Solution: For refraction at a plane surface,
y x
n2 n1
we use = ..................(1)
SC

v u
Let x be the height of the bird above the water surface at an
instant and n be the refractive index of water.
n1= refractive index of air,
Then n1 =1, n2 = n, u= -x and let v = -y, (see fig.- E1)
fig-E1
Substituting these values in equation (1)
n 1
= 
( − y ) ( − x ) y = nx

62 X Class Refraction of Light at Curved Surfaces

 In the above equation, we know that n is greater than 1. Hence y is
greater than x. Thus the bird appears to the fish to be farther away than its
actual distance. We have assumed that bird is flying vertically down with
constant speed. For the observer on the ground, bird appears that it has
covered ‘x’ distance for certain time. But for fish, it appears that bird has
covered a distance ‘y’ in the same time. As y is greater than x , we can
conclude that the speed of the bird, observed by the fish, is greater than its
actual speed.

A
So, options (a) and (c) are correct.
Example 2

AN
A transparent sphere of radius R and
refractive index n is kept in air. At what distance
from the surface of the sphere should a point

G
O x x I
object be placed on the principal axis so as to R

form a real image at the same distance from the

second surface of the sphere? N fig-E2
LA
Solution: From the symmetry of fig.- E2, the rays must pass through
the sphere parallel to the principal axis.
From the figure,
TE

u = -x, v= ∞ (refracted ray is parallel to the optical axis after refraction

at first surface)
n1 =1 and n2 = n, (where n1 is refractive index of air)
T,

n 2 n 1 (n 2 -n 1 )
Using - =
v u R
n 1 (n -1 ) 1 (n -1 )
ER

- = =
∞ -x R x R
R
x=
(n -1 )
Object distance from the first surface of the sphere is x= R/(n-1)
SC

Example 3
A transparent (glass) sphere has a small, opaque dot at its centre. Does
the apparent position of the dot appear to be the same as its actual position
when observed from outside?
Solution: Let refractive index of glass n1= n
refractive index of air n2 = 1
Then u = –R (radius of sphere) ; Radius of curvature R = –R

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 63

 n2 n1
−
(n − n )
Using = 2 1
v u R
1
−
n
=
(1 − n )
v ( −R ) ( −R )
After solving this equation, we get
Image distance v = –R
Thus we can say that the image distance and object distance are equal
and that the apparent position of dot is the same as its actual position.

A
It is independent of the refractive index of the material of the sphere.
Till now we have discussed refraction of light at a single curved surface

AN
either convex or concave. Let us suppose that a transparent material has
two curved surfaces.
• What happens to the light ray when a transparent material with two

G
curved surfaces is placed in its path?
• Have you heard about lenses?

N
• How does a light ray behave when it is passed through a lens?
Let us learn about refraction of light through lenses.
LA
Lenses
A lens is formed when a transparent material is bounded by two surfaces
of which one (or) both surfaces are spherical. That is a lens is bounded by
TE

atleast one curved surface. Lenses can be of various types. Some typical
lenses along with their names are shown in fig.- 6.
Converging lenses Diverging lenses
T,
ER

fig-6(a): fig-6(b): fig-6(c): fig-6(d): fig-6(e): fig-6(f):

Biconvex Plano-convex Concavo-convex Biconcave Plano-concave Convexo-concave
fig.- 6 : Different types of lenses
SC

A lens may have two spherical surfaces bulging outwards. Such a lens
is called double convex lens (Biconvex lens, see fig.- 6(a)). It is thick at
the middle as compared to edges.
Similarly, a double concave lens is bounded by two spherical surfaces
curved inwards. (Biconcave lens, see fig.- 6(d)). It is thin at the middle
and thicker at the edges.
Observe the 6(c), 6(b), 6(e) and 6(f) to understand structure of
Concavo-Convex lens, Plano-Convex lens, Plano-Concave lens and
Convexo-concave lens.

64 X Class Refraction of Light at Curved Surfaces

 Here we are concerned only with thin lenses i.e. the thickness of the
lens is negligible.
Let us learn the terminology used in the case of lenses.
Each curved surface of a lens is part of a sphere. The
centre of the sphere which contains the part of the curved
surface is called centre of curvature. It is denoted by a
R1
letter ‘C’. If a lens contains two curved surfaces then their R 2

centres of curvature are denoted as C1 and [Link] distance

C P C1
between the centre of curvature and curved surface is

A
2

called radius of curvature (R). Radii of curvature are

AN
represented by R1 and R2 respectively. Let us consider a fig-7
double convex lens as shown in fig.- 7.
The line joining the points C1 and C2 is called principal axis. The
midpoint of a thin lens is called optic centre of lens (P).

G
Focal length of the lens

N
A parallel beam of light incident on a lens converges to a point as
shown in fig.- 8(a) or seems to emanate from a point on the principal axis
LA
as shown in fig.- 8(b). The point of convergence (or) the point from which
rays seem to emanate is called focal point or focus (F). Every lens has two
focal points. The distance between the focal point and optic centre is called
TE

the focal length of lens denoted by ‘f’.

T,

C2 F2 F1 C1 C1 F1 F2 C2
ER

fig-8(a) fig-8(b)
For drawing ray diagrams related to lenses we represent convex lens
with a symbol and concave lens with . See figures 8(c) and 8(d).
>—<
SC

C2 F2 F1 C1 C1 F1 F2 C2

fig-8(c)
fig-8(d)
• How does the lens form an image?

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 65

 To know the formation of image by lenses, we need to know the
behaviour of light rays when they meet a lens.
Though we know that the lens has two surfaces; while drawing ray
diagrams, we can consider the lens as a single surface element because we
assume that the thickness of the lens is very small and show the net refraction
at only one of the surfaces, as shown in the fig.- 8(c) and 8(d).
Behaviour of certain light rays when they are incident on a lens
The behaviour of a light ray when it passes through a lens can be
understood by observing its behaviour in the following situations:

A
Note: The points C1, C2 are not centre of curvatures. They are the points

AN
at ‘2f’distances from optic centre.
Situation I: Ray passing along the principal axis
Any ray passing along the principal axis is undeviated. (see Figures 9a
and 9b)

G
Situation II: Ray passing through the optic C F
F C
centre.
2 2 1 1

N
Any ray passing through the optic centre is
also undeviated. (see Figure 10a and 10b)
fig-9(a)
LA
C1 F1 F2 C2

C2 F2 F1 C1 C1 F1 F2 C2 fig-9(b)
TE

fig-10(a) fig-10(b)

Situation III: Rays travelling parallel to the principal axis.

We know that the rays passing parallel to the principal axis converge
T,

at the focus or appear to diverge from the focus as shown in fig.- 8(c) and
8(d).
ER

• If we allow a light ray to pass through the focus, which path does it
take?
Situation IV: Ray passing through focus.
SC

Light rays obey the principle of least time. Hence the ray passing
through the focus will take a path parallel to principal axis after refraction.
(see Figure 11(a) and 11(b) )

C2 F2 F1 C1 C1 F1 F2 C2

fig-11(a) fig-11(b)

66 X Class Refraction of Light at Curved Surfaces

• What happens when parallel rays of light fall on a lens making some
angle with the principal axis?
Let us observe the following figures

C1 F1 F2 C2
C2 F2 F1 C1

A
AN
fig-12(a) fig-12(b)

When parallel rays, making an angle with principal axis, fall on a lens,
as shown in figures 12(a) and 12(b), the rays converge at a point or appear

G
to diverge from a point lying on the focal plane. Focal plane is the plane
perpendicular to the principal axis at the focus.
N
Rules to draw ray diagrams for image formation by lenses
LA
Let us learn a few basic rules to draw ray diagrams to locate the position
of images.
For drawing a ray diagram to find position and size of the image formed
TE

by lens for any position of object on the principal axis you need to follow
the rules mentioned below:
For locating position and to find the size of image, we need two rays
out of four rays that were mentioned in the situations I to IV.
T,

- Select a point on the object placed at a point on the principal axis.

- Draw two rays that were chosen by you from rays mentioned in
ER

situations I to IV.
- Extend both rays to intersect at a point. This point gives position
of the image.
SC

- Draw a normal from point of intersection to the principal axis.

- Length of this normal represents the size of the image.
Observe the following diagrams (situations 1-6). They represent
image formation by a convex lens for various positions of the object.
1. Object at infinity
• What do you mean by an object at infinity?
• What type of rays fall on the lens?
You know that the rays falling on the lens from an object at infinity are
parallel to the principal axis.
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 67
 They converge to the focal point. So a point sized image is formed at
the focal point. This can be seen in fig.-s 8(a).

2. Object placed beyond the centre of curvature on the principal axis

In fig.- (13) you notice that when
object is placed beyond the centre of
Object

F C
curvature (C 2 ), a real, inverted and
1 1

C2 F2 Image
diminished image is formed on the principal

A
axis between the points F1 and C1.
fig-13 In fig.- (13) we have chosen two rays,

AN
one ray passing parallel to the principal axis
and another ray passing through the optic centre to locate the position of
the image.

G
Try to draw ray diagram using the pair of rays, one passing parallel to
the axis another passing through the focus.

N
3. Object placed at the centre of curvature
LA
When an object is placed at the centre
of curvature (C2) on the principal axis, you
Object F C
will get an image at C1 which is real,
TE

1 1

C2 F2 Image
inverted and of the same size as that of
fig-14
object. See fig.- 14.
T,

4. Object placed between the centre of curvature and focal point

When an object is placed between
centre of curvature (C2) and focus (F2), you
ER

Object F C 1
will get an image which is real, inverted and
1

C2 F2
Image magnified. See fig.- 15. The image will form
fig-15
beyond C1.
SC

5. Object located at the focal point

When an object is placed at focus (F2),
Object F1 C1
the image will be at infinity. See fig.- 16.
C2 F2 When the image is formed at an infinite
Image at
fig-16 infinity distance away we can not discuss the size and
nature of the image.

68 X Class Refraction of Light at Curved Surfaces

 6. Object placed between focal point and optic centre
If we place an object between focus and optic Image
centre, we will get an image which is virtual,

Object
erect and magnified. F1 C1

C
From the ray diagram shown in fig.- 17, you 2 2
F

will notice that the image formed is a virtual, fig-17

erect and is formed on the same side of the lens
where the object is placed. The size of the image is larger than that of the

A
object. It is a magnified image.
In the above situation of image formation, we understand two things:

AN
1. As the image formed is virtual, we can see it with our eyes. In all other
cases the image is real which we can’t see with our eyes but can be
viewed if the image is captured on a screen.

G
2. A magnified virtual image is formed on the same side of the lens where
the object is placed. Thus the image you are seeing through a lens is

N
not real, it is a virtual image of the object.
This particular behaviour of convex lens helps to construct a
LA
microscope, which gives a magnified image. You might remember that the
magnification of the virtual image is possible only when the object is at
the distance less than the focal length of the lens.
TE

Till now we have drawn ray diagrams for various positions of object
placed on principal axis using convex lens. Draw ray diagram for an object
placed between C1 and F1 for a concave lens.
• What do you notice?
T,

Verify your ray diagram with the ray diagram

we have drawn for a convex lens. See fig.- 18. Try Object C2
ER

F2
to draw ray diagrams for other positions of an C Image
1 F
object. You will notice that irrespective of the
1
fig-18
position of object, on the principal axis, you will
get an erect, virtual image, diminished in size in between the focal point
SC

and optic centre for concave lens.

Let us see a few examples of ray diagrams
Example 4
Draw a ray diagram to locate the position of image when a point source
(S) is placed on optical axis MN of a convex lens, in such a way that it is
beyond focal point (F2). See fig.- E(4).
Solution
- Draw a perpendicular line to principal axis passing through the
focus (F1).
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 69
 P/
- Draw a ray from point source (S) in
F0
any direction to meet lens at point (PI).
N
M S F2 P F1 I - Now draw another line parallel to the
ray drawn from the point source (S) such that it
fig-E(4)
passes through the optic centre (P); This line
intersects thenormal at point FO.
- Now draw a line passing from point PI to pass through the point FO
such that it meets principal axis at a point say (I).

A
- ‘I’ is the image point for the point source (S).
Example 5

AN
Complete the ray diagram to show
F1 F2 the paths of the rays after refraction
F2 F 1 through the lenses shown in the fig.-s

G
M S F
E5(a) and E5(b)?
fig-E5(a) fig-E5(b)
Solution: Follow the steps

N
mentioned in Example (4) to complete the ray diagrams.
You will notice that the paths of the rays are shown in fig.-s E5(c) and 5(d).
LA
F2
F2 F1
F1
TE

fig-E5(c) fig-E5(d)
• Can we realise in practice the results obtained in the ray diagrams
when we perform experiments with a lens?
T,

Let us see

Lab Activity
ER

Aim: Observing the types of images and measuring the object distance
and image distance from the lens.
SC

Material required: A candle, paper, convex lens (known focal length),

V-stand, measuring tape or meter scale.
Procedure: Take a v-stand and place it on a long (nearly 2m) table at
the middle. Place a convex lens on the v-stand. Imagine the principal axis
of the lens. Light a candle and ask your friend to take the candle far away
from the lens along the principal axis. Adjust a screen (a sheet of white
paper placed perpendicular to the axis) which is on other side of the lens
until you get an image on it.
• Why are we using a screen to view this image? Why don’t we see it
70 X Class Refraction of Light at Curved Surfaces
 directly with our eye?
Measure the distance of the image from the v-stand of lens and also
measure the distance between the candle and stand of lens.
Record the values in a table 1.
Now place the candle at a distance
Object Image Focal
of 60 cm from the lens, such that the
distance (u) distance (v) length (f)
flame of the candle lies on the principal
axis of the lens. Try to get an image of

A
the candle flame on the other side on a
screen. Adjust the screen till you get a Table 1

AN
clear image. Measure the image
distance (v) from lens and record the values of ‘u’ and ‘v’ in table 1. Repeat
this for various object distances like 50 cm, 40 cm, 30 cm, etc. Measure

G
image distances in all the cases and note them in table 1.
• Could you get an image on the screen for every object distance?

N
• Why don’t you get an image for certain object distances?
• Can you find the minimum limiting object distance for obtaining a
LA
real image?
• What do you call this minimum limiting object distance for real images?
When you do not get an image on the screen, try to see the image with
TE

your eye directly from the place of the screen.

• Could you see the image?
• What type of image do you see?
T,

You will see a magnified image on the same side where we kept the
object. This is a virtual image of the object which we cannot capture on
the screen.
ER

• Can you find the image distance of this virtual image?

In table-1, you got different values of ‘v’ for various position of candle
(u).
SC

• Could you find focal length of the lens from the values recorded in
table-1?
• Can we establish a relation between ‘u’, ‘v’ and ‘f’?
Let us find out.
Consider an object OOI placed on the principal axis in front of a convex
lens as shown in fig.-(19). Let III be the real image formed by the lens on
the other side of it. Observe the fig.-(19).
• How is the image formed?

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 71

 Lens formula
The ray, starting at OI and moving parallel to the principal axis and
which falls on the lens, should pass through the focal point F1 as shown in
fig.- (19). To locate the point of image (II) for the object point (OI),
consider another ray that passes through the optic centre P. We know that
any ray passing through the optic centre P will not deviate.
The ray starting from OI and passing through optic centre P, will meet
the refracted ray (first ray) at the point II. This point is the image of the
point OI of the object. Similarly, the image of the point O on the principal

A
axis is formed at point I on the principal axis (see Figure 19). We get the
inverted image III of object OOI.

AN
PO, PI and PF1 are the object distance, image distance and focal length
respectively. From fig.- 19, triangle PPIF1 and triangle F1III are similar
triangles,

G
PPI/III = PF1/F1I .................(1)
But from the fig.- 19,
F1I = PI – PF1 N
LA
substituting F1I in equation (1) above, we get
PPI/III = PF1/(PI – PF1) .................(2)
We have another set of similar triangles OOIP and PIII.
TE

OI PI From these triangles we get, OOI/III = PO/PI

F1 I
but from fig.- (19), OOI = PPI, hence we
O F 2 P have
II
fig-19 PPI/III = PO/PI .................(3)
T,

From (2) and (3), we get

PO/PI = PF1/(PI-PF1) PI/PO = (PI-PF1)/PF1 PI/PO = PI/PF1 – 1
ER

On dividing the equation by PI, we get

1/PO = 1/PF1 -1/PI 1/PO + 1/PI = 1/PF1
The above equation is derived for a particular case of the object while
using a convex lens. To convert this into a general equation, we need to
SC

use the sign convention.

According to the sign convention
PO = -u ; PI = v ; PF1 = f
Substituting these values in equation 4, we get
1/v – 1/u = 1/f
This equation is called lens formula. It can be used for any lens. But
remember to use the sign convention while using this equation.
We have ‘u’ and ‘v’ values in table – 1 that were measured during activity
– 2. Find focal length of the lens from the values of the table for each set
of values of ‘u’ and ‘v’.
72 X Class Refraction of Light at Curved Surfaces
Magnification
Let us discuss the size of the image formed by a lens.
Observe object OOI , image III
in fig-20. PI

Δ OOI P, Δ III P are similar. OI

F1
II′ OO′ II′ PI h o I
∴ =  = O F2 P
hi
PI PO OO′ PO u v I
I
Substituting the values as per sign fig-20

A
convention in the above equation, we get

AN
− hi − v
=
ho u
hi v
∴ Magnification m = =

G
ho u
• Is the focal length same for each set of values?

N
You might have noticed that irrespective of object distance and image
distance, you will get same focal length. If you do not get the same value
LA
of focal length, there may be some experimental error while doing the
experiment. In such a case, find the average of all the values. This will
be equal to the focal length of the lens.
TE

Let us see an example

Example 6
An electric lamp and a screen are placed on the table, in a line at a
distance of 1m. In what positions of convex lens of focal length of f = 21
T,

cm will the image of lamp be sharp?

Solution
ER

The distance between the lamp and screen is 100cm and ‘x’ be the
distance between lamp and lens. From fig.- E-6, we have u = -x and
v = 100-x, f = 21
SC

By substituting these in lens formula,

We get
1 1 1
= +
21 (100 − x ) x Screen

Lamp
After solving this equation, we get
x d-x
d
x2 – 100x + 2100 = 0
fig-E(6)
It is a quadratic equation. Hence we get
two solutions. The solutions of the above equation are
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 73
 x2-70x-30x+2100=0 x (x-70)-30(x-70) = 0 (x-70)(x-
30) = 0
∴ x =70cm and x = 30cm.
We can place the lens at a distance of 70cm or 30cm from the bulb,
we get sharp image.
• On what factors does the focal length of the lens depend?
Let us find out.
Activity 2

A
Take the same lens that was used in lab activity. Note the average

AN
focal length of the lens that was calculated in the activity. Take a
cylindrical vessel such as glass tumbler. Its height must be much
greater than the focal length of the lens. (We require the vessel
which has a length (depth) nearly equal to four times of the focal

G
length of lens). Keep a black stone inside the vessel at its bottom.
Lens Circular
lens
Now pour water into the vessel up to a height such that the height of
Stone holder

fig-21
N
the water level from the top of the stone is greater than focal length
of lens. Now dip the lens horizontally using a circular lens holder
LA
as shown in the fig.- (21) above the stone. Set the distance between
stone and lens that is equal to or less than focal length of lens measured in
activity 2. Now look at the stone through the lens. (Do this in open ground)
• Can you see the image of the stone?
TE

• If Yes / Not, why? Give your reasons.

You can see the image of the stone if the distance between lens and stone
is less than the focal length of the lens (in air). Now increase the distance
between lens and stone until you cannot see the image of the stone.
T,

• What do you conclude from this activity?

• Does the focal length of the lens depend on surrounding medium?
ER

You have dipped the lens to a certain height which is greater than the
focal length of lens in air. But you can see the image (when lens is raised
further, you could not see the image). This shows that the focal length of
lens has increased in water. Thus we conclude that the focal length of lens
SC

depends upon the surrounding medium in which it is kept.

Lens maker’s formula
Imagine a point object ‘O’ placed on the principal axis of the thin lens as
shown in fig.- 22. Let this lens be placed in a medium of refractive index na
and let refractive index of lens medium be nb.
Consider a ray, from ‘O’ which is incident on the convex surface of
the lens with radius of curvature R1 at A as shown in fig.- 22.

74 X Class Refraction of Light at Curved Surfaces

 The incident ray refracts at A. n
a A B na
Let us assume that, it forms nb

image at Q, if there were no concave O R P R

1 2 I Q
surface. u v
x
From the fig.-(22), Object
fig-22
distance PO = –u;
Image distance v = PQ = x
Radius of curvature R = R1

A
n1 = na and n2 = nb

AN
Substitute the above values in the equation, n2 / v - n1 / u = (n2-n1) / R
nb / x + na / u = (nb-na) / R1 ...................(1)
But the ray that has refracted at A suffers another refraction at B on

G
the concave surface with radius of curvature (R2). At B the ray is refracted
and reaches I on the principal axis.

N
The image Q of the object due to the convex surface is taken as
object for the concave surface. So, we can say that I is the image of Q for
LA
concave surface. See fig.- 22.
Object distance u = PQ = + x
Image distance PI = v
TE

Radius of curvature R = –R2

For refraction, the concave surface of the lens is considered as
medium-1 and surrounding medium is considered as medium-2. Hence
the suffixes of refractive indices interchange. Then we get,
T,

n1 = nb and n2 = na
Substituting the above values in equation n2 / v - n1 / u = (n2-n1) / R
ER

na / v - nb / x = (na-nb) / (-R2) ...................(2)

By adding (1) and (2) we get,
na / v + na / u = (nb-na)( 1 / R1 + 1 / R2)
SC

Dividing both sides by na, We get

1 / v + 1 / u = (nb/ na – 1)(1 / R1 + 1 / R2)
We know nb / na = nba called refractive index of lens with respect to
surrounding medium.
1 / v +1 / u = (nba– 1)(1 / R1 + 1 / R2)
This is derived for specific case for the convex lens so we need to
generalize this relation. For this we use sign convention. Applying sign
convention to this specific case we get,
1/v - 1/u = (nba– 1)(1/R1 - 1/R2)
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 75
 We know that
1/v -1/u = 1/f
So, we get
1/f = (nba– 1)(1/R1 - 1/R2) ...................(3)
If the surrounding medium is air, then the relative refractive index
could be absolute refractive index of the lens.
1/f = (n– 1)(1/R1 - 1/R2)
This can be used only when the lens is kept in air.

A
Where n is absolute refractive index and this equation is called lens

AN
maker’s formula.
NOTE: Always use sign convention while using any formula derived
in this chapter and the above formula can be used for any thin lens.

G
The convex lens behaves as a converging lens, if it is kept in a
medium with refractive index less than the refractive index of the lens. It

N
behaves like a diverging lens when it is kept in a transparent medium with
greater refractive index than that of the lens.
LA
For example an air bubble in water behaves like a diverging lens.
Let us see an example for lens maker formula.
Example 7
TE

What is the focal length of double concave lens kept in air with two
spherical surfaces of radii R1 = 30cm and R2 =60cm. Take refractive index
of lens as n = 1.5.
T,

Solution:
From the fig.- E-7 using sign convention we get
ER

R1 = -30cm, R2 = 60cm and also given

that n = 1.5
using 1/f = (n-1)(1/R1 – 1/R2)
C1 Light rays C
2
1/f = (1.5 - 1)[1/(-30)-1/60]
SC

fig-E(7)
Solving this, we get
f = -40cm
Here minus indicates that the lens is divergent.

Key words
Lens, Focal length, Focus, Optic centre, Principal axis,
Radius of curvature, Centre of curvature, Focal plane.

76 X Class Refraction of Light at Curved Surfaces

 What we have learnt
• The formula used when a light ray enters a medium with refractive index n2 from a
medium with refractive index n1 at curved interface with a radius of curvature R is
n2/v –n1/u = (n2- n1)/R
• A lens is formed when one medium is separated from another medium by two
surfaces, one of which is curved.
• Lens formula is 1/f =1/v – 1/u
where f is the focal length of lens, u is the object distance and v is the image

A
distance.

AN
• Lens maker’s formula is
1/f = (n-1)(1/R1-1/R2)
where R1 and R2 are radii of curvature , n is the refractive index and f is the focal
length.

G
• Characteristics of the image formed due to convex lens

Position of the object N

Position of the Image Characteristics of the image
LA
At infinity Focal Point (F1) Point Image

Beyond C2 Between F1 & C1 Inverted, Diminished & Real

TE

At C2 On C1 Inverted, Same size & Real

Between F2 & C2 Beyond C1 Inverted, Magnified & Real

T,

At F2 Infinity -
ER

Between F2 & P Beyond F2 Erect, Magnified & Virtual

Improve your learning

SC

Reflections on concepts
1. How do you verify experimentally that the focal length of a
convex lens is increased when it is kept in water? (AS1)
2. How do you find the focal length of a lens experimentally? (AS1)
3. Draw ray diagrams for the following positions and explain the nature and position
of image.
i. Object is placed at C2
ii. Object is placed between F2 and optic centre P. (AS5)
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 77
 Application of concepts

1. Two converging lenses are to be placed in the path of parallel rays so that the
rays remain parallel after passing through both lenses. How should the lenses
be arranged? Explain with a neat ray diagram. (AS1)

2. The focal length of a converging lens is 20cm. An object of 2cm height is at a

distance of 60cm from the lens. Where will the image be formed and what kind
of image is it? And also find the height of the image (AS1) (Ans: A real, diminished,

A
inverted image formed at 30cm from the lens)

AN
3. A double convex lens has two surfaces of equal radii ‘R’ and refractive index
n = 1.5, find the focal length ‘f’. (AS1)

4. Find the refractive index of the glass which is a symmetrical convergent lens if

G
its focal length is equal to the radius of curvature of its surface. (AS7) (Ans:1.5)

Higher Order Thinking QuestionsN

LA
1) A convex lens is made up of three different materials as shown in the fig-Q(1).
How many of images does it form? (AS2)
TE

fig-Q(1)
T,

2) You have a lens. Suggest an experiment to find out the focal length of the
lens.(AS3)
ER

3) Fig.-Q(3) shows ray AB that has passed through a divergent lens. Construct
the path of the ray up to the lens if the position of its foci is known. (AS5)
SC

A B
F/
F

fig- Q(3)

78 X Class Refraction of Light at Curved Surfaces

 4) Fig. -Q(4) shows a point light source and its image produced
by a lens with an optical axis N1N2. Find the position of the lens
N1 N2
and its foci using a ray diagram. (AS5)
fig-Q(4)

S
5) Find the focus by drawing a ray diagram using the position of
N1 N2
source S and the image S/ given in the fig.-Q(5). (AS5)
S/
fig- Q(5)

A
6) A parallel beam of rays is incident on a convergent lens with a focal length of

AN
40cm. Where a divergent lens with a focal length of 15 cm should be placed for
the beam of rays to remain parallel after passing through the two lenses? Draw
a ray diagram. (AS5)

G
7) Suppose you are inside the water in a swimming pool near an edge. A friend is

N
standing on the edge. Do you find your friend taller or shorter than his usual
height? Why?(AS7)
LA
e questions
Multiple choic
TE

1) Which one of the following materials cannot be used to make a lens? [ ]

a) water b) glass c) acrylic d) clay
2) Which of the following is true? [ ]
T,

a) the distance of virtual image is always greater than the object distance for
convex lens
ER

b) the distance of virtual image is not greater than the object distance for convex
lens
c) convex lens always forms a real image
SC

d) convex lens always forms a virtual image

3) Focal length of the plano-convex lens is ............. when its radius of curvature of
the surface is R and n is the refractive index of the lens. [ ]
a) f = R b) f = R/2 c) f = R/(n–1) d) f = (n–1)/R

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 79

Suggested Experiments
1)Conduct an experiment to find out the focal length of the lens.
2)Let us assume a system that consists of two lenses with focal length f1 and f2 respectively. How
do you find the focal length of the system experimentally, when
i) two lenses are touching each other
ii) they are separated by a distance ‘d’ with common principal axis.

Suggested Projects

A
1. Collect the information about the lenses available in an optical shop. Find out how the focal

AN
length of a lens may be determined by the given ‘power’ of the lens.
2. Take two watch glasses and affix them. Pour two different liquids ( Ex. Water, Navaratan oil)
and now it will acts like a lens with two different materials .Put a light source (object) in front

G
of this lens and note the observations and write a report on it.

N
LA
TE
T,
ER
SC

80 X Class Refraction of Light at Curved Surfaces

 Chapter

5
Human Eye and

A
Colourful world

AN
G
You have studied refraction of light through lenses in the previous
chapter. You have learnt about nature, position and relative size of image
N
formed by lenses for various distances of objects. In class IX, chapter VI
LA
on sense organs in Biological science text book, explained the structure
of the human eye. The human eye functions on the principle of sensation
of vision. We see objects because the light scattered from them falls on
the eye. The eye has a lens in its structure.
TE

In the previous chapter, you learned that the focal length of lens and
object distance determine the nature, position and size of image.
• What is the function of lens in human eye?
• How does it help to see objects at long distances and short distances?
T,

• How is it possible to get the image at the same distance on the retina?
• Are we able to see all objects in front of our eye clearly?
ER

• How do the lenses used in spectacles correct defects of vision?

To answer these questions, you need to understand the structure and
functioning of the human eye.
SC

Let us do the following activities to know about some interesting facts

about our vision.
Least distance of distinct vision
Activity 1
Take a text book and hold it with your hands in front of you at a
certain distance. Now try to read the contents on the page. Slowly move
the book towards your eye till it is very close to your eyes.
• What changes do you notice?

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 81

 You may see that printed letters on the page of the text book appear
blurred or you feel strain in the eye.
Now slowly move the book backwards to a position where you can see
clear printed letters without straining your eye. Ask your friend to measure
the distance between your eye and text book at this position. Note down
its value. Repeat the activity with other friends and note down the distances
for distinct vision in each case.
Find the average of all these distances of clear vision.

A
• What value do you get for average distance?
From this activity you will come to know that to see an object

AN
comfortably and distinctly, you must hold it at a distance about 25 cm
from your eyes. This distance is called least distance of distinct vision.
This varies from person to person and with age. At a young age (say below

G
10 years) the muscles around the eye are strong and flexible and can bear
more strain. Therefore the least distance of distinct vision at this age is as

N
close as 7 to 8 cm. Generally for a healthy person the least distance of
distinct vision is around 25 cm. In old age the muscles cannot sustain
LA
more strain hence the least distance of distinct vision shifts to a larger
value, say, about 1 to 2 m or even more.
• Are you able to see the top and bottom of an object placed at a distance
TE

of about 25 cm from your eye irrespective of its shape?

Let us find out.
Activity 2
T,

Collect a few wooden sticks used in cloth roller in

clothes store (or) collect waste PVC pipes that are used
ER

for electric wiring. Prepare sticks or pipes of 20 cm, 30

cm, 35 cm, 40 cm, 50 cm from them. Place a retort stand
on a table and stand near the table such that your head is
beside the vertical stand (see fig 1). Adjust the clamp on
SC

the horizontal rod and fix it at a distance of 25 cm from

fig-1 your eyes. Ask one of your friends to fix a wooden stick
of 30 cm height to the clamp in a vertical position as shown
in fig1.
Now keeping your vision parallel to horizontal rod of
the stand, try to see the top and bottom of wooden stick kept in vertical
position.
• Are you able to see both ends of the stick simultaneously without any
movement (shaking) in your eyes?
82 X Class Human Eye and Colourful World
 In activity-1, you learned that least distance for distinct vision is about
25 cm. It varies from person to person. If you are not able to see both end
of the stick at this distance (25 cm), adjust the vertical stick on the
horizontal rod till you are able to see both ends of the stick at the smallest
possible distance from your eye. Fix the vertical stick at this position with
the help of the clamp.
Without changing the position of the clamp on the horizontal rod,
replace this stick of 30 cm length with other sticks of various lengths one
by one and try to see the top and bottom of the stick simultaneously without

A
any change in the position of eye either upwards downwards or side ways.

AN
• Are you able to see both ends of the sticks in all these cases? If not
why?
Let us know.
Observe the following fig.-2. You can see the whole object AB which

G
is at a distance of 25 cm (least distance of distinct vision) because the
rays coming from the ends A and B of the object AB will enter the eye.
N
Similarly you can also see whole object CD with eye as explained above.
Let us assume that AB moves closer to the eye to a position AI BI as shown
LA
in fig.2.
• Will you be able to see the whole object now?
From the fig.-2, you notice that you will be able to
TE

C
see only the part (EF) of the object AI BI because the AI A

rays coming from E and F enter your eye. The rays

E
coming from AI and BI cannot enter your eye.
T,

The rays coming from the extreme ends of an object F

form an angle at the eye. If this angle is below 60 , we
0
I
B B
can see the whole object. If this angle is above 600, then D
ER

fig-2
we can see only the part of the object.
This maximum angle, at which we are able to see the whole object is
called angle of vision. The angle of vision for a healthy human being is
SC

about 600. It varies from person to person with the age.

You have learnt that the value of least distance of distinct vision is
about 25 cm and the value of angle of vision of human beings is about 600.
You also learnt that these values change from person to person and with
age of person.
• Why do the values of least distance of distinct vision and angle of
vision change with person and age?
To answer the above question, we need to understand the structure of
eye and its functioning.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 83

 ciliary Structure of human eye
muscles
The human eye is one of the most important
iris
sense organs. It enables us to see the object and
retina
pupil colours around us.
lens
Fig.-3 shows schematically the basic
aqueous components of human eye. The eye ball is nearly
humour
cornea spherical in shape. The front portion is more
fig-3 optic nerve sharply curved and is covered by a transparent

A
protective membrane called the ‘cornea’. It is this
portion which is visible from outside. Behind the cornea, there is place

AN
filled with a liquid called aqueous humour and behind this a crystalline
lens which is responsible for the image formation. Between the aqueous
humour and the lens, we have a muscular diaphragm called ‘iris’ which has
a small hole in it called pupil. Iris is the coloured part that we see in an

G
eye.
The pupil appears black because any light falling on it goes into the
N
eye and there is almost no chance of light coming back to the outside. Iris
LA
helps in controlling the amount of light entering the eye through ‘pupil’.
In low light condition, the iris makes the pupil to expand so that more light
is allowed to go in and in the case of bright (or) excess light condition, it
TE

makes the pupil contract and there by prevent the excess light not to go
into eye. Thus ‘iris’ enables pupil to act as a “variable aperture” for entry
of light into the eye.
The lens is hard in the middle and gradually becomes soft towards the
T,

outer edge. The light that enters the eye forms an image on the retina. (It
covers the rear part of eyeball). The distance between the lens and retina
is about 2.5 cm i.e., for any position of object in front of the eye the
ER

image distance is fixed and about 2.5 cm.

• How can we get this same image distance for various positions of
objects?
SC

• Can you answer this question using concepts of refraction through

lenses?
In the previous chapter, you have learnt that for different positions of
object, the image distance remains constant only when there is a change in
focal length of lens. Further, the focal length of a lens depends on the
material by which it has been made and radii of curvature of lens. We need
to change focal length of eye lens to get same image distance for various
positions of object in front of the eye. This is only possible when the eye
lens is able to change its shape.

84 X Class Human Eye and Colourful World

• How does eye lens change its focal length?
• How does this change take place in the eye ball?
Let us know
The ciliary muscle to which eye lens is attached (see fig-3) helps the
eye lens to change its focal length by changing the radii of curvature of the
eye lens.
When the eye is focussed on a distant object, the ciliary muscles are
relaxed so that the focal length of eye lens has its maximum value which is

A
equal to its distance from the retina. The parallel rays coming into the eye
are then focussed on to the retina and we see the object clearly.

AN
When the eye is focussed on a closer object, the ciliary muscles are
strained and focal length of eye-lens decreases. The ciliary muscles adjust
the focal length in such a way that the image is formed on retina and we

G
see the object clearly. This process of adjusting focal length is called
“accommodation”. However these muscles cannot strain beyond a limit
N
and hence if the object is brought too close to eyes, the focal length cannot
be adjusted to form an image on the retina. Thus there is a minimum distance
LA
for distinct vision of an object which is roughly equal to 25 cm as we have
learned in activity-1.
• Does eye lens form a real image or virtual image?
TE

• How does the image formed on retina help us to perceive the object
without change in its shape, size and colour?
Let us know
T,

The eye-lens forms a real and inverted image of an object on the retina.
The retina is a delicate membrane, which contains about 125 million
ER

receptors called ‘rods’ and ‘cones’ which receive the light signal (cones-
identify the colour: rods-identify the intensity of light). These signals are
transmitted to the brain through about 1 million optic-nerve fibres. The
brain interprets these signals and finally processes the information so that
SC

we perceive the object in terms of its shape, size and colour.

In our previous discussion, you have learnt that eye-lens itself changes
its focal length in accordance with distance of the object with the help of
ciliary muscles.
• Is there any limit to the change of focal length of the eye-lens?
• What are the maximum and minimum focal lengths of the eye lens?
How can we find them?
Let us find

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 85

 When the object is at infinity, the parallel rays from
the object falling on the eye lens are refracted and
they form a point sized image on retina (see fig-4(a)).
In this situation, eye-lens has a maximum focal
length.
fig-4(a)
When the object is at infinity,
u= - ∞; v = 2.5 cm (image distance which is equal
to distance between eye-lens and retina)

A
1 1 1
using the formula f
= −
v u

AN
1 1 1
+
f max = 2.5 ∞

G
1 1
f max = +0
2.5

N fmax = 2.5 cm
LA
we get, fmax = 2.5 cm
consider that an object is placed at distance of 25 cm from our eye. In
this situation eye has minimum focal length.
TE

Here u = - 25 cm; v = 2.5 cm

1 1 1
Using the formula f = −
v u
T,

1 1 1
+
f min = 2.5 25
L
ER

1 11
f min = 25
fig-4(b)
1 25
= = 2.27 cm
SC

f min 11
If the position of an object is between infinity and the point of least
distance of distinct vision, then the eye lens adjusts it’s focal length in
between 2.5 cm to 2.27 cm to form a clear image on the retina.
The ability of eye-lens to change its focal length is called
“accommodation of lens”.
• What happens if the eye lens is not able to adjust its focal length?
• What happens if the focal length of eye lens is beyond the range of 2.5
cm to 2.27 cm?
86 X Class Human Eye and Colourful World
 Let us find out.
Sometimes the eye may gradually lose its ability for accommodation.
In such conditions the person cannot see an object clearly and comfortably.
The vision becomes blurred due to accommodation defects of the eye
lens. There are mainly three common defects of vision.
They are:
i. Myopia
ii. Hypermetropia

A
iii. Presbyopia.
Myopia

AN
Some people cannot see objects at long distances but can see nearby
objects clearly. This type of defect in vision is called ‘Myopia’. It is also
called ‘near sightedness’. For these people the maximum focal length is

G
less than 2.5 cm. In such cases the rays coming from distant objects, after
refraction through the eye lens, form an image before the retina as shown
in figures-5(a) and (b). N
LA
A healthy person can see objects at all distances more than 25 cm
clearly but a person with myopia can see objects clearly up to a certain
distance. Let the extreme point from where an object appears clearly to a
TE

person with myopia be ‘M’ (shown in fig.-5(c)).

If the object is at M or in
between M and point of least
distance of distinct vision
T,

(L),the eye lens can form an M L

image on the retina (see fig.- fig-5(a)

ER

5(c) and 5(d)). This point M

is called ‘far point’.
The point of maximum M L
distance at which the eye lens fig-5(b)
SC

can form an image on the

retina is called ‘far point’. L
The defect, in which M
people cannot see objects fig-5(c)
beyond far point is called
‘Myopia’.
• What can we do to correct O L
myopia? M
fig-5(d)

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 87

 The eye lens can form clear image on the retina, when an object is
placed between far point and point of least distance of distinct vision. If
we are able to bring the image of the object kept beyond far point , between
the far point and the point of
L least distance of distinct
M vision using a lens, this image
fig-5(e)
acts as an object for the eye
lens.

A
This can be made possible only when a concave lens is used (recollect
image formation by refraction through a concave lens).

AN
• How can you decide the focal length of the lens to be used to correct
myopia?
To correct one’s Myopia, we need to select a lens which forms an

G
image at the far point for an object at infinity. We need to select bi-concave
lens to achieve this.

N
This image acts like an object for the eye lens. Hence the final image
is formed on the retina.
LA
Let us find the focal length of this bi-concave lens.
Here object distance (u) is infinity and image distance (v) is equal to
distance of far point.
TE

u = - ∞ ; v = distance of far point = -D

let ‘f’ be the focal length of bi-concave lens.
1 1 1
Using lens formula, f = −
T,

v u
1 1
 f = –D
ER

f
=
−D
Here ‘f’ is negative showing that it is a concave lens.
• What happens when the eye has a minimum focal length greater than
SC

2.27 cm?
Let us find out.

Hypermetropia
Hypermetropia is also known as “far sightedness”. A person with
hypermetropia can see distant objects clearly but cannot see objects at
near distances, because the minimum focal length of eye lens for the person
of hypermetropia is greater than 2.27 cm. In such cases, the rays coming

88 X Class Human Eye and Colourful World

from a nearby object, after
refraction at eye lens, forms an
H L
image beyond the retina as
shown in fig.- 6 (a). fig-6(a)
Let the point of least
distance at which the eye lens
forms a clear image on the H
L
retina for a person with

A
hypermetropia be ‘H’. See fig.- fig-6(b)
6(b).

AN
If an object is at H or H L
beyond H, the eye can form its
image on retina (see figures fig-6(c)

G
6(b) and 6(c)). If the object is
between H and point of least

N
distance of distinct vision (L) then it cannot form an image. See fig.- 6(a).
The point of minimum distance at which the eye lens can form an image
LA
on the retina is called near point (d). The people with defect of
hypermetropia cannot see objects placed between near point (H) and point
of least distance of distinct vision (L).
TE

• How can you correct this defect?

Eye lens can form a clear image on the retina when any object is placed
beyond near point. To correct the
T,

defect of hypermetropia, we
need to use a lens which forms L
an image of an object beyond
ER

H
near point, when the object is fig-6(d)
between near point (H) and least
distance of distinct vision (L).
SC

This is possible only when a double convex lens is used.

• How can you decide the focal length of the convex lens to be used?
To find the focal length of lens, let us consider that the object is at
point of least distance of distinct vision (L). Then the defect of vision,
hypermetropia, is corrected when the image of the object at L is formed at
the near point (H) by using a bi-convex lens as shown in fig.-6(d).
This image acts like an object for the eye lens. Hence final image due
to eye is formed at retina (see fig.- 6(d))

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 89

 Here object distance (u) = -25 cm
Image distance (v) = distance of near point = -d
Let ‘f’ be the focal length of bi-convex lens.
1 1 1
Using lens formula, f = −
v u
1 1 1
= −
f − d −25

A
1 1 1
= − +
f d 25

AN
1 ( d − 25 )
f
=
25d
25d

G
f= ( d − 25 ) (f is measured in centimeters)

N
we know that if d > 25cm, then ‘f’ becomes +ve i.e., we need to use
biconvex lens to correct defect of hypermetropia.
LA
Presbyopia
Presbyopia is vision defect when the ability of accommodation of the
TE

eye usually decreases with ageing. For most people the near point gradually
recedes away. They find it difficult to see nearby objects clearly and
distinctly.
T,

This happens due to gradual weakening of ciliary muscles and

diminishing flexibility of the eye lens. This effect can be seen in aged
people. Sometimes a person may suffer from both myopia and
ER

hypermetropia with ageing .

To correct this type of defect of vision we need bi-focal lenses which
are formed using both concave and convex lenses. Its upper portion consists
SC

of the concave lens and lower portion consists of the convex lens.
If you go to an eye hospital to get tested for vision defects, the doctor
gives you a prescription that contains some information regarding type of
lens to be used to correct vision.
• Have you ever observed details in the prescription?
You might have heard people saying “my sight is increased or
decreased”.
• What does it mean?

90 X Class Human Eye and Colourful World

 Usually doctors, after testing for defects of vision, prescribe corrective
lenses indicating their power which determines the type of lens to be used
and its focal length.
• What do you mean by power of lens?

Power of lens:
The degree of convergence or divergence of light rays that can be
achieved by a lens is expressed in terms of its power.

A
The reciprocal of focal length is called power of lens.
Let ‘f’ be the focal length of lens.

AN
1 100
Power of lens P = f (in m); P = f (in cm)

The unit of power is dioptre.

G
It is denoted by the letter ‘D’.

Example1 N
LA
Doctor advised to use 2D lens. What is its focal length?
Solution: Given that power of lens P = 2D
100 100
TE

Using, P = f (in cm); 2 = f

100
Therefore, f = = 50 cm.
2
T,

The lens has focal length, f = 50 cm.

Dispersion and Scattering of Light

ER

You might have seen a rainbow form in the sky just after a rain shower.
It must have fascinated you with spectacular colours appearing as a semi-
circular band of colours.
SC

• How could the white light of the sun give us various colours of the
rainbow?
In previous chapters, you have studied the behaviour of light when it
refracts through plane surface and curved surfaces, such as a lens. You
also studied the nature, position and relative size of image formed by lenses.
• What happens to a light ray when it passes through a transparent
medium bounded by plane surfaces which are inclined to each other?
• What is a prism?

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 91

 Prism
A prism is a transparent medium separated from the surrounding
medium by at least two plane surfaces which are
P inclined at a certain angle in such a way that, light
A incident on one of the plane surfaces emerges
Normal
from the other plane surface. To understand the
d Normal
i1 behaviour of light when it is incident on a plane
M i
ay N
2 of prism and passes through the prism, we need
tr Em
iden

A
Inc er
ge to define certain terms associated with prisms.
nt
ra Consider a triangular glass prism. It contains
y

AN
two triangular bases and three rectangular plane
Q R lateral surfaces. These lateral surfaces are inclined
fig-7
to each other.

G
Let us consider that triangle PQR represents outline of the prism where
it rests on its triangular base. Let us assume that a light ray is incident on

N
the plane surface PQ of a prism at M as shown in fig.-7. Draw a
perpendicular to the surface at M. It becomes a normal to that surface.
LA
The angle between the incident ray and normal is called angle of incidence
(i1). The ray is refracted at M. It moves through prism and meets the other
plane surface at N and finally comes out of the prism. The ray which comes
TE

out of the surface PR at N is called emergent ray. Draw a perpendicular to

PR at point N. The angle between the emergent ray and normal is called
angle of emergence (i2 ).The angle between the plane surfaces PQ and PR
is called the angle of the prism or refracting angle of prism A and the
T,

angle between the incident ray and emergent ray is called angle of
deviation(d).
ER

Let us now take up an activity to study the refraction of light through a

triangular prism.

Lab Activity
SC

Aim: Finding the refractive index of a prism.

Material required: Prism, piece of white chart of size 20x20 cm,
pencil, pins, scale and protractor.
Procedure: Take a prism and place it on the white chart in such a way
that the triangular base of the prism is on the chart. Draw a line around the
prism (boundry) using a pencil. Remove the prism.
• What is the shape of the outline drawn?

92 X Class Human Eye and Colourful World

 It is a triangle. Name its vertices as P,Q, and R.[for many prisms the
triangle formed is equilateral]. The refracting surfaces could be rectangular
in shape. Find the angle between PQ and PR . This is the angle of the prism
(A).
Mark M on the side of triangle PQ and also draw a perpendicular to
PQ at M. Place the centre of the protractor at M and along the normal.
Mark an angle of 300 and then draw a line up to M. This line denotes the
incident ray. This angle is called angle of incidence. Note it in a table (1).

A
Draw a small arrow on it as shown in fig.- 8.
Place the prism in its position

AN
(triangle) again. Now fix two pins Table 1
Angle of Angle of Angle of
vertically on the line at points A and incidence (i )
1
emergence (i 2
) deviation (d)
B as shown in fig.- 8. Look for the

G
images of pins through the prism
from the other side (PR) and fix
another two pins at points C and D
in such a way that all the four pins
N
LA
appear to lie along the same straight P
line. Do it carefully. Now remove A
Normal
the prism and take out pins. Draw a
TE

d
line joining the two pin-holes i
O Normal
1
formed by the pins to meet surface M
N
i
2
B C
‘PR’, this is the emergent ray which A
‘emerges from’ the surface PR at a D
T,

point ‘N’. The angle between the

normal at N and the emergent ray Q R
ER

fig-8
is the angle of emergence. Pin

Measure this angle and note its

value in the table (1).
SC

Now join the points M and N by a straight line. The line passing through
the points A,B, M,N,C and D represents the path of light when it suffers
refraction through the prism.
• How do you find the angle of deviation?
Extend both incident and emergent rays till they meet at a point ‘O’.
Measure the angle between these two rays. This is the angle of deviation.
It is denoted by a letter ‘d’. Note it in table (1). Repeat this procedure for
various angles of incidence such as 400,500 etc. Find the corresponding
angles of deviation and angles of emergence and note them in table (1).

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 93

 • What do you notice from the angles of deviation?
You will notice that the angle of deviation decreases first and then
increases with increase in the angle of incidence.
• Can you draw a graph between angle of incidence and angle of
deviation?
Take angle of incidence along X- axis and the angle of deviation along
Y- axis. Using a suitable scale, mark points on a graph paper for every pair
of angles. Finally join the points to obtain a graph (smooth curve). Check
your graph with graph shown in fig.- 9.

A
• From the graph, can you find the minimum of the angles of deviation?

AN
Yes we can. Draw a tangent line to the curve,
Y
parallel to X- axis, at the lowest point of the graph.
The point where this line cuts the Y- axis gives the
Angle of deviation d

angle of minimum deviation. It is denoted by D. Draw

G
D a parallel line to y-axis through the point where the
tangent touches the graph. This line meets x-axis at
i =i X
N
a point showing the angle of incidence corresponding
LA
1 2

Angle of incidence i
to the minimum deviation. If you do the experiment
1
with this angle of incidence you will get an angle of
fig-9
emergence equal to the angle of incidence. Look at
your table (1).
TE

• Is there any relation between the angle of incidence, angle of

emergence and angle of deviation?
• Can you find refractive index of a prism? If yes, how?
T,

Let us find out.

Derivation of formula for refractive index of a prism

ER

Observe the ray diagram in the fig.- 10(a).

From triangle OMN, we get
d = i1- r1 + i2 – r2
SC

P d = (i1+i2) – (r1+r2) ––—— (1)

A From triangle PMN, we have
O
d A + (900-r1) + (900-r2) = 1800
i1
i
By simplification, we get
M 2
N r1 + r 2 = A ———(2)
r r 1
2
From (1) and (2), we have
d = (i1+i2) – A
Q
fig-10(a)
R A+d = i1+i2 ––——(3)

94 X Class Human Eye and Colourful World

 This is the relation between angle of incidence, angle of emergence,
angle of deviation and angle of prism.
From Snell’s law, we know that n1 sin i = n2 sin r
Let n be the refractive index of the prism.
Using Snell’s law at M, with refractive index of air
n1 =1; i = i1 ; n2 = n ; r = r1 , gives
sin i1 = n sin r1 ———(4)

A
similarly, at N with n1 = n ; i = r2 ; n2 = 1 ; r = i2 , gives

AN
n Sin r2 = Sin i2 ———(5)
We know that at the angle of minimum deviation (D), the angle of
incidence is equal to the angle of emergence i.e., i1 = i2. Observe fig.-
10(b). You will note that MN is parallel to the side QR, actually ray MN is

G
parallel to the base of the prism. (See fig.- 10(b)).

N
When i1 = i2, angle of deviation (d) becomes angle of minimum
deviation (D).
LA
Then equation (3) becomes P
A+D = 2i1
A
TE

( A+D ) D
or i1 = i1
O
i1
2 N
M
When i1 = i2 then, it is clear that r1 = r2 r1 r1

So from equation (2) we get,

T,

2r1 = A
ER

Q R
A fig-10(b)
or r1 =
2
Substituting i1 and r1 in (4) we get
SC

 ( A+D )  A
Sin   = n. Sin  
 2  2

 ( A+D ) 
sin  
 2 
Therefore, n =  A  —(6)
sin  
2

This is the formula for the refractive index of the prism.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 95

 Example 2
A prism with an angle A = 600 produces an angle of minimum deviation
of 300. Find the refractive index of material of the prism.
Solution: Given that A = 600 and D = 300.

 ( A+D ) 
sin  
 2   90° 
sin  
Using n = A =  2 
sin   sin 30°
2

A
1

AN
sin 45° 2
= = 1 = 2
sin 30°
2

G
Bn= 2
thus, the refractive index of the given prism = 2
N
LA
Let us take up a simple activity with prism.
Activity 3
Do this activity in the dark room. Take a prism and place it on the table
TE

near a vertical white wall. Take a thin wooden plank. Make a small hole in
it and fix it vertically on the table. Place the prism between the wooden
plank and wall. Place a white light source behind the hole of the wooden
T,

plank. Switch on the light. The rays coming out of the hole of plank become
a narrow beam of light. Adjust the height of the prism such that the light
falls on one of the lateral surfaces. Observe the changes in emerged rays
ER

of the prism. Adjust the prism by slightly rotating it till you get an image
on the wall.
SC

• What do you observe on the wall?

• Could you get a coloured image on the wall?

• Why does white light split into colours?

• What colours do you see?

• Can you notice any change in the angle of deviation of each colour?

• Which colour has the minimum deviation?

96 X Class Human Eye and Colourful World

 Let us do another activity. Dispersed light
White
Activity 4 light

Take a metal tray and fill it with water. Place a

mirror in the water such that it makes an angle to the
water surface. Now focus white light on the mirror Water
through the water as shown in fig.- 11. Try to obtain
Mirror
colours on a white card board sheet kept above the water Metal
surface. Note the names of the colours you could see tray fig-11

A
in your book.
In activity (3) and (4), we observe that white light is splitting into

AN
certain different colours.
• Is this splitting of white light into colours explained by using ray
theory?

G
It is not possible to explain the splitting of white light into different
colours using ray theory.
• Why is this so? N
LA
Let us see
Dispersion of Light
TE

In activity 3, we observe that the angle of

Red
deviation is minimum for red as compared to the Orange
Yellow
Green
angles of deviation of other colours and Blue
Indigo
T,

maximum for violet. Violet

The splitting of white light into different fig-12

ER

colours (VIBGYOR) is called dispersion.

In our previous discussion, we learnt that for a particular refractive
index of prism there must be only one angle of minimum deviation and
according to Fermat’s principle, light ray always chooses the path of least
SC

time. But in activity-3,we noticed that light has choosen different paths.
• Does this mean that the refractive index of the prism varies from colour
to colour?
• Is the speed of light of each colour different?
The situation we witnessed in activities (3) and (4) rule out ray theory
of light. We can consider that white light is a collection of waves with
different wavelengths. Violet colour is known to have the shortest
wavelength while red is of the longest wavelength.
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 97
 According to wave theory, light can be thought of a wave propagating
in all directions. Light is an electromagnetic wave. Here no particle
physically oscillates back and forth. Instead, the magnitude of electric and
magnetic fields, associated with the electromagnetic wave, vary
periodically at every point. These oscillating electric and magnetic fields
propagate in all directions with the speed of light.
• Can you guess now, why light splits into different colours when it
passes through a prism?

A
The reason lies in the fact that, while the speed of light is constant in

AN
vacuum for all colours, it depends on the wavelength of light when it passes
through a medium. We know that refractive index is the ratio of speeds in
vacuum and in the medium. Consequently, the refractive index of a medium

G
depends on wavelength of light. When white light passes through a medium,
each colour selects its least time path and we have refraction of different

N
colours to different extents. This results in separation of colours, producing
a spectrum on the wall and in the mirror as we saw in activities (3) and (4).
LA
It has been experimentally found that refractive index decreases with an
increase in wavelength. If we compare the wave lengths of seven colours
in VIBGYOR, red colour has longest wavelength and violet colour has
TE

shortest wavelength. The refractive index of red is low hence it suffers

low deviation.
We noticed that when white light passes through a prism, it splits into
seven colours. Let us assume that you have sent a single colour ray through
T,

the prism.
• Does it split into more colours? Why?
ER

We know that the frequency of light is the property of the source and
it is equal to number of waves leaving the source per second. This cannot
be changed by any medium. Hence frequency doesn’t change due to
SC

refraction. Thus coloured light passing through any transparent medium

retains its colour.
While refraction occurs at the interface, the number of waves that are
incident on the interface in a second must be equal to the number of waves
passing through any point taken in another medium. This means that the
frequency of the light wave remains unaltered while its wavelength changes
depending on the medium through which it passes. We know that the relation
between the speed of wave (v), wavelength ( λ) and frequency (υ) is.
v=υλ (frequency denoted by υ)

98 X Class Human Eye and Colourful World

 For refraction at any interface, v is proportional to λ. Speed of the
wave increases with increase in wavelength of light and vice versa.
• Can you give an example in nature, where you observe colours as seen
in activity 3?
Your answer certainly is a rainbow. That is a good example of dispersion
of light.
• When do you see a rainbow in the sky?
• Can we create a rainbow artificially?

A
Let us see how.

AN
Activity 5
Select a white coloured wall on which the sun rays fall. Stand in front
of a wall in such a way that the sun rays fall on your back. Hold a tube

G
through which water is flowing. Place your finger in the tube to obstruct
the flow of water. Water comes out through the small gaps between the

N
tube and your finger like a fountain. Observe the changes on the wall while
the water shower is maintained; you can see colours on the wall.
LA
• How is that you are able to see colours on the Sun l
ight
wall? Water drop

• Are the sun rays coming back to your eyes from

TE

the wall or from water drops?

Let us find out. o
40
The beautiful colours of the rainbow are due o
42
to dispersion of the sunlight by millions of tiny
T,

water droplets. Let us consider the case of an

let
individual water drop. Vio
ER

d
Observe fig.- 13. The rays of sunlight enter the Re
fig-13
drop near its top surface. At this first refraction,
the white light is dispersed into its spectrum of colours, violet being deviated
SC

the most and red the least. Reaching the opposite side of the drop, each
colour is reflected back into the drop because of total internal reflection.
Arriving at the surface of the drop, each colour is again refracted into air.
At the second refraction the angle between red and violet rays further
increases when compared to the angle between those at first refraction.
The angle between the incoming and outgoing rays can be anything
between 00 and about 420. We observe bright rainbow when the angle
between incoming and outgoing rays is near the maximum angle of 420.
Diagrammatically it is shown in fig.- [Link] each drop disperses a

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 99

 full spectrum of colours, an observer is in a position to see only a single
colour from any one drop depending upon its position.
If violet light from a single
drop reaches the eye of an
Sun l observer, red light from the
ight
o
40 Water
drops same drop can’t reach his eye.
It goes elsewhere possibly
o
42
downwards of the eye of the

A
let observer (see in fig.- 14). To see
Vio
Vio
let red light, one must look at the

AN
ed
R drop higher in the sky. The
Re
d colour red will be seen when the
fig-14 angle between a beam of
sunlight and light sent back by a drop is 420. The colour violet is seen

G
when the angle between a sunbeam and light sent back by a drop is 400. If
you look at an angle between 400 and 420, you will observe the remaining
colours of VIBGYOR N
LA
• Why does the light dispersed by the raindrops appear as a bow?
To find answer this question,
Sun light
we need a little geometric
TE

reasoning. First of all, a rainbow

Sun 40
o

42 o is not the flat two dimensional arc

as it appears to us. The rainbow
you see is actually a three
T,

fig-15
dimensional cone with the tip at
your eye as shown in fig.- 15. All the drops that disperse the light towards
ER

you lie in the shape of the cone – a cone of different layers. The drops that
disperse red colour to your eye are on the outer most layer of the cone,
similarly the drops that disperse orange colour to your eye are on the
SC

layer of the cone beneath the red colour cone. In this way the cone
responsible for yellow lies beneath orange and so on it till the violet colour
cone becomes the innermost cone.(see in fig.- 15).

Think and discuss

• Can you imagine the shape of rainbow when observed during travel in an airplane?
Discuss with your friends and collect information.
100 X Class Human Eye and Colourful World
 It is our common experience that the sky appears blue in colour on a
bright dry day.
• Why is the sky blue?
To answer this question, you need to understand another phenomenon
of light called scattering.
• What is scattering?
Let us see
Scattering of Light

A
Scattering of light is a complex phenomenon. Let us try to understand

AN
the idea of scattering.
• Do you know what happens to the free atom or molecule when it is
exposed to certain frequency of light?

G
Atoms or molecules which are exposed to light absorb light energy
and emit some part of the light energy in different directions. This is the
basic process happens in scattering of light.
N
The effect of light on a molecule or an atom depends on the size of
LA
atom or molecule. If the size of the particle (atom or molecule) is small,
it will be affected by higher frequency (lower wave length) light and vice
versa.
TE

Let us consider that a certain frequency of light

is incident on an atom. Then the atom comes into Scattered light
vibration due to this light. This in turn releases or re- Sun light

emits light in all directions with different intensity.

T,

The intensity of light is the energy of light passing

Atom
through unit area of plane, taken normal to the
ER

direction of propagation of light, in one second. fig-16

Let us consider that the free atom or free
molecule is somewhere in space as shown in fig.- 16.
Light of certain frequency falls on that atom or molecule. This atom
SC

or molecule responds to the light whenever the size of the atom or molecule
is comparable to the wave length of light. If this condition is satisfied, the
atom absorbs light and vibrates. Due to these vibrations, the atom re-emits
a certain fraction of absorbed energy in all directions with different
intensities. The re-emitted light is called scattered light and the process
of re-emission of light in all directions with different intensity is called
scattering of light. The atoms or molecules are called scattering centre.
Let us take the angle ‘θ’ between the incident light and a direction in which
the intensity of scattered light is observed, we call this angle as angle of
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 101
 scattering. It is experimentally observed that the intensity of scattered
light varies with angle of scattering. The intensity is maximum at 900 angle
of scattering.
This is the reason for the appearance of clear blue colour when look at
the sky in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the sun rays. If our
angle of view is changed, the intensity of blue colour also changes.
Now you might have got a doubt why scattering of light gives blue
colour only. Why can’t it give other colours?

A
Let us find out whether the scattering centres are responsible for the
blue colour of the sky?

AN
We know that our atmosphere contains different types of molecules
and atoms. The reason for blue sky is due to the molecules N2 and O2. The
sizes of these molecules are comparable to the wavelength of blue light.
These molecules act as scattering centres for scattering of blue light.

G
• Why is that the sky appears white sometimes when you view it in certain
direction on hot days?
N
Our atmosphere contains atoms and molecules of different sizes.
LA
According to their sizes, they are able to scatter different wavelengths of
light. For example, the size of the water molecule is greater than the size
of the N2 or O2. It acts as a scattering centre for other frequencies which
TE

are lower than the frequency of blue light.

On a hot day, due to rise in the temperature water vapour enters into
atmosphere which leads to abundant presence of water molecules in the
atmosphere. These water molecules scatter the colours of other
T,

frequencies (other than blue). All such colours of other frequencies reach
your eye and the sky appears white.
ER

• Can we demonstrate scattering of light by an experiment?

Let us try
Activity 6
SC

Take a solution of sodium-thio-sulphate (hypo) and sulphuric acid in a

glass beaker. Place the beaker in an open place where abundant sun light is
available. Watch the formation of grains of sulphur and observe changes
in the beaker.
You will notice that sulphur precipitates as the reaction is in progress.
At the beginning, the grains of sulphur are smaller in size and as the reaction
progresses, their size increases due to precipitation.
Sulphur grains appear blue in colour at the beginning and slowly their
colour becomes white as their size increases. The reason for this is
102 X Class Human Eye and Colourful World
scattering of light. At the beginning, the size of grains is small and almost
comparable to the wave length of blue light. Hence they appear blue in the
beginning. As the size of grains increases, their size becomes comparable
to wave lengths of other colours. As a result of this, they act as scattering
centres for other colours. The combination of all these colours appears as
white.
• Do you know the reasons for appearance the red colour of sun during
sunrise and at sunset?

A
The atmosphere contains free molecules and atoms with different sizes.
These molecules and atoms scatter light of different wavelengths which

AN
are comparable to their size. Molecules having a size that is comparable to
the wavelength of red light are less in the atmosphere. Hence scattering of
red light is less when compared to the other colours of light. The light
from the sun needs to travel more distance in atmosphere during sunrise

G
and sunset to reach your eye. In morning and evening times, during sunrise

N
and sunset, except red light all colours scatter more and vanish before
they reach you. Since scattering of redlight is very small, it reaches you.
LA
As a result sun appears red in colour during sunrise and sunset.
• Can you guess the reason why sun does not appear red during noon
hours?
TE

During noon hours, the distance to be travelled by the sun rays in the
atmosphere is less than that compared to morning and evening hours.
Therefore all colours reach your eye without much scattering. Hence the
sun appears white during noon hours.
T,

Do you know?
ER

Our beloved scientist and Noble prize winner, Sir C.V.

Raman explained the phenomenon of light scattering in gases
and liquids. He found experimentally that the frequency of
SC

scattered light by the liquids is greater than the frequency of

incident light. This is called Raman Effect. By using this effect
scientists determine the shapes of the molecules. Sir CV Raman

So far, we have learned some ideas of the light such as refraction,

dispersion and scattering. These are wonderful phenomena occuring in our
surroundings. When you observe any phenomena, try to resolve the problem
and appreciate the wonderful world based on the behaviour of light.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 103

 Key words
Least distance of distinct vision, Angle of vision, Accommodation of eye lens,
Myopia, Hypermetropia, Presbyopia, Power of lens, Prism, Angle of prism or
refracting angle of prism, Angle of minimum deviation, Dispersion, Scattering.

What we have learnt

A
• The least distance of distinct vision is about 25cm and the angle of vision is about 600.
•

AN
The ability of eye lens to change its focal length is called accommodation of lens.
• The defect in which people cannot see objects beyond far point is called Myopia.
• The defect in which people cannot see objects situated before near point is called
Hypermetropia.

G
• Presbyopia is a vision defect indicating that the power of accommodation of the eye usually
decreases with ageing.
•
•
N
The reciprocal of focal length is called power of the lens.
LA
The refractive index of prism is given by
n = Sin[(A+D)/2]/Sin(A/2)
where A is angle of prism and D is angle of minimum deviation.
TE

• The splitting of white light into colours (VIBGYOR) depending on the wave lengths is called
dispersion.
• The process of re-emission of absorbed light in all directions with different intensities by atoms
or molecules, is called scattering of light.
T,

Improve your learning

ER

Reflections on Concepts
1. How do you correct the eye defect Myopia? (AS1)
2. Explain the correction of the eye defect Hypermetropia.
SC

(AS1)
3. How do you find experimentally the refractive index of material of a prism? (AS3)
4. Explain the formation of rainbow. (AS1)
5. Explain two activities for the formation of artificial rainbow. (AS3)
6. Light of wavelength λ1 enters a medium with refractive index n2 from a medium with refractive
index n1. What is the wave length of light in second medium? (AS 1)
7. Why does the sky sometimes appear white? (AS 7)
8. A person is viewing an extended object. If a converging lens is placed in front of his eye, will
he feel that the size of object has increased? Why? (AS7)

104 X Class Human Eye and Colourful World

 Application of Concepts B

1) Incident ray on one of the face (AB) of a prism and emergent

ray from the face AC are given in figure -1. Complete the ray

Mirror
diagram.(AS 5)
2) Glass is known to be a transparent material. But ground glass
A C
is opaque and white in [Link]? (AS7)
3) A light ray falls on one of the faces of a prism at an angle 40o so fig-1

that it suffers angle of minimum deviation of 30o. Find the angle

A
of prism and angle of refraction at the given surface.

AN
(Ans:50o, 25o) (AS7)
4) The focal length of a lens suggested to a person with Hypermetropia is 100cm. Find the
distance of near point and power of the lens. (Ans: 33.33cm, 1D ) (AS 7)

G
Multiple choice questions
1) The size of an object as perceived by an eye depends primarily on [ ]
A) actual size of the object N B) distance of the object from the eye
LA
C) aperture of the pupil D) size if the image formed on the retina

2) When objects at different distances are seen by the eye which of the following remain constant?
TE

A) focal length of eye-lens B) object distance from eye-lens [ ]

C) the radii of curvature of eye-lens D) image distance from eye-lens

3) During refraction, ________ will not change. [ ]

T,

A) Wave length B) frequency C) speed of light D) all the above

4) A ray of light falls on one of the lateral surface of an equilateral glass

ER

Q
prism placed on the horizontal surface of a table as shown in fig. R

[Link] minimum deviation of ray, which of the following is true? P S

[ ]
SC

A) PQ is horizontal B) QR is horizontal fig-2

C) RS is horizontal D) either PQ or RS is horizontal

5) Far point of a person is 5m. In order that he has normal vision what kind of spectacles should
he use [ ]
A) Concave lense with focal length 5m B) concave lense with focal length 10m
C) Convex lense with focal length 5m D) convex lense with focal length 2.5m

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 105

 6) The process of re-emission of absorbed light in all directions with different intensities by the
atom or molecule is called [ ]
A) Scattering of light B) dispersion of light C) reflection of light D) refraction of light

Suggested Experiments
1. Conduct an experiment to produce a rainbow in your class room and explain the procedure.
(AS3)
2. Conduct an experiment to find the refractive index of a prism.

A
3. Conduct an experiment to demonstrate the scattering of the light

AN
Suggested Projects

1) Prisms are used in binoculars. Collect information why prisms are used in binoculars. (AS4)

G
2) Collect the information about different types of eye defects from your nearest eye specialist or
optical shop and write a report

N
3) Collect the different types of lenses used for correcting the eye defects and write a report.
4) Collect the information about the dispersion phenomenon occurs in the daily life.
LA
TE
T,
ER
SC

106 X Class Human Eye and Colourful World

 Chapter

A
Structure of Atom

AN
G
N
You have studied in the previous class about sub-atomic particles like
LA
negatively charged electrons, positively charged protons and electrically
neutral neutrons.
• How do these sub-atomic particles coexist in an electrically neutral
TE

atom?
You have acquired some fundamental ideas about atomic models
suggested by J J Thomson, Ernest Rutherford and Niels Bohr which have
been presented in Class 9.
T,

Activity 1
ER

On the basis of your previous knowledge you prepare a model of an

atom.
• Can you arrange the sub-atomic particles in any other way in an atom?
(Take the help of your friends, your teacher and the Internet). Observe
SC

your atomic model and the models of your friends carefully and try to
answer the questions.
• Do all atoms have the same sub-atomic particles?
• Why is an atom of one element different from the atoms of other
elements?
• How are the electrons distributed in of an atom?
To answer the above questions, we need to understand the nature of
light, coloured flames and their characteristics.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 107

 Spectrum
You must have observed the formation of a rainbow.
There are seven colours namely violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow,
orange and red (VIBGYOR) in a rainbow.
You can find the colours spreading continuously and the intensity of
each colour varies from one point to the other.

A
Wave nature of light
• When you throw a stone into a still pond, you observe ripples, which

AN
are transmitting the disturbance in the form of waves on the surface
of water.
• You know that sound waves are produced when something vibrates;

G
like a drum.
• In the same way electromagnetic waves are produced when an
N
electric charge vibrates (moves back and forth).
A vibrating electric charge creates a change in the electric field. The
LA
changing electric field creates a changing magnetic field.
This process continuous, with both the created fields being
TE

perpendicular to each other and at right angles to the direction of

propagation of the wave.
Visible light is an electromagnetic wave and the speed of light (c) is
3 × 108 m s–1.
T,

Characterstics of electromagnetic wave

ER

Wave
length

Electric field
SC

Direction of wave
fig-1: An electromagnetic wave Magnetic field

Electromagnetic energy travelling through a vaccum behaves in

some way like ocean waves travelling through water. Like ocean waves,
electromagnetic energy is characterized by wavelength (λ), and frequency
(υ).
108 X Class Structure of Atom
 The wavelength (λ) of the wave is the distance from one wave peak to
the next. The frequency (υ) of a wave is simply the number of wave peaks
that pass by a given point per unit time, expressed in units of reciprocal
seconds (1/s or s–1). The relation between these quantities is given by
λ∝ 1/υ or c = υλ

It is a universal relationship and applies to all waves. As the frequency

increases, the wavelength becomes smaller.

A
Electromagnetic waves can have a wide variety of frequencies. The

AN
entire range of electromagnetic wave frequencies is known as the
electromagnetic spectrum.
The familiar example of the visible spectrum in nature is the formation
of a rainbow.

G
Each colour in a rainbow is characterized by a specified wavelength

N
from red (higher wavelength) to violet (shorter wavelength). These colours
(wavelengths), that the human naked eye is sensitive to, are called visible
LA
light. The range of wavelengths covering red colour to violet colour is
called the visible spectrum.
TE

Electromagnetic spectrum
Electromagnetic waves can have a wide variety of wavelengths. The
entire range of wavelengths is known as the electromagnetic spectrum.
The electromagnetic spectrum consists of a continuous range of
T,

wavelengths of gamma rays at the shorter wavelength to radio waves at the

longer wavelength. But our eyes are sensitive only to visible light.
ER

10-12 m 10-9 m 10 -6 m 10 -3 m 10 0 m 10 3 m
1 nm 1000 nm 1 mm 1m 1 km
SC

Cosmic x-rays Micro Radio Broadcast

rays waves band
γ−rays UV IR Radar

Short wavelength Long wavelength

Ultraviolet (UV) Infrared (IR) rays

rays Visible light

400 nm 500 nm 600 nm 700 nm

fig-2: Electromagnetic Spectrum

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 109

 • What happens when you heat an iron rod on a flame?
• Do you find any change in colour on heating an iron rod?
When you heat an iron rod, some of the heat energy is emitted as
light. First it turns red (lower energy corresponding to higher wavelength)
and as the temperature rises it glows orange, yellow, blue(higher energy
and of lower wavelength) or even white (all visible wavelengths) if the
temperature is high enough.
• Do you observe any other colour at the same time when one colour is

A
emitted?
When the temperature is high enough, other colours will also be

AN
emitted, but due to higher intensity of one particular emitted colour
(e.g., red), others cannot be observed.
Max Planck broke with the ‘continuous energy’ tradition of

G
electromagnetic energy by assuming that the energy is always emitted in
multiples of hυ;
N
For example: hυ, 2 hυ, 3 hυ... nhυ
That is, the energy for a certain frequency E can be represented by the
LA
equation E = hυ, where ‘h’ is Planck’s constant which has the value
6.626 X 10-34Js and ‘υ’ is the frequency of the radiation absorbed or
emitted.
TE

The energy (E) for the red colour (higher wavelength or lower
frequency) is lower compared to the energy of blue colour (lower
wavelength or higher frequency). The energy emitted from a material body
T,

increases with increase in heat energy.

The significance of Planck’s proposal is that, electromagnetic energy
ER

can be gained or lost in discrete values and not in a continuous manner.

Hence, emission or absorption of light spectrum is a collection of a
group of wavelengths.
• Do you enjoy Deepavali fireworks?
SC

Variety of colours is seen from fireworks.

• How do these colours come from fireworks?
Activity 2
Take a pinch of cupric chloride in a watch glass and make a paste with
concentrated hydrochloric acid. Take this paste on a platinum loop and
introduce it into a non-luminous flame.
• What colour do you observe?
Carry out similar activity with strontium chloride.
110 X Class Structure of Atom
 Cupric chloride produces a green colour
flame while strontium chloride produces a
crimson red flame.
• Do you observe yellow light in street lamps?
Sodium vapours produce yellow light in street
lamps.
• Why do different elements emit different flame
colours when heated by the same non-
luminous flame?

A
Scientists found that each element emits its
Niels Henrik David

AN
own characteristic colour. These colours
Bohr was a Danish physicist
correspond to certain discrete wavelengths of light who made foundational
and are called line spectra. contributions to
The lines in atomic spectra can be used to

G
understanding atomic
identify unknown atoms, just like fingerprints are structure and quantum theory,
used to identify people.
N for which he received
the Nobel Prize in Physics in
LA
Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom and its 1922. Bohr was also
limitations a philosopher and a promoter.

• What does a line spectrum tell us about the

TE

structure of an atom?
Niels Bohr proposed that
electrons in an atom occupy
‘stationary’ orbits (states) of fixed
T,

energy at different distances from

the nucleus.
ER

When an electron ‘jumps’ from

a lower energy state (ground state) fig-3: Hydrogen Spectrum
to higher energy states (excited
SC

state) it absorbs energy or emits energy when such a jump occurs from a
higher energy state to a lower energy state.
The energies of an electron in an atom can have only certain values
E1, E2, E3 ……; that is, the energy is quantized. The states corresponding
to these energies are called stationary states and the possible values of
the energy are called energy levels.
• The lowest energy state of the electron is known as ground state.
• What happens when an electron gains energy?
The electron moves to a higher energy level i.e. to the excited state.
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 111
 • Does the electron retain the energy forever?
The electron loses the energy and comes back to its ground state. The
energy emitted by the electron is seen in the form of electromagnetic
energy and when the wavelength is in the visible region it is visible as an
emission line.
Bohr’s model explains all the line spectra observed in the case of
hydrogen atom. It is a successful model as far as line spectra of hydrogen
atom is concerned.
But the line spectrum of hydrogen atom when observed through a high

A
resolution spectroscope appears as groups of finer lines.

AN
• Did Bohr’s model account for the splitting of line spectra of a hydrogen
atom into finer lines?
Bohr’s model failed to account for splitting of line spectra.

G
Bohr-Sommerfeld model of an atom

N l=0
l=0
LA
l=0

l=0 l=1 l=1

l=1
l=2
TE

l=2
l=3
n=1 n=2 n=3 n=4

fig-4: The allowed electronic orbits for the main Quantum numbers by Bohr - Sommerfeld model
T,

In an attempt to account for the structure (splitting) of line spectra

known as fine spectra, Sommerfeld modified Bohr’s atomic model by
ER

adding elliptical orbits. While retaining the first of Bohr’s circular orbit
as such, he added one elliptical orbit to Bohr’s second orbit, two elliptical
orbits to Bohr’s third orbit, etc., such that the nucleus of the atom is one
of the principal foci of these elliptical orbits. He was guided by the fact
SC

that, in general, periodic motion under the influence of a central force

will lead to elliptical orbits with the force situated at one of the foci.
Bohr-Sommerfeld model, though successful in accounting for the fine
line structure of hydrogen atomic spectra, does not provide a satisfactory
picture of the structure of atom in general.
This model failed to account for the atomic spectra of atoms of more
than one electron.
• Why is the electron in an atom restricted to revolve around the nucleus
at certain fixed distances?
112 X Class Structure of Atom
 Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck was
a German theoretical physicist who originated quantum
theory, which won him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918.
Planck made many contributions to theoretical physics, but
his fame rests primarily on his role as originator of the
quantum theory. This theory revolutionized human
understanding of atomic and subatomic processes.

A
Quantum mechanical model of an atom

AN
• Do the electrons follow defined paths around the nucleus?
If the electron revolves around the nucleus in defined paths or orbits,
the exact position of the electron at various times will be known. For that
we have to answer two questions:

G
• What is the velocity of the electron?
• Is it possible to find the exact position of the electron?
N
Electrons are invisible to naked eye. Then, how do you find the position
and velocity of an electron?
LA
To find articles during dark nights we take the help of torchlight.
Similarly, we can take the help of suitable light to find the position and
velocity of electron. As the electrons are very small, light of very short
TE

wavelength is required for this task.

This short wavelength light interacts with the electron and disturbs the
motion of the electron. Hence, simultaneously the position and velocity
of electron cannot be measured accurately.
T,

From the above discussion, it is clear that electrons do not follow

definite paths in an atom.
ER

Do atoms have a definite boundary, as suggested by Bohr’s model?

If the electrons are not distributed in orbits around the nucleus this
means that an atom does not have a definite boundary.
As a result, it is not possible to pinpoint an electron in an atom.
SC

Under these circumstances in order to understand the properties of

electrons in an atom, a quantum mechanical model of atom was developed
by Erwin Schrodinger.
According to this model of an atom, instead of orbits of Bohr’s model,
the electrons are thought to exist in a particular region of space around the
nucleus at a given instant of time
• What do we call the region of space where the electron might be, at a
given time?
The region of space around the nucleus where the probability of
finding the electron is maximum is called an orbital.
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 113
 In a given space around the nucleus, only certain orbitals can exist.
Each orbital of a stable energy state for the electron is described by a
particular set of quantum numbers.
Quantum numbers
Each electron in an atom is described by a set of three numbers n, l,
and ml .These numbers are called quantum numbers. These numbers
indicate the probability of finding the electron in the space around the
nucleus.
• What information do the quantum numbers provide?

A
The quantum numbers describe the space around the nucleus where

AN
the electrons are found and also their energies. These are called atomic
orbitals.
• What does each quantum number signify?
1. Principal Quantum Number (n)

G
The principal quantum number is related to the size and energy of the
main shell.
N
‘n’ has positive integer values of 1, 2, 3,…
LA
As ‘n’ increases, the shells become larger and the electrons in those
shells are farther from the nucleus.
An increase in ‘n’ also means higher energy. n = 1, 2, 3, ... are often
represented by the letters K, L, M… For each ‘n’ value there is one main
TE

shell.
Shell K L M N
n 1 2 3 4
T,

2. The angular - momentum quantum number (l)

ER

‘l’ has integer values from 0 to n-1 for each value of ‘n’. Each ‘l’ value
represents one sub-shell.
Each value of ‘l’ is related to the shape of a particular sub-shell in the
space around the nucleus.
SC

The value of ‘l’ for a particular sub-shell is generally designated by the

letters s, p, d . . . as follows:
l 0 1 2 3
Name of the sub-shell s p d f
When n = 1, there is only one sub-shell with l = 0. This is designated
as ‘1s’ orbital.
When n = 2, there are two sub-shells, with l = 0, the ‘2s’ sub-shell
and with l = 1, the ‘2p’ sub-shell.
114 X Class Structure of Atom
• What is the maximum value of ‘l’ for n=4?
• How many values can ‘l’ have for n = 4?
3. The magnetic quantum number (ml)
The magnetic quantum number (ml) has integer values between -l and
l, including zero. Thus for a certain value of l, there are (2l +1) integer
values of ml as follows:
-l, (-l+1) . . ., –1, 0, 1, . . . (+l - 1), +l
These values describe the orientation of the orbital in space relative to

A
the other orbitals in the atom.
When l = 0, (2l+ 1) = 1 and there is only one value of ml, thus we have

AN
only one orbital i.e., 1s.
When l= 1, (2l+ 1) = 3, that means ml has three values, namely, -1, 0,
and 1 or three p orbitals, with different orientations along x, y, z axes.

G
These are labelled as px, py, and pz.
Table-1
• Do these three p-orbitals have the same
energy?
N
The number of ‘ml’ values indicates the number
l Sub-
shell
Number of
degenerated
LA
of orbitals in a sub-shell with a particular l value. orbitals
Orbitals in the sub-shell belonging to the same 0 s
shell possess same energy. These are called 1 p
TE

degenerated orbitals.
2 d
Fill the table-1 with the number of degenerated
3 f
orbitals per sub-shell using (2l+1) rule. s-orbital
is spherical in shape, p-orbital is dumbell-shaped and d-orbital are double
T,

dumbell-shaped as shown below.

ER
SC

fig-5: Shapes of orbitals in s, p and d subshells

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 115

 The following table-2 represents the shells, sub-shells and the number
of orbitals in the sub-shells.
Table-2
n l ml sub-shell notation No of orbitals
in the subshell
1 0 0 1s 1
0 0 2s 1
2
1 -1,0,+1 2p 3

A
0 0 3s 1

AN
3 1 -1,0,+1 3p 3
2 -2,-1,0,+1,+2 3d 5
0 0 4s 1

G
1 -1,0,+1 4p 3
4
2 -2,-1,0,+1,+2
N 4d 5
LA
3 -3,-2,-1,0,+1,+2,+3 4f 7

Table-3 Each sub-shell holds a

TE

Sub shells Number of Maximum maximum of twice as many

orbitals (2l+1) number of electrons as the number of
electrons orbitals in the sub-shell.
s (1=0) 1 2
The maximum number of
T,

p (1=1) 3 6 electrons that can occupy

d (1=2) 5 10 various sub-shells is given in the
ER

f (l=3) 7 14 following table.

4. Spin Quantum Number (ms)

SC

The three quantum numbers n, l, and ml describe the size (energy),

shape, and orientation, respectively, of an atomic orbital in space.
As you have observed in the case of street lights (sodium vapour lamp),
yellow light is emitted. This yellow light is comprised of a very closely
spaced doublet when analyzed using high resolution spectroscope.
Alkali and alkaline earth metals show such type of lines.
To account for such a behavior of electron an additional quantum
number is introduced. This is spin quantum number. This represents the
property of the electron. It is denoted by ‘ms’.
116 X Class Structure of Atom
 This quantum number refers to the two possible orientations of the
spin of an electron, one clockwise and the other anticlockwise spin. These
are represented by + ½ and -½. If both are positive values, then the spins
are parallel otherwise the spins are anti-parallel.
The importance of the spin quantum number is seen when electrons
occupy specific orbitals in multi-electron atoms.
• How do electrons in an atom occupy shells, sub-shells and orbitals?
The distribution of electrons in shells, sub-shells and orbital in an
atom is known as electronic configuration.

A
Electronic Configuration

AN
Let us first consider the hydrogen atom for understanding the
arrangement of electrons, as it contains only one electron.
The shorthand notation consists of the principal energy level (n value),

G
the letter representing sub-level (l value), and the number of electrons (x)
in the sub-shell is written as a superscript as shown below:

N
nl x
For the hydrogen (H) atom having atomic number (Z) = 1, the number
LA
of electrons is one, then the electronic configuration is 1s1.
Denotes the number of
electrons in orbital
TE

Denotes the principle

quantum number
1s1
Denotes the angular momentum
quantum number
T,

The electron configuration can also be represented by showing the

spin of the electron.
ER

For the electron in H, as you have seen, the set of quantum numbers is:
n = 1, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = ½ or – ½.

SC

For many-electron atoms, we must know the electron configuration

of the atom. The distribution of electrons in various atomic orbitals
provides an understanding of the electronic behavior of the atom and, in
turn, its reactivity. Let us consider the helium (He) atom.
• Helium (Z=2) atom has two electrons.
• How are these two electrons arranged?
To describe the electronic configuration for more than one electron
in the atom, we need to know three principles:
Those are the Pauli Exclusion Principle, Aufbau principle and Hund’s Rule.
Let us discuss them briefly.
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 117
 The Pauli Exclusion Principle
Helium atom has two electrons. The first electron occupies ‘1s’ orbital.
The second electron joins the first in the 1s-orbital, so the electron
configuration of the ground state of ‘He’ is 1s2.
• Then the question is: What are the spins of these two electrons?
According to Pauli Exclusion Principle no two electrons of the same
atom can have all four quantum numbers the same.
If n, l, and ml are same for two electrons then ms must be different. In
the helium atom the spins must be paired.

A
Electrons with paired spins are denoted by ‘’. One electron has

AN
1 1
ms= + , the other has ms= − . They have anti-parallel spins.
2 2
• How many electrons can occupy an orbital?

G
The major consequence of the exclusion principle involves orbital
occupancy. Since only two values of ms are allowed, an orbital can hold
N
only two electrons and they must have opposite spins.
LA
Hence, the electronic configuration of helium atom is:

1s2 
TE

Aufbau Principle
As we pass from one element to another one of next higher atomic
number, one electron is added every time to the atom.
T,

The maximum number of electrons in any shell is ‘2n2’, where ‘n’ is

the principal quantum number.
ER

The maximum number of electrons in a sub-shell (s, p, d or f) is equal

to 2(2l+1) where l = 0, 1, 2, 3… Thus these sub-shells can have a maximum
of 2, 6, 10, and 14 electrons respectively.
In the ground state the electronic configuration can be built up by
SC

placing electrons in the lowest available orbitals until the total number of
electrons added is equal to the atomic number. This is called the Aufbau
principle (The German word “Aufbau” means “building up.”).Thus orbitals
are filled in the order of increasing energy.
Two general rules help us to predict electronic configurations.
1. Electrons are assigned to orbitals in order of increasing value of (n+l).
2. For sub-shells with the same value of (n+l), electrons are assigned
first to the sub-shell with lower ‘n’.

118 X Class Structure of Atom

 The following diagram shows the increasing
value of (n+l). Ascending order of energies of
various atomic orbitals is given below.
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s <
4d < 5p < 6s < 4f < 5d < 6p < 7s < 5f < 6d < 7p <
8s …
The electronic configuration of some elements
in the increasing atomic number (Z) value is given

A
below.

AN
H(Z=1) 1s1 

G


He(Z=2) 1s2
fig-6: The filling order of

Li(Z=3) 1s22s1 

 N atomic orbitals
(Moeller Chart)
LA




Be(Z=4) 1s22s2

 



TE

B(Z=5) 1s22s22p1

• For carbon (C) atom (Z=6), where does the 6th electron go?
• Whether the electron pairs up in the same p-orbital or will it go to the
T,

next p-orbital?
Hund’s Rule
ER

According to this rule electron pairing in orbitals starts only when all
available empty orbitals of the same energy (degenerate orbitals) are
singly occupied.
SC

The configuration of Carbon (C) atom (Z=6) is 1s22s22p2. The first

four electrons go into the 1s and 2s orbitals. The next two electrons go
into separate 2p orbitals, with both electrons having the same spin

  



Note that the unpaired electrons in the 2p orbitals are shown with
parallel spins.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 119

 Activity 3
Complete the electronic configuration of the following elements.
Table.4
Element Atomic number (Z) Electronic configuration of elements
C 6
N 7
O 8

A
F 9

AN
Ne 10
Na 11
Mg 12

G
Al 13
Si 14
P
S
15
16
N
LA
Cl 17
Ar 18
K 19
TE

Ca 20

Key words
T,

Wave, spectrum, intensity, discrete energy, line spectrum, orbital, quantum numbers,
shell, sub-shell, shapes of orbitals electron spin, electronic configuration, the Pauli’s
ER

exclusion principle, Aufbau principle, Hund’s rule.

What we have learnt

SC

• Light can be characterized by its wavelength (λ) and frequency (υ), and these quantities are
related to the speed of light (c) as: c = υλ.
• Spectrum is a group of wavelengths.
• Electromagnetic energy (Light) can have only certain discrete energy values which is given by
the equation E=hυ
• Electrons in an atom can gain energy by absorbing a particular frequency of light and can lose
energy by emitting a particular frequency.

120 X Class Structure of Atom

• Bohr’s model of atom: Electrons are present in stationary states. The electron moves to higher
energy level if it absorbs energy in the form of electromagnetic energy or moves to a lower
energy state by emitting energy in the form of electromagnetic energy of appropriate frequency.
• Atomic line spectra arise because of absorption /emission of certain frequencies of light energy.
• It is not possible to measure accurately the position and velocity of an electron simultaneously.
• The space around the nucleus where the probability of finding the electron is maximum is called
orbital.
• The three quantum numbers n, l, ml describe the energy, shape and orientation respectively, of

A
an atomic orbital.
• Spin is an intrinsic property of an electron.

AN
• The arrangement of electrons in shells, sub-shells and orbitals in an atom is called the electron
configuration.
• According to Pauli Exclusion Principle no two electrons of the same atom can have all the four

G
quantum numbers same.
• Aufbau principle: The lowest-energy orbitals are filled first.
• N
Hund’s rule: The orbitals of equal energy (degenerate) are occupied with one electron each
before pairing of electrons starts.
LA
Improve your learning
TE

Reflections of concepts
1. What information does the electronic configuration of an atom
provide? (AS1)
T,

2. Rainbow is an example for continuous spectrum – explain. (AS1)

3. How orbital is different from Bohr’s orbit?(AS1)
ER

4. Explain the significance of three Quantum numbers in predicting the positions of an electron
in an atom.(AS1)
5. How we are using the nl x method in writing electronic configuration? (AS1)
SC

6. Which electronic shell is a higher energy level K or L? (AS2)

Application of concepts
1. Answer the following questions.
a. How many maximum number of electrons can be accommodated in a principal energy level?
b. How many maximum number of electrons can be accommodated in a sub shell?
c. How many maximum number of electrons can be accommodated in an orbital?
d. How many sub shells are present in a principal energy level?
e. How many spin orientations are possible for an electron in an orbital? (AS1)

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 121

 2. In an atom the number electrons in M-shell is equal to the number of electrons in the K and
L Shell. Answer the following questions. (AS4)
a. Which is the outer most shell?
b. How many electrons are there in its outermost shell?
c. What is the atomic number of element?
d. Write the electronic configuration of the element.
3. Following orbital diagram shows the electron configuration of nitrogen atom. Which rule
does not support this? N (Z = 7) (AS1)

A
   
  

AN
1s 2
2s 2
2p3

4. Write the four quantum numbers for the differentiating electron of sodium (Na) atom? (AS1)
5. (i) An electron in an atom has the following set of four quantum numbers to which orbital
does it belong

G
n l ml ms
2
N
0 0 +½
LA
(ii) Write the four quantum numbers for 1s1 electron.(AS4)

6. The wave length of a radio wave is 1.0m. Find its frequency.(AS7)

TE

Multiple choice questions

1) An emission spectrum consists of bright spectral lines on a dark back ground. Which one of
the following does not correspond to the bright spectral lines? [ ]
A) Frequency of emitted radiation B) Wave length of emitted radiation
T,

C) Energy of emitted radiations D) Velocity of light

2) The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in the L – shell of an atom is
ER

A) 2 B) 4 C) 8 D) 16 [ ]
3) If l = 1 for an atom then the number of orbitals in its sub-shell is [ ]
A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 0
4) The quantum number which explains about size and energy of the orbit or shell is: [ ]
SC

A) n B) l C) ml D) ms

Suggested Projects
1. Collect the information of historical development of the atomic theory.
2. Collect the information about the scientists who developed the atomic theories.
3. Make the s,p and d orbital models.
4. Collect the information regarding wave lengths and corresponding frequencies of three primary
colours red, blue and green.

122 X Class Structure of Atom

 Chapter

7
Classification of Elements-

A
The Periodic Table

AN
G
A medical shop contains a vast number of medicines. The shop keeper
N
finds it difficult to remember all the names of medicines that he has. When
you go to a medical shop and ask the shopkeeper for a particular medicine,
LA
he hands over it to you without any difficulty. How is it?
Think of a super bazaar. When you step in to it you see a particular
arrangement of goods inside it. When you look for needed grocery, you
TE

can select it easily.

From the above observations you understand that for any system
involving several things, a particular order of arrangement of those things
T,

is essential.
Even in chemistry, from the earliest times, scientists have been trying
to classify the available elements in to a limited number of groups on the
ER

basis of their properties.

Need for the arrangement of elements in an organised manner
SC

Robert Boyle (1661) defined an element as any substance that cannot

be decomposed into a further simple substance by a physical or chemical
change.
At his time, about thirteen elements were known.
Towards the end of the eighteenth century, by the time of Lavoisier
another eleven elements were discovered. By 1865 about sixty three
elements were known and by 1940, a total of ninety one elements from
natural sources and another seventeen elements synthetically were
obtained.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 123

 By now, including synthetic elements, there are more than 118
elements. As the number of elements increased, it became difficult to
keep in memory the chemistries of individual elements and their
compounds.
In previous classes we had learnt the classifications of elements in
metals and non-metals. For example sodium, potasium, etc. are metals
and sulphur, chlorine are non-metals. But this classification had so many
limitations Aluminium has some metallic properties and some non-metallic
properties. Elements of this type are considered as metalloides or semi
metals. So, there was a need to classify them in still better ways. Hence,

A
chemists started to frame ways to group the elements and compounds on
the basis of their physical and chemical properties.

AN
In the beginning of the 18th century Joseph Louis Proust stated that
hydrogen atom is the building material and atoms of all other elements
are simply due to the combination of number of hydrogen atoms. (It is to
be noted that at his time the atomic weights of all elements were given as

G
whole numbers and the atomic weight of hydrogen was taken as one.)
Dobereiner’s law of Triads
N
A German chemist Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner (1829) noted that
there were groups of elements with three elements known as triads in
LA
each group with similar chemical properties. He tried to give a relationship
between the properties of elements and their atomic weights.
Döbereiner stated that when elements with similar properties are taken
three at a time and arranged in the ascending order of their atomic weights,
TE

the atomic weight of the middle element is the average of the atomic
weights of the first and third elements. This statement is called the
Dobereiner’s law of triads.
T,

Activity 1
Observe the following table.
Elements in each row represent a triad.
ER

Group Elements and their Atomic weights Arithmetic mean of Atomic weight
A Lithium (Li) Sodium (Na) Potassium (K) 7.0 + 39.0
––––––––– = 23.0
SC

7.0 23.0 39.0 2

B Calcium (Ca) Strontium(Sr) Barium (Ba)
40.0 88 137.0
C Chlorine (Cl) Bromine (Br) Iodine (I)
35.5 80.0 127.0
D Sulphur (S) Selenium (Se) Tellurium (Te)
32.0 78.0 125.0
E Manganese(Mn) Chromium(Cr) Iron (Fe)
55.0 52.0 56.0
124 X Class Classification of Elements - The Periodic Table
 In the first row you will find that atomic weight of sodium
(Na) is equal to the average of atomic weights of Li and K.
• Can you establish the same relationship with the set of
elements given in the remaining rows?
• Find average atomic weights of the first and third elements
in each row and compare it with the atomic weight of the
middle element.
• What do you observe?

A
Döbereiner’s attempts gave a clue that atomic weights could Döbereiner
be correlated with properties of elements. It made chemists look

AN
at elements in terms of groups of elements with similar chemical and
physical properties. This eventually led to rigorous classification
of elements and to develop modern periodic table of elements.

G
Limitations

N
i. All the known elements at that time could not be arranged in the form of triads.
ii. The law failed for very low mass or for very high mass elements.
LA
In case of F, Cl, Br, the atomic weight of Cl is not an arithmetic mean
of atomic weights of F and Br.
iii. As the techniques improved for measuring atomic masses accurately,
TE

the law was unable to remain strictly valid.

Think and discuss

T,

• What relation about elements did Döbereiner want to establish?

• The densities of calcium (Ca) and barium (Ba) are 1.55 and 3.51 gcm-3
ER

respectively. Based on Dobereiner’s law of triads can you give the

approximate density of strontium (Sr)?
SC

Newlands’ law of Octaves

John Newlands was a British chemist. Newlands (1865) found
that when elements were arranged in the ascending order of their
atomic weights they appeared to fall into seven groups. Each
group contained elements with similar chemical properties.
Based on these observations, Newlands proposed the law of
octaves.
The law of octaves states that when elements are arranged in
the ascending order of their atomic weights they fall into a pattern
Newlands
in which their properties repeat at regular intervals. Every eighth
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 125
 element starting from a given element resembles in its properties to that
of the given element. Elements with similar chemical properties are to be
present along a horizontal row.
Table 1: Newlands’ table of elements (1866).
Element No. Element No. Element No. Element No. Element No. Element No. Element No. Element No.

H 1 F 8 Cl 15 Co&Ni 22 Br 29 Pd 36 I 42 Pt&Ir 50
Li 2 Na 9 K 16 Cu 23 Rb 30 Ag 37 Cs 44 Os 51

A
G 3 Mg 10 Ca 17 Zn 24 Sr 31 Cd 38 Ba&V 45 Hg 52

AN
Bo 4 Al 11 Cr 19 Y 25 Ce&La 33 U 40 Ta 46 Tl 53
C 5 Si 12 Ti 18 In 26 Zr 32 Sn 39 W 47 Pb 54
N 6 P 13 Mn 20 As 27 Di&Mo34 Sb 41 Nb 48 Bi 55

G
O 7 S 14 Fe 21 Se 28 Ro&Ru 35 Te 43 Au 49 Th 56

N
Newlands was the first to assign numbers to the elements.
LA
Unfortunately his work was neither accepted by his seniors nor by the
Journal of the Chemical Society, which rejected its publication.
In Newlands’ table of elements, if we start with hydrogen and move
TE

down to oxygen and then start at the top the eighth element from hydrogen
is fluorine and next eighth element is chlorine and so on. The properties
of hydrogen, fluorine and chlorine are similar.
T,

Similarly, if you start at lithium, then eighth element is sodium and

next coming eighth is potassium and so on. These elements show similar
physical and chemical properties for example they are reactive metals.
ER

Think and discuss

SC

• Do you know why Newlands proposed the law of octaves? Explain your
answer in terms of the modern structure of the atom.
• Do you think that Newlands’ law of octaves is correct? Justify

Newlands’ table is not without problems.

• There are instances of two elements fitted into the same slot, e.g.
cobalt and nickel.
• Certain elements, totally dissimilar in their properties, were fitted into
the same group.
126 X Class Classification of Elements - The Periodic Table
 For example he arranged Co, Ni, Pd, Pt and Ir which have different
properties compared with halogens in the same row (F, Cl, Br, I). (see
Newlands’ first horizontal row)
Newlands periodic table was restricted to only 56 elements and did
not leave any room for new elements. Elements that were discovered later
could not be fitted into Newlands table in accordance with their properties.
Newlands attempted to link the periodicity of the chemical properties
of elements with the periodicity found in the music. In musical scale any

A
note in a key is separated from its octave by an interval of seven notes.
This must have made him to force to arrange all the elements into this

AN
active pattern sometimes without caring the similarities.

Do you know?

G
Are you familiar with musical notes?
In the Indian system of music, there are seven musical notes in a scale – sa, re

N
ga, ma, pa, da, ni. In the west, they use the notations - do, re, mi, fa, so, la, ti.
Naturally, there must be some repetition of notes. Every eighth note is similar to
LA
the first one and it is the first note of the next scale.

Mendeleeff’s Periodic Table

TE

Mendeleeff arranged the elements known at that time

in a chart in a systematic order in the increasing order of
their atomic weights refer to table 2 the modified
T,

Mendeleef’s periodic table 2a . He divided the chart into 8

vertical columns known as groups. Each group is divided
into A, B sub groups. Each column contained the elements
ER

of similar chemical properties. It is said that elements in a

group have similar properties and elements along periods
(horizontal rows) have different properties.
SC

The elements in the first column, for example, react

with oxygen to form compounds with the general formula Mendeleeff
R2O. For example, Li, Na and K when react with oxygen and
form compounds Li2O, Na2O and K2O respectively.
Elements of the second column react with oxygen to form compounds
with the general formula RO. For example, Be, Mg and Ca when react with
oxygen form BeO, MgO and CaO.
Mendeleeff tried to explain the similarities of elements in the same
group in terms of their common valency.
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 127
 The Periodic Law
Based on Mendeleeff’s observations regarding the properties of
elements in the periodic table, a law known as the periodic law of the
properties of elements was proposed as follows.
“The law states that the physical and chemical properties of the
elements are periodic functions of their atomic weights.”
Table-2(a) : Mendeleeff’s Periodic Table (1871 version)
Gruppe IV. Gruppe V. Gruppe VI. Gruppe VII. Gruppe VIII.
Reihen

Gruppe I. Gruppe II. Gruppe III.

– – – RH4 RH3 RH2 RH –––
R2O RO R 2O3 RO2 R2O5 RO3 R2O7 RO4

A
1 H=1

AN
2 Li=7 Be=9.4 B=11 C=12 N=14 O=16 F=19
3 Na=23 Mg=24 Al=27.3 Si=28 P=31 S=32 Cl=35.5
4 K=39 Ca=40 –=44 Ti=48 V=51 Cr=52 Mn=55 Fo=56, Co=59
Ni=59, Cu=63

G
5 (Cu=63) Zn=65 –=68 –=72 As=75 So=78 Br=80
6 Rb=85 Sr=87 ?Yt=88 Zr=90 Nb=94 Mo=96 –=100 Ru=104, Rh=104
Pd=106, Ag=108
7
8
(Ag=108)
Cs=133
Cd=112
Ba=137
In=113
?Di=138 N
Sn=118
?Ce=140 –
Sb=122
–
Te=125
–
I=127
– – – –
LA
9 (–) – – – – – –
10 – – ?Ek=178 ?La=180 Ta=182 W=184 – Os=195, Ir=197,
Pt=198, Au=199
TE

11 (Au=198) Hg=200 Tl=204 Pb=207 Bi=208 – –

12 – – – Th=231 – U=240 – – – – –

Table-2(b) :
T,
ER
SC

128 X Class Classification of Elements - The Periodic Table

 Salient features and achievements of the Mendeleeff’s periodic
table
1. Groups and sub-groups: There are eight vertical columns in
Mendeleeff’s periodic table called groups. They are represented by
Roman numerals I to VIII. Elements present in a given vertical column
(group) have similar properties. Each group is divided into two sub-
groups ‘A’ and ‘B’. The elements within any sub-group resemble one
another to a greater extent. For example, sub-group IA elements called

A
‘alkali metals’ (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs) resemble each other very much in
their properties.

AN
2. Periods: The horizontal rows in Mendeleeff’s periodic table are called
periods. There are seven periods in the table, which are denoted by
Arabic numerals 1 to 7. Elements in a period differ in their properties

G
from one another. A period comprises the entire range of elements
after which properties repeat themselves.
N
3. Predicting the properties of missing elements: Based on the
arrangement of the elements in the table he predicted that some
LA
elements were missing and left blank spaces at the appropriate places
in the table.
Mendeleeff believed that some new elements would be discovered
TE

definitely. He predicted the properties of these new additional elements

in advance entierly depending on his table. His predicted properties were
almost the same as the observed properties of those elements after their
discovery.
T,

He named those predicted elements tentatively by adding the prefix

‘eka’ (eka is a Sanskrit word for numeral one) to the name of the element
ER

immediately above each empty space. The predicted properties of elements

namely eka-boron, eka-aluminium and eka-silicon were almost same as
those of scandium, gallium and germanium respectively which were
discovered later.
SC

Table-3
S. Property Predicted property by Observed property
No. Mendeleeff
Eka-Aluminium (Ea) Eka-Silicon (Es) Gallium (1875) Germanium (1886)

1 Atomic weight 68 72 69.72 72.59

2 Density 5.9 5..5 5.94 5.47
3 Formula of oxide Ea2O3 EsO2 Ga2O3 GeO2
4 Formula of chloride EaCl3 EsCl4 GaCl3 GeCl4

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 129

 Do you know?
Do you know what Mendeleeff said about the melting point of eka Al?
‘If I hold it in my hand, it will melt’. The melting point of Ga is 30.2oC and our
body temprature 37oC.

4. Correction of atomic weights: The placement of elements in

Mendeleeff’s periodic table helped in correcting the atomic masses
of some elements like, beryllium, indium and gold.

A
For example, at the time of Mendeleeff, beryllium (Be) was given

AN
atomic weight 13.5.
Atomic weight = equivalent weight × valency
The equivalent weight of Be was found experimentally as 4.5 and its
valency was thought as 3. Therefore, the atomic weight of beryllium

G
was given at that time as 4.5 × 3 = 13.5. With this atomic weight it had
to be placed in a wrong group in the table. He said that its valency
N
should be only 2. Then its atomic weight would be 4.5 × 2 = 9. If
atomic weight of ‘Be’ is 9 it would be fit in the second group and its
LA
properties practically are similar to Mg, Ca etc., of the second group
elements. He also helped in the calculation of the correct atomic
weights of ‘Indium’ and ‘Gold’ in this manner.
TE

5. Anomalous series: Some anomalous series of elements like ‘Te’ and

‘I’ were observed in the table. The anomalous series contained elements
with more atomic weights like ‘Te’ (127.6 U) placed before the
elements with less atomic weights like ‘I’ (126.9 U). Mendeleeff
T,

accepted minor inversions in the order of increasing atomic weights

as these inversions resulted in elements being placed in the correct
ER

groups.
It was the extraordinary thinking of Mendeleeff that made the chemists
to accept the periodic table and recognise Mendeleeff more than anyone
SC

else as the originator of the periodic law.

Do you know?
At the time when Mendeleeff introduced his periodic table even electrons were
not discovered. Even then the periodic table was able to provide a scientific base
for the study of chemistry of elements. In his honour the 101th element was named
Mendelevium.

130 X Class Classification of Elements - The Periodic Table

Limitations of Mendeleeff’s periodic table
1. Anomalous pair of elements: Certain elements of highest atomic
weights precede those with lower atomic weights.
For example, tellurium (atomic weight 127.6) precedes iodine (atomic
weight 126.9).
2. Dissimilar elements placed together: elements with dissimilar
properties were placed in same group as sub-group A and sub-group B.
For example, alkali metal like Li, Na, K etc., of IA group have little

A
resemblance with coinage metals like Cu, Ag, Au of IB [Link] is of
VII A group and ‘Mn’ is of VII B, but chlorine is a non metal, where as

AN
manganese is a metal.

Think and discuss

G
• Why Mendeleeff had to leave certain blank spaces in his periodic table?

•
What is your explanation for this?
N
What is your understanding about Ea2O3, EsO2?
LA
Think and discuss
TE

• All alkali metals are solids but hydrogen is a gas with diatomic
molecules. Do you justify the inclusion of hydrogen in first group with
alkali metals?
T,

Modern Periodic Table

ER

H.J. Moseley (1913) found that each element emits a

characteristic pattern of X-rays when subjected to
bombardment with high energy electrons. By analyzing the X-
ray patterns, Moseley was able to calculate the number of
SC

positive charges in the atoms of respective elements. The

number of positive charges (protons) in the atom of an element
is called the atomic number of the element. With this analysis
Moseley realised that the atomic number(Z) is more
fundamental characteristic of an element than its atomic weight.
After knowing the atomic numbers of elements, it was
recognized that a better way of arranging the elements in the
H.J. Moseley
periodic table is according to the increasing atomic number.
This arrangement eliminated the problem of anomalous series. For
example, though tellurium (Te) has more atomic weight than iodine (I), it
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 131
 has atomic number less by one unit compared to iodine. This atomic
number concept forced the periodic law to be changed.
The periodic law is changed from atomic weight concept to atomic
number concept and now it is called the modern periodic law.
We know that Mendeleeff’s periodic law is stated as “The properties
of elements are the periodic functions of their atomic weights”. Now, let
us try to understand modern periodic law.
The modern periodic law may be stated as “the properties of the
elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers.”

A
Based on the modern periodic law, the modern periodic table which is
given here (page 132) is proposed. It is the extension of the original

AN
Mendeleeff’s periodic table known as short form of the table and this
modern table is called the long form of the periodic table. It is given in
fig (2). Atomic number of an element (Z) indicates not only the positive
charges i.e., the protons in the nucleus of the atom of the element but also

G
the number of electrons in the neutral atom of that element.
The physical and chemical properties of atoms of the elements depend
N
not on the number of protons but on the number of electrons and their
arrangements (electronic configurations) in atoms. Therefore, the modern
LA
periodic law may be stated as “The physical and chemical properties of
elements are the periodic functions of the electronic configurations of
their atoms.”
TE

Positions of elements in the Modern Periodic Table

The modern periodic table has eighteen vertical columns known as
groups and seven horizontal rows known as periods.
Let us see what decides the position of an element in modern periodic
T,

table.
We can explain the classification of the elements in the modern
ER

periodic table in terms of certain electron arrangements which are

periodically repeated. The elements with similar outer shell (valence shell)
electronic configurations in their atoms are in the same column called
group. Elements listed in a group down to it are in the order of their
SC

increasing principal quantum numbers.

In the chapter ‘Structure of atom’ you have learnt that ‘s’ sub-shell
with one orbital contains a maximum of two electrons. Each ‘p’ sub-shell
contains 3 orbitals and accommodates a maximum of six electrons. The‘d’
sub-shell contains 5 orbitals and accommodates a maximum of 10 electrons
and ‘f’ sub-shell contains 7 orbitals with 14 electrons maximum. Depending
upon to which sub-shell the differentiating electron. i.e., the last coming
electron enters in the atom of the given element, the elements are classified
as ‘s’ ‘p’, ‘d’ and ‘f’ block elements.
For example, sodium (Na) gets its new coming electron (differentiating
132 X Class Classification of Elements - The Periodic Table
 A
AN
G
N
LA
TE
T,
ER
SC

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 133

 electron) into 3s level. Therefore ‘Na’ is an s-block element.
Aluminium (Al) gets its differentiating electron into ‘p’ subshell and it is
a p-block element. Scandium (Sc) gets its differentiating electron into
‘d’ subshell. Therefore it is a d-block element. Cerium (Ce) gets its new
coming electron into ‘f’ subshell, hence,it is an f-block element.
Let us observe the electronic configurations of the following elements.
The last coming electron is underlined.
11
Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
Al 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1

A
13

21
Sc 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1

AN
58
Ce 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 5d1 4f2
Z Elements n 1 2 3 4 5 6

G
l 0 0 1 0 1 2 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0
Sub 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 4p 4d 4f 5s 5p 5d 5f 6s
Shell
11
13
Na
Al
2
2
2
2
6
6
1
2
N 1
LA
21 Sc 2 2 6 2 6 1 2
58 Ce 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 1 2 6 1 2
TE

Table-4
Groups
The vertical columns in the periodic table are known as groups. There
are eighteen groups in long form of periodic table. They are represented
by using Roman numeral I through VIII with letters A and B in traditional
T,

notation.
According to latest recommendation of the IUPAC, these groups are
ER

represented by Arabic numerals 1 through 18 with no A and B designations.

We use the latest system with the traditional heading following in
parenthesis.
Eg: Group 2 (II A); Group 16 (VI A)
SC

Group of elements is also called element family or chemical family.

For example Group 1 (IA) has from Li to Fr with outer shell electronic
configuration ns1 and is called Alkali metal family.
Activity 2
Some main group elements of s-block and p-block have family names
as given in the following table.
Observe the long form of the periodic table and complete the table
with proper information.

134 X Class Classification of Elements - The Periodic Table

 Table-5
Group Name of the Elements Valence Valence Valency
element family shell
No. configuration electrons
From To
1 (IA) Alkali metal family Li Fr ns1 1 1
2 (IIA) Alkali earth metal family
13 (IIIA) Boron family
14 (IVA) Carbon family

A
15 (VA) Nitrogen family
16 (VIA) Oxygen family or

AN
(Chalcogen family)
17 (VIIA) Halogen family
18 (VIIIA) Noble gas family

G
Periods
The horizontal rows in the periodic table are called periods. There are
N
seven periods in the modern periodic table. These periods are represented
by Arabic numerals 1 to 7.
LA
1. The number of main shells present in the atom of particular element
decides to which period it belongs. For example, hydrogen (H) and
helium (He) atoms contain only one main shell (K). Therefore they
TE

belongs to period-1. Similarly, the elements Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F and

Ne contain two main shells (K and L) in their atoms. Therefore they
belong to period-2.
T,

Do you know?
• Do you know how the names of certain families of elements are derived?
ER

Alkali metal family: aliquili = plant ash, Na, K etc.... were obtained from plant
ash, group IA elements are called alkali metals family.
Chalcogen family: chalcogenous = ore product, as the elements in group
16(VIA) form ores with metals. They are called chalcogenous family.
SC

Halogen family: halos = sea salt, genus = produced. As most of the elements in
group 17(VIIA) are obtained from nature as sea salt. They are called as halogen
family.
Noble gases: as the elements of group 18(VIIIA) are chemically least active.
They are called as noble gases. There outer shell electronic configurations are
basis for octet rule.

2. The number of elements in period depend on how electrons are filled

into various shells. Each period starts with a new main shell ‘s’ subshell
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 135
 and ends when the main shell is filled with respect to the ‘s’ and ‘p’
subshells (except the first period).
The first period starts with K-shell. The first main shell (K) contains
only one sub-shell, the (1s). For this subshell only two types of
electronic configurations are possible and they are 1s1 (H) and 1s2
(He). Therefore, the first period contains only two elements.
3. Second period starts with the 2nd main shell (L). L-shell has two sub-
shells, namely, 2s and 2p. Eight types of configurations are possible
in this shell (L) like 2s1 and 2s2 and 2p1 to 2p6. Hence the second
period contains 8 elements Li, Be, B, C, N O, F and Ne in the order

A
given. Thus, the 2nd period consists two s-block elements (Li, Be) and
six p-block elements (B to Ne).

AN
4. Third period starts with third main shell (M). This shell (M) has 3 sub-
shells, namely, 3s, 3p and 3d, but while electrons are being filled into
the shell ‘3d’ gets electrons only after ‘4s’ is filled. Therefore, the 3rd
period contains again 8 elements, which includes two s-block elements

G
(Na, Mg) and six p-block elements (Al to Ar).
5. Fourth main shell (N). This shell (N) has four sub-shells namely 4s,
4p, 4d and 4f, but while electrons are being filled into the shell,
N
electrons enter the atoms in the order 4s, 3d and 4p. Due to this, the
fourth period contains 18 elements which includes two s-block (K,
LA
Ca), 10 elements from d block (Sc to Zn) and six elements from p-
block (31Ga to 36 Kr). There are altogether eighteen elements in the
fourth period.
TE

On the same lines, we can explain why there are 18 elements in the
fifth period (37Rb to 54Xe).
There are thirty two elements in the Sixth period from 55Cs to 86 Rn
which includes 2 elements from s-block (6s) 14 elements from
f-block (4f) 10 elements from d-block (5d) and 6 elements from
T,

p-block (6p).
‘4f’ elements are called Lanthanoids or lanthanides. Elements from
ER

Do you know?
‘Ide’ means ‘heir’ and it is used generally for a change like Cl to Cl-. ‘Cl’ is
SC

chlorine atom and Cl- is chloride ion. ‘Oid’ means ‘the same’.
Some scientists suggest lanthanoids as 57La to 70Yb, some suggest them as
58
Ce to 71Lu and some take 57La to 71Lu (15 elements). There is another argument
that even 21Sc and 39Y should be included in lanthanoids. All these suggestions have
substance because 21Sc, 39Y and 57La to 71Lu all have the similar outer shells
configurations.
Also in the case of actinoids. There are different arguments like actinoids are
from 90Th to 103Lr or 89Ac to 102No or 89Ac to 103Lr.

136 X Class Classification of Elements - The Periodic Table

58
Ce to 71Lu possess almost the same properties as 57 La. So, the name
lanthanoids is the most appropriate one for these elements.
7th period is incomplete and contains 2 elements from s-block (7s) 14
elements from f-block (5f), 10 elements from d-block (6d) and some
elements from p-block (7p). The 5f elements are called Actinoids or as
Actinides. They are from 90Th to 103Lr .
The f-block elements known as lanthanoids and actinoids are shown
separately at the bottom of the periodic table.

A
Think and discuss

AN
• Why lanthanoids and actinoids placed separately at the bottom of the
periodic table?
• If they are inserted within the table imagine how the table would be?

G
Metals and Non metals

N
You have learnt about the properties of metals in the chapter Metals
and Non Metals in class VIII. Let us study the metallic properties of
LA
elements in periodic table.
The elements with three or less electrons in the outer shell are
considered to be metals and those with five or more electrons in the outer
shell are considered to be non metals. We may find some exceptions to
TE

this. ‘d’ block elements (3rd group to 12th group) are metals and they are
also known as transition metals and the metallic character of d-block
elements decreases gradually from left to right in periodic table.
Lanthanoids and actinoids actually belong to 3rd group (III B) which is within
T,

the transition elements: hence they are called the inner transition elements.
Metalloids or semi-metals are elements which have properties that
ER

are intermediate between the properties of metals and non metals. They
possess properties like metals but are brittle like non metals. They are
generally semi conductors. Eg: B, Si, As, Ge.
All elements in s-block are metals, whereas in p-block (except 18th
SC

group) there are metals, non metals and metalloids. In periodic table you
will notice a staircase like demarcation. The elements to the left of this
demarcation are metals and to the right are non-metals. The elements on
staircase (or) very near to it like B, Si, As, Ge etc., are metalloids.
Periodic properties of the elements in the modern table
The modern periodic table is organized on the basis of the electronic
configuration of the atoms of elements. Physical and chemical properties
of elements are related to their electronic configurations particularly the
outer shell configurations. The atoms of the elements in a group possess

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 137

 similar electronic configurations. Therefore, we expect all the elements
in a group should have similar chemical properties and there should be a
regular gradation in their physical properties from top to bottom.
Similarly, across the table, i.e., from left to right in any period elements
get an increase in the atomic number by one unit between any two successive
elements. Therefore, the electronic configuration of valence shell of any
two elements in a given period is not same. Due to this reason elements
along a period possess different chemical properties with regular gradation
in their physical properties from left to right. To understand this we will
take some properties of elements and discuss how they vary in groups and

A
in periods.
Properties of elements and their trends in Groups and in Periods

AN
1. Valence: Valence (or) valency of an element was defined as the
combining power of an element with respect to hydrogen, oxygen or
indirectly any other element through hydrogen and oxygen.
Valence of an element with respect to hydrogen is the number of

G
hydrogen atoms with which one atom of that element chemically combines.
Valence of an element with respect to oxygen is twice the number of
N
oxygen atoms with which one atom of that element combines. Note that
the group number of an element gives the maximum valence of that element
LA
as per old notation that is I to VIII groups but it is 18-group number as per
IUPAC numbering.
For example one atom of ‘Na’ chemically combines with one atom of
‘H’ to give NaH. Therefore, the valence of Na is 1. One atom of ‘Ca’
TE

combines with one atom of ‘O’ to give CaO. So the valency of Ca is 2.

In general, the valence of an element with respect to hydrogen is its
traditional group number. If the element is in the group V or above, its
valence is 8– group number. For example, chlorine valence is 8-7 = 1.
T,

In general, each period starts with valency 1 for 1st group elements,
increases upto 4 with respect to the group number and then decreases
from 4 to 3 to 2 to 1 to zero in the following groups (this is applicable
ER

only for main group elements i.e., ‘s’ and ‘p’ block elements with respect
to hydrogen.
Now a days the valence of an elment is generally taken as the number
of valence shell (outer most shell) electrons in its atom. Oxidation number
SC

concept almost is the latest subsititute to the valence concept in the modern
literature.
Activity 3
• Find out the valencies of first 20 elements.
• How does the valency vary in a period on going from left to right?
• How does the valency vary on going down a group?
Atomic radius
Atomic radius of an element may be defined as the distance from the
centre of the nucleus of the atom to its outermost shell.
138 X Class Classification of Elements - The Periodic Table
 Atomic radius of an element is not possible to measure in its isolated
state. This is because it is not possible to determine the location of the
electron that surrounds the nucleus. However, we can measure the distance
between the nuclei of adjacent atoms in a solid. From this we can estimate
the size of the atom by assigning half of this distance to the radius of each
atom. This method is best suited to elements such as the metals that exist
in the solid state. More than 75 percent of the elements are metals and
atomic radii of metals are called metallic radii. Another way of estimating

A
the size of an atom is to measure the distance between the two atoms in
covalent molecules. The size of a chlorine atom is estimated by measuring

AN
the length of the covalent bond between two chlorine atoms in a Cl2
molecule. Half of this distance is taken as atomic radius which is called
as the covalent radius of chlorine atom.

G
Atomic radius is measured in ‘pm’ (pico meter) units.
1 pm = 10-12m

Variation of atomic radii in group N

LA
Atomic radii increase from top to bottom in a group (column) of the
periodic table. As we go down in a group, the atomic number of the element
increases. Therefore to accommodate more number of electrons, more
TE

shells are required. As a result the number of shells in a group from top to
bottom increases. The distance between the nucleus and the outer shell of
the atom increases. Hence the atomic size increases with atomic number
T,

when we go down the group.

Table-6
ER

Group Element (atomic radius in pm)

Group1: Li (152), Na (186), K (231), Rb (244) and Cs (262)

Group 17: F (64), Cl (99), Br (114), I (133) and At (140)
SC

Variation of atomic radii in period

Atomic radii of elements decrease across a period from left to right.
As we go to right, electrons enter into the same main shell or even inner
shell in case of ‘d’ block and ‘f’ block elements. Therefore, there should
be no change in distance between nucleus and outer shell but nuclear charge
increases because of the increase in the atomic number of elements in
period. Hence, the nuclear attraction on the outer shell electrons increases.
As a result the size of the atom decreases.
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 139
 Table-7
Period Element (atomic radius in pm)

2nd period Li (152), Be (111), B (88), C (77), N (74), O (66), F (64)

3rd period Na (186), Mg (160), Al (143), Si (117), P(110), S(104), Cl(99)

• Do the atom of an element and its ion have same size?

Let us consider the following situation.
Assume that sodium (Na) atom has lost an electron and formed a cation

A
of sodium (Na+).

AN
Which one between Na and Na+ would have more size? Why?
Atomic number of sodium (Na) is 11. Therefore sodium (Na) atom
contains 11 protons and 11 electrons with outer electron as 3s1. On the

G
other hand Na+ ion has 11 protons but only 10 electrons. The 3s shell of
Na+ level has no electron in it. Hence its outer shell configuration is

N
2s2 2p6. As proton number is more than electrons in it, the nucleus of Na+
ion attracts outer shell electrons with strong nuclear force. As a result the
LA
Na+ ion shrinks in size. Therefore, the size of Na+ ion is less than ‘Na’
atom. In general the positive ion (cation) of an element has less size than
its neutral atom Eg. Na (157pm) Na+ (98pm); K (203pm) K+(133pm); Mg
TE

(136pm) Mg2+(65pm); Al (125pm) Al3+(50pm) for neutral atoms covalent

radiai are give.
Consider another example: Assume that chlorine (Cl) atom has
T,

gained an electron to form anion of chlorine (Cl –) i.e. chloride ion.

• Which one, between Cl and Cl – would have more size? Why?
ER

Electronic configuration of chlorine (Cl) atom is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
and the electronic configuration of chloride (Cl –) ion is 1s2 2s2 2p6
3s2 3p6. Both chlorine and chloride ion have 17 protons each but there are
SC

17 electrons in chlorine atom, where as 18 electrons in chloride ion.

Therefore, the nuclear attraction is less in Cl – ion when compared with
chlorine atom. Therefore the size of the chlorine (Cl) atom is less size
than Cl- ion. In general negative ion (anion) of an element has bigger size
than its neutral atom.
Chloride ion of Cl (99pm) Cl – (181pm); F (64pm) F– (133pm); O
(73pm) O2- (140pm); N (75pm) N3- (171pm);
• Which one in each of the following pairs is larger in size?
(a) Na, Al (b) Na, Mg+2 (c) S2-, Cl – (d) Fe2+, Fe3+ (e) C4-, F –
140 X Class Classification of Elements - The Periodic Table
Ionization Energy
The energy required to remove an electron from the outer most orbit
or shell of a neutral gaseous atom is called ionization energy. The energy
required to remove the first electron from the outer most orbit or shell of
a neutral gaseous atom of the element is called its first ionization energy.
The energy required to remove an electron from uni- positive ion of the
element is called the 2nd ionization energy of that element and so on.

A
M(g) + IE1 M+(g) + e- (IE1= first ionization energy)

AN
M+(g) + IE2 M+2(g) + e- (IE2= second ionization energy)

Think and discuss

G
• Second ionization energy of an element is higher than its first ionization
energy. why?
N
Ionization energy of an element depends on its
LA
1. Nuclear charge: more the nuclear charge more is the ionization
energy.
TE

eg:Between 11Na and 17Cl, Chlorine atom has more ionization energy.
2. Screening effect or sheilding effect: more the shells with
electrons between the nucleus and the valence shell, they act as screens
and decrease nuclear attraction over valence electrons. This is called the
T,

screening effect. More the screening effect, less is the ionization energy.
Between 3Li and 55Cs, the element 55Cs with more inner shells has less
ER

ionization energy.
3. Penetration power of the orbitals: orbitals belonging to the same
main shell have different piercing power towards the nucleus, for examle
SC

4s>4p>4d>4f in the penetration. There fore, it is easier to remove 4f

electron than 4s. Between 4Be 1s2 2s2 and 5B 1s2 2s2 2p1, the element B has
less ionization energy due to less penetration power of ‘2p’ compared to
‘2s’
4. Stable configuration: it is easier to remove one electron from 8O
(1s22s22p4) than 7N (1s22s22p3). This is because, 7N has stable half filled
configuration.
5. Atomic radius: more the atomic radius, less is the ionization energy.
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 141
 Therefore, ionization energy of ‘F’ is greater than that of ‘I’ and the
ionization energy of ‘Na’ is more than that of ‘Cs’.
Ionization energy decreases as we go down in a group and generally
increases from left to right in a period.
Ionization energy is expressed in kJ mol-1
Ionization energy is also called the ionization potential but when we use
the term the ionization potential, it is better to write the unit eV atom–1.

A
Ionisation Energy Values are given in the following table in KJ/mol.
H He

AN
1312.1 2372.3

Li Be B C N O F Ne
520.2 899.5 800.6 1086.5 1402.3 1313.9 1681 2080.7

G
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
495.9 737.7 577.5 786.5 1011.8 999.6 1251.5 1520.6

K
418.8
Ca
589.8
Ga
578.8
N Ge
762
As
947
Se
940.9
Br
1139.9
Kr
1350.8
LA
Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I Xe
403.0 549.5 558.2 708.4 834 869.3 1008.4 1170.4
TE

IONIZATION POTENTIAL VALUES

Element Ist 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th

H 1312.1
T,

He 2372.3 5220
Li 520.2 7300 11750
ER

Be 899.5 1760 14850 20900

B 800.6 2420 3660 25020 32600
C 1086.5 2390 4620 6220 37820 46990
SC

Al 577.5 1810 2750 11580 14820 18360

Ga 578.8 1980 2970 6170 8680 71390

Electron affinity - Electron gain enthalpy

Atoms of some elements gain electrons while forming ionic
compounds. An atom is able to gain an electron only when the electron
outside the atom is attracted by its nucleus. Attraction involves the
liberation of energy.

142 X Class Classification of Elements - The Periodic Table

 The electron affinity of an element is defined as the energy liberated
when an electron is added to its neutral gaseous atom. Electron affinity of
an element is also called electron gain enthalpy of that element.
M(g) + e- M-(g) + E1 (M = Element, E1 = First electron affinity)
-
M (g) + e- M-2(g) + E2 (E2 = Second electron affinity).
The energy liberated when an electron is added to a uni-negative ion of
the element is called the 2nd electron affinity of that element. However,

A
practically no element shows liberation of energy when the 2nd electron is
added to its uni-negative ion. It does not mean that di-negative or tri-

AN
negative ions do not form. They do form, but for adding 2nd electron, energy
in another way like bond formation must be given.

G
Table-8
Groups Electron affinity value (in kJ mol-1)
VIIA (halogens) N F(-328); Cl(-349); Br (-325); I(-295) At(-270)
LA
VIA (chalcogens) O(-141); S(-200); Ge(-195) Te(-190) PO (-174)

Electron gain enthalpy values decrease as we go down in a group, but

TE

increase along a period from left to right. Metals have very low electron
gain enthalpy values and alkaline earth metals have even positive values.
Note that the negative sign for energy value in table indicates that energy
is liberated or lost, and the positive sign tells that the energy is gained or
T,

absorbed. All the factors which influence the ionization energy would also
influence the electron gain enthalpy.
ER

Think and discuss

SC

• The calculated electron gain enthalpy values for alkaline earth metals and
noble gases are positive. How can you explain this?
• The second period element for example ‘F’ has less electron gain enthalpy
than the third period element of the same group for example ‘Cl’. Why?

Electronegativity
The ionization energy and the electron gain enthalpy are properties of
isolated atoms of elements. There has been a need to have a comparative
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 143
 scale relating to the abilities of elements to attract electrons when their
atoms are combined. For this purpose, the concept of electronegativity is
introduced.
The electronegativity of an element is defined as the relative tendency
of its atom to attract electrons towards it self when it is bonded to the
atom of another element.
All the factors that influence the ionization energy and the electron
affinity of elements influence the electronegativity values of those

A
elements. Because of this, Mulliken proposed that the electronegativity
of an element is the average value of its ionization energy and electron

AN
affinity.
Electronegativity = ionization energy + electron affinity
2

G
Pauling assigned the electronegativity values for elements on the basis
of their bond energies. He assumed that the electronegativity of hydrogen

N
is 2.20 and calculated the values of other elements with respect to
hydrogen. Observe the values in the following example
LA
Table-9
Period/group Element (electronegativity with respect to hydrogen)
TE

Halogens: F(4.0), Cl(3.0), Br(2.8), I(2.5)

2nd period: Li(1.0), Be(1.47), B(2.0), C(2.5), N(3.0), O(3.5), F(4.0), Ne(-)
Electronegativity values of elements decrease as we go down in a group
T,

and increase along a period from left to right. The most electronegative
element is ‘F’ and the least electronegative stable element is ‘Cs’.
ER

Metallic and Non-Metallic Properties

Metals generally show less electronegative character. In compounds,
they generally show a tendency to remain as positive ions. This property
SC

is often termed as electropositive character. Metals are electropositive

elements.
Non metals are generally more electronegative due to their smaller
atomic radii.
Let us examine the elements of 3rd period.

3rd period: Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
We know that Na and Mg are metals, Al and Si are semi metals
(metalloids), P, S and Cl are non metals. So we find metals on left side and
144 X Class Classification of Elements - The Periodic Table
non metals on right side of the periodic table. This means metallic character
decreases while non metallic character increases as we move along a period
(from left to right).
Let us take group 14 (IVA) elements.
IVA group: C Si Ge Sn Pb
Here also we know that carbon is nonmetal. Si and Ge are metalloids.
Sn and Pb are metals.
So we find nonmetals particularly at the right hand side top and metals

A
at the left and right hand side bottom of the periodic table. This means
metallic character increases while non metallic character decreases in a

AN
group as we move from top to bottom.

Key words

G
Triad, Octave, Periodic Law, Periodic table, period, group, Lanthanides,
Actinides, Element family, Metalloids, Periodicity, Atomic radius, Ionization
N
energy, Electron affinity, Electronegativity, Electropositivity
LA
What we have learnt
TE

• Elements are classified on the basis of similarities in their properties.

• Dobereiner grouped the elements into Triads and Newlands gave the law of Octaves.
T,

• Mendeleeff’s Periodic law: The physical and chemical Properties of the elements are the periodic
functions of their Atomic Masses.
ER

• Moseley’s Periodic law : The physical and chemical properties of the elements are the periodic
functions of their Atomic numbers.
• Modern Periodic Law: The Physical and chemical Properties of the elements are the periodic
SC

functions of their Electronic Configurations.

• Anomalies in arrangement of elements based on increasing atomic mass could be removed
when the elements were arranged in order of increasing atomic number, a fundamental property
of the element discovered by Moseley.
• Elements in the Modern Periodic table are arranged in 18 groups and 7 periods.
• Elements are classified into s, p, d, f blocks, depending upon to which sub shell, the differentiating
electron enters in the atom of the given element.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 145

• All the d- block elements (except Zn group) are known as transition elements and all the f-block
elements (both Lanthanides, Actinides) are known as inner transition elements.
• Periodic properties of elements and their trends in groups and in periods
Periodic property Trend in
groups (From top to bottom) periods (From left to right)
increases from
Valency Same for all elements 1 to 4 and decreases to 0

A
Atomic radius Increasing Decreasing
Ionisation energy Decreasing Generally Increasing

AN
Electron affinity Decreasing Increasing
Electronegativity Decreasing Increasing
Electropositivity Increasing Decreasing

G
Metallic nature Increasing Decreasing
Non-Metallic nature
N
Decreasing Increasing
LA
Improve your learning

Reflections on Concepts
TE

1. What are the limitations of Mendeleeff’s periodic table?

How could the modern periodic table overcome the
limitations of Mendeleeff’s table? (AS1)
T,

2. Define the modern periodic Law. Discuss the construction of the long form of the periodic
table. (AS1)
ER

3. Explain how the elements are classified into s, p, d and f- block elements in the periodic table
and give the advantages of this kind of classification. (AS1)
4. Write down the characteristics of the element having atomic number 17. (AS1)
Electronic configuration ____________________________________
SC

Period number ____________________________________

Group number ____________________________________
Element family ____________________________________
No. of valence electrons ___________________________________
Valency ____________________________________
Metal or non-metal ____________________________________

146 X Class Classification of Elements - The Periodic Table

 5. Complete the following table using the periodic table. (AS1)
Period Filling up orbital’s Maximum number of Total no. of
number (sub shells) electrons, filled in all elements in the
the sub shells period

1
2
3
4 4s, 3d, 4p 18 18

A
5
6

AN
7 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p 32 incomplete
6. Complete the following table using the periodic table. (AS1)
Period Total no. of

G
Elements Total no. of elements in
number elements

1
From
NTo s-block p-block d-block f-block
LA
2
3
4
TE

5
6
7
T,

Application of concepts
1. Given below is the electronic configuration of elements A, B, C, D. (AS1)
ER

A.1s2 2s2 1. Which are the elements coming within the same period
B.1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 2. Which are the ones coming within the same group?
C.1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3 3. Which are the noble gas elements?
D.1s2 2s2 2p6 4. To which group and period does the element ‘C ‘belong
SC

2. s - block and p - block elements (except 18th group elements) are sometimes called as
‘Representative elements’ based on their abundant availability in the nature. Is it justified?
Why? (AS1)
3. The electronic configuration of the elements X, Y and Z are given below?
a) X = 2 b) Y = 2, 6 c) Z = 2, 8, 2
i) Which element belongs to second period?
ii) Which element belongs to second group?
iii) Which element belongs to 18th group?

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 147

 4. a. State the number of valence electrons, the group number and the period number of each
element given in the following table: (AS1)

Element Valence electrons Group number Period number

Sulphur
Oxygen
Magnesium
Hydrogen
Fluorine

A
Aluminium

AN
b. State whether the following elements belong to a Group (G), Period (P) or Neither
Group nor Period indicating the letters G or P or N. (AS1)

G
Elements Group / Period / Neigther group nor period
Li,C,O
Mg, Ca, Ba N
LA
Br, Cl, F
C,S, Br
Al, Si, Cl
TE

Li, Na, k
C,N,O
K, Ca, Br.
T,

5. Identify the element that has the larger atomic radius in each pair of the following and mark
it with a symbol (✓). (AS1)
(i) Mg , Ca (ii) Li , Cs (iii) N , P (iv) B , Al
ER

6. Identify the element that has the lower Ionization energy in each pair of the following and
mark it with a symbol (✓). (AS1)
(i) Mg , Na (ii) Li , O (iii) Br , F (iv) K , Br
SC

7. How does metallic property change when we move

i. Down in a group ii. Across a period?
8. On the basis of atomic numbers predict to which block the elements with atomic number
9,37, 46 and 64 belongs to? (AS2)
9. Using the periodic table, predict the formula of compound formed between an element X of
group 13 an another element Y of group 16. (AS2)
10. An element has atomic number 19. Where would you expect this element be in the periodic
table and why? (AS2)

148 X Class Classification of Elements - The Periodic Table

 Higher Order Thinking Questions
1. How does the positions of elements in the periodic table help you to predict its chemical
properties? Explain with an example. (AS7)
2. In period 2, element X is to the right of element Y. Then, find which of the elements have
these properties:
i) Low nuclear charge (ii) Low atomic size (iii) High ionization energy
(iv)High electro negativity (v) More metallic character (AS1)

s
Multiple choice question

A
AN
1. Number of elements present in period – 2 of the long form of periodic table [ ]
a) 2 b) 8 c) 18 d) 32
2. Nitrogen (Z = 7) is the element of group VA of the periodic table. Which of the following is the

G
atomic number of the next element in the same group? [ ]
a) 9 b) 14 c) 15 d) 17
N
3. Electron configuration of an atom is 2, 8, 7. To which of the following elements would it be
LA
chemically similar? [ ]
a) nitrogen(Z=7) b) fluorine(Z=9) c) phosphorous(Z=15) d) argon(Z=18)
4. Which of the following is the most active metal? [ ]
TE

a) lithium b) sodium c) potassium d) rubidium

Suggested Experiments
T,

1. Aluminium does not react with water at room temperature but reacts with both dil. HCl
and NaOH solutions. Verify these statements experimentally. Write your observations
ER

with chemical equations. From these observations, can we conclude that Al is a metalloid?

Suggested Projects
SC

1. Collect the information about reactivity of VIII A group elements (noble gases) from your
school library and prepare a report on their special character when compared to other
elements of periodic table.
2. Collect information regarding metallic character of elements of IA group and prepare report
to support the idea of metallic character increases in a group as we move from top to
bottom.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 149

 Chapter

A
Chemical Bonding

AN
G
You have learnt about electron configuration of elements and periodic
table in previous lessons. It was learnt that there are over 118 elements.

N
• How do they usually exist?
• Do they exist as a single atom or as a group of atoms?
LA
In Class IX, we saw that several elements like oxygen, nitrogen and
hydrogen exist as diatomic molecules. What is the force that is holding
these constituent atoms together in molecules?
TE

• Are there elements which exist as atoms?

• Why do some elements exist as molecules and some as atoms?
In lower classes you have also learnt about the different laws of
chemical combinations. Since the formation of chemical compounds takes
T,

place as a result of combination of atoms of various elements in different

ways, it raises many questions.
ER

• Why do some elements and compounds react vigorously while others

are inert?
• Why the chemical formula for water is H2O and for sodium chloride
NaCl, why not HO2 and NaCl2?
SC

• Why do some atoms combine while others do not?

We will try to answer such questions in this chapter.
• Are elements and compounds simply made up of separate atoms
individually arranged?
• Is there any attraction between atoms?
Let us take the example of common salt, NaCl. When you shake salt
from a shaker does it separate into sodium and chlorine? No! This shows
that the sodium and chlorine atoms are being held together.
• What is that holding them together?
150 X Class Chemical Bonding
 By the late 19th century and early twentieth century, scientists knew
about three types of forces – gravitational, magnetic and electrostatic.
They also knew about the existence of electrons and protons. So it was
believed that electrostatic forces were the cause of attraction between
atoms in a molecule. When two atoms come sufficiently close together,
the electrons of each atom experience the attractive force of the nucleus
of the other atom. But the electrons which are negatively charged and repel
each other, and the positively charged nuclei also repel each other. The
strength of attraction or repulsion will decide bond formation. If attraction

A
is more than the repulsion then atoms combine. If repulsion is more than

AN
attraction then the atoms do not combine. The nucleus and the electrons
in the inner shell remain unaffected when atoms come close together. But
the electrons in the outermost shell (valence shell) of atoms get affected.

G
Do you know?
Davy’s experiment –
N Humphry Davy (1778-1819),
a professor of chemistry at the
LA
Royal Institution in London,
constructed a battery of over 250
TE

metallic plates. In 1807, using

electricity from this battery, he
was able to extract highly reactive
metals like potassium and sodium
T,

by electrolysis of fused salts.

ER

A Votaic pile
It was seen that the metal part of the compound
migrated towards the negative electrode and the
SC

non-metal part towards the positive electrode. So

it was proposed that metals are responsible for
positively charged particles and non-metals are
responsible for negatively charged particles. The Experimental set up by Davy
oppositely charged particles are held together by
electrostatic forces in a compound. Do you agree with this explanation? Why?
While this explanation could explain bonding in NaCl, KCl etc. it could not explain
bonding in carbon compounds or diatomic molecules of elements.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 151

 Electrons in valence shell (valence electrons) are responsible for the
formation of bonds between atoms.
In previous lessons you studied about exothermic and endothermic
reactions. You also studied about reactivity of elements in periodic table.
Some elements are more reactive and some are less reactive;
• Why there is absorption of energy in certain chemical reactions and
release of energy in other reactions?
• Where the absorbed energy goes?

A
• Is there any relation to energy and bond formation between atoms?
• What could be the reason for the change in reactivity of elements?

AN
Lewis symbols (or) Lewis dot structures:
Periodic Classification and arrangement of elements in the periodic
table according to the electron configuration gave a new thought about

G
chemical bond.
The discovery of noble gases and the understanding of their electronic
N
configurations helped us in explaining the formation of chemical bonds
among the atoms of the elements. Noble gases which belong to zero group
LA
(18th group or VIII A) are typical gases with almost negligible chemical
activity when compared to other elements. They undergo few or no chemical
changes. They are more stable and do not form molecules by allowing
TE

their atoms to combine among themselves or with the atoms of other

elements.
• What could be the reason for this?
T,

Let us investigate.
Consult the periodic table given in the previous chapter and observe
ER

the following table:

Table-1
Element Z Electronic configuration Valence elctrons
SC

K L M N
Helium (He) 2 2 2
Neon (Ne) 10 2 8 8
Argon(Ar) 18 2 8 8 8
Krypton(Kr) 36 2 8 18 8 8

Look at the second column and third column. It is clear that all the
noble gases have eight electrons in the outermost shell, except
Helium (He).
152 X Class Chemical Bonding
 The arrangement of electrons in different shells of atoms (electronic
configuration) of 18th group elements is shown in the table-1. The valence
electrons in the atom of an element is depicted in a short form by Lewis
symbol or electron dot structure. We represent the nucleus and inner shell
electrons of the atom by the symbol of the element and electrons in the
outer shell by dots or cross marks.
Let us see how? Lewis dot structure of argon and sodium atoms are
written.

A
Let us start with argon. Its atom has eight valence electrons.
First write the symbol of element argon. Ar

AN
Place the valence electrons around the symbol. Put two dots at a time
on each of the four sides of the symbol of the element till all are used up.
So, we get,
: :

: Ar :

G
Similarly, for sodium, the number of valence electrons in sodium is

N
one and the symbol is Na. We can also use cross mark for the electrons.
The Lewis structure for sodium atom is therefore:
LA
Na x
The Lewis dot structures of the atoms of noble gases are shown below:
TE
: : : :
: : : :

: Ne : : Ar :
:

He
T, : :

: Kr : : Xe : : Rn :
ER

Activity 1
Write the Lewis structures of the given elements in the table. Also
SC

consult the periodic table and fill in the group number of the element.
Table – 2:

Element Hydrogen Helium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen oxygen

Group 1
number
Valence 1
electron
Lewis dot H .
structure
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 153
 Look at the periodic table. Do you see any relation between the number
of valence electrons and group numbers? We find that for groups 1-2 and
13 –18, we can use the periodic table to find the number of valence
electrons. Group1 has one outer electron, group 2 has two, and group 13
has three, group 14 has four and so on.
• What did you notice in Lewis dot structure of noble gases and
electronic configurations of the atoms of these elements shown in
table - 2.

A
It was found that the elements which participate in chemical reactions

AN
get octet or ns2 np6 configuration similar to that of noble gas elements. It
is to be noted that octet rule is still a rule not the law, because there are
considerable exceptions for this rule.

G
Electronic theory of valence by Lewis and Kossel
There were number of attempts to explain the chemical bond formation
N
between atoms in terms of electrons but a satisfactory explanation for
this concept was given by Kossel and Lewis in 1916. They gave this concept
LA
independently. The basis for their theory was valence in terms of electrons.
They provided logical explanation of valence on the basis of the lack of
chemical activity of noble gases which led to the proposal of octet rule.
TE

Observe the practical behaviour of atoms of main group elements

(Group IA, IIA, IIIA, IVA, VA, VIA, VIIA and zero or VIIIA group elements).
When they are allowed to undergo chemical changes, they try to get octet
T,

electronic configuration in the outer shells.

Let us understand this with the following illustrations.
ER

Group IA elements (Li to Cs) try to lose one valence shell electron
from their atoms to form corresponding uni-positive ions which get octet
in their outer shells.
SC

Example: 11Na 2, 8, 1 ; 11Na+ 2, 8

Group IIA elements (Mg to Ba) try to lose two valence electrons from
their atoms during chemical changes and form di– positive ions with the
octet in the outer shells.
Example: 12Mg 2, 8, 2 ; 12Mg2+ 2, 8
Group IIIA elements try to lose three valence electrons from their
atoms and form corresponding tri positive ions with octates in the outer
shells.

154 X Class Chemical Bonding

 Example: 13Al 2, 8, 3 ; 13Al3+ 2, 8
Group VIA elements try to gain two electrons into the valence shells
of their atoms during the chemical changes and form corresponding di
negative anions which get octet in their outer shells.
Example: 8O 2, 6 ; 8O2– 2, 8
Group VIIA elements try to gain one electron into the valence shells
of their atoms during the chemical changes and form corresponding
uni– anions which get octet in their outer shells.

A
Example: 9F 2, 7 ; 9F– 2, 8
Group VIIIA elements, the noble gases do not try to lose or gain

AN
electrons. Generally, helium and neon do not participate in chemical
changes. Even other elements of VIIIA do not gain or lose electrons from
their atoms when they participate in a very few chemical changes.
Example: 10Ne 2, 8 ; No electron gain or loss from the neon

G
atom.

Gain Electrons N Lose Electrons

LA
Magic
Net charge on } –3 –2 –1 octet +1 +2 +3
the ions
VA VIA VIIA VIIIA IA IIA IIIA
TE

N O F Ne Na Mg Al
P S Cl Ar K Ca Ga
As Se Br Kr Rb Sr In
T,

Sb Te I Xe Cs Ba Tl
ER

Bi Po At Rn Fr Ra
Non metals Noble gases Metals

• What have you observed from the above conclusions about the main
SC

groups?
• Why do atoms of elements try to combine and form molecules?
Noble gases of VIII A possess eight electrons in the valence shells of
their atoms. Helium is an exception. Its atom has only two electrons, but
its only shell is completely filled. Noble gases with eight electrons in the
valence shell in their atoms are highly stable and rarely participate in
chemical changes. Therefore it is concluded that any species (atom or
ion) with eight electrons in the valence shell is stable.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 155

 • Is it accidental that IA to VIIA main group elements during chemical
reactions get eight electrons in the outermost shells of their ions,
similar to noble gas atoms?
No. It cannot be simply accidental. Eight electrons in the outermost
shell definitely gives stability to the ion or atom. Based on the above
observations a statement known as “ The Octet Rule” is framed.
Octet rule:
It may be stated as “The atoms of elements tend to undergo chemical

A
changes that help to leave their atoms with eight outer-shell electrons.”
Lewis depicted the atom in terms of a positively charged kernel (Kernel

AN
is the nucleus and all other electrons in the atom except the outer most
shell electrons) and the outershell that could accommodate a maximum
of eight electrons.

G
Chemically active elements do not have an octet of electrons in the
valence shell of their atoms. Their reactivity arises from their tendency to
N
achieve the octet, by forming bonds either with atoms of their own type or
with atoms of other elements.
LA
The force of attraction between any two atoms or a group of atoms
that results a stable entity is called a ‘chemical bond’. There are many
types of chemical bonds, but here we discuss only about ionic bond and
TE

covalent bond.
Ionic and Covalent bonds
A. Ionic bond
T,

Kossel proposed the ionic bond (electrostatic bond) based on the

following facts.
ER

i. Ionic bond is formed between atoms of two dissimilar elements due

to transfer of electrons from the atom of one element to the other.
ii. There are highly reactive metals like alkali metals (IA) and highly
SC

reactive non-metals like halogens (VIIA) on the left side and right side
of the periodic table respectively.
iii. Noble gases except helium have eight electrons in the valence shells
of their atoms. They are chemically inactive and stable.
iv. To attain eight electrons in the outermost shell similar to noble gases
metal atoms that have one two or three electrons in the valence shells
generally lose those electrons and form stable positive ions called
cations.

156 X Class Chemical Bonding

 Example: 11
Na → 2, 8, 1 ; Na+ → 2, 8

12
Mg → 2, 8, 2 ; Mg2+ → 2, 8

13
Al → 2, 8, 3 ; Al3+ → 2, 8

Do you know?
The number of electrons lost from a metal atom is the valence of its element
which is equal to its group number.

A
Ex. Na and Mg have valence 1 and 2 respectively.

AN
v. To attain eight electrons in the outermost shell, non-metal atoms that
have 5,6 or 7 valence electrons gain 3,2 or 1 electron respectively and
form negative ions known as anions.

G
Example: 15
P → 2, 8, 5 ; P3- → 2, 8, 8
S → 2, 8, 6 ; S2- → 2, 8, 8
16

17
N
Cl → 2, 8, 7 ; Cl- → 2, 8, 8
LA
Do you know?
The number of electrons gained by a non-metal element for its atom is its valency,
TE

which is equal to (8 - its group number).

Ex. The valency of chlorine is (8 – 7) = 1.

Formation of ionic bond

T,

The positive ions (cations) and negative ions (anions) that are formed
due to the transfer of electrons from the metal atoms to the non-metal
atoms experience the electrostatic forces and get attracted to form
ER

chemical bond. As this bond is between charged particles known as

ions, it is called ionic bond. Sometimes based on the forces being
electrostatic, the bond is also called the electrostatic bond. As the
SC

valence concept has been explained in terms of electrons, it is also

called the electrovalent bond.
Thus, we can define ionic bond as follows:
The electrostatic attractive force that keeps cation and anion (which
are formed from metal atoms and non-metal atoms due to transfer of
electrons) together to form a new electrically neutral compounds is called
‘ionic bond’.
• Explain the formation of ionic compounds NaCl, MgCl2, Na2O and
AlCl3.
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 157
 Eg-1. Formation of sodium chloride (NaCl):
Sodium chloride is formed from the elements sodium and chlorine. It
can be explained as follows:
Na(s) + 1/2 Cl2(g) NaCl(s)
Cation formation
When sodium (Na) atom loses one electron to get octet electron
configuration it forms a cation (Na+) and gets electron configuration that
of Neon (Ne) atom.

A
11
Na (g) 11
Na+ (g) + e-
Electronic Configuration 2, 8, 1 2, 8

AN
or [Ne] 3s1 [Ne]
Anion formation
Chlorine has shortage of one electron to get octet in its valence shell.

G
So it gains the electron from Na atom to form anion and gets electron
configuration as that of argon (Ar).
N
17
Cl (g)
Electronic configuration 2, 8, 7
+ e- Cl– (g)
2, 8, 8
LA
or [Ne] 3s2 3p5 [Ne] 3s2 3p6 or [Ar]
Formation of the compound NaCl from its ions:
TE

Transfer of electrons between ‘Na’ and ‘Cl’ atoms, results in the

formation of ‘Na+’ and ‘Cl–’ ions. These oppositely charged ions get
attracted towards each other due to electrostatic forces and form the
compound sodium chloride (NaCl).
T,

Na+(g) + Cl–(g) Na+Cl– (s) or NaCl

Eg-2. Formation of magnesium chloride (MgCl2):
ER

Magnesium chloride is formed from the elements magnesium and

chlorine. The bond formation MgCl2 in brief using chemical equation is as
follows:
Mg(s) + Cl2(g) Mg Cl2(s)
SC

Cation formation
Mg (g)
12 12
Mg2+ (g) + 2e–
Electronic configuration 2, 8, 2 2, 8
or [Ne] 3s2 [Ne]
Anion formation
2Cl (g) + 2e– 2Cl– (g)
Electronic configuration 2, 8, 7 2, 8, 8
or [Ne] 3s2 3p5 [Ne] 3s2 3p6 or [Ar]

158 X Class Chemical Bonding

 The compound MgCl2 formation from its ions:
Mg2+ gets ‘Ne’ configuration and
Each Cl– gets ‘Ar’ configuration
Mg2+ (g) + 2Cl–(g) MgCl2 (s)
One ‘Mg’ atom transfers two electrons one each to two ‘Cl’ atoms and
so formed Mg2+ and 2Cl– attract to form MgCl2.
Eg-3. Formation of di sodium monoxide(Na2O):
Di sodium monoxide formation can be explained as follows:

A
Cation formation (Na+ formation):

AN
2Na (g) 2Na+ (g) + 2e-
Electronic configuration 2, 8, 1 2, 8
or [Ne] 3s1 [Ne]

G
Anion formation (O2–, the oxide formation):
O (g) + 2e- O2- (g)
Electronic configuration 2, 6 N 2, 8
LA
or [He] 2s2 2p4 [He] 2s2 2p6 or [Ne]
The compound Na2O formation from its ions is as shown.
2Na+ (g) + O2-(g) Na2O(s)
TE

Two ‘Na’ atoms transfer one electron each to one oxygen atom to
form 2Na+ and O2-
Each Na+ gets ‘Ne’ configuration and O2- gets ‘Ne’ configuration.
T,

These ions (2Na+ and O2-) attract to form Na2O.

Eg-4. Formation of aluminium chloride (AlCl3):
ER

Aluminium chloride formation can be explained as follows:

Formation of aluminium ion (Al3+), the cation:
13
Al(g) Al3+ (g) + 3e-
SC

Electronic configuration 2, 8, 3 2, 8
or [Ne] 3s 3p
2 1
[Ne]
Formation of chloride ion (Cl-), the anion:
3Cl(g) + 3e- 3Cl–(g)
Electronic configuration 2, 8, 7 2, 8,8
or [Ne] 3s2 3p5 [Ne] 3s2 3p6 or [Ar]
Each aluminium atom loses three electrons and three chlorine atoms
gain them, one electron each.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 159

 The compound AlCl3 is formed from its component ions by the
electrostatic forces of attractions.
Al3+ (g) + 3Cl–(g) AlCl3 (s)
The arrangement of ions in ionic compounds
• How do cations and anions of an ionic compound exist in its solid
state?
• Let us explain this with sodium chloride as our example:
• Do you think that pairs of Na+ Cl- as units would be present in the solid

A
crystal?

AN
If you think so, it is not correct. Remember that electrostatic forces
are non directional. Therefore, it is not possible for one Na+ to be attracted
by one Cl– and vice-versa. Depending upon the size and charge of a particular
ion, number of oppositely charged ions get attracted by it, but, in a definite

G
number. In sodium chloride crystal each Na+ is surrounded by 6 Cl- and
each Cl– by six Na+ ions. Ionic compounds in the crystalline state consist
N
of orderly arranged cations and anions held together by electrostatic forces
of attractions in three dimensions. The crystal structure of sodium chloride
LA
is given below:
NaCl is said to possess face centered cubic lattice crystal
structure (see figure-1).
TE

The number of ions of opposite charge that surround a

given ion of given charge is known as the coordination
number of that given ion.
T,

For example, in sodium chloride crystal, the

coordination number of Na+ is 6 and that of Cl- is also 6.
ER

Factors affecting the formation of cation and anion:

Na+ In previous lesson you have learnt about variation of
Cl –
fig-1
metallic and non metallic character of elements in a group
or period of the periodic table. Recall the facts about metallic and non
SC

metallic character of elements.

Generally elements of metals have tendency of losing electron to attain
the octet in their valence shell. This property is called as the metallic
character or electropositivity. Elements with more electropositive
character form cations. Similarly non metals like oxygen (8O), fluorine
(9F) and chlorine (17Cl) acquire electron configuration of elements of inert
gases by gaining electrons this property is called the non-metallic
character or electronegativity of the element. Elements with more
electronegative character form anions.
160 X Class Chemical Bonding
• Can you explain the reasons for all these?
Ionic bond is formed between atoms of elements with electronegativity
difference equal to or greater than 1.9.
In ionic bond formation, you have noticed that atoms either lose
electrons or gain electrons to attain octet in valence shell. i.e., in an ionic
bond, transfer of electrons takes place between combining atoms.
The tendency of losing electrons to form cations (or) gaining electron
to form anions depends on the following factors:

A
i. Atomic size

AN
ii. Ionisation potential
iii. Electron affinity
iv. Electronegativity

G
The atoms of elements with low ionisation energy, low electron affinity
high atomic size and low electronegativity form cations.

N
The atoms of elements with high ionisation potential, high electron
affinity, small atomic size and high electronegativity form anions.
LA
B. Covalent bond
G.N. Lewis (1916) proposed that atoms of some elements could
TE

achieve an octet in their valence shells without transfer of electrons

between them. They can attain octet configuration in their valence shells
by sharing the valence electrons with one or more atoms.
The electrons shared between two atoms belong to both the atoms and
T,

the sharing of electrons between them leads to the formation of a chemical

bond known as covalent bond.
ER

For example, take two fluorine atoms which form a stable molecule.
Each fluorine atom contributes one electron for bonding and the electron
pair that is formed in this way is mutually shared by both the fluorine
SC

atoms. Each atom in the F2 molecule has an octet of valence electrons.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 161

 The dots around fluorine atom shows the valence electrons of
respective atoms.
The chemical bond formed between two atoms by mutual sharing of a
pair of valence shell electrons so that both of them can attain octet or
duplet in their valence shell is called the covalent bond.
The prefix co – is used to indicate when things are equal or joined.
(for example, co exist, cooperate etc). Here each atom contributes one
electron from the valence shell for the bonding. Therefore, the name

A
covalent is given (equal valence electrons contribution) for this bond.
Formation of O2 molecule

AN
The electronic configuration of 8O is 2, 6. Oxygen atom has six
electrons in its valence shell. It requires two more electrons to get octet
in its valence shell. Therefore oxygen atoms come close and each oxygen

G
atom contributes two electrons for bonding. Thus, there exist two covalent
bonds between two oxygen atoms in O2 molecule as there are two pairs of
N
electrons shared between them.
We can say that a double bond is formed between two oxygen atoms in
LA
O2 molecule. Observe the following figures. Both the oxygen atoms have
octet in the valence shell.
TE
T,
ER

• Can you say what type of bond exists between atoms of nitrogen
molecule?
Let us see
SC

Nitrogen (N2) molecule

The electronic configuration of ‘N’ atom is 2,5 and to have octet in the
valence shell it requires three more electrons. When two nitrogen atoms
approach each other, each atom contributes 3 electrons for bonding. There
are six electrons shared between two nitrogen atoms in the form of three
pairs. Therefore, there is a triple bond between two nitrogen atoms in N2
molecule.

162 X Class Chemical Bonding

Methane (CH4) molecule
In the formation of methane, CH4 molecule, carbon contributes 4
electrons, (one electron to each hydrogen atom) and 4 hydrogen atoms
contribute one electron each. Thus in CH4 molecule, there are four C – H

A
covalent bonds as shown below:

AN
G
N
LA
TE

Ammonia (NH3) molecule

In ammonia molecule, three N – H single covalent bonds are present.
Electron configuration of 7N is 2, 5 and 1H is 1.
T,

Nitrogen atom contributes three electrons for bonding. Three hydrogen

atoms at the same time contribute one electron each for bonding. Six
ER

electrons form three pairs and each pair is shared between nitrogen and
one hydrogen atom as shown below:
SC

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 163

 Water (H2O) molecule
In water molecule (H2O), there are two O – H single covalents bonds.
Electron configuration of 8O is 2,6 and 1H is 1.
Oxygen atom needs ‘2’ electrons to attain octet in its valence shell.
Therefore it shares ‘2’ electron with two hydrogen atoms to form water
(H2O) molecule.

A
AN
G
The total number of covalent bonds that an atom of an element forms
is called its ‘covalency’. N
LA
The Bond lengths and Bond energies of covalent bonds
Bond length or bond distance is the equilibrium distance between the
nuclei of two atoms which form a covalent bond.
TE

It is generally given in nm (nanometer) or A (Angstrom unit).

0

Bond energy or Bond dissociation energy is the energy needed to break

a covalent bond between two atoms of a diatomic covalent compound in
its gaseous state.
T,

Do you know?
ER

• An angstrom (A ) is a unit of length equal to 10-10 metre, or 0.1 nanometre, or

0

100 picometre.
• 1 nanometre = 10-9 metre
SC

Draw backs of electronic theory of valence

1) When a covalent bond is formed between any two atoms, irrespective
of the nature of the atoms, the bond lengths and bond energies are expected
to be the same. This is because any covalent bond between any two atoms
is a result of mere sharing of two identical electrons. But, practically it
was observed that bond lengths and bond energies are not same when the
atoms that form the bond are different. (See table - 3)
• What do you understand from bond lengths and bond energies?

164 X Class Chemical Bonding

• Are the values not different for the bonds between different types of atoms?
∧ ∧
2) The theory could not explain why ClB eCl in BeCl2 is 1800, FBF in
∧
BF3 is 120o, HCH in CH4 is
∧ Table – 3
109 028 /, HNH in NH 3 is
∧ Bond Bond Bond (dissociation)
107048/ and HOH in H2O is
104o31/ etc. length (Å ) energy (KJmol-1)
0

i.e., it fails to explain the H –H 0.74 436

shapes of the molecules. F–F 1.44 159

A
Valence shell electron Cl – Cl 1.95 243
pair repulsion theory Br – Br 2.28 193

AN
To explain the bond I–I 2.68 151
angles in the molecules with H–F 0.918 570
three or more than three H – Cl 1.27 432

G
atoms with all atoms H – Br 1.42 366
attached to a central atom H–I 1.61 298
through covalent bonds a
theory called the valence –
N
H – O (of H2O)
H – N (of NH3)
0.96
1.01
460
390
LA
shell – electron – pair H – C (of CH4) 1.10 410
repulsion – theory
(VSEPRT) was proposed by Sidgwick and Powell (1940). It was further
TE

improved by Gillespie and Nyholm (1957).

This theory suggests the following points.
1. VSEPRT considers electrons in the valence shells which are in covalent
T,

bonds and in lone pairs as charge clouds that repel one another and
stay as far apart as possible. This is the reason why molecules get
specific shapes.
ER

2. If we know the total number of electron pairs in the valence shell as

covalent bonds and lone pairs in the central atom, it will help us to
predict the arrangement of those pairs around the nucleus of the central
SC

atom and from that the shape of the molecule.

3. Lone pairs occupy more space around the central atom than bond pairs.
Lone pair means unshared electron pair or non-bonding electron pair.
These are attracted to only one nucleus where as the bond pair is shared
by two nuclei. Thus, the presence of lone pairs on the central atom
causes slight distortion of the bond angles from the expected regular
shape. If the angle between lone pair and bond pair increases at the
central atom due to more repulsion, the actual bond angles between
atoms must be decreased.
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 165
 4.1) If two bond pairs are present in two covalent bonds around the
nucleus of the central atom without any lone pairs in the valence shell,
they must be separated by 1800 to have minimum repulsion between them.
Thus, the molecule would be linear.
Example:

A
AN
4.2) If three bond pairs are there in three covalent bonds around the

G
nucleus of the central atom, without any lone pairs they get separated by
1200 along three corners of a triangle. Therefore, the shape of the molecule
is trigonal-planar.
Example:
N
LA
TE
T,
ER

NOTE: Did you notice that in BeCl2 and BF3 the central atoms Be and
SC

B did not possess 8 electrons around them in the valence shell. They have
only 4 and 6 electrons respectively. These molecules are known as electron
deficient molecules.
4.3) If there are four bond pairs in the valence shell of the central
atom, the four bond pairs will orient along the four corners of a tetrahedron
(three dimensional arrangement) and the bond angle expected is 109028/
.Example: Methane.
∧
☛ In methane molecule (CH4), HCH is 109028/ because of four electron
pairs (bonding) around carbon, as shown below:

166 X Class Chemical Bonding

 4.4) If there are three bond pairs and one lone pair i.e., unshared electron
pair, then the lone pair occupies more space around the nucleus of the
central atom. The remaining three bond pairs come relatively closer as in

A
NH3 molecule.
Example: Ammonia

AN
In ammonia (NH3) molecule, there are three bond pairs in
covalent bonds (3 N – H) around the nucleus of the nitrogen atom
and one lone pair. Lone pair – bond pair repulsion is greater than 107 0 48 /

G
bond pair – bond pair repulsion. Therefore, NH3 which is expected
to be tetrahedral with four electron pairs in the valence shell and
∧ ∧
N
HNH = 109028/, it has HNH = 107048/ due to the more repulsion by lone
pair on the bond pairs.
LA
The shape of the NH3 molecule is triagonal pyramidal with N at the
apex of the pyramid.
4.5) If there are two bond pairs and two lone pairs of electrons around
TE

the nucleus of the central atom in its valence shell, lone pair – lone pair
repulsion is greater than lone pair – bond pair repulsion. Therefore, the
angle between bond pairs further decreases.
T,

Example: Water
In water molecule, (H2O) there are four electron pairs around the
nucleus of oxygen atom, but, two of them are lone pairs and two bond
ER

pairs. Therefore, H2O molecule gets ‘V’ shape or bent shape or angular
instead of tetrahedral shape as that of CH4 due to lone pair – lone pair 104031 /
∧
and lone pair – bond pair repulsions. HOH is 104031/.
SC

• What is the bond angle in a molecule?

It is the angle subtended by two imaginary lines that pass from α
the nuclei of two atoms which form the covalent bonds with the
central atom through the nucleus of the central atom at the central
atom. (see figure ‘α’ is the bond angle).
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPRT) mainly fails
in explaining the strengths of the bonds. This is because; the theory still
depends on the Lewis concept of covalent bond formation. It could not
say anything extra about the electronic nature of covalent bonds.
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 167
 To describe covalent bonding, a quantum mechanical model called
valence bond theory has been suggested by Linus Pauling (1954).
Valence bond theory
To describe covalent bonding, a quantum mechanical model called
valence bond theory has been suggested by Linus Pauling (1954). It is
explained as follows:
1. A covalent bond between two atoms is formed when the two atoms
approach each other closely and one atom overlaps its valence orbital

A
containing unpaired electron, the valence orbital of the other atom that
contains the unpaired electron of opposite spin. The so formed paired

AN
electrons in the overlapping orbitals are attracted to the nuclei of both the
atoms. This bonds the two atoms together.
Eg: In the formation of H2 molecule, the 1s orbital of one ‘H’ atom

G
containing an unpaired electron overlaps the ‘1s’ orbital of the other ‘H’
atom containing unpaired electron of opposite spin giving H-H bond and
H2 molecule.
N
LA
H atom H atom H2 molecule
2. The greater the overlapping of the orbitals that form the bond, the
TE

stronger will be the bond. This gives a directional character to the bond
when other than ‘s’ orbitals are involved.
3. Each bonded atom maintains its own atomic orbitals but the electron
pair in the overlapping orbitals is shared by both the atoms involved in the
T,

overlapping.
4. If two atoms form multiple bonds between them the first bond is
ER

due to the overlap of orbitals along the inter-nuclear axis giving a stronger
sigma(σ) bond. After formation of (σ) bond the other bonds are formed
due to the overlap of orbitals side wise or laterally giving weaker π bonds.
The ‘σ’ bond is stronger because the electron pair shared is concentrated
SC

more between the two nuclei due to end-end or head on overlap and
attracted to both the nuclei. The π bond overlap gives a weaker bond due to
the lateral overlap of ‘p’ orbitals which is not to greater extent.
Consider Cl-Cl molecule
Cl - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3px2 3py2 3pz1
17
In the formation of Cl2 molecule, the 3pz orbital of one chlorine
atom containing an unpaired electron overlaps the 3pz orbital of other
chlorine atom that contains unpaired electron of opposite spin.

168 X Class Chemical Bonding

• How is HCl molecule formed?
The ‘1s’ orbital of ‘H’ atom containing unpaired electron overlaps the
‘3p’ orbital of chlorine atom containing unpaired electron of opposite spin.

A
Formation of N2 molecule

AN
7
N has electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz1. Suppose that px
orbital of one ‘N’ atom overlaps the ‘px’ orbital of the other ‘N’ atom giving
σ px - px bond along the inter-nuclear axis. The py and pz orbitals of one ‘N’
atom overlap the py and pz orbital of other ‘N’ atom laterally, respectively

G
perpendicular to inter-nuclear axis giving π py-py and π pz-pz bonds.
Therefore, N2 molecule has a triple bond between two nitrogen atoms.
N
LA
TE

Formation of O2 molecule
T,

O has electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 2px2 2py1 2pz1. If the ‘py‘ orbital
8
of one ‘O’ atom overlaps the ‘py’ orbital of other ‘O’ atom along the inter-
ER

nuclear axis, a sigma py- py bond (σpy- py) is formed. pz orbital of one ‘O’
atom overlaps the pz orbital of other ‘O’ atom laterally, perpendicular to
the inter-nuclear axis giving a π pz- pz bond. O2 molecule has a double
bond between two oxygen atoms.
SC

Valence bond theory-Hybridisation

Formation of BeCl2 (Beryllium chloride) molecule
4
Be has electronic configuration 1s2 2s2. It has no unpaired electrons.
It is expected not to form covalent bonds, but it forms two covalent bonds
one each with two chlorine atoms. To explain this, an excited state is
suggested for Beryllium in which an electron from ‘2s’ shifts to 2px level.
Electronic configuration of 4Be 1s2 2s1 2px1 and 17Cl 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
3px2 3py2 3pz1
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 169
 If Be forms two covalent bonds with two chlorine atoms, one bond
should be σ2s-3p due to the overlap of ‘2s’ orbital of Be, the ‘3pz’ orbital
of one chlorine atom and the other bond should be σ2p-3p due to the overlap
of ‘2px’ orbital of Be atom the 3p orbital of the other chlorine atom. As the
orbitals overlapping are different, the bond strengths of two Be-Cl must
∧
be different. But, both bonds are of same strength and ClBeCl is 1800. To
explain the discrepancies like this a phenomenon called ‘hybridisation of
atomic orbitals’ was proposed by Linus Pauling (1931).

A
Hybridisation is a phenomenon of intermixing of atomic orbitals of
almost equal energy which are present in the outer shells of the atom and

AN
their reshuffling or redistribution into the same number of orbitals but
with equal properties like energy and shape.
Be atom in its excited state allows its 2s orbital and 2px orbital which

G
contain unpaired electrons to intermix and redistribute to two identical
orbitals. As per Hund’s rule each orbital gets one electron. The new orbitals

N
based on the types of orbitals that have undergone hybridisation are called
sp orbitals. The two sp orbitals of Be get separated by 1800. Now, each
LA
chlorine atom comes with its 3pz1 orbital and overlaps it the sp orbitals of
∧
Be forming two identical Be-Cl bonds (σsp-p bonds) . ClBeCl = 1800.
Both the bonds are of same strength.
TE
T,

Beryllium Chloride
ER

Formation of BF3 molecule

5
B has electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 2px1.
As it has one unpaired electron (2px1) it should form only one covalent
SC

bond to give B-F molecule. But we get practically BF3 molecule.

To explain this, it is suggested that,
i. Boron (B) first undergoes excitation to get electronic configuration
1s 2s1 2px1 2py1.
2

ii. As it forms three identical B-F bonds in BF3, it is suggested that

excited ‘B’ atom undergoes hybridisation. There is an intermixing of 2s,
2px, 2py orbitals and their redistribution into three identical orbitals called
sp2 hybrid orbitals. For three sp2 orbitals to get separated to have minimum

170 X Class Chemical Bonding

repulsion the angle between any two orbitals is 1200
at the central atom and each sp2 orbital gets one
electron. Now three fluorine atoms overlap their
2pz orbitals containing unpaired electrons (F9 1s2
2s2 2px2 2py2 2pz1) the three sp2 orbitals of ‘B’ that
contain unpaired electrons to form three σsp2-p Boran trifluoride
bonds.
Formation of NH3 molecule

A
One nitrogen atom and three hydrogen atoms are present in one
ammonia molecule. All the three N-H bonds are of same strength and

AN
∧
HNH = 107048/
7
N has electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz1.
If three hydrogen atoms overlap their 1s orbitals on the three ‘p’

G
orbitals
∧
of nitrogen atom, they give identical σ p-s bonds but, then the
HNH should be equal to 900 where as 107048/ . To explain the discrepancy
N
in the bond angle ‘N’ atom is said to undergo sp3 hybridisation.
In this process ‘2s’ and 2px, 2py, 2pz orbitals of nitrogen
LA
intermix and redistribute into four identical sp3 orbitals. One
of the four sp3 orbitals get a pair of electrons and the other
three sp3 orbitals get one electron each. Now hydrogen atoms
TE

/
107 48
0

overlap their 1s orbitals containing unpaired electrons the sp3 Ammonia

orbitals of ‘N’ atom
∧
containing unpaired electrons to give three
σs-sp3 bonds. HNH should be 1090 28/ for sp3 hybridisation. As there is
a lone pair in one of the sp3 orbitals, there is a greater lone pair – bond pair
T,

∧
repulsion which decreases the bond angle HNH to 107048/.
Shape of water molecule
ER

∧
It is found that HOH is 104031/ .
The electronic configuration of 8O is 1s2 2s2 2px2 2py1 2pz1 and
H is 1s1.
SC

1
Therefore, there should be two σ s-p bonds due to the overlap of ‘s’
orbitals of two hydrogen atoms, the ‘p’ orbitals of oxygen atom which
∧
contain unpaired electrons. HOH should be 900.
∧ Water
But HOH observed is 104031/ . To explain this, sp 3
hybridisation is suggested for the valence orbitals of ‘O’ atom.
One s-orbital (2s) and three ‘p’ orbitals (2px, 2py, 2pz) intermix
and redistribute into four identical sp3 orbitals. As there are six
electrons and two sp3 orbitals get pairs and two sp3 orbitals get
one electron each. Now, the two sp3 orbitals of ‘O’ atom overlap
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 171
 the ‘s’ orbitals of two hydrogen atoms to give σsp3-s bonds. Due to the∧
lone pair – lone pair repulsions and lone pair – bond pair repulsions HOH
decreases from 109028/ (expected for sp3 – tetrahedral hybridisation) to
104031/.
CH4, C2H4 and C2H2 molecules and their structures will be explained
in carbon and its compounds chapter later in this class.
Properties of ionic and covalent compounds
Table -4

A
[Link] Property NaCl (ionic) HCl (polar covalent) C2H6 (covalent)

AN
1. Formula mass 58.5 36.5 30.0
2. Physical appearance White crystalline solid Colourless gas Colourless gas
3. Type of bond Ionic Polar covalent Covalent
4. Melting point 801 0C -115 0C -183 0C

G
5. Boiling point 1413 0C -84.9 0C -88.63 0C
6. Solubility Soluble in polar Soluble in polar solvents Soluble in non-polar

N
solvents like water
and insoluble in non
like water and to some
extent in non-polar
solvents but insoluble
in polar solvents like
LA
-polar solvents solvents water
7. Chemical activity Highly reactive in polar Moderately Slow or very slow at
solvents and reactions reactive room temperature
are instantaneous
TE

From the above table we understand that ionic compounds like NaCl
are solids at room temperature.
Polar compounds like HCl possess properties like melting point,
T,

boiling point, reactivity, solubility etc, between those of ionic compounds

and covalent compounds. If the covalent bond is between atoms of two
ER

different elements, the shared electron pair shift more towards the atom
of more electronegative element. Thus within the molecule the more
electronegative atom bears a partial negative charge and the less
electronegative atom bears a partial positive charge. A molecule of this
SC

type which is neutral but possesses partial charges on the atoms within the
molecule is called a polar molecule and the bond is called a polar covalent
bond or partial ionic and partial covalent bond.
+δ -δ
Eg: H+Cl H - Cl

In ionic compounds there exist stronger electrostatic forces of

attractions between the oppositely charged ions of these compounds.
Therefore, they are solids with high melting points and boiling points. Based
172 X Class Chemical Bonding
on the principle “like dissolves in like”, they being highly polar, soluble in
polar solvents. In chemical reaction of solution of ionic compounds simply
rearrangement of ions take place in the solutions, the reactions are
instantaneous or very fast.
The forces of attractions among covalent molecules are weak.
Therefore, the covalent compounds are gases or liquid at room temperature.
They have low melting points and low boiling points. Based on the principle
that “like dissolve in like” these covalent compounds are soluble in non-
polar solvents because of non-polar nature of solvent molecules. In

A
chemical reactions of covalent compounds there exist bond breaking and

AN
bond forming to get products. There fore, these reactions are moderate or
very slow.
‘Like dissolves in like’ means what type of chemical bonds are there
in the solute particles that solute could be soluble in that solvent which

G
has the similar type of chemical bonds in its molecules.

Key words
N
Electrons, noble gases, Lewis dot structures, Octet rule, chemical bond, Ionic
LA
bond, covalent bond, cation, anion, electrostatic force, electrovalent, polar solvent,
non-polar solvent, formation of molecules, ionic compounds, covalent compounds,
electro positive character, electro negative character, polar bonds, bonded pair
TE

of electrons, lone pairs, bond length, bond energy, shape of the molecule, linear,
tetrahedral, properties of ionic and covalent compounds.

What we have learnt

T,

• Location of elements in the periodic table helps in predicting the

ER

type of bonding that will take place between atoms of the elements.
• Ions are positively or negatively charged particles formed by the
loss or gain of electrons respectively.
• The force between any two atoms or a group of atoms that results in the formation of a stable
SC

entity is called chemical bond.

• The outer most shell of an atom is called valence shell and electrons in this shell are called
valence electrons.
• The gases belonging to ‘O’ group are called noble gases because they are reluctant to combine
with other atoms. Except helium all other noble gases have an octet of electron configuration in
their valence shells.
• Chemically active elements have an incomplete octet in the valence shells of their atoms.
• The number of valence electrons available in the atoms of elements decides the type of bond
formed by the atom of the element.
• Elements which have a tendency to gain electrons for attaining octet in their valence shell are
called with more electro negative character. They form anions.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 173

• In the formation of ionic bond the atoms of electro positive elements lose their valence electrons to
atoms of electro negative elements so that both of them can attain octet in their valence shells.
• The electrostatic attractive force that keeps cation and anion together to form a new electrically
neutral entity is called an ionic bond.
• Ionic compounds are often crystalline solids with high melting points.
• A chemical bond that formed by sharing of valence-shell electrons between the atoms so that both
of them can attain octet or duplet in their valence shells is called covalent bond.
• A single covalent bond is formed when two atoms share a pair of electrons
• Each shared pair of electrons is equivalent to one covalent bond.
• Electrons are not always shared equally between the atoms in a covalent bond. This leads to bond

A
polarity.
• To explain the strengths of covalent bonds valence band theory is discussed.

AN
Improve your learning

G
Reflections on concepts
1. Explain the difference between the valence
N
electrons and the co-valency of an element. (AS1)
2. Which chemical compound has the following Lewis notation: (AS1) ..
LA
a) How many valence electrons does element Y have?

..
b) What is the valency of element Y?
..
c) What is the valency of element X? Fig-Q2
TE

d) How many covalent bonds are there in the molecule?

e) To which groups the elements X and Y belong? (AS2)
3. How bond energies and bond lengths of molecule help us in predicting their chemical properties?
T,

Explain with examples. (AS1)

4. Draw simple diagrams to show the arrangement of valence electrons in the following compounds:
(AS5)
ER

a) Calcium oxide (CaO) (b) Water (H2O) (c) Chlorine (Cl2)

5. Represent each of the following atoms using Lewis notation: (AS5)
(a) beryllium (b) calcium (c) lithium d) bromine (Br2)
SC

(e) calcium chloride (CaCl2) (f) carbon dioxide (CO2)

Application of Concepts
1. Explain the formation of sodium chloride and calcium oxide on the basis of the concept of electron
transfer from one atom to another atom. (AS1)
2. A, B, and C are three elements with atomic numbers 6, 11 and 17 respectively.
i. Which of these cannot form ionic bond? Why? (AS1)
ii. Which of these cannot form covalent bond? Why? (AS1)
iii. Which of these can form ionic as well as covalent bonds? (AS1)

174 X Class Chemical Bonding

3. How does Lewis dot structure helps in understanding bond formation between atoms? (AS1)
4. Explain the formation of the following molecules using valence bond theory
a) N2 molecule b) O2 molecule

Higher Order Thinking questions

1. Two chemical reactions are described below. (AS5)
• Nitrogen and hydrogen react to form ammonia (NH3)
• Carbon and hydrogen bond together to form a molecule of methane (CH4).
For each reaction, give:
(a) The valence of each of the atoms involved in the reaction. (AS1)

A
(b) The Lewis structure of the product that is formed. (AS5)
estions
Multiple choies qu

AN
1) Which one of the following four elements is more electronegative? [ ]

G
a) Sodium b) Oxygen c) Magnesium d) Calcium

formed by X is
N
2) An element 11X23 forms an ionic compound with another element ‘Y’. Then the charge on the ion
[ ]
LA
a) +1 b) +2 c) -1 d) -2
3) An element ‘A’ forms a chloride ACl4. The number electrons in the valence shell of ‘A’ is
TE

a) 1 b) 2 c) 3 d) 4 [ ]
4) The inert gas element which does not have octet electronic configuration in its
outermost orbit is [ ]
T,

a) Helium b) Argon c) Krepton d) Radon

5) Number of covalent bonds in methane molecule [ ]
ER

a) 1 b) 2 c) 3 d) 4
6) The concept hybridisation of orbitals of an atoms was introdused by [ ]
a) Lives pouling b) Mosley c) Lewis d) Kossel
SC

7) The value of bond angle in Berileum chloride molecule is [ ]

a) 1800 b) 1200 c) 1100 d) 1040.31|

Suggested Projects
1. Collect the information about properties and uses of covalent compounds and prepare a report?
(AS4)

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 175

 Chapter

9
Electric Current

A
AN
G
N
In previous classes, you had learnt about electric current, battery,
electric circuit and its components.
LA
• What do you mean by electric current?
• Which type of charge (positive or negative) flows through an electric
wire when it is connected in an electric circuit?
TE

• Is there any evidence for the motion of charge in daily life situations?
In class VIII you learned about lightning. Lightning is an electric
discharge between two clouds or between cloud and Earth. This electric
discharge through air appears to us as an electric spark or lightning.
T,

Lightning is a live example which provides evidence for the motion of

charge in the atmosphere.
ER

• Does motion of charge always lead to electric current?

Let us see.
Activity 1
SC

Situation 1: Take a bulb, a battery, a switch and few insulated copper

wires. Connect the ends of the copper wires to the terminals of the battery
through the bulb and switch. Now switch on the circuit and observe the
bulb.
• What do you notice?
Situation 2: Remove the battery from the circuit and connect the
remaining components to make a complete circuit. Again switch on the
circuit and observe the bulb. Does the bulb glow?

176 X Class Electric Current

 Situation 3: Replace the copper wires with nylon wires and connect
the nylon wires to the terminals of the battery through a bulb and switch.
Now switch on the circuit and observe the bulb. Does the bulb glow?
After doing these activities you will notice that the bulb glows only in
situation 1.
• Can you predict the reason for the bulb not glowing in situations 2 and
3?
In class VII, you have learnt that the battery stores chemical energy

A
and this energy converts into electric energy and makes the bulb to glow
as you observed in situation 1 i.e. the battery supplies the required energy

AN
to make the bulb glow. But in situation 3, though there is a battery in the
circuit, the bulb does not glow because the connecting wires (nylon wires)
are not able to carry the energy from source (battery) to bulb.
Hence, the nature of the substance plays an important role in the transfer

G
of energy from battery to bulb. The material which transfers energy from
battery (source) to the bulb is called a conductor and the material which
N
cannot transfer energy from battery (source) to the bulb is called a non
LA
conductor.
• Why do all materials not act as conductors?
• How does a conductor transfer energy from source to bulb?
TE

Drude and Lorentz, at the beginning of the 20th century, proposed that
conductors like metals contain a large number of free electrons while the
positive ions are fixed in their locations.
Let us understand the behaviour of these free electrons. Assume that a
T,

conductor is an open circuit. The free electrons move randomly in the

conductor as shown in fig.- 1. When the electrons are in random motion,
ER

they can move in any direction. Hence, if you imagine any cross section
as shown in fig.- 1, the number of electrons, crossing the cross section of
a conductor from left to right in one second is equal to that of electrons
passing the cross section from right to left in one second. It means that
SC

net charge moving along a conductor through any cross section is zero
when the conductor is in open circuit.
• What happens to the motion of electrons when the ends of the
conductor are connected to the battery?
When the ends of the conductor are connected
to the battery through a bulb, the bulb glows because
energy transfer takes place from battery to the bulb. fig-1: Random motion of
The electrons are responsible for this transfer of electrons
energy. If the electrons are responsible for transfer (in open circuit)

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 177

 of energy from battery to bulb, they must have an
ordered motion. When the electrons are in ordered
fig-2: Ordered motion motion, there will be a net charge crossing through
of electrons any cross section of the conductor. See fig.- 2. This
ordered motion of electrons is called electric current.
Thus we can say that electric current is ordered motion of charges.
Electric current
Electric current is defined as the amount of charge crossing any cross

A
section of the conductor in one second.

AN
Let Q be the charge crossing through any cross section of the conductor
in a time interval t. Then the amount of charge crossing through that cross
Q
section in one second is . Therefore,

G
t
Electric current = electric charge/time interval

I=
Q
t
N
LA
The SI unit of electric current is ampere denoted by A.
1 Ampere = 1 Coulomb/1 Second (1 Coulomb = 6.625 x 1018 electrons)
TE

1 A = 1 C/s
• How can we measure electric current?
Usually an ammeter is used to measure electric current. It is always
connected in series to the circuit. We can also use a multimeter by
T,

selecting its current measurement setting.

ER

• Why do electrons move in specified direction?

When the conductor is not connected to the circuit through a battery,
the electrons inside the conductor are in random motion but when the
SC

conductor is connected to a battery, the electrons move in a specified

direction.
• In which direction do the electrons move?
• Do the electrons experience force to accelerate continuously?
• Do they move with a constant speed?
The free electrons in the conductor are accelerated towards the postive
terminal of the battery and when these electrons are in motion under the

178 X Class Electric Current

influence of the field, they collide with positive ions, lose energy and may
even come to a halt at every collision. They are again accelerated by the
electric field and make collisions with other positive ions. In this way
they continue to move along the conductor. The motion of electron is
shown in fig.-3.
– Potential difference +
Hence, we assume that electrons in the
conductor move with a constant average speed. We A B
call this speed as drift speed or drift velocity.
Direction of electric field

A
Let us calculate the drift speed of free charges fig-3: Motion of electron
quantitatively.

AN
Consider a conductor with cross sectional area A. Assume that the
ends of the conductor are connected to a battery to make the current flow
through it. Let vd be the drift speed of the charges as shown in fig.- 4 and n

G
be the number of charges present in the conductor in a unit volume (charge
density). The average distance covered by one charge in one second is vd.

N
Then the volume of the conductor for this distance is equal to Avd (see
fig.- 4). The number of charges contained in that D
LA
volume is equal to nAvd. Let q be the charge of each
carrier. Then the total charge crossing the cross vd
sectional area at position D in one second is nqAvd. A (cross section area)
TE

fig-4: Drift of positive charges

This is equal to electric current. Hence,
Electric current I = nqAvd ………………. (1)
I
Therefore, vd = nqA ………………. (2)
T,

We know that the charge carriers in a conductor are electrons. The

magnitude of electric charge ‘e’ is 1.602 x 10-19C.
ER

Let us calculate the drift speed of electron in a copper wire carrying a

current of 1A and cross sectional area A = 10-6 m2. The electron density of
copper that was found experimentally is n = 8.5x1028m–3. Substituting these
SC

values in equation (2) with q = e, we get,

1
vd = (8.5×1028 ×1.6×10-19 ×10-6 )

vd = 7x10-5m/s = 0.07mm/s
This shows that the electrons are moving very slowly.
When we switch on any electric circuit, irrespective of length of the
connecting wire (conductor) an electric field is set up throughout the
conductor instantaneously due to the potential difference of the source
(battery) connected to the circuit. This electric field makes all the electrons
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 179
 to move in a specified direction simultaneously.
The equation I = nqAvd indicates that the values of n and A are positive.
The direction of electric current is determined by the signs of the charge
q and drift speed vd. For electrons (negative charges), q is negative and vd
is positive. Then the product of q and vd is negative. This negative sign
shows that the direction of electric current is opposite to the flow of
negative charge. For positive charges the product of q and vd is positive.
Hence, the direction of electric current can be taken as the direction of
flow of positive charges.

A
AN
Potential Difference
• Where do the electrons get energy for their motion from?
When the ends of a conducting wire are connected to the terminals of

G
a battery, an electric field is setup throughout the conductor. This field
exerts a force on the charge (electron). Let Fe be the force exerted by the

N
electric field on a free charge q. The free charges accelerate in the direction
of the electric field (If the free charges are electrons, then the direction
LA
of electric force on them is opposite to the direction of electric field). It
means the electric field does some work to move free charges in a specified
direction.
TE

• Can you find the work done by the electric force?

Let the electric force made the charges move through a distance ‘l’
from A to B as shown in fig.- 5. We know that, the work is the product of
force and distance along the direction of force.
T,

Direction of electric field Hence, work done by the electric force on a free
A Fe B charge q is given by
ER

W = Fe l
l
fig-5 What is the work done by the electric force on
unit charge?
SC

W Fe l
Work done by the electric force on unit charge = q = q

Work done by the electric force on unit positive charge to move it

through a distance ‘l’ from A to B is called potential difference between
those points. Potential difference is denoted by a symbol V. The potential
difference between two points separated by a distance l in a conducting
wire is given by,
W Fe l
V= q = q
180 X Class Electric Current
 This potential difference is also called voltage. The SI unit of potential
difference is “Volt” and it is denoted by V.
1 Volt = 1 Joule/1 Coulomb
1V = 1J/C
• What is the direction of electric current in terms of potential
difference?
• Do positive charges move in a conductor? Can you give an example of
this?

A
Let us recall your experience of electrolysis and electroplating and
conductivity of fluids that you had learned in earlier classes. When electric

AN
current is allowed to pass through fluids, the positive ions (cations) and
negative ions (anions) move in opposite directions. The direction of the
motion of positive charges in an electrolyte is always in the direction of

G
the electric field while negative charges move in a direction opposite to
that of positive charges. Thus for conduction in fluids there exists motion

N
of both positive and negative charges. Whereas in case of metal conductors
there will be only motion of electrons. (The positive charges are fixed in
LA
the lattice)
If positive charges move from point A to B in a conductor, the electric
field does positive work so W/q is positive for free positive charges. You
TE

can say that the direction of the electric field is from A to B and the point
A is at high potential and point B is at low potential. As negative charges
always move in a direction opposite to the electric field we consider that
electrons move from low potential to high potential.
T,

We know that in a battery or cell a constant potential difference is

maintained till the battery is completely discharged.
ER

• How does a battery maintain a constant potential difference between

its terminals?
• Why does the battery discharge when its positive and negative terminals
SC

are connected through a conductor?

To answer this, we need to know about how a battery or a cell works.
A battery consists of two metal plates (electrodes) and a chemical
(electrolyte). The electrolyte (chemical) between the two metal plates
consists of positive and negative ions which move in opposite directions
(see fig.- 6). The electrolyte exerts a certain force on these ions and makes
them move in a specified direction. Let us call this force as a chemical
force (Fc). Depending upon the nature of the chemical, positive ions move
towards one of the plates and accumulate on that plate. As a result of this

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 181

 accumulation of charges on this plate it becomes positively charged (called
anode). Negative ions move in a direction opposite to the motion of
positive ions and accumulate on the other plate. As a result of this the
plate becomes negatively charged (called cathode). This accumulation of
different charges on respective plates continues till both plates are
sufficiently charged.
But the ions in motion experience another force when sufficient
number of charges are accumulated on the plates. Let us call this force as
electric force (Fe). The direction of this force is opposite to the direction

A
of chemical force Fc and the magnitude of this force depends on the amount

AN
of charge accumulated on the plates.

The motion of ions continue towards their

respective plates if the chemical force Fc is

G
stronger than electric force Fe. See fig.- 7.
The accumulation of charges on plates is
fig-6
N continuous till the electric force Fe becomes
equal to chemical force Fc. At this situation
LA
there will not be any motion in ions due to
Fc Fe balance of forces Fe and Fc. It is shown in fig.-
8. The new battery that we buy from the shop
TE

Fe Fc is at a stage where the ions in the electrolyte

are under the influence of balanced forces.
fig-7 See fig.- 9. This is the reason for the constant
potential difference between the terminals of
T,

a battery.
Fc Fe
The amount of charge accumulated on the
plates depends on nature of the chemical used
ER

Fe Fc
in the battery.
fig-8 • What happens when the battery is
connected in a circuit?
SC

When a conducting wire is connected to

the terminals of the battery, a potential
difference is created between the ends of the
conductor. This potential difference sets up
an electric field throughout the conductor
fig-9
(the direction of electric field is from
positive terminal to negative terminal in the
conductor).
We know that the conductor contains
large number of electrons. The electrons near
182 X Class Electric Current
the positive terminal of the battery are attracted by it and start to move
towards positive terminal. As a result, the amount of positive charge on
this plate decreases. So the electric force Fe becomes weaker than chemical
force Fc and chemical force pulls negative ions from the positive plate
(anode) and makes them move towards the negative plate (cathode). The
negative terminal pushes one electron into the conductor because of
stronger repulsion between negative terminal and negative ion. Hence, the
total number of electrons in the conductor remains constant during the
current flow. The above said process continuous till equilibrium is attained

A
between the forces Fe and Fc.
Electromotive force (emf)

AN
When the ends of the conductor are connected to the terminals of a
battery, the electrons in the conductor move with a drift speed from negative
terminal to positive terminal because of the electric force acting on them.

G
At the same time negative ions of equal amount of charge move from
positive terminal to negative terminal against the electric force (Fe) because

N
of the chemical force acting on them within battery. Thus, some chemical
energy is spent to move ions in the battery. It means that an amount of
LA
work is done by the chemical force (Fc).
Let us assume that work done by the chemical force to move a negative
charge q from positive terminal to negative terminal against the electric
TE

force Fe be ‘W’ and also assume that the magnitude of chemical force Fc is
equal to magnitude of electric force (Fe).
The work done on negative charge q by the chemical force, W = Fcd
where ‘d’ is the distance between the terminals. Then work done by the
T,

chemical force to move 1 Coulomb charge from positive terminal to

W Fe d
negative terminal is given by, q = q . We know that Fc = Fe, then we get
ER

W Fe d
q
= q
.
SC

W
This q is the work done by the chemical force on unit negative charge
to move it from positive terminal to negative terminal. This is called emf
(ε).
W Fe d
ε= q = q
Generally, emf is defined as the work done by the chemical force to
move unit positive charge from negative terminal to positive terminal of
the battery.
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 183
 • How can we measure potential difference or emf?
Generally a volt meter is used to measure potential difference or emf
across an electric device like battery. It must be connected in parallel to
the electric device to measure the potential difference across the ends of
the electric device.
When a battery in a torch is used for several weeks, the light from its
bulb becomes dim. We say that the battery or cell in the torch is discharged.
What does it mean?
• Is there any relation between emf of battery and drift speed of electrons

A
in the conductor connected to a battery?

AN
Ohm’s law

Lab Activity

G
Aim: To show that the ratio V/I is a constant for a conductor.
Materials required: 5 dry cells of 1.5V each, conducting wires, an
N
ammeter, a volt meter, thin iron/manganin spoke of
LA
V length 10cm, LED and key.
Iron spoke
Procedure: Connect a circuit as shown in fig.-
10. Solder the conducting wires to the ends of the
I
TE

A iron spoke. Close the key. Note the readings of

Battery key current from ammeter and potential difference from
fig-10 volt meter in table 1.
Table:1
T,

[Link]. Potential difference (V) Current (I) V

I
ER
SC

Now connect two cells (in series) instead of one cell in the circuit.
Note the respective readings of the ammeter and volt meter and record the
values in table 1. Repeat the same for three cells, four cells and five cells
respectively. Record the values of potential difference (V) and current (I)
corresponding to each case in the table 1. Find V
I for each set of values.
What do you notice? The ratio V
I is a constant. We can write this
mathematically as
184 X Class Electric Current
 V∝I
From this experiment we can conclude that the potential

(in Ampere)
difference between the ends of the iron spoke (conductor) is

I
directly proportional to the current passing through it (assuming
the temperature of the iron spoke is constant during the flow
of current through it).
Draw a graph between V and I taking the current (I) along
V
y-axis and potential difference (V) along x-axis with appropriate (in volt)
fig-11

A
scale. You will get a straight line graph passing through the
origin as shown in fig.- 11.

AN
Repeat the process by using a LED instead of iron spoke.

(in ampere)
The long terminal of the LED is connected to the positive

I
terminal of the battery and short terminal of the LED is

G
connected to negative terminal of the battery. Note the values
of current ‘I’ and potential difference ‘V’ in each case and record

N
the values in table 1 (draw this table in your notebook). Find
V/I for each set of values I and V. You will notice that the ratio V
(in volt)
LA
V/I is not a constant. Draw a graph between V and I for LED. fig-12
You will get a curved graph as shown in fig.- 12.
From the above lab activity we can conclude that the ratio between V
TE

and I is constant for some materials at constant temperature. This fact was
established by German Physicist, George Simon Ohm and it is popularly
known as Ohm’s law.
We can define Ohm’s law as follow.
T,

The potential difference between the ends of a conductor is directly

proportional to the electric current passing through it at constant
ER

temperature.
Let V be the potential difference between the ends of the conductor
and I be the current passing through it.
SC

V ∝ I (temperature is constant)
V
I = Constant
This constant is called resistance of the conductor. It is denoted by
‘R’. Then we get VI = R.
V = IR
The SI unit of resistance is Ohm. The symbol of ohm is Ω.
1 Ohm = 1 Volt/1 Ampere
1 Ω = 1V/A

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 185

 • Can you guess the reason why the ratio of V and I in case of LED is not
constant?
• Do all materials obey Ohm’s law?
• Can we classify the materials based on Ohm’s law?
Based on Ohm’s law materials are classified into two categories. Those
which obey Ohm’s law are called ohmic materials. For example, metals
are ohmic materials. Those which do not obey Ohm’s law are called non
ohmic materials. For example, LEDs are non ohmic materials.

A
Limitations of Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law is valid for metal conductors provided the temperature and

AN
other physical conditions remain constant. The resistance of the material
changes with temperature. Hence for changing temperature the V-I graph
for a conductor will be non-linear. Ohm’s law is not applicable to gaseous

G
conductors. It is also not applicable to semiconductors such as germanium
and silicon.
• What is resistance?
N
• Is the value of resistance the same for all materials?
LA
When a conductor is connected to a battery the free electrons start
moving with a drift speed in a specified direction. During the motion, the
electrons collide with positive ions (fixed) of the lattice and come to halt.
TE

This means that they lose mechanical energy in the form of heat. Due to
the electric field that was set up by the battery throughout the conductor,
these electrons regain the energy from the field and proceed to move. The
motion of electrons is obstructed by the lattice ions. The obstruction
T,

offered to the flow of electrons in a conductor by lattice ions depends

upon the nature of the material.
ER

Therefore, the resistance of a conductor is defined as the obstruction

to the motion of the electrons in a conductor. The material which offers
resistance to the motion of electrons is called resistor.
• Is there any application of Ohm’s law in daily life?
SC

• What causes electric shock in the human body – current or voltage?

Let us see.
Electric shock
Let us assume that human body is a resistor. The resistance of the
human body generally varies from 100 Ω (if body is wet with salt water)
to 5,00,000 Ω (if the skin is very dry). Let us calculate the amount of
current that flows through the human body. Let us assume you have touched
the two electrodes of a battery of 24V with dry fingers in such a way that
the circuit is complete. Let your body resistance be 1,00,000Ω. Then the
186 X Class Electric Current
 current flowing through your body is given by I = 24/100000 = 0.00024A.
This current is very small. When such small current passes through the
human body, it does not affect the functioning of various organs inside the
body.
• Do you know the voltage of mains that we use in our household
circuits?
• What happens to our body if we touch live wire of 240V?
The current passing through our body when we touch a live wire of

A
240V is given by I = 240/100000 = 0.0024A. When this quantities of
current flows through the body the functioning of organs inside the body

AN
gets disturbed. This disturbance inside the body is felt as electric shock. If
the current flow continues further, it damages the tissues of the body which
leads to decrease in resistance of the body. When this current flows for a

G
longer time, damage to the tissues increases and thereby the resistance of
human body decreases further. Hence, the current through the human body

N
will further increase. If this current reaches 0.07A, it effects the functioning
of the heart and if this much current passes through the heart for more
LA
than one second it could be fatal. If this current flows for a longer time,
the person in electric shock is being killed. See the table 2 that describes
the effects of electric current on human body.
TE

Table-2
Current in Effect
ampere
0.001 Can be felt
T,

0.005 Is painful
0.010 Causes involuntary muscle contractions (spasms)
ER

0.015 Causes loss of muscle control

0.070 If through the heart, causes serious disruption ; probably fatal if current
lasts for more than one second
SC

From the above discussions, we can conclude that an electric shock

can be experienced when there is a potential difference exists between
one part of the body and another part. When current flows through human
body, it chooses the path which offers low resistance. The resistance of a
body is not uniform throughout it. For example, skin offers more resistance
than the organs inside the body. As long as current flow continues inside
the body the current and resistance of human body goes on changing
inversely. Hence, the electric shock is a combined effect of potential
difference, electric current and resistance of the human body.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 187

 • Why doesn’t a bird get a shock when it stands on a high voltage wire?
There are two parallel transmission lines on electric poles. The potential
difference between these two lines is 240V throughout their lengths. If
you connect any conducting device across these two wires, it causes current
to flow between the wires. When the bird sits on a high voltage wire, there
is no potential difference between the legs of the bird because it stands on
a single wire. So no current passes through the bird. Hence, it doesn’t feel
any electric shock.

A
Do you know?

AN
A multi meter is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several
measurement functions in one unit.
Digital multi meter displays the measured value in

G
numerals.
A multi meter has three parts
N
Display: The display usually has four digits and the ability
to display a negative sign.
LA
Selection knob: The selection knob allows the user to
set the multi meter to read different functions such as
milliamps (mA) of current, voltage (V) and resistance (Ω).
TE

Ports: Multi meters generally have two ports. One is

usually labelled as ‘COM’ (common or ground port). This is
where black test lead is connected. The other is labelled as
mAVΩ port where the red lead is conventionally plugged in.
T,

WARNING: Most multi meters can measure AC quantities also, but AC circuits
can be dangerous. So measure DC quantities only.
ER

Factors affecting the resistance of a material

SC

Temperature and resistance

Activity 2
Measure the resistance of the bulb when it is in open circuit using a
multi meter. To measure the resistance of a bulb set the multi meter as
ohm meter and place the multi meter knob at 20K Ω. Now place the leads
of the multi meter on the terminals of the bulb. The meter will show one
of the following readings.
- 0.00 or 1 or the actual resistance of the bulb.

188 X Class Electric Current

− Ιf the multi meter reads 1, or displays OL, it’s overloaded. You will
need to try a higher mode such as 200K Ω or 2M Ω etc.
− If the multi meter reads 0.00 or nearly 0, then you need to lower the
mode to 2K Ω or 200 Ω.
Note the value of resistance in your note book. Connect a circuit with
components as shown in fig.- 13. Switch on the circuit. After few minutes,
measure the resistance of the bulb again as explained
above. Note this value in your note book. What

A
difference do you notice between these two
readings? The value of resistance of the bulb in I

AN
second instance is more than the resistance of the
Battery key
bulb in open circuit.
• What could be the reason for increase in the fig-13

G
resistance of the bulb when current flows
through it?

N
You will notice that the bulb gets heated. The increase in temperature
of the filament in the bulb is responsible for increase in resistance of the
LA
bulb. Hence we can conclude that there is a relation between resistance of
the bulb and its temperature.
Thus the value of resistance of a conductor depends on temperature
TE

and increases with rise in temperature.

Nature of material and resistance
Activity 3
T,

Collect different metal rods of the same length and same cross
sectional area like copper, aluminium, iron etc. Make
ER

different metal rods are connected

a circuit as shown in fig.- 14. P and Q are the free between P and Q
P Q
ends of the conducting wires. Connect one of the
metal rods between the ends P and Q. Switch on the
SC

I
circuit. Measure the electric current using the
A
ammeter connected to the circuit and note it in your Battery key
notebook. Repeat this with other metal rods and fig-14
measure electric currents in each case. What do you
notice? The values of current are different for different metal rods for a
constant potential difference.
From this activity, we conclude that the resistance of a conductor
depends on the material of the conductor.
• What happens to the resistance of a conductor if we increase its length?

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 189

 Let us find out.
Length of the conductor and resistance
Activity 4
Collect iron spokes of different lengths with the same cross sectional
areas. Make a circuit as shown in fig.- 14. Connect one of the iron spokes,
say 10cm length, between P and Q. Measure the value of the current using
the ammeter connected to the circuit and note the value in your note book.

A
Repeat this for other lengths of the iron spokes. Note corresponding values
of currents in your note book. What do you notice? The current decreases

AN
with increase in the length of the spoke. Thus the resistance of each spoke
increases with increase in the length for a constant potential difference.
From this activity, we can conclude that the resistance (R) of a

G
conductor is directly proportional to its length (l) for a constant potential
difference.
i.e.
N
R ∝ l (at constant temperature and cross sectional area)
LA
.................. (1)
• Does the thickness of a conductor influence its resistance?
Let us find out.
TE

Crosssection area and resistance

Activity 5
T,

Collect iron rods of equal lengths but different cross section areas.
Make a circuit as shown in fig.- 14. Connect one of the rods between
points P and Q. Note the value of the current using the ammeter connected
ER

to the circuit and note it in your note book. Repeat this with other rods.
Note the corresponding values of currents in each case and note them in
your note book. You will notice that the current flowing through the rod
SC

increases with increase in its cross sectional area. Hence, the resistance
of a rod decreases with increase in the cross section area of the rod.
From this activity, we conclude that the resistance of a conductor is
inversely proportional to its cross section area.
i.e.
1
R∝ A (at constant temperature and length of the conductor)
.................. (2)
From the equations (1) and (2), we get
190 X Class Electric Current
 R ∝ Al (at constant temperature)
A
ρl
R= A
Where, ρ is a proportionality constant and it I l
is called specific resistance or resistivity. See
fig.- 15 to get clear picture of this equation. Po
diffe tential
Specific resistance depends on the renc I
e (V
)
temperature and nature of the material where as

A
fig-15
the resistance of the conductor depends on nature
of material, temperature and geometrical factors like length and cross

AN
section area of the conductor.
The SI unit of resistivity is Ω - m.
The reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity (σ).

G
The values of resistivity of material determine their conductivity.
Metals with low resistivity behave as good
conductors. Metals such as copper are
therefore used for making electric wires. TheN Table 3
Resistivity of various materials
LA
filament of an electric bulb is usually made of Material ρ(ΩΩ-m) at 20 °C
tungsten, because of its higher resistivity
Silver 1.59 × 10-8
values and melting point (34220C).
Copper 1.68 × 10-8
TE

The values of resistivity of insulators are

very high of the order of 1014 to 1016 Ω-m. Gold 2.44 × 10-8
Alloys like Nichrome (Nickel, chromium and Aluminium 2.82 × 10-8
iron) and Manganin (86% copper, 12% Calcium 3.36 × 10-8
T,

manganese, 2% nickel) have 30-100 times Tungsten 5.60 × 10-8

larger values of resistivity than those of metals. Zinc 5.90 × 10-8
This makes them suitable for use in the heating
ER

Nickel 6.99 × 10-8

elements of electric irons, toasters etc. These
alloys also have the advantage that their Iron 1.00 × 10-7
resistance varies very little with temperature Lead 2.20 × 10-7
SC

and they do not oxidise easily. The resistivity Nichrome 1.10 × 10-6
of materials such as silicon and germanium Carbon (Graphite) 2.50 × 10-6
are 105 to 1010 times more than that of metals, Germanium 4.60 × 10-1
but 10 to 10 times less than that of Drinking water
15 16
2.00 × 10-1
insulators. Such materials are called
Silicon 6.40 × 102
semiconductors. Semiconductors are used to
make diodes, transistors and integrated Wet wood 1.00 × 103
Circuits (ICs). ICs are used in all sorts of Glass 10.0 × 1010
electronic devices, including computer, TV, Rubber 1.00 × 1013
mobile phones etc. Air 1.30 × 1016
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 191
 • How are electric devices connected in circuits?
Electric Circuits
A closed path created by the connecting wires through a battery along
which electrons can flow is called a circuit. For a continuous flow of
electrons in the circuit it must be a complete circuit with no gaps left in
between. Usually a gap is provided in the circuit by an electric switch that
can be opened or closed to either cut off or allow current flow through the
circuit. Circuits may have more than one device (called as component)

A
that receives electric energy from the source. These devices are commonly

AN
connected in the circuit either in series or in parallel.
When the components of the circuit are connected in series, there
will be a single path for flow of electrons between the terminals of the
battery, generator or wall socket (which is simply and extension of these

G
terminals). When these components are connected in parallel, they form
branches and each branch provides a separate path for the flow of electrons.
N
Both the series and parallel connections have their own distinctive
LA
characteristics. We shall briefly study circuits, using these two types of
connections.
Series connection of resistors
TE

Activity 6
Take different bulbs. Measure their resistances with a multi meter.
Note their values in your book as R1, R2, R3.
T,

Connect them as shown in fig.- 16.

ER

Measure the potential difference between

V1 V2 V3 terminals of the battery connected to the circuit.
Measure the potential differences between the
ends of each bulb and note them as V1, V2 and V3
SC

from voltmeters in your note book. Compare

I the potential difference of the battery and
A resistors.
Battery key
• What do you notice?
fig-16
The sum of the potential differences of the
bulbs is equal to potential difference across the combination of the
resistors. Then we get,
V = V1 + V2 + V3 ......................... (1)

192 X Class Electric Current

 Measure the value of the current flowing in the circuit with help of the
ammeter. Note its values in your book as I.
• What do you notice?
Equivalent resistance of a series V
connection: V1 V2 V3

Observe fig.- 17. In this fig.- the bulbs I R1 R2 R3 I

are shown as resistors with symbols. fig-17
In series connection of resistors there is

A
V
only one path for the flow of current in the

AN
circuit. Hence, the current in the circuit is
I I
equal to I. Req fig-18
According to Ohm’s law,

G
Potential difference across R1 is , V1 = IR1
Potential difference across R2 is , V2 = IR2
Potential difference across R3 is , V3 = IR3 N
Let Req is the equivalent resistance of the combination of resistors in
LA
series.
• What do you mean by equivalent resistance?
TE

If the current drawn by a resistor is equal to the current drawn by the

combination of resistors then the resistor is called as equivalent resistor
(provided the source in the circuit is constant).
So, we have V = I Req
T,

Substituting the values of V1, V2, V3 and V in the equation (1), we get
IReq = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
ER

Req = R1 + R2 + R3
From the above equation you can conclude that the sum of individual
resistances is equal to their equivalent resistance when the resistors are
SC

connected in series.
• What happens when one of the resistors in series breaks down?
When one of the resistors in series breaks down, the circuit becomes
open and flow of current cannot take place in the circuit. This is the reason
why household electrical appliances are not connected in series.
• Can you guess in what way household wiring has been done?
Let us see

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 193

 Parallel Connection of resistors
Activity 7
Use the bulbs used in activity 6 and connect
these bulbs as shown in fig.- 19.
A Measure the potential difference across each
I1 bulb using a voltmeter or multi meter. Note these
values in your note book. What do you notice? The
A potential difference at the ends of each bulb is the

A
Q
I2 same. These bulbs are said to be in parallel conne
P ction. Measure electric currents flowing through

AN
I3
each bulb using ammeters. Note these values.
A
Let I1,I2 and I3 be the currents flowing through
I ammeter 1 R1, R2 and R3 resistors respectively.
A
• How much current is drawn from the battery?

G
Battery key fig-19
• Is it equal to individual currents drawn by the
resistors?
N
Measure the current (I) drawn from the battery using the ammeter 1.
You will notice that the current drawn from the battery is equal to the sum
LA
of individual currents drawn by the bulbs.
Hence we can write
I = I1 + I2 + I3 .................. (1)
TE

Equivalent resistance of a parallel connection

I1 The schematic circuit of fig.- 19 is shown in
A
R1 fig.- 20.
I I2 I
T,

R2
A A According to the Ohm’s law,
I3 V
R3
A Current through R1 is, I1 = R
ER

1
fig-20
V
Current through R2 is, I2 =
Req R2
I I V
A Current through R3, is, I3 =
SC

R3
fig-21
Let Req be the equivalent resistance of the
resistors is parallel. It is shown in fig.- 21.
V
Then we get; I=
R eq
Substituting the values I, I1, I2 and I3 in equation (1), we get
V V V V
= R + +
R eq 1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1
= + +
R eq R1 R2 R3
194 X Class Electric Current
 The two resistors R1 and R2 are connected in parallel,
1 1 1
= +
R eq R1 R2
R 1R 2
Req =
(R 1 + R 2 )
The equivalent resistance of a parallel combination is less than the
resistance of each of the resistors.
You can use this result to explain why the resistance of a metal wire is
inversely proportional to its area of cross section. Let us imagine a thick

A
wire as a parallel combination of several thin wires. Then the resistance of
the combination is less than that of each thin wire. In other words, the

AN
resistance of a thick wire is less than that of a thin wire.
Example 1: Three resisters 10 Ω, 20 Ω, 30 Ω, are connected in
(a) Series (b) Parallel. Find the resultant resistance in the circuit.
Solution: From the given circuit R1 = 10 Ω, R2 = 20 Ω, R3 = 30 Ω

G
(a) Resultant resistance in Series connection: R = R1+ R2+ R3
R = 10 + 20 + 30 = 60Ω
N 1 1
(B) Resultant resistance in parallel connection: R = R + R + R
1 2 3
1 1
LA
1 1 1 1 11
= + + =
R 10 20 30 60
R = 5.5 Ω
TE

Example 2: Three resisters R1, 4 Ω, and 8 Ω, are connected in series in a

circuit. If the resultant resistance in the circuit is 20 Ω find the value of
R1.
Solution: Resultant resistance in Series connection: R = R1+ R2+ R3
T,

20 = R1 + 4 + 8
20 = R1 + 12
ER

R1 = 20 - 12
R1 = 8 Ω
Example 3: Two resisters R1 and 12 Ω, are connected in parallel in a
SC

circuit. If the resultant resistance in the circuit is 3Ω find the value of R1.
1 1 1
Resultaint resistance in parallel connection: R = R + R
1 2

1 1 1
= +
3 R1 12
1 1 1 3 1
= − = =
R1 3 12 12 4
R1 = 4Ω

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 195

 Example 4: Observe the given circuit (fig. 22)and calculate the
resultant resistance.
Solution: From the given circuit
R1 = 4 Ω, R2 = 12 Ω, are connected in
parallel their resultant resistance is fig-22
R1 R2 4 × 12 48
Rp = = = = 3Ω
R1 + R2 4 + 12 16
Rp is connected to R3 in series then resultaint resistance is

A
R = 3 + 7 = 10 Ω

AN
Though the methods discussed in the previous section for replacing
series and parallel combination of resistors by their equivalent resistances
are very useful for simplifying many combinations of resistors, they are

G
not sufficient for the analysis of many simple circuits particularly those
containing more than one battery.
Let us see.
Kirchhoff’s laws
N
LA
Two simple rules called Kirchhoff’s rules are applicable to any DC
circuit containing batteries and resistors connected in any way.
TE

Junction Law
See fig.- 19. I6 I1
We have seen that the current divides at P. The I2
T,

current drawn from the battery is equal to the sum

I5 I3
of the currents through the resistors. P is called
I4
junction. The junction is a point where three or
ER

more conducting wires meet. fig-23

At any junction point in a circuit where the
current can divide, the sum of the currents into the junction must equal the
SC

sum of the currents leaving the junction. This means that there is no
accumulation of electric charges at any junction in a circuit.
From fig.- 23, we have
I1 + I4 + I6 = I5 + I2 + I3
This law is based on the conservation of charge.
Loop Law
The algebraic sum of the increases and decreases in potential difference
across various components of the circuit in a closed circuit loop must be

196 X Class Electric Current

zero. This law is based on the conservation of energy.
Let us imagine in a circuit loop the potential difference between the
two points at the beginning of the loop has a certain value. As we move
around the circuit loop and measure the potential difference across each
component in the loop, the potential difference may decrease or increase
depending upon the nature of the element like a resistor or a battery. But
when we have completely traversed the circuit loop and arrive back at our
starting point, the net change in the potential difference must be zero.
Thus, the algebraic sum of changes in potential differences is equal to

A
zero.

AN
• How could the sign convention be taken?
1. emf of the battery is taken as negative when we move from positive
terminal to negative terminal across the battery.
2. It is taken as positive when we move across the battery from negative

G
terminal to positive terminal.
3. The potential difference across the resistor is taken as negative
N
when we move along the direction of electric current through the
resistor.
LA
4. It is taken as positive when we move against the direction of electric
current through the resistor.
Direction of traversing
TE
T,

fig-24
Example 1: Write the loop equation for the
potentials in the given circuit.
ER

Solution: In ABCDEA loop,

The potential difference at battery is -V1
at resistance R1 the potential difference is I R1 fig-25
SC

Net change in the potential difference in the

circuit is – V1 + I R1 = 0
Example 2: Write the loop equation for the
potentials in the given circuit.
Solution: Let us apply Loop law to the given circuit.
From the ABCDEA loop. fig-26
At battery v1 the potential difference is –V1
the potential difference at v2 is – V2
Potential difference at resistance R1 = IR1

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 197

 Potential difference at resistance R2 = IR2
Potential difference at resistance R3 = IR3
Net change in the potential difference in the circuit is
IR1 + IR2 – V1 + IR3 – V2 = 0
Example 3: Find the loop equation for the
potentials in the given circuit.
Solution: Let us apply Loop law to the given
circuit.
From Loop ABCDEA fig-27

A
Potential difference at battery is -V1

AN
Potential difference at resistances are IR1 + IR2
Net change in the potential difference in the circuit is
-V1 + I R1 + I R2 = 0
Example 4: Find the loop equation (for all

G
possible loops) for the potentials in the given
circuit.
N
Solution: Let us apply Loop law to the given
LA
circuit.
I - From the ABCDEFA loop
fig-28
Potential difference at batteries = -V1 + V2
TE

Potential difference at resistancess = +I1R1 - I2R2

Net change in the Potential difference in the loop is -V1 + V2 + I1R1 - I2R2 = 0
II - From the AFEDCBA loop
Potential difference at batteries = -V2 + V1
T,

Potential difference at resistancess = +I2R2 - I1R1

Net change in the Potential difference in the loop is -V2 + V1 + I2R2 - I1R1 = 0
ER

III - From the FEDGHF loop

Potential difference at batteries = -V2
Potential difference at resistancess = +I2R2 + (I1 + I2) x R3
Net change in the Potential difference in the loop is -V2 +I2R2 + (I1 + I2) x R3= 0
SC

IV - From the FHGDEF loop

Potential difference at battery = + V2
Potential difference at resistancess = R3 x -(I1 + I2) - I2R2
Net change in the Potential difference in the loop is = + V2 - (I1 + I2) x R3 - I2R2= 0
V - From the HGCBAH loop
Potential difference at battery = + V1
Potential difference at resistances = - R3 x (I1 + I2) - I1R1
Net change in the Potential difference in the loop is = + V1 - (I1 + I2) x R3 - I1R1= 0

198 X Class Electric Current

 VI - From the ABCGHA loop
Potential difference at battery = - V1
Potential difference at resistancess = + I1R1 + (I1 + I2) x R3
Net change in the Potential difference in the loop is = - V1 + I1R1 + (I1 + I2) x R3 = 0
Example 5 : Find the loop equation (all possible loops) for the
potentials in the given circuit.
A I1 V1 R1 B
Solution: Shown in
For the loop ACDBA,
-V2 + I2R2 – I1R1+V1 = 0 C I2 V2 R2

A
D
For the loop EFDCE

AN
-(I1+I2) R3 – I2R2 + V2 = 0 E I1+I2 R3 F
For the loop EFBAE
fig-29
-(I1+I2) R3 – I1R1+V1 = 0

G
Example 6: Find the electric current E D (I-I1) C
I1
(fig 30) drawn from the battery of emf 12V. I
Solution: Do proper current distribution
using junction law. N 3Ω
2Ω
LA
4Ω
Using loop law in loop DAFED
-3I1 + 12 - 4I = 0 12V 5V
4I + 3I1 = 12 ..... (a)
TE

For loop DABCD

-3I1 + 12 - 5 + 2 (I-I1) = 0 B
F A
2I - 5I1 = -7 ..... (b) fig-30
Solving the equation (a) & (b) I1 = 2A
T,

Current drawn from battery of 12V is I1 = 2A

• You might have heard the sentences like “this month we have consumed
100 units of current”. What does ‘unit’ mean?
ER

• A bulb is marked 60W and 220V. What do these values indicate?

Let us see.
Electric power
SC

The electric appliances that we use in our daily life like heater, cooker,
fan, and refrigerator etc. consume electric energy. Let us consider a
conductor of resistance ‘R’ through which
an electric current ‘I’ passes. We know that Potential difference V
when current passes through conductor, heat A Q Fe B
t=0
energy is generated. t
l
Consider that a charge Q Coulomb Direction of electric field
passes through a point A, moves to point B fig-31

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 199

 in the time interval ‘t’ seconds as shown in fig.- 31. Let V be the potential
difference between the points A and B. The work done by electric field in
time ‘t’ is given by
W = QV .........................(1)
This work is equal to the energy lost by the charge while passing through
the conductor.
• What is the energy lost by the charge in 1 sec?
W
It is equal to .
t

A
From equation (1), we get

AN
W QV
= .........................(2)
t t
Q
In above equation represents the current (I) flowing through the
t

G
W
conductor and represents the work done per second.
t
N
In lower classes you had studied that power is nothing but the rate of
LA
W
doing work. Hence, represents electric power (P).
t
Electric power P = VI .........................(3)
TE

This equation can be used to calculate power consumption by any

electric device that is connected in a circuit.
According to the ohm’s law,
V = IR
T,

We can write equation (3) as

V2
P = I2 R =
ER

R
The equation P = VI can also be used to know the power that can be
extracted from a battery or any source. In such case we modify the equation
P = VI as P = ε I.
SC

Where ε is the emf of the battery.

Let us consider an example to understand power consumption.
A bulb is marked 60W and 120V. This means that if this bulb is
connected to 120V source, it will able to convert 60J of electrical energy
into heat or light in one second.
Thus, the bulbs marked as 60W and 120V will offer a resistance of
240 Ω to the flow current through it in normal condition.
From the marking of bulb we can measure the resistance of the bulb.

200 X Class Electric Current

 V2 V2
From the relation P = R=
R P
Substituting the values V and P in above equation, we get
120 × 120
R= = 240 Ω
60
If this bulb is connected to the 12V a battery, the consumption by the
bulb is given by
V2 12 × 12 3

A
P= = = = 0.6 W
R 240 5

AN
Since watt is a small unit of power, a bigger unit Kilowatt is generally
used to express power consumption.
1 KW = 1000 W = 1000 J/S
You might have seen the current bill that comes to your home every

G
month. In that bill, consumption of electricity is marked in units. What
does the unit represent?
N
The unit of electric power consumption is equal to 1 KWH (one Kilo
Watt Hour).
LA
1 KWH = (1000 J/S) (60 x 60 S)
= 3600 x 1000 J
= 3.6 x 106 J
TE

• What do you mean by overload?

• Why does it cause damage to electric appliances?
We frequently hear news about overload of current and damages caused
T,

by this overload.
Electricity enters our homes through two wires called lines. These
line wires have low resistance and the potential difference between the
ER

wires is usually about 240V. These two line wires run throughout the
household circuit, to which we connect various appliances such as fan, TV,
refrigerator etc.
SC

All the electric devices of our home are connected at different points
between these two wires. This means all the electric appliances are in
parallel connection. Hence, potential drop across each device is 240V. If
we know the value of resistance of the electric device, we can calculate
the current passing through it using the equation I = V/R. For example, the
current passing through a bulb with resistance 240 Ω is 1 A.
Based on the resistance of each electric device, it draws some current
from the supply. Total current drawn from the mains is equal to the sum of
the currents passing through each device (Junction law).

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 201

 If we add more devices to the household circuit the current drawn
from the mains also increases.
• What happens when this current increases greatly?
To answer this, observe the values noted on digital meters fixed at
your home. You will notice the following values on the meter.
Potential difference: 240 V
Current: 5 – 20A
This means the line wires that are entering the meter have a

A
Heater
potential difference of 240V. The minimum and maximum limit
of current that can be drawn from the mains is 5 – 20A. Thus, the

AN
4A Fan
maximum current that we can draw from the mains is 20A. When
the current drawn from the mains is more than 20A. Overheating
2A Bulb
occurs and may cause a fire. This is called over loading. See fig.-

G
32. If we switch on devices, such as heater shown in fig.- 32, the
Fridge
8A current drawn from the mains exceeds the max limit 20A.

6A TV
•
N
How can we prevent damage due to overloading?
To prevent damages due to overloading we connect an electric
LA
fuse to the household circuit as shown in fig.- 32. In this
Fuse
arrangement, the entire current from the mains must pass through
20A
the fuse. The fuse consists of a thin wire of low melting point.
TE

When the current in the fuse exceeds 20A, the wire will heat up
240V and melt. The circuit then becomes open and prevents the flow of
fig-32 current into the household circuit. So all the electric devices are
saved from damage that could be caused by overload.
T,

Thus we can save the house holding wiring and devices by using fuses.
Note: The value of overload current varies from the household currents
ER

to factories.

Think and discuss

SC

• What do you mean by short circuit?

• Why does a short circuit damage electric wiring and devices connected to it?

Key words

Charge, Potential difference, Electric current, Multi-meter, Ohm’s law,

Resistance, Resistivity, Kirchhoff’s laws, Electric power, Electric energy.

202 X Class Electric Current

 What we have learnt

• Electric current is expressed as the amount of charge flowing through a particular cross section
0area in unit time.

• A multi-meter is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several measuring functions

(electric potential difference, electric current and electric resistance) in one unit.

• Ohms law: The current through a conductor element is proportional to the potential difference

A
applied between its ends, provided the temperature remains constant. Mathematically V=IR.

AN
• Ohm’s law is valid for metal conductors at constant temperature. It is not applicable for gaseous
conductors and semiconductors.

G
• Resistance is the opposition that a substance offers to the motion of electrons.

• Resistance of a wire depends on the material of the wire, its length and its area of cross section
Rα l/A. N
LA
• The resistivity of a material is the resistance per unit length of a unit cross section of the material.

• Two or more resistors are said to be connected in series if the same current flows through them.
TE

• The junction law: At any junction point in a circuit where the current can divide, the sum of the
currents into the junction must equal the sum of the currents leaving the junction.

• The loop law: The algebraic sum of the increases and decreases in potential difference across
T,

various components of a closed circuit loop must be zero.

• Electric power is the product of potential difference and the current. SI unit of power is watt
ER

(W).

• Electrical energy is the product of power and time. Units of electrical energy W-s and KWH.
SC

Improve your learning

Reflections on concepts

1. Explain how electron flow causes electric current

with Lorentz – Drude theory of electrons.(AS1)

2. Write the difference between potential difference and emf. (AS1)

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 203

3. How can you verify that the resistance of a conductor is temperature dependent? (AS1)

4. Explain how electric shock takes place. (AS1)

5. Draw a circuit diagram for a circuit in which two resistors A and B are connected in series
with a battery and a voltmeter is connected to measure the potential difference across the
resistor A.(AS5)
1A V= 0
6. In the figure Q-6 the potential at A is —————
A 5Ω 2V B

A
when the potential at B is zero. (AS7) fig. Q - 6

AN
Application of concepts

1. Explain overloading of household circuit. (AS1)

G
2. Why do we use fuses in household circuits? (AS1)

N
3. Two bulbs have ratings 100 W, 220V and 60 W, 220 V. Which one has the greater
LA
resistance?(AS1)

4. Why do we consider tungsten as a suitable material for making the filament of a bulb? (AS2)
TE

5. Are the head lights of a car connected in series or parallel? Why? (AS2)

6. Why should we connect electric appliances in parallel in a household circuit? What happens if
they are connected in series? (AS2)
T,

7. If the resistance of your body is 100000Ω. What would be the current that flows in your body
when you touch the terminals of a 12V battery? (AS7)
ER

Higher Order Thinking Questions

SC

1. Imagine that you have three resistors of 30Ω each. How many resultant resistances can be
obtained by connecting these three in different ways? Draw the relevant diagrams.

2. A house has 3 tube lights, two fans and a Television. Each tube light draws 40W. The fan draws
80W and the Television draws 60W. On the average, all the tube lights are kept on for five
hours, two fans for 12 hours and the television for five hours every day. Find the cost of electric
energy used in 30 days at the r ate of Rs. 3.00 per Kwh. (AS7)

204 X Class Electric Current

 s
Multiple choice question

1. A uniform wire of resistance 50 Ω is cut into five equal parts. These parts are now connected
in parallel. Then the equivalent resistance of the combination is [ ]

a) 2 Ω b) 10 Ω

c) 250 Ω d) 6250 Ω

A
2. A charge is moved from a point A to a point B. The work done to move unit charge during this

AN
process is called. [ ]

a) potential at A b) potential at B

c) potential difference between A and B d) current from A to B

G
3. Joule/ coulomb is the same as [ ]

a) 1 watt N b) 1 volt
LA
c) 1 ampere d) 1 ohm

4. The resistors of values 2 Ω, 4 Ω, 6 Ω are connected in series. The equivalent resistance in the
TE

circuit is [ ]

a) 2 Ω b) 4 Ω

c) 12 Ω d) 6 Ω
T,

5. The resistors of values 3 Ω, 6 Ω, 18 Ω are connected in parallel. The equivalent resistance in

ER

the circuit is [ ]

a) 12 Ω b) 36 Ω

c) 18 Ω d) 1.8 Ω
SC

6. The resistors of values 6 Ω, 6 Ω are connected in series and 12 Ω are connected in parallel
The equivalent resistance of the circuit is [ ]

a) 24 Ω b) 6 Ω

c) 18 Ω d) 2.4 Ω

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 205

7. The current in the wire depends [ ]

a) only on the potential difference applied b) only on the resistance of the wire

c) on both of them d) none of them

Suggested Experiments

1. State Ohm’s law. Suggest an experiment to verify it and explain the procedure. (AS3)

A
2. How do you verify that resistance of a conductor is proportional to the length of the conductor

AN
for constant cross section area and temperature? (AS3)

G
Suggested Projects

1.a. Take a battery and measure the potential difference. Make a circuit and measure the potential
N
difference when the battery is connected in the circuit. Is there any difference in potential difference
LA
of battery? (AS4)

b. Measure the resistance of a bulb (filament) in open circuit with a multi-meter. Make a circuit
TE

with elements such as bulb, battery of 12V and key in series. Close the key. Then again measure
the resistance of the same bulb (filament) for every 30 seconds. Record the Observations in a
proper table. What can you conclude from the above results? (AS4)
T,

2. Calculate the resistance of verious bulbs that you use at your home and find which one is having
higher / lower resistance value. Write the report on your observations.
ER

3. Collect the information and prepare a report on power consumption in your home / school.
SC

206 X Class Electric Current

 Annexure
Can we apply Newton law’s to the motion of electrons?
Note: In this explanation, the random motion of electrons is neglected.
Let us consider a conductor of length l and cross sectional area A. Let
n be the density of electrons of a conductor.

A
The current passing through the conductor when the ends of the
conductor is maintained at a constant potential difference V is given by

AN
I = nAevd ....................... (a)
Where e is the charge of electron and vd is the drift velocity of
electrons.

G
Work done by the source to move electron between the ends (along
the conductor) is given by,
W = Ve
N ....................... (b)
LA
We know that the work done by the electric force,
W =Fl ....................... (c)
TE

Where F is the force applied by the electric field.

From equations (b) and (c), We get
Fl = Ve F = Ve/l
T,

From Newton’s second law, we know that F = ma is applicable to any

particle. Hence we have,
ER

ma = Ve/l a = Ve/lm ......................(d)

Assuming that the initial velocity (u) of electron is zero. Let v velocity
acquired by the electron in a time interval τ (interval between successive
SC

collisions). Then u = 0 and t = τ

From equation v = u+at
v = aτ = Veτ/lm (from equation d)
Due to collisions with lattice ions, the motion of electrons is restricted.
Hence the average velocity of electron in time τ becomes its drift velocity.
Average velocity of electron vd = (v+u)/2 = v/2
Substituting the value of v in above equation, we get

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 207

 Average velocity = Drift velocity, vd = Veτ/2lm
Substituting the value of vd in equation (a) we get,
I = nAe(Veτ/2lm)
I = V(ne2τ/2m)(A/l)
I (2m/ne2τ)(l/A) = V ......................(e)
In the above equation, mass of the electron (m) and charge of the

A
electron (e) are constants because these values are characteristics of
the electron.

AN
The electron density (n) of a metal conductor depends on its nature
so it is also constant for a particular conductor.
For a given conductor, the length (l) and cross section area (A) are

G
also constants. The value of τ depends on temperature of the conductor.

N
When the temperature increases the random motion of electrons
increases hence the value of τ decreases.
LA
For a constant temperature of a conductor the value of τ becomes
constant.
TE

Hence (2m/ne 2τ) (l/A) becomes a constant for a particular

conductor at constant temperature. Let this value be R (called resistance
of a conductor). The we get
IR = V (from equation e) ...................(f)
T,

This is what we call Ohm’s law.

Where R = (2m/ne2τ) (l/A) ..................(g)
ER

In the above equation 2m/ne2τ is the characteristic value of a

conductor. The value of resistance R is different for different
geomentrical values for a particular conductor (material). Hence 2m/
SC

ne2τ is taken as a constant independent of geomentrical values. Let it

be ρ. It is called specific resistance.
ρ = 2m/ne2τ
From equation (g) we get
R = ρl/A ..................(h)
Note: Drift velocity and Drift speed are synonoum

208 X Class Electric Current

 Chapter

10

A
Electromagnetism

AN
G
In the previous chapter on ‘Electricity’ you have learnt about the heating

N
effects of electric current. We use many electric appliances in our daily
life such as electric motor, electric generators, electric calling bells,
LA
electric cranes etc.,
• How do they work?
• How do electromagnets work?
TE

• Is there any relation between electricity and magnetism?

• Can we produce magnetism from electricity?
In this chapter we will study electromagnetic effects. We also study
electric motors which involve magnetic effects of electric current and
T,

electric generator which involves electric effects of moving magnets.

ER

Hans Christian Oersted (1777 - 1851) was one of the leading

scientists of the 19th century, played a crucial role in understanding
electromagnetism. He gave lectures which were quite popular among
the public and also learnt a lot during the tours. During one such
SC

lecture in April 1820, Oersted carried out an experiment that was

never performed before. He placed a compass needle underneath a
wire and then turned on electric current. The needle of compass
showed deflection.
Oersted recognized the significance of what he had just done. Earlier, it was
believed that electricity and magnetism were two different unconnected sciences.
Oersted had demonstrated that they were interconnected. Through this observation
he showed that electricity and magnetism were related phenomena. Some scientists,
influenced by this experiment, continued to work in the modern field of

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 209

“electromagnetism”. Their research resulted in several new scientific theories and
various vital inventions like the dynamo and the electric motor, with this a new
technology prospered, leading to inventions such as radio, television and fiber optics.
The unit of magnetic field strength is named Oersted in his honour.
Oersted was made a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
in 1822.

Activity 1

A
Oersted experiment

AN
Take a thermocole sheet and fix two thin wooden sticks of height 1cm
which have small slit at the top of their ends. Arrange a copper wire of 24
gauge so that it passes through these slits and make a circuit. The circuit

G
consists of a 3 (or 9) volt battery, key and copper wire which are connected
in series as shown in figure 1. Now, keep a magnetic compass below the

N
wire. Bring a bar magnet close to the compass.
• Does the needle get deflected by the bar magnet?
LA
• Why does the needle get deflected by the
magnet?
Take the bar magnet far away from the circuit
TE

fig-1 and switch on the circuit. Look for changes in

the position of the needle.
• What do you notice?
• Is there any change in the position of the compass needle?
T,

• Which force is responsible for the deflection of the compass needle?

• Does the current-carrying wire apply a force on the needle?
• What do we call this force? (Recall the idea of field forces in class 8,
ER

chapter “Force”).
In order to understand the reasons for the deflection of the compass
needle with no bar magnet near it we need to understand the idea of
SC

‘magnetic field’ and the influence of electric field on magnetic field.

Let us learn about it.
Magnetic Field
We use the term field when a force gets applied on an object by another
object without there being any physical contact between them. You have
observed this already in activity 1. Let us call this field which is responsible
for deflection of the compass needle as ‘magnetic field’.
• How was this field produced?
• Can we observe the field of a bar magnet?
210 X Class Electromagnetism
 Let us try.
Activity 2
Take a sheet of white paper and place it on the horizontal table. Place a
bar magnet in the middle of the sheet. Place a magnetic compass near the
magnet. It settles to a certain direction. Use a pencil and put dots on the
sheet on either side of the needle. Remove the compass. Draw a small line
segment connecting the two dots. Draw an arrow on it from South Pole of
the needle to North Pole of the needle. Repeat the same by placing the

A
compass needle at various positions on the paper. The compass needle

AN
settles in different directions at different positions.
• Why does this happen?
Remove the bar magnet and place the magnetic compass on the paper.
It comes to rest along the north-south direction. Now place the bar magnet

G
in its previous place.
• Is there any change in the direction of the needle of the magnetic
compass? Why? N
LA
The needle of the magnetic compass is affected by the bar magnet
without any physical contact. A force causes the needle to deflect and makes
it to come to rest in a certain direction.
TE

• What is the nature of force that acts on the needle?

The force which acts on the needle from a distance is due to the
magnetic field of the bar magnet.
In activity 2, you have already seen that the orientation of needle is
T,

different at different places on paper. This gives us an idea that the magnetic
field has direction and it varies from one point to another.
ER

When you changes the place of the compass near the bar magnet you
can observe that its orientation changes from point to point. Now take the
needle to places far away on the sheet and observe the orientation of the
SC

compass needle in each case.

• What do you observe?
The compass needle shows almost the same direction along north and
south at places far from the magnet.
• What does it mean?
From these observations we conclude that the strength of the field
varies with distance from the bar magnet. Now hold the compass a little
above the table and at the top of the bar magnet. You can observe that field
exists in all directions around the bar magnet. Hence we can say that the

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 211

 magnetic field is three dimensional i.e., magnetic field surrounds its source
such as bar magnet. From the above discussion we can generalize that:
A magnetic field exists in the region surrounding a bar magnet and is
characterized by strength and direction.

Lines of magnetic field

• How can we find the strength of the field and direction of the field?
You know that the direction of the field can be determined by using a
compass. Let us find out how to determine the strength of the field.

A
Activity 3

AN
Place a white sheet of paper on a horizontal table. Place a compass in
the middle of it. Put two dots on either side of the compass needle. Take it
out. Draw a line connecting the dots which shows the North and South of

G
the earth. Now place the bar magnet on the line drawn in such a way that its
north pole points towards geographic north. Now place the compass at the
N
north pole of the bar magnet. Put a dot at the north pole of the compass
LA
needle. Now remove the compass and place it at the dot. It will point in
other direction. Again put a dot at the north pole of the compass needle.
Repeat the process till you reach the south pole of the bar magnet. Connect
TE

the dots from ‘N’ of the bar magnet to ‘S’ of the bar magnet. You will get a
curved line. Now select another point from the north pole of the bar
magnet. Repeat the process for many
points taken near the north pole. You will
T,

get different curves as shown in fig.-2.

• What are these curves?
ER

Technically these curves are called

“magnetic field lines”. Field lines are
imaginary lines. These lines help us to
understand the nature of the field. So
SC

these curved lines represent the field

fig-2: Magnetic field lines lines. If you place a compass at any point
on the line, the needle comes to rest
along the tangent to the line. So we conclude that the tangent drawn to the
field line at a point gives the direction of the field.
• Are these field lines closed or open loops?
The field lines appear to be closed loops, but you can’t conclude that
lines are closed or open loops by looking at the picture of field lines
because we do not know about the alignment of lines that are passing
212 X Class Electromagnetism
through the bar magnet. We will come to know about this point later in this
chapter.
Observe the spacing between lines. In some places the field lines are
crowded (near the poles of a bar magnet) and in some places the field
lines are spread apart (at long distances from the bar magnet). From this
picture we can conclude that the field is strong when lines are crowded
and field is weak when lines are spaced apart.
Thus, the field drawn is non uniform because the strength and direction
both change from point to point.

A
We may define the nature of the field with its characteristics such as

AN
its strength and direction. The field is said to be non uniform when any one
of the characterstics of field i.e., strength or direction changes from point
to point. Similarly the field is said to be uniform if both strength and
direction are constant throughout the field. Let us define the strength of a

G
uniform magnetic field.
• Can we give certain values to magnitude of the field at every point in
the magnetic field? N
LA
Magnetic flux - Magnetic flux density
Consider a uniform magnetic field in space.
Imagine a plane of certain area ‘A’ placed perpendicular
TE

to the field at a certain point in the magnetic field as

shown in figure 3(a). You notice that a few field lines B
pass through this plane. This number gives an
estimation of strength of the field at that point. Area A
T,

The number of lines passing through the plane of fig-3(a)

area ‘A’ perpendicular to the field is called magnetic
ER

flux. It is denoted by ‘Φ’.

Magnetic flux represents the number of lines passing through the
imagined plane in the field. Of course, flux depends on the orientation of
SC

the plane in the field. But here we are concerned only with the perpendicular
case. The S.I unit of magnetic flux is Weber. Now strength of the field is
easily defined using the idea of flux. If the imagined plane is perpendicular
to the field and has unit area, then the flux through this plane of unit area
gives the strength of the field. This strength of the field is technically
called magnetic flux density (B). So, magnetic flux density is defined as
the magnetic flux passing through unit area taken perpendicular to the field.
B is also known as magnetic field induction.
Let the flux through the area ‘A’ be Φ.
• What is the flux through unit area perpendicular to the field?
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 213
 Φ
It is equal to . The ratio of magnetic flux passing through a plane
A
perpendicular to the field and the area of the plane is called the magnetic
flux density.
So magnetic flux density = magnetic flux/ area.
Φ
B= . Φ = BA
A
Units of magnetic flux density is Weber/(meter)2. It is also called

A
Tesla.
Generalize the formula of flux for any orientation of the plane

AN
taken in the field.
Let ‘θ’ be the angle between magnetic field (B)
and normal to the plane with area (A) as shown in

G
figure 3(b). The effective area of the plane
perpendicular to the field is A cosθ. Then magnetic

N
flux density is given by,
magnetic flux
LA
fig-3(b)
B=
effective area
(this formula is used when plane makes an angle with the field).
TE

Φ
Then B =
A cos θ
The flux through the plane, is given by
Φ = BA cosθ.
T,

• What is the flux through the plane taken parallel to the field?
•
ER

What is the use of introducing the ideas of magnetic flux and magnetic
flux density?
Later in this chapter, you will see how these ideas are used.
• Are there any sources of magnetic field other than magnets?
SC

• Do you know how old electric calling bells work?

Let us see
Magnetic field due to currents
In activity 1 we observed that the compass needle is deflected when
current flows through the circuit. This observation helps us to conclude
that, “Current carrying wire produces magnetic field.”
Let us discuss about the magnetic fields produced by a current carrying
wire.
214 X Class Electromagnetism
(i) Magnetic field due to straight wire carrying current
Activity 4
Take a wooden plank and make a hole as shown
in figure 4(a). Place this plank on the table. Now Stand
place a retort stand on the plank as shown in figure
4(a). Pass 24 gauge copper wire through hole of
the plank and rubber knob of the retort stand in Compass
such a way that the wire be arranged in a vertical Table needle

A
position and not touch the stand. Connect the two Battery

AN
ends of the wire to a battery via switch. Place 6 to
Switch Wooden
10 compass needles in a circular path around the plank
hole so that its centre coincides with the hole.
Use 3 (or 9) volt battery in the circuit. Switch on.

G
Conducting
Current flows through the wire. wire
fig-4(a)
•
N
How do the directions of the compass needles
change?
LA
Magnetic
You may notice that they are directed as tangents to the circle. field lines

• What is the shape of the magnetic field line around wire?

TE

It must be a circular line. So we conclude that magnetic field

lines are closed lines. The magnetic field lines due to straight
wire carrying the current is shown in figures 4(b) and 4(c). This Current out of the page
can be verified by sprinkling iron filings around the wire when fig-4(b)
T,

current flows in the wire. Magnetic

field
ER

• What is the direction of magnetic field induction at any point lines

on the field line?
If the current flow is vertically upwards (out of the page),
x Current into the page
SC

the field lines are in anticlockwise direction, as shown in figure fig-4(c)

4(b). If current flows into the page, in downward direction, the
field lines are in clockwise direction as shown in figure 4(c). I
How do we determine the direction of field lines? It can be B

easily determined with right hand thumb rule. If you grab the
current carrying wire with your right hand in such way that thumb
is in the direction of current, then the curled fingers show the
direction of the magnetic field as shown in figure 4(d).
fig-4(d)
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 215
 (ii) Magnetic field due to circular coil
Activity 5
Take a thin wooden plank covered with white paper
and make two holes on its surface as shown in figure
5(a). Pass insulated copper wire (24 gauge) through
To current the holes and wind the wire 4 to 5 times through holes
supply
circuit such that it looks like a coil (figure 5(a)). The ends of
the wire are connected to terminals of the battery

A
fig-5(a)
through a switch. Now switch on the circuit. Place a
compass needle on the plank at the centre of the coil. Put dots on either

AN
side of the compass. Again place compass at one of the dots, put other dot
further. Do the same till you reach the edge of the plank. Now repeat this
for the other side of the coil from the centre. Then draw a line joining the

G
dots, you will get a field line of the circular coil. Do the same for the
other points taken in between the holes. Draw corresponding lines. You
N
will get field lines of the circular coil.
• Can you tell the direction of the magnetic field of the coil?
LA
This could be answered from the orientation of the compass needle.
You can observe this when the compass needle is kept at the centre of the
coil. The direction in which the compass needle comes to rest indicates
TE

the direction of the field due to the coil. Thus the direction of the field is
perpendicular to the plane of the coil.
• Why does the compass needle point in the direction of field?
Place the compass in front of one of the faces of the coil and observe
T,

the orientation of the compass needle. Note the pole of the needle that
faces the coil. We know that south pole is attracted to
ER

B B
the north pole. The needle is oriented in such a way that
I I
I its south pole points towards the north pole of the coil.
N
So we can say that the direction of magnetic field, due
SC

to coil, points towards you when the current in the coil

S is in anticlockwise direction. Verify this in your
fig-5(b) experiment (do not touch the wires of the coil). When
the current in the coil is in clock-wise direction, the
direction of magnetic field due to the coil points away from you. The
direction of the field due to coil is determined by using right hand rule,
which states that,
“When you curl your right hand fingers in the direction of current,
thumb gives the direction of magnetic field.”
Observe the direction of magnetic field in figure 5(b).
216 X Class Electromagnetism
(iii) Magnetic field due to solenoid
Activity 6
Take a wooden plank covered with white paper.
Make equidistant holes on its surface as shown in
figure 6(a). Pass copper wire through the holes as
shown in figure 6(a). This forms a coil. Join the ends
To current
of the coil to a battery through a switch. Switch on supply circuit
the circuit. Current passes through the coil. Now

A
fig-6(a)
sprinkle iron filings on the surface of the plank around

AN
the coil. Give a small jerk to it. An orderly pattern of
iron filings is seen on the paper.
• How do they adjust in such an orderly pattern? I
I
This long coil is called solenoid. A solenoid is a

G
long wire wound in a close packed helix. The field of N S

N
solenoid is shown in the figure 6(b). The magnetic
field lines set up by solenoid resemble those of a
LA
bar magnet indicating that a solenoid behaves like a fig-6(b)
bar magnet. The direction of the field due to solenoid
is also determined by using right hand rule. One end of the solenoid behaves
TE

like a north pole and other behaves like a south pole. The field lines outside
the solenoid are continuous with those inside. Outside the solenoid the
direction of the field lines is from north to south while inside the direction
is from south to north. Thus the magnetic field lines are closed loops.
T,

This is so for the bar magnet too!

We have seen that current carrying wires produce magnetic field. So,
ER

electric charges in motion produce magnetic fields.

• What happens when a current carrying wire is kept in a magnetic field?
Let us see.
SC

Magnetic Force On Moving Charge And Current Carrying Wire

Activity 7
Take a bar magnet and bring it near the TV screen (The old CRT type
TV). What do you observe?
You can observe that the picture on the screen is distorted.
• Why does the picture get distorted?
• Is the motion of electrons reaching the screen affected by the magnetic
field of the bar magnet?
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 217
 Move the bar magnet away from the screen. Now you will get a clear
picture. Repeat this to confirm that the motion of electrons is affected by
the field produced by the bar magnet. This must be due to the fact that the
magnetic field exerts a force on the moving charges. This force is called
magnetic force.
• Can we calculate the force experienced by a charge moving in a
magnetic field?
X indicates the direction of B Let a charge ‘q’ move with a velocity ‘v’ perpendicular
and it is into the page

A
to the magnetic field ‘B’ as shown in figure 7. The value of
magnetic force on the moving charge can be found

AN
q v experimentally and it is given by,
F=qvB
Magnetic force on the charge is the product of three

G
quantities charge, speed and magnetic flux density. The
fig-7 equation for magnetic force acting on a charge ‘q’ is F = q v

N
B and holds well only when the direction of velocity of charged particle
‘v’ is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field ‘B’.
LA
Generalize the equation for magnetic force on charge when there is
an angle ‘θ’ between the directions of field B and velocity v.
It is experimentally proved that when there is an angle between
TE

direction of field and velocity, the magnetic force experienced by the

charge is given by,
F = q v B sinθ.
T,

When charge moves parallel to the magnetic field (along the magnetic
field or against the field) the value of θ becomes zero. In the above
equations θ is 00 so that sinθ = 0.
ER

Thus the charge experiences no force when it is moving parallel to the

magnetic field (along field direction or against field direction).
F We have an easy method to find out the direction of
SC

magnetic force acting on a charge moving in a magnetic

field. Keep your right hand fingers along the direction of
velocity of moving charge and next curl your fingers towards
B the direction of magnetic field then the thumb gives the
direction of magnetic force as shown in figure 8(a). This
rule is applied for any case of angle between directions of
V
velocity and field. The direction of magnetic force is always
perpendicular to the direction of both velocity and magnetic
fig-8(a) field.
218 X Class Electromagnetism
 Generally right hand rule is used when velocity and field are
perpendicular to each other. This law states that, “If the fore-finger points
towards the direction of velocity of charge or current, middle finger points
to the direction of field (B) then thumb gives direction of force when the
three fingers are stretched in such a way that they are perpendicular to
each other as shown in figure 8(b).” F
This rule is applicable to positive charge.
v or I
• What is the direction of force acting on a negative charge

A
moving in a field?
First find the direction of force acting on a positive charge. B out of

AN
Next reverse its direction. This new direction is the direction paper
of force acting on the negative charge. fig-8(b):Right hand
rule for positive
Let us see an example of force acting on a charged particle. charge

G
Example 1
A charged particle ‘q’ is moving with a speed ‘v’ perpendicular to the
magnetic field of induction B. N
LA
Find the radius of the path and time period of the particle.
Solution: Let us assume that the field is directed into the page as shown
in figure E-1. Then the force experienced by the particle is F = q v B. We
TE

know that this force is always directed perpendicular to velocity. Hence

the particle moves along a circular path and the magnetic force on a charged
particle acts like a centripetal force.
T,

Let r be the radius of the circular path. v

v v B
mv 2
We know that centripetal force =
ER

F F R
r
v v
mv 2 F F
qvB=
r F F
v
mv
SC

v
Solving this equation, we get; r = Bq v

2π r fig-E-1
Time period of the particle; T =
v
2π m
Substituting r in above equation, we get T = Bq
• What happens when a current carrying wire is placed in a magnetic
field?
Electric current is charges in motion. We know that each charge
experiences a magnetic force. Thus the current carrying wire (constituting
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 219
 collection of charges in motion) experiences magnetic force when it is
kept in a magnetic field.
• Can you determine the magnetic force on a current carrying wire which
is placed along a magnetic field?
We know that each charge experiences no magnetic force because
they are moving parallel to the direction of field along the field. So the
force acting on wire is zero when it is kept along a magnetic field.
Let us find the magnetic force on a straight wire carrying current which

A
is kept perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field ‘B’. This ‘B’ is directed
into the page. It is represented by ‘x’ as shown in the figure 9. Let the field

AN
be confined to the length L. So only the part of the wire of the length ‘L’ is
inside the magnetic field. Remaining wire is outside the magnetic field.
We know that the electric current means charges in motion hence they

G
move with a certain velocity called drift velocity ‘v’.
The magnetic force on a single charge is given by,
N F0 = q v B
LA
Assume that the ends of
Let total charge inside the magnetic field be Q. So
the wire is connected to magnetic force on the current carrying wire is given by
the terminals of the battery
F=QvB ..................(1)
TE

The time taken by the charge (Q) to cross the field be

L L
t = v= ..................(2)
v t
x x x x x x x x x x
substituting this in equation 1, we get,
T,

x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x B x x x x x
B x x x x x L F x x x x x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x QLB Q
F= F= LB ..................(3)
t t
ER

I=0 I
Q
We know that is equal to the electric current in
t
fig-9 the wire,
SC

Q
I=
t
Substituting ‘I’ in the equation 3, we get
F = ILB .................(4)
Note: This equation holds well only when direction of electric current
is perpendicular to magnetic field.
In fig.-9, you can observe the bending in the wire due to the force
applied on it.
220 X Class Electromagnetism
• What is the force on the wire if its length makes an angle ‘θ’ with the
magnetic field?
Let ‘θ’ be the angle between direction of current and magnetic field,
then the force acting on the current carrying wire is given by
F = ILB sinθ (at any angle) ...................(5)

• How could you find its direction?

You can use right hand rule to find out the direction of force on the
current carrying wire.

A
Let us see the result of force applied on a current carrying wire by an

AN
experiment.

Activity 8
Take a wooden plank. Fix two long wooden sticks on it. These wooden

G
sticks are split at their top ends.
A copper wire is passed through these splits and the ends of the wire
N
are connected to battery of 3 volt, through a switch. Close the switch to
make the circuit. Current passes through the wire. Now bring a horseshoe
LA
magnet near the copper wire as shown in figure 10.
• What happens to the wire?
• In which way does it deflect?
TE

Use the right thumb rule to find the direction of force.

• Is the direction of deflection observed
experimentally same as that of the S N
theoretically expected one? I
T,

Change polarities of the horse shoe

F
magnet. Again observe the deflection.
ER

Repeat this by changing the direction of

current in the circuit.
• Does the right hand rule give the fig-10
explanation for the direction of
SC

magnetic force exerted by magnetic field on the wire?

Right hand rule helps you to find the direction of magnetic force exerted
by the magnetic field on current carrying wire. It does not help you explain
the reason for deflection of wire.
• Can you give a reason for it?
Imagine a situation where there is no current in the wire. Then there
exists only magnetic field due to external source (horse shoe magnet).
When there is a current in the wire, it also produces a magnetic field.
These fields overlap and give non- uniform field. Let us see this clearly
with diagrams.
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 221
 B

fig-11(a): Field lines due to fig-11(b): Current fig-11(c)

horseshoe magnet between its poles into the page

A
The field in between north and south pole of horse shoe magnet is

AN
shown in the figure 11 (a). Let us imagine a wire passing perpendicular to
the paper. Let the current pass through it (into the page). It produces a
magnetic field as shown in figure 11(b). Now let us try to sketch the resultant
field by observing the field lines. We can see that the direction of the field

G
lines due to the wire in upper part (of circular lines) coincides with the
direction of the field lines of horse shoe magnet. The direction of field
N
lines by wire in lower part (of circular lines) is opposite to the direction
of the field lines of horse shoe magnet. So that the net field in upper part
LA
is strong and in lower part it is weak. Hence a non-uniform field is created
around the wire. This non uniform field is shown in figure 11 (c). Therefore
the wire tries to move to the weaker field region.
TE

• Does this deflection fit with the direction of magnetic force found by
right hand rule?
• What happens when a current carrying coil is placed in a uniform
magnetic field?
T,

• Can we use this knowledge to construct an electric motor?

Let us try to answer.
ER

Electric Motor
To understand the working of an electric motor we
need to understand the behaviour of a current carrying
SC

B C
coil kept in a uniform magnetic field.
Consider a rectangular coil kept in a uniform
F F magnetic field as shown in figure 12(a). Switch on the
circuit so that the current flows through the rectangular
A D coil. The direction of current in the coil is shown in
figure 12(a).
• What is the angle made by AB and CD with magnetic
field?
Magnetic field (B)
You will notice that they are always at right angles to
fig-12(a) the magnetic field.
222 X Class Electromagnetism
• Can you draw the direction of magnetic force on sides AB and CD?
Apply right hand rule to get the direction of magnetic force. At AB, the
magnetic force acts inward perpendicular (F ) to field of the magnet and
on CD, it acts outward (F ).
The force on the sides BC and DA varies because they make different
angles at different positions of the coil in the field.
• What are the directions of forces on BC and DA?
In the direction of currents in BC and DA are parallel to the field.
magnetic force does’t act on them. If the direction of currents in BC and

A
DA are perpendicular to the field at BC, magnetic force pulls the coil up
and at DA magnetic force pulls it down.

AN
• What is the net force on the rectangular coil?
The force on AB is equal and opposite to the force on CD due to external
magnetic field because they carry equal currents in the opposite direction.
Sum of these forces is zero; similarly the sum of the forces on sides BC

G
and DA is also zero for the same reason. So, net force on the coil is zero.
But there is rotation of the coil. How is it possible?
• Why does the coil rotate? N
Let us consider opening a cap of the bottle as an example where F
LA
two equal and opposite forces act on the cap. Two forces equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction must act on the either side of
cap of the bottle as shown in figure 12 (b). These forces bring the
TE

cap into rotation. Similarly the rectangular coil comes into rotation
in clockwise direction because of equal and opposite pair of forces
F
acting on the two sides of the coil.
• What happens to the rotation of the coil if the direction of fig-12(b)
T,

current in the coil remains unchanged? Couple action on

If the direction of current in the coil is unchanged, it rotates up bottle cap
to a vertical position then due to its inertia it rotates further in clockwise
ER

direction. But now the sides of the coil experience forces which are in the
opposite direction to the previous case. Hence these forces try to rotate it
in anti clockwise direction. As a result, this coil comes to halt and rotates
in anti clock wise direction, this will go on if the direction of current
SC

remains unchanged.
• How could you make the coil rotate continuously?
If the direction of current in the coil, after the first half rotation, is
reversed, the coil will continue to rotate in the same direction. Thus if the
direction of current through the coil is reversed every half rotation, the
coil will rotate continuously in one and the same direction.
• How can we achieve this?
To achieve this, brushes B1 and B2 are used, as shown in figure
12 (c). These brushes are connected to the battery. The ends of the coil are

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 223

 Anticlockwise
rotation connected to slip rings C1 and C2, which rotate
N along with the coil. Initially C1 is in contact
B
with B1 and C2 is in contact with B2. After half
C S rotation, the brushes come into contact with
the other slip rings in such a way that the
direction of current through the coil is
A reversed. This happens every half rotation. Thus
D
C1 the direction of rotation of the coil remains
Slip-ring
Communicator C2 the same. This is the principle used in “electric

A
motor.”
B1
Current
(reverses at In electric motors, electrical energy is

AN
Brushes
B2 half turn) converted into mechanical energy.
We have learned that a current carrying
+ fig-12(c) coil rotates when it is kept in a uniform
-
magnetic field.

G
• What happens when a coil without current is made to rotate in magnetic
field?
• How is current produced?
N
LA
Do you know?
• The relation between direction of induced current, magnetic field and force can
also be explained by Flemings left hand rule. Stretch the left hand thumb, middle
TE

finger and forefinger in such a way that they are mutually perpendicular to each
other. The forefinger indicates the direction of magnetic field, the middle finger
indicates the direction of current and thumb indicates direction of force. By
using the Flemings left hand rule we can explain the working of electric motor.
T,

Electromagnetic induction
ER

Ativity 9
The discovery and understanding of electromagnetic induction are
based on a long series of experiments carried out by Faraday and Henry.
SC

Let us try to do one of those experiements.

S Connect the terminals of a coil to a sensitive
ammeter or a galvanometer as shown in the fig.-13.
N Normally, we would not expect any deflections of needle
in the galvanometer because there is no electromotive
force in this circuit. Now if we push a bar magnet towards
N
the coil, with its north pole facing the coil, a remarkable
fig-13 thing happens. While the magnet is moving towards the
coil, the needle in galvanometer deflects, showing that a
G
current has been set up in the coil, the galvanometer does

224 X Class Electromagnetism

not deflect if the magnet is at rest. If the magnet is moved away from the
coil, the needle in the galvanometer again deflects, but in the opposite
direction, which means that a current is set up in the coil in the opposite
direction.
If we use the end of south pole of a magnet instead of north pole in the
above activity, the experiment works just as described but the deflections
are exactly reversed.
Further experimentation enables us to understand that the relative
motion of the magnet and coil set up a current in the coil. It makes no

A
difference whether the magnet is moved towards the coil or the coil towards
the magnet.

AN
Faraday’s Law
“Whenever there is a continuous change of magnetic flux linked with a
closed coil, a current is generated in the coil.”

G
This is one form of Faraday’s law.
The current generated is called induced current and is set up by an

N
induced electromotive force (induced EMF). This phenomenon of getting
induced current is called electromagnetic induction.
LA
Faraday observed that the changes in the magnetic flux through the
coil are responsible for the generation of current in the coil. He also
observed that the rapid changes in flux through coil generate greater induced
current or induced EMF. After observing this important factor, he proposed
TE

a law of electromagnetic induction, which is as follow,

“The induced EMF generated in a closed loop is equal to the rate of
change of magnetic flux passing through it.”
In mathematical form, we can write this as
T,

change in flux
Induced EMF =
time
ER

ΔΦ
ε= .....................(6)
Δt
The equation is called Faraday’s law of induction where Φ (phi) is the
SC

flux linked with coil. Let Φ0 be the flux linked with single turn. If there are
N turns in the coil, the flux linked with the coil is N Φ0.
Φ = N Φ0 ......................(7)
So far we have not specified the direction of the induced EMF or
induced current. In the previous example, we have observed that an induced
current is set up in the loop.
• What is its direction?
• Can you apply conservation of energy for electromagnetic induction?

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 225

 Lenz Law
When we push the bar magnet towards the coils, current is generated,
in other word electromagnetic induction takes place and mechanical energy
is converted into electrical energy.
Let us discuss it in detail.
We know that when a bar magnet is pushed towards a coil with its
north pole facing the coil an induced current is set
up in the coil. Let the direction of current in the

A
S N coil be in clockwise direction with respect to north
S N pole of the bar magnet. Then this current carrying

AN
S N N S loop behaves like a magnet, with its south pole
S N facing the north pole of bar magnet. In such a case,
S N fig-14 the bar magnet attracts the coil. Then it gains kinetic

G
energy. This is contradictory to conservation of
energy. So our assumed clockwise direction of

N
induced current is wrong. Hence the correct direction of induced current
has to be in anticlockwise direction with respect to north pole of the bar
LA
magnet. In such a case, the north pole of the coil faces the north pole of
the bar magnet as shown in figure 14. Then north pole of bar magnet is
repelled by the north pole of the coil. Hence we need to do work to
TE

overcome this force. This work done on the magnet is converted into
electrical energy in the coil. In this way conservation of energy takes place
in electromagnetic induction.
Let us see a case where the bar magnet is pulled away from the coil,
T,

with north pole facing the coil. In such case, the coil opposes the motion
of bar magnet to balance the conversion of mechanical energy into electric
ER

energy. This happens only when the north pole of the magnet faces the
south pole of the coil.
• Can you guess what could be the direction of induced current in the
SC

coil in such case?

Invariably the direction of induced current in the coil must be in anti
clock wise direction. In simple terms, when flux increases through coil,
the coil opposes the increase in the flux and when flux decreases through
coil, it opposes the decrease in the flux. This is discovered by a Russian
Physist Heinrich Lenz.
Lenz’s law states that “the induced current will appear in such a
direction that it opposes the changes in the flux in the coil.”
• Could we get Faraday’s law of induction from conservation of energy?

226 X Class Electromagnetism

Derivation of Faraday’s Law
Let us arrange an apparatus as shown in figure 15. It consists of a pair of
parallel bare conductors which are spaced l meters apart in uniform magnetic
field of ‘B’. We can hold another
bare conductor in such a way that it
is in contact with the two parallel Flow of induced N Distance s Flux
current density B l
wires(see figure-15). A galvano
meter is connected to the ends of
Parallel

A
parallel conductors to complete an conductors
S
electric circuit. Now if the cross

AN
wire (cross conductor) placed
Cross
across parallel conductors is moved wire
Galvanometer
to the left, galvanometer needle
fig-15

G
will deflect in one direction. fig-16
If this cross wire is moved to

N
the right, its needle deflects in a direction opposite to the previous deflection.
Suppose that the crosswire is moved to the left to a distance of ‘s’ meters in
LA
a time of ‘Δ t’. Then the reading of galvanometer gives us the amount of
current that flows in the circuit. A current will be set up in the circuit only
when there is an EMF in the circuit. Let this EMF be ‘ε’. The principle of
TE

conservation of energy tells us that this electric energy (associated with

flow of current) must come from the work that we have done in moving the
crosswire. If we ignore friction everywhere, in the arrangement, the work
done by this applied force = Fs. It is evident that there is a current of ‘I’
T,

amperes flowing through the length of l meters of the cross wire, and the
cross wire is in a magnetic field. With this information,
ER

• Can you derive an expression for the force applied on crosswire by the
field B?
We know that it is equal to BIl, from equation-4 of previous discussion
SC

(see page 220).

i.e., F = BIl .............................(8)
This force must oppose the applied force. The direction of applied force
determines the direction of current through the cross wire. Here we are
doing positive work. The work done by us in moving the cross wire converts
into electric energy. So the work done is given by,
W = Fs =BIls .............................(9) (using equation-8)
When we put the cross wire across parallel conductors it makes a
complete electrical circuit which encloses a certain amount of magnetic
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 227
 flux. Now as we move the cross wire to the left, the area of the loop (formed
by the parallel conductors and cross wire) decreases and the flux through
the loop also decreases. The decrease in flux is given by,
ΔΦ = Bls .............................(10)
Here B is perpendicular to the area (ls). From equations 9 and 10
W = (ΔΦ) Ι
Let us divide both sides of this equation by Δt
W I ΔΦ

A
= .............................(11)
Δt Δt

AN
I ΔΦ
Electric power, P =
Δt
We know that electric power is the product of current and emf or

G
ΔΦ
voltage. ε= is obviously equal to induced EMF.
Δt

N
Electric power, P = εΙ .............................(12)
Thus the electric power generated in the circuit is equal to product of
LA
induced EMF and the current. Thus the mechanical energy utilised to move
ΔΦ
the cross wire in one second is converted into electric power I. This
Δt
TE

is nothing but conservation of energy.

Dividing equation (9) by Δt, we have
W Fs BIls
= = ..................(13)
T,

Δt Δt Δt
s
Here gives the speed of the cross wire, let it be taken as v. Then we
ER

Δt
W
get, Electric power P = = Fv = BIlv ......(14)
Δt
SC

Power is also given as force times velocity. From equations (12) and
W
(14), we get = εI  εI = BIlv
Δt
We get,
ε = Blv This is called motional EMF.
The above equation is not Faraday’s law of induction because it is not
related to the loop. It is useful when a conductor moves in a uniform
magnetic field.

228 X Class Electromagnetism

 Let us see a few examples on induced emf.
Example 1
The magnetic flux inside a coil of 400 turns
changes for each single turn with time as shown in
figure
Determine the maximum induced emf generated
in the coil. Is there any change in induced EMF from
t = 0.1 second to 0.3 second? fig-E-2
Solution: From the given graph, the increase in

A
magnetic flux through one turn of coil in 0.1 second is 0.001 Wb. According

AN
to Faraday’s law, the maximum induced emf generated in the coil is given
by,
ΔΦ
ε =N
Δt

G
Substituting the values, we get

ε=
400 × 0.001
0.1
= 4V
N
LA
From graph, there is no change in magnetic flux through coil from
t = 0.1s to 0.3s hence no emf is generated.
Example 2
TE

Find the length of the conductor which is moving with a speed of 10

m/s in the direction perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field of
induction 0.8T, if it induces an emf of 8V between the ends of the
conductor.
T,

Solution: Given that B = 0.8T, v = 10 m/s and ε = 8V.

Using ε = Blv
ER

8 = 0.8(l)(10)
l (length of the conductor) = 1m

Applications of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction

SC

Electromagnetic induction is all around us.

• You might have seen that, during security check, people are made to
walk through a large upright coil of wire which produces a weak AC
(alternating) magnetic field. If we are carrying any significant quantities
of iron, the magnetic flux linked with the large coil changes and the
induced current generated in coil triggers an alarm.
• The tape recorder which we use to listen to songs (or) record voices
works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. It consists of a
piece of plastic tape coated with iron oxide and is magnetised more in
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 229
 some parts than in others. When the tape is moved past as a small coil
of wire (head of the tape recorder), the magnetic field produced by
the tape changes, which leads to generation of current in the small
coil of wire.
• How could we use the principle of electromagnetic induction in the
case of using ATM card when its magnetic strip is swiped through a
scanner? Discuss with your friends and your teacher.
• An induction stove works on the principle of electromagnetic
induction. A metal coil is kept just beneath the cooling surface. It carries

A
alternating current (AC) so that AC produces an alternating magnetic
field. When you keep a metal pan with water on it, the varying magnetic

AN
field beneath it crosses the bottom surface of the pan and an EMF is
induced in it. Because the pan is metal the induced EMF generates an
induced current in it. Since the pan has a finite resistance, the flow

G
induced current in it produces heat in it and this heat is conducted to
the water. That’s why we call this stove as induction stove.

N
Have you ever thought, from where do we get electrical energy?
Let us learn about it.
LA
Magnetic Levitation
Take a wooden base as shown in figure 16(a). Fix a soft iron
cylinder on the wooden base vertically. Wind copper wire around
TE

the soft iron as shown in figure 16(a). Now take a metal ring which
is slightly greater in radius than the radius of the soft iron cylinder
and insert it through the soft iron cylinder on the wooden base.
Connect the ends of the coil to an AC source and switch on the
T,

current.
• What do you notice?
ER

You notice that the metal ring is levitated on the coil.

fig-16(a) Switch off the current, the ring will jump into the air very
dramatically. Remove the AC supply and connect a DC supply. Observe
what happens.
SC

• Why is there a difference in behaviour in these two cases?

• What force supports the ring against gravity when it is being levitated?
• Could the ring be levitated if DC is used?
The metal ring levitates when AC is used, therefore the net force on it
should be zero according to Newton’s second law. The free body diagram
of metal ring is shown in figure 16 (b). Weight (w) acts down. To balance
it, a force (F) equal in magnitude and opposite in direction should act as
shown in figure 16 (b).
• What is this unknown force acting on the metal ring?

230 X Class Electromagnetism

 In this activity AC is used. AC changes both its magnitude and
F
direction in regular time intervals. We know that the current through
the coil, produces a magnetic field so that one end of the coil behaves
like north pole and other end behaves like south pole for a certain
time interval. For the next interval, coil changes its polarities.
Hence we can say that coil undergoes changes in its poles in the
same intervals of time. The levitation of metal ring is possible W
fig-16(b)
only when the metal ring behaves like a magnet and should change
its polarities in the same time intervals but in a sense opposite to that of the

A
solenoid (coil) as shown in figure 16(c). Assume that the current flows in an
clockwise direction in the solenoid as viewed from the top. Then the upper

AN
end becomes a south pole. An upward force is applied on the ring only when
the upper side of the ring becomes a north pole (i.e. south pole of the ring
faces towards the south pole of solenoid). It is only possible when there
exists a anticlockwise current (viewed from the top) in the ring. After certain

G
intervals, solenoid changes its polarities, so that the ring should also change
its polarities in the same intervals. This is the reason why the metal ring is
levitated. N
• What is responsible for the current in the metal ring?
LA
AC is not a constant current. So that, the magnetic induction changes
in both magnitude and direction in the solenoid and in the ring.
Here the area of the metal ring is constant. But the field through the
TE

metal ring changes so that flux linked with the metal ring changes.
• If DC is used, the metal ring lifts up and falls
down immediately. Why?
The flux linked with metal ring is zero when
T,

Falling ring
no current flows through the solenoid. When the
current is allowed to flow through the solenoid,
ER

Direction of
it behaves like bar magnet. So the flux is linked induced emf
to the metal ring when the switch is on. At that
instant there is a change in flux linked with ring.
Hence the ring rises up. There after, there is no
SC

change in flux linked with coil, hence it falls

down. If the switch is off, the metal ring again fig-16(c)
lifts up and falls down. In this case also, there is a change in flux linked
with ring when the switch is off.
• What could you conclude from the above analysis?
Electric Generator and Alternating - Direct Currents
• What happens when a coil is continuously rotated in a uniform magnetic
field?
• Does it help us to generate electric current?
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 231
 Let us see:
Consider a rectangular coil. Let it be held
Rotation
between the poles of Curve- shaped
permanent magnet as shown in fig.-17(a). As
the coil rotates, the magnetic flux passing
A
through the coil changes. According to the law
S
B of electro magnetic induction an induced
N
current is generated in the coil.
Slip rings •

A
Is the direction of current induced in
the coil constant? Does it change?

AN
1. Consider initially the coil, positioned
fig-17(a):
in such a way that magnetic flux passes
AC Generator through it. When the coil is at rest in vertical

G
position, with side A of coil at top position
Brushes and side B at bottom position, no current will

N
be induced in it. Thus current in the coil is zero at this position.
2. When the coil is rotated in clockwise direction, current will be
LA
induced in it and it flows from A to B. During the first quarter of rotation,
the current increases from zero to a maximum and reaches peak value
when the coil is in horizontal position.
TE

3. If we continue the rotation of coil, current decreases during the

second quarter of the rotation and once again becomes zero when coil
comes to vertical position with side B at top A at bottom position. During
the second part of the rotation, current gener-ated follows the same pattern
T,

as that in the first half except that the direction of current is reversed.
Position of coil in one rotation. (see fig.-17(b))
ER

B A B • Can you guess the

A
B
A
reason for variation of
B A B A
A
current from zero to
B
maximum and vice-versa
SC

B
emf generated in the coil

One complete cycle

during the rotation of coil?
No. of • Can we make use of this
revolutions current? If so, how?
0 1 1 3 1 1 Let us find out.
1
4 2 4 4 As shown in fig.-17(a)
the ends of the coil are
Zero emf Maximum Zero Maximum Zero
coil emf, coil emf reversed emf connected to two slip
vertical horizontal emf rings. Two carbon brushes
fig-17(b) arranged in such a way that
232 X Class Electromagnetism
they press the slip rings to obtain current from
the coil. When these brushes are connected to Rotation

external devices like TV, radio, we can make

them work with current supplied from ends of
carbon brushes.
The current obtained by this process
A
changes its direction alternatively for each half
S
cycle as shown in fig.-17(b). B

A
This current is called alternating current Commutator
N
(AC) in which, the direction of charge flow

AN
reverses periodically. So AC possesses certain Brush
frequency. The generator that we discussed
here is called AC generator.
• How can we get DC current using a

G
fig-17(c):
R
generator? DC Generator

N
• What changes do we need to make in an AC generator to be converted
into a DC generator?
LA
Let us find out.
If two half slip rings are connected to ends of the coil as shown in
fig.-17(c), the AC generator works as DC generator to produce DC current.
TE

Let us see how it works.

When the coil is in the vertical position the induced current generated
during the first half rotation, rises from zero to maximum and then falls to
zero again. As the coil moves further from this position, the ends of the
T,

coil go to other slip rings. Hence during the second half rotation, the
current is reversed in the
ER

Position of coil in one rotation.

coil itself, the current
B B
generated in the second half A
A
A
rotation of the coil is B A B B A
SC

identical with that during the B A

B
first half of direct current
emf generated coil

(DC) as shown in fig.-17(d)

for one revolution. No. of
revolutions
In generators,
0 1 1 3 1 1
mechanical energy is 1
4 2 4 4
converted into the electrical Maximum Zero
Zero emf Maximum Zero
energy. emf emf emf emf

fig-17(d)
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 233
 Key words
Magnetic flux, Magnetic flux density, Electric motor, Slip rings,
Induced current, Induced EMF, Electric generator, DC and
AC currents, rms values

What we have learnt

A
• A measure of strength of magnetic flux by taking account of number of field lines is

AN
called magnetic flux.
• Magnetic flux density (B) is defined as the ratio of flux passing through a plane perpendicular to
field and the area of the plane.
•

G
Current carrying wire produces magnetic field.
• F = qvB sin θ and F = ILB sin θ
•
• N
In electric motor, electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy.
The production of electric current due to relative motion between a coil and a magnetic field is
LA
called electromagnetic induction.
• Faraday’s law: The induced EMF generated in a closed loop is equal to the rate of change of
magnetic flux passing through it.
TE

• Lenz’s law: the induced current set up in the coil is in such a direction that it opposes the changes
in the flux.
• When a conductor of length ‘l’ moves perpendicular to field B with a speed v then potential
difference (voltage) developed between the ends of conductor is Blv. This EMF is called motional
T,

EMF.
• In generators, mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy.
ER

Improve your learning

Reflections on Concepts
SC

1. Are the magnetic field lines closed? Explain. (AS1)

2. See fig-Q2, magnetic lines are shown. What is the direction of the current flowing fig- Q2
through the wire?(AS1)

3. A bar magnet with North Pole facing towards a coil moves as shown in
fig-Q3. What happens to the magnetic flux passing through the coil? N
(AS1)
fig- Q3

234 X Class Electromagnetism

4. A coil is kept perpendicular to the page. At P, current flows into the page and at Q it Q

comes out of the page as shown in fig-Q3. What is the direction of magnetic field due to
the coil?(AS1)

Application of Concepts P x

1. The direction of current flowing in a coil is shown in fig-Q. What fig- Q4

type of magnetic pole is formed at the face that has flow of current
as shown in fig-Q? (AS1) fig- Q
2. Why does the picture appear distorted when a bar magnet is brought close to the screen of a

A
television? Explain (AS1)

AN
3. Symbol ‘X’ in fig.Q3 indicates the direction of a magnetic field into the page. i

A straight long wire carrying current along its length is kept perpendicular to
B
the magnetic field. What is the magnitude of force experienced by the wire? In L

what direction does it act? (AS1)

G
4. An 8N force acts on a rectangular conductor 20cm long placed perpendicular
to a magnetic field. Determine the magnetic field induction if the current in the fig- Q3
conductor is 40A. (Ans: 1tesla) (AS1)
N
5. As shown in the fig-Q5, both coil and bar magnet moves in the
LA
same direction. What happens? (AS2) V
6. Give a few applications of Faraday’s law of induction in daily
N
life. (AS7)
TE

fig- Q5

s
Multiple choice question C
T,

1. Which of the following converts electrical energy into mechanical energy [ ]

ER

a) motor b) battery
c) generator d) switch
2. Which of the follwing converts mechanical energy into electrical energy [ ]
SC

a) motor b) battery
c) generator d) switch
3. The magnetic force on a current carrying wire placed in uniform magnetic field if the wire is oriented
perpendicular to magnetic field is [ ]
a) 0 b) ILB
ILB
c) 2ILB d)
2

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 235

4. One Tesla = [ ]
a) Newton/Coloumb b) Newton / ampere - meter
c) Ampere / meter d) Newton / ampere second
5. Magnetic flux [ ]
a) dyne b) Oersterd c) Guass d) Weber
6. No force works on the conductor carrying electric current when kept [ ]
a) parallel to magnetic field b) perpendicular to magnetic field
c) in the magnetic field d) away from magnetic field

A
Suggested Experiments

AN
1. Explain with the help of two activities that current carrying wire produces magnetic field. (AS3)
2. How do you verify experimentally that the current carrying conductor experiences a force
when it is kept in magnetic field? (AS3)

G
3. Explain Faraday’s law of induction with the help of activity. (AS3)
4. What experiment do you suggest to understand Faraday’s law? What instruments are
N
required? What suggestions do you give to get good results of the experiment? Give
LA
precautions also. (AS3)
5. How can you verify that a current carrying wire produces a magnetic field with the help of
an experiment? (AS3)
TE

Suggested Projects
1. Collect information about generation of current by using Faraday’s law. (AS4)
2. Collect information about material required and procedure of making a simple electric
T,

motor from internet and make a simple motor on your own. (AS4)
3. Collect information of experiments done by Faraday. (AS4)
ER
SC

236 X Class Electromagnetism

 Chapter

11

A
Principles of Metallurgy

AN
G
N
In class 8 you have studied about certain properties of metals like,
malleability, ductility, sonarity etc. Metals play an important role in our
LA
daily life. We use various metals for various purposes like gold and silver
as jewellery, copper, iron, aluminium for making conducting wires and
for making utensils etc. We use many house hold articles made up of metals
and their alloys at our home.
TE

• Can you mention some articles that are made up of metals?

• Do metals exist in nature in the same form as that we use in our daily
life?
T,

• Have you ever heard the words like ore, mineral and metallurgy?
• Do you know how these metals are obtained?
ER

To understand these questions you need to know about metallurgy. In

this chapter we discuss various concepts related to metallurgy and the
process by which we are able to obtain the pure form of metal that we use
in our daily life.
SC

“Metallurgy is the process of extraction of metals from their ores”.

Human history in terms of materials had the Bronze Age and Iron Age
pertaining to the metals they started to use the bronze (an alloy of copper
and tin) and iron. Now we have more than 75% metals among the elements
available.
Occurrence of the metals in nature
• How the metals are present in nature?
The earth’s crust is the major source of metals. Sea water also contains
some soluble salts such as sodium chloride and magnesium chloride etc.
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2020-21 237
 Some metals like gold (Au), silver (Ag) and copper (Cu) are available in
nature in free state (native) as they are least reactive. Other metals mostly
are found in nature in the combined form due to their more reactivity. The
elements or compounds of the metals which occur in nature in the earth
crust are called minerals. At some places, minerals contain a very high
percentage of a particular metal and the metal can be profitably extracted
from it. The minerals from which the metals are extracted without
economical loss are called ores.
Aluminium, for example, is the most common metal in the Earth’s

A
crust, occurring in most of minerals. However, it isn’t economically
feasible to extract it from most of these minerals. Instead, the usual ore

AN
from which it is profitable to extract it is bauxite – which contains from
50 – 70 % of aluminium oxide .

G
Think and discuss
• N
Do you agree with the statement “All ores are minerals but all
minerals need not be ores?” Why?
LA
Activity 1
TE

Look at the following ores.

Identify the metal present in each ore.

Table - 1
T,

ORE Formula metal ORE Formula metal

ER

Bauxite Al2O3 •2H2O Al Zincite ZnO Zn

Copper Iron Pyrites CuFeS2 Cu Rock salt NaCl Na
Zinc Blende ZnS Zn Cinnabar HgS Hg
SC

Magnesite MgCO3 Mg Magnetite Fe3O4 Fe

Epsom salt MgSO4 •7H2O Mg Galena PbS Pb
Horn Silver AgCl Ag Gypsum CaSO4 •2H2O Ca
Pyrolusite MnO2 Mn Lime stone CaCO3 Ca

Haematite Fe2O3 Fe Carnallite KCl MgCl2• 6H2O Mg

238 X Class Principles of Metallurgy

 Now try to classify them as shown in the table.
Table - 2
Oxides Sulphides Chlorides Carbonates Sulphates

A
• What metals can we get from the ores mentioned in the Table – 1?
• Can you arrange these metals in the order of their reactivity?

AN
• What do you notice in Table – 2?
You will notice that the ores of many metals are oxides and sulphides.
This is why oxygen - sulphur (16th group) group is called chalcogen family

G
(chalco = ore; genus = produce)
The metals like K, Na, Ca, Mg and Al are so reactive that they are
never found in nature in free state. N
The metals like Zn, Fe, Pb etc., are moderately reactive. They are found
LA
in the earth crust mainly as oxides, sulphides and carbonates.
Metals like Au, Ag are least reactive and they are found even in free
TE

state in nature.
Based on reactivity we can arrange metal in descending order of their
reactivity as shown below:
K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al Zn, Fe, Pb, Cu Hg, Ag, Pt, Au
––––––––––––––– ––––––––––––––– –––––––––––––
T,

High reactivity Moderate reactivity Low reactivity

• Can you think how do we get these metals from their ores?
ER

• Does the reactivity of a metal and form of its ore (oxides, sulphides,
chlorides, carbonates sulphates) has any relation with process of
extraction?
• How are metals extracted from mineral ores?
SC

• What methods are to be used?

Let us find.
Extraction of metals from the ores:
The extraction of a metal from its ore involves mainly three stages.
They are:
I) Concentration or Dressing
II) Extraction of crude metal
III)Refining or purification of the metal.
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2020-21 239
 Ore Hand picking
by Washing
Concentration of ore
Froth flotation
Magnetic Separation
Extraction of crude
metal from the ore

Metals of high Metals of medium Metals of low

reactivity reactivity reactivity

A
Sulphide ore

AN
Halides Oxides Carbonate Sulphide Roasting
ore ore
Oxides

G
Electrolysis of Calcination Roasting
molten ore Reduction Calcination

Metal
(eg: Na, Mg, Al, etc.,) N
Oxide ofmetal
Metal
LA
Chemical Reduction Reduction of metal Refining
(eg:Ag)
Auto Reduction
Refining of metal
TE

Displacement method
(eg. Cu, Zn, etc.,) Distillation
Electrolytic reduction
Poling
Liquation
Electrolytic refining
T,

I. Concentration or Dressing of the ore

ER

Ores that are mined from the earth are usually contaminated with large
amount of impurities such as soil and sand etc.
Concentration or Dressing means, simply getting rid of as much of
SC

the unwanted rocky material as possible from the ore. The impurities like
sand and clay are called gangue. Here, we should get as for as possible
pure or more concentrated ore.
Enrichment (concentration) of the ore: Various physical methods are
used to enrich the ore. In many cases, it is possible to separate the metal
compound from unwanted rocky material by physical means. An example
for this is froth flotation.
The physical methods adopted in dressing of the ore (or) enriching of
the ore depends upon difference between physical properties of ore and
gangue.
240 X Class Principles of Metallurgy
 Table-3

Name of the Process

method

Hand picking If the ore particles and the impurities are different in
one of the properties like colour, size etc., Using that
property the ore particles are handpicked separating
them from other impurities.

A
Washing Ore particles are crushed and kept on a slopy surface.

AN
They are washed with controlled flow of water. Less
densive impurities are carried away by water flow,
leaving the more densive ore particles behind.

G
Froth flotation This method is mainly useful for sulphide ores which
have no wetting property whereas the impurities get
N
wetted. The ore with impurities is finely powdered and
kept in water taken in a flotation cell. Air under pressure
LA
is blown to produce froth in water. Froth so produced,
takes the ore particles to the surface whereas impurities
settle at the bottom. Froth is separated and washed to
TE

get ore particles.(see fig.1)

Magnetic separation If the ore or impurity, one of them is magnetic substance
and the other non-magnetic substance they are separated
T,

using electromagnets. (see Fig.2)

ER

Froth bubbles
carrying sulphide Powdered ore
ore particles Compressed
Air
Magnetic
SC

wheel
Sulphide ore Non
particles Magnetic
wheel
Water Moving belt
containing
pine oil
Gangue Non Magnetic ore Magnetic ore
fig-2: Magnetic separation
fig-1: Froth flotation process for the
concentration of sulphide ores

There are some other methods also for dressing which you will learn at higher classes

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2020-21 241

 Reactivity of Metals Table-4

242
Metals Action of Reaction with Reaction with Reaction with dilute Reaction with
Oxygen cold water steam strong Acids chlorine on heating

X Class
SC
Form Na2O, K2O
K K to Mg displace
in limited supply of All metals react with
H2 from cold
O2 but form K to Fe displace Chlorine on heating toform
water with
peroxides in excess their respective Chlorides
ER
decreasing H2 with steam K to Pb displace H2
Na of O2 but with decreasing
reactivity without decreasing from dilute strong
reactivity. acids with decreasing reactivity from top to
{K violently but
{K very violently reactivity. bottom. This is understood
Burn with Mg very slowly}
from the heat evolved
T,
Ca but Fe very {K-explosively,
decreasing vigour when the metal reacts with
slowly} Mg-very vigorously,
Mg to form oxides one mole of Chlorine gas
Fe-steadily,
CaO, MgO, to form Chloride.
TE
Al Pb-very slowly}
Al2O3, ZnO,
Zn Fe2O3 From Al to Au do
not displace H2
LA
Fe from cold water

Pb Don’t burn, but

only form a surface
N KCl, NaCl, CaCl2,
From Pb to Au MgCl2, AlCl3, ZnCl2,
Cu layer of oxide
PbO, CuO, HgO
donot displace H2
G FeCl3, PbCl2, CuCl2,
Hg from steam Cu to Au do not
displace H2 from HgCl2, AgCl, PtCl3
Ag Don’t burn or dilute strong acids and AuCl3 are formed
oxidise even on
AN
Pt the surface

Principles of Metallurgy
Au
A
II Extraction of crude metal from the ore
Extraction of the metal from its ores depends on the reactivity of the
metal. To understand the order of reactivity of metals that are very familiar,
we study their chemical reactions with cold water, steam, dilute, strong
acids and Cl2 and based on their vigorous activity order in these reactions
we frame out activity series. Arrangement of the metals in decreasing order
of their reactivity is known as activity series. (See table - 4)

A
Reduction of purified ore to the metal
The method used for a particular metal for the reduction of its ore to

AN
the metal depends mainly on the position of the metal in the activity series.
A) Extraction of Metals at the top of the activity series

G
(K, Na, Ca, Mg and Al). Simple chemical reduction methods like
heating with C, CO etc to reduce the ores of these metals are not feasible.

N
The temperature required for the reduction is too high and more expensive.
To make the process economical, electrolysis methods are to be adopted.
LA
Again the electrolysis of their aqueous solutions also is not feasible
because water in the solution would be discharged at the cathode in
TE

preference to the metal ions.

The only method available is to extract these metals by electrolysis of
their fused compounds. For example to extract Na from NaCl, fused NaCl
is electrolysed with steel cathode (-) and graphite anode (+). The metal
T,

(Na) will be deposited at cathode and chloride liberated at the anode.

At Cathode 2Na+ + 2e– 2Na
ER

At Anode 2Cl – Cl2 + 2e–

For the above electrolysis, a large quantity of electricity is required
to keep the ore in molten state. Suitable impurities are added to the ore to
SC

decrease its melting point.

B) Extraction of metals in the middle of the activity series
(Zinc, iron, tin, lead and copper): The ores of these metals are generally
present as sulphides or carbonates in nature. Therefore prior to reduction
of ores of these metals, they must be converted into metal oxides.
Sulphide ores are converted into oxides by heating them strongly in
excess of air. This process is known as roasting. Generally the sulphide

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2020-21 243

 ores are roasted to convert them into oxides before reducing them to
metal.

Eg: 2PbS + 3O2 2PbO + 2SO2

The metal oxides are then reduced to the corresponding metal by using
suitable reducing agent such as carbon
i) Reduction of metal oxides with carbon: The oxides are reduced
by coke in a closed furnace which gives the metal and carbon monoxide

A
(CO).

AN
at 1400 oC
Eg: PbO + C ––––––––––> Pb + CO

ii) Reduction of oxide ores with CO.

G
in blast furnace
Eg: Fe2O3 + 3CO ––––––––––––> 2Fe + 3CO2
N
iii) Auto (self) reduction of sulphide ores: In the extraction of Cu
LA
from its sulphide ore, the ore is subjected partial roasting in air to give its
oxide.
TE

2Cu2S + 3O2 2Cu2O + 2SO2

When the supply of air is stopped and the temperature is raised. The
rest of the sulphide reacts with oxide and forms the metal and SO2.
T,

2Cu2O + Cu2S 6Cu + SO2

iv)Reduction of ores (compounds) by more reactive metals.
ER

Thermite process involves the reaction of metal oxides with

aluminium. When highly reactive metals such as sodium, calcium,
aluminium etc., are used as reducing agents, they displace metals of lower
SC

reactivity from the compound. These displacement reactions are highly

exothermic. The amount of heat evolved is so large that the metals
produced are in molten state.

850 oC
Eg: TiCl4 + 2Mg ––––––––––––>Ti + 2MgCl2

850 oC
TiCl4 + 4Na ––––––––––––> Ti + 4NaCl

244 X Class Principles of Metallurgy

 The reaction of Iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3), with aluminium produces
molten iron which is used to join railings of railway tracks or cracked
machine parts. This reaction is known as the thermite reaction.
Fe2O3 + 2Al Al2O3 + 2Fe + Heat
Cr2O3 + 2Al Al2O3 + 2Cr + Heat

A
AN
fig-3(a) fig-3(b) fig-3(c)

G
C) Extraction of metals at the bottom of the activity series
(Ag, Hg etc)

N
Metals at the bottom of the activity series are often found in free
state. Their reactivity with other atoms is very low. The oxides of these
LA
metals can be reduced to metals by heat alone and sometimes by
displacement from their aqueous solutions.
i) When cinnabar (HgS) which is an ore of mercury, heated in air, it
TE

is first converted into (HgO) then reduced to mercury on further heating.

Heat Heat Heat
Eg: 2HgS+ 3O2 ––––> 2HgO + 2SO2 ––––> 2HgO –––> 2Hg + O2
(s) (g) (s) (g) (s) (s) (g)
T,

ii) Displacement from aqueous solutions:

Eg: Ag2S(s) + 4CN(aq)- 2[Ag((CN)2](aq)- + S2(aq)-
ER

2[Ag(CN)2]- (aq) + Zn(s) [Zn(CN)4]2-(aq) + 2Ag(s)

Here Ag2S is dissolved in say KCN solution to get dicyanoargentate
(I) ions. From these ions Ag is precipitated by treating with Zn dust powder.
SC

III. Purification of the crude metal

The metal obtained by the reduction of the ore is usually contaminated
with impurities like unchanged ore, other metals present in the ore and
non metals from the anions in the ore.
For example, the (blister) copper obtained from its sulphide ore, a
compound of copper iron pyrites (CuFeS2), contains some copper sulphide,
iron and sulphur. It is purified by suitable methods including electrolysis.
The process of obtaining the pure metal from the impure metal is called
refining of the metal. Refining of the metal involves several types of

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2020-21 245

 processes. Some refining methods are given below:
a) Distillation (b) Poling (c) Liquation (d) Electrolysis etc.
The process that has to be adopted for purification of a given metal
depends on the nature of the metal and its impurities.
a) Distillation: This method is very useful for purification of low
boiling metals like zinc and mercury containing high boiling metals as
impurities. The extracted metal in the molten state is distilled to obtain
the pure metal as distillate.

A
b) Poling: The molten metal is stirred with logs (poles) of green
wood. The impurities are removed either as gases or they get oxidized

AN
and form scum (slag) over the surface of the molten metal. Blister copper
is purified by this method. The reducing gases, evolved from the wood,
prevent the oxidation of copper.
c) Liquation: In this method a low melting metal like tin can be

G
made to flow on a slopy surface to separate it from high melting impurities.
d) Electrolytic refining: In this method, the impure metal is made
N
to act as anode. A strip of the same metal in pure form is used as
LA
cathode. They are put in a suitable electrolytic bath containing soluble
salt of the same metal. The required metal gets deposited on the cathode
in the pure form. The metal, constituting the impurity, goes as the anode
mud. The reactions are:
TE

Anode: M Mn+ + ne-

Cathode: Mn+ + ne- M
(M = pure metal )
T,

Where n = 1,2,3, ...

We use this electrolytic method
ER

to refine copper.
fig-4: Experimental setup for the electrolytic For this an impure copper is taken
refining of copper
as anode and pure copper strips are
taken as cathode. The electrolyte is an acidified solution of copper sulphate.
SC

As a result of electrolysis copper in pure form is transferred from the

anode to the cathode.
Anode: Cu Cu2+ + 2e-
Cathode: Cu2+ + 2e- Cu
The soluble impurities go into the solution, where as insoluble
impurities from the blister copper get deposited at the bottom of anode as
anode mud which contains metals like antimony selenium, tellurium, silver,
gold and platinum; recovery of these metals may meet the cost of refining.
Zinc may also be refined this way.
246 X Class Principles of Metallurgy
Corrosion
The rusting of iron (iron oxide), tarnishing of silver (silver sulphide),
development of green coating on copper (copper carbonate) and bronze
are some of the examples of corrosion.
• Do you know why corrosion occurs?
Let us find
Activity 2

A
• Take three test tubes and place clean iron nails in each of them.
• Label these test tubes A,B and C. pour some water in test tube A and

AN
cork it.
• Pour boiled distilled water in test tube B, add about 1 ml of oil and
cork it. The oil will float on water and prevent the air from dissolving

G
in the water.
•
N
Put some anhydrous calcium chloride in test tube
C and cork it. Anhydrous calcium chloride will
LA
Air Air
absorb the moisture, if any, from the air. Leave Dry
air
these test tubes for a few days and then observe Layer
of oil
(see figure).
TE

Rusty
You will observe that iron nails rust in test tube iron
nails
A, but they do not rust in test tubes B and C. In the
test tube A, the nails are exposed to both air and Water
T,

water. In the test tube B, the nails are exposed to only Boiled Anhydrous
water, and the nails in test tube C are exposed to dry distilled water calcium chloride
ER

fig-5: Investigating the conditions

air. under which iron rusts
• What does this tell us about the conditions under
which iron articles rust?
SC

In metallic corrosion, a metal is oxidised by loss of electrons generally

to oxygen and results in the formation of oxides. Corrosion of iron
(commonly known as rusting) occurs in presence of water and air.
The chemistry of corrosion is quite complex but it may be considered
essentially as an electrochemical phenomenon. During corrosion at a
particular spot on the surface of an object made of iron, oxidation takes
place and that spot behaves as anode. We can write the reaction as.
Anode: 2Fe(s) 2Fe2+ + 4e–
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2020-21 247
 Electrons released at this anodic spot move through the metal and go
to another spot on the metal and reduce oxygen at that spot in presence of
H+ (which is believed to be available from H2CO3 formed due to dissolution
of carbon dioxide from air into water in moist air condition of atmosphere.
Hydrogen ion in water may also be available due to dissolution of other
acidic oxides from the atmosphere). This spot behaves as cathode with the
reaction is.
Cathode: O2(g) + 4H+ (aq) + 4e- 2H2 O(l)

A
The overall reaction is: 2Fe(s)+O2(g)+4H (aq) 2Fe2+(aq)+2H2O(l)
+

The Ferrous ions (Fe2+) are further oxidised by atmospheric oxygen to

AN
Ferric ions (Fe3+) which come out as rust in the form of hydrated ferric
oxide (Fe2O3.XH2O) and with further production of hydrogen ions.
Prevention of corrosion

G
Prevention of corrosion is of prime importance. It not only saves money

N
but also helps in preventing accidents such as a bridge collapse or failure
of a key component due to corrosion.
LA
One of the simplest methods of preventing corrosion is to prevent the
surface of the metallic object to come in contact with atmosphere. This
can be done by covering the surface with paint or by some chemicals
TE

(eg: bisphenol).
Another simple method is to cover the surface by other metals
(Sn, Zn etc) that are inert or react themselves with atmosphere to save the
object. This is generally done by electroplating.
T,

An electrochemical method is to provide a sacrificial electrode of

another metal (like Mg, Zn etc) which corrodes itself but saves the object.
ER

Do you know?
SC

Alloying is a method of improving the properties of a metal. We can get desired

properties by this method. For example, iron is the most widely used metal. But it
is never used in its pure state. This is because pure iron is very soft and stretches
easily when hot. But, if it is mixed with a small amount of carbon, it becomes hard
and strong. When iron is mixed with nickel and chromium we get stainless steel
which will not rust. Pure gold, known as 24 carat gold, is very soft. It is, therefore,
not suitable for making jewellery. It is alloyed with either silver or copper to
make it hard. Generally in India 22carat gold is used for making ornaments. It
means that 22 parts of pure gold is alloyed with 2 parts of either silver or copper.
248 X Class Principles of Metallurgy
 A few important processes used in metallurgy
Smelting: Smelting is a pyrochemical (pyre = heat) process, in which
the ore is mixed with flux and fuel and strongly heated. The heat is so strong
that the ore is reduced to even metal as in the case of iron (Fe), and the
metal is obtained in molten state. During smelting the impurities (gangue)
in the ore react with flux to form slag which is removed. For haematite
(Fe2O3)ore, coke is used as fuel and lime stone (CaCO3) is used as flux.
The smelting is carried out in a specially built furnace known as blast

A
furnace.

AN
Skip
The reactions inside the furnace are: car
2C(s) + O2 (g) ––––> 2CO(g)
Fuel
Charge

G
hoppers
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) ––––> 2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)
haematite

N ∼200 oC
LA
CaCO3(s) ––––> CaO(s) + CO2 (g)
∼700 oC Waste
Limestone(flux) lime gases
Reduction
Alternating
TE

CaO(s) + SiO2(s) ––––> CaSiO3(l) layers of iron

ore and coke
Lime silica(gangue) calcium silicate(slag) Heat
∼1200 oC absorption
zone

Roasting: Roasting is a pyrochemical process

T,

Fusion Hot air

in which the ore is heated in the presence of oxygen zone

or air below its melting point. The products (like ∼2000 oC Combustion
zone
ER

metal oxide from sulphide ore) obtained in the Molten Molten iron
process also are in solid state. Generally slag

reverberatory furnace is used for roasting.

2ZnS(s) + 3O2(g) ––––> 2ZnO(s) + 2SO2(g)
SC

fig-6: Blast furance

zinc blende

Calcination: Calcination is a pyrochemical process in which the ore is

heated in the absence of air. The ore gets generally decomposed in the process.
Eg: MgCO3(s) MgO(s) + CO2(g)
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Flux: Flux is a substance added to the ore to remove the gangue from it
by reacting with the gangue. If the impurity (gangue) is acidic substance like
SiO2, basic substance like CaO is used as flux and if the impurity is of basic

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2020-21 249

 nature like FeO acidic flux like SiO2 is added to the gangue.
CaO(s) + SiO2(s) ––––> CaSiO3(l)
flux silica(gangue) calcium silicate(slag)

FeO(s) + SiO2(s) ––––> FeSiO3(l)

gangue flux Ferrous silicate(slag)

• What is the role of furnace in metallurgy?

• How they bear large amounts of heat?

A
• Do all furnaces have same structure?
Let us see:

AN
Furnace: Furnace is the one which is used to carry out pyrochemical
processes in metallurgy. We have mainly three parts in a furnace known
as Hearth, Chimney and fire box.

G
Hearth is the place inside the furnace where the ore is kept for
heating purpose.
N
Chimney is the outlet through which flue (waste) gases go out of the
LA
furnace.
Fire box is the part of the furnace where the fuel is kept for burning.
In Blast furnace both fire box and hearth are combined in big chamber
TE

which accommodates both ore and fuel. Reverberatory furnace has both
fire box and hearth separated, but the vapours (flame) obtained due to
Chimney

the burning of the fuel touch the ore in the hearth and heat it.
T,

In furnaces like retort furnaces

there is no direct contact between the
ER

hearth or fire box and even the flames

Ore do not touch the ore.
Hearth
SC

Fire
fig-7: Reverberatory box
furnace

Key words
Minerals, ores, froth flotation, Thermite process, distillation,
poling, liquation, electrolytic refining, smelting, roasting,
calcinations, blast furnace, reverberatory furnace.

250 X Class Principles of Metallurgy

 What we have learnt
• A metallic compound occurring in the earth crust along with impurities is called mineral.
• A mineral from which a metal can be extracted economically and conveniently is called ore.
• The impurity present in the ore is called gangue..
• The substance added to the ore to remove gangue from it is called flux.
• The extraction of metal from its ore involves mainly three stages: Concentration, Extraction of
crude metal, Refining of the metal.

A
• Physical methods adopted in dressing the ore are : hand picking, washing, froth flotation, Magnetic
separation etc.

AN
• The methods used for Extracting of Crude metal are Calcination, Roasting, Chemical reduction,
Auto reduction, Displacement method, Electrolytic reduction .
• Calcination is a process of heating the ore strongly in the absence of air or oxygen.

G
• During calcinations, carbonate is converted to its oxide.
• Roasting is a process of heating the ore strongly in a free supply of air or oxygen.
•
N
Calcination and Roasting are carried out in a reverberatory furnace
LA
Improve your learning

Reflections on concepts
TE

1. List three metals that are found in nature as Oxide

ores.(AS1)
2. List three metals that are found in nature in un
T,

combined form. (AS1)

3. Write a note on dressing of ore in metallurgy? (AS1)
ER

4. How do metals occur in nature? Give examples to any two types of minerals. (AS1)
5. When do we use magnetic seperation method for concentration of an ore? Explain with an
example. (AS1)
6. What is the difference between roasting and calcination? Give one example for each. (AS1)
SC

7. Draw the diagram showing i) Froth floatation ii) Magnetic separation. (AS5)
8. Draw a neat diagram of riverboratory furnace and label it. (AS5)

Application of concepts

1. Magnesium is an active metal, if it occurs as a chloride in nature, which method of reduction is

suitable for its extraction? (AS2)
2. Mention two methods which produce very pure metals from impure metals. (AS1)
3. Which method do you suggest for extracting of high reactivity metals? (AS2)
4. Explain Thermite process and mention its applications in our daily life. (AS7)
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2020-21 251
 5. Where do we use handpicking and washing methods in our daily life? Give examples. How
do you correlate these examples with enrichment of ore? (AS7)

s
Multiple choice question

1. The impurity present in the ore is called as [ ]

a) Gangue b) flux c) Slag d) Mineral
2. Which of the following is a carbonate ore? [ ]

A
a) Magnesite b) Bauxite c) Gypsum d) Galena

AN
3. Which of the following is the correct formula of Gypsum [ ]
a) CuSO4. 2H2O b) CaSO4. ½ H2O c) CuSO4. 5H2O d) CaSO4. 2H2O
4. The oil used in the froth floatation process is [ ]

G
a) kerosene oil b) pine oil c) coconut oil d) olive oil.
5. Froth floatation is method used for the purification of ______ore. [ ]
a) sulphide b) oxide N c) carbonate d) nitrate
LA
6. Galena is an ore of [ ]
a) Zn b) Pb c) Hg d) Al
7. The metal that occurs in the native form is [ ]
TE

a) Pb b) Au c) Fe d) Hg
8. The most abundant metal in the earth’s crust is [ ]
a) Silver b)Aluminium c) zinc d) iron
T,

9. The reducing agent in thermite process is [ ]

a) Al b) Mg c) Fe d) Si
ER

10. The purpose of smelting an ore is [ ]

a) Oxidise b) Reduce c) Neutralise d) None of these

Suggested Experiments
SC

1. Suggest an experiment to prove that the presence of air and water are essential for corrosion.
Explain the procedure. (AS3)

Suggested Projects
1. Collect information about extraction of metals of low reactivity silver, platinum and gold and
prepare a report. (AS4)

252 X Class Principles of Metallurgy

 Chapter

12
Carbon and its

A
Compounds

AN
G
N
The food you eat, the clothes you wear, the cosmetics you use, the
LA
fuels you use to run automobiles are all the compounds of carbon.
Carbon was discovered in prehistory and it was known to the ancients.
They used to manufacture charcoal by burning organic material.
TE

Carbon is a non-metal. It belongs to the fourteenth group or IV A

group in the modern periodic table. The elements of this group have four
electrons in the valence shell.
T,

Let us write the electronic configuration of Carbon (6C).

Atomic number of carbon is 6.
ER

Electronic configuration of carbon (ground state) 6C: 1s2 2s2 2p2. To

get the octet in its outer shell it has to gain four more electrons to form
C4-. The electronegativity of carbon is only 2.5 and its nucleus has only
six protons. Therefore it would be difficult for a nucleus with six protons
SC

to hold ten electrons. Hence, carbon cannot form C4- ions so easily.
• Can carbon get helium configuration by losing four electrons from
the outer shell?
If carbon loses four electrons from the outer shell, it has to form C4+
ions. This requires huge amount of energy which is not available normally.
Therefore C4+ formation also is a remote possibility. Carbon has to satisfy
its tetravalency by sharing electrons with other atoms. It has to form four
covalent bonds either with its own atoms or atoms of other elements.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 253

 The possibility of bonds formation by a carbon atom is as follows:
a) i. Four single covalent bonds, with atoms of same element like
hydrogen, Chlorine
H Cl
| |
Eg: CH4, CCl4 or H–C–H , Cl – C – Cl
| |
H Cl
ii. Four single covalent bonds with atoms of different elements ;

A
H
|

AN
Eg: H – C – Cl
|
Br

b) Carbon atoms may form one double bond and two single bonds

G
H H H O

Eg: ;
H
NC C
H
H C
H
C
H
LA
c) Carbon atom may form one single bond and a triple bond
Eg: H–C C–H or CH3 –C N or carbon atoms may also
form two double bonds as in CH2 = C = CH2.
TE

• How do carbon atoms form bonds in so many different ways as

mentioned above?
• Explain the four unpaired electrons in carbon atom through excited
state.
T,

As per valence bond theory (see chapter-8, chemical bonding), the

four unpaired electrons in a carbon atom are shown by suggesting excited
ER

state to carbon atom.

Electronic configuration of carbon (ground state):
1s2 2s2 2p2 (or) 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py12pz0
SC

1s 2s 2p
Carbon (ground state)

Electronic configuration of carbon (excited state):

1s2 2s1 2px1 2py1 2pz1
1s 2s 2p
Carbon (excited state)

254 X Class Carbon and its Compounds

 In excited state carbon atom gets its
one of the ‘2s’ electrons to say 2pz.
Each carbon atom has four unpaired
electrons when excited and tends to form
four covalent bonds.
• Where this energy to excite electron
comes from?
We have to understand that free

A
carbon atom would not be in excited state

AN
under normal conditions. When the
carbon atom is ready to form bonds with
other atoms, the energy required for
excitation is taken up from bond

G
energies, which are the liberated energies
when bonds are formed between carbon
atom and other atoms. N Linus Pauling - The world’s
LA
• In methane (CH4) molecule all four one of the greatest scientists
carbon – hydrogen bonds are and a great humanist. He was
∧ acknowledged as the most
identical and bond angle HC H is
TE

influential chemist.
109o28/. How can we explain this?
He is the only person ever
In the above discussion, we have
to receive two unshared Nobel
found that in excited state, carbon atom
Prizes — for Chemistry
has three unpaired electrons in p-orbitals
T,

(1954) and for Peace (1962).

and one electron in s-orbital. These four
valence electrons are with different
ER

energies.

• How these energetically unequal valence electrons form four equivalent

SC

covalent bonds in methane molecule?

Let us see how?
Promotion of an electron
When bonds are formed, energy is released and the system becomes
more stable. If carbon forms four bonds rather than two, still more energy
is released and so the resulting molecule becomes even more stable.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 255

 The energy difference between the 2s
Promotion
and 2p orbitals is very small. When carbon
atom is ready to form bonds it gets a small
amount of energy from bond energies and
gets excited to promote an electron from
Energy

2px 2py 2pz the 2s to the empty 2pz to give four unpaired
2s electrons.
From ground state to We have got four unpaired electrons

A
excited state ready for bonding, but these electrons are
in two different kinds of orbitals and their

AN
energies are different. We are not going to
Energy

2px 2py 2pz get four identical bonds unless these

2s
unpaired electrons are in four identical
orbitals.

G
• How to explain the four orbitals of carbon containing unpaired

N
electrons as energetically equal?
We can explain it by the phenomenon called hybridisation.
LA
Hybridisation
The concept of hybridisation was introduced by Linus Pauling (1931).
TE

The redistribution of orbitals of almost equal energy in individual atoms

to give equal number of new orbitals with identical properties like energy
and shape is called “hybridisation”. The newly formed orbitals are called
as ‘hybrid orbitals.’
T,

In the excited carbon atom its one s-orbital (2s) and three p-orbitals
(2px, 2py, 2pz) intermix and reshuffle into four identical orbitals known as
ER

sp3 orbitals. Thus, carbon atom undergoes sp3 hybridisation.

The four electrons enter into the new four identical hybrid orbitals
known as sp3 hybrid orbitals one each as per Hund’s rule. (because they
are made from one ‘s-orbital’ and three ‘p-orbitals’ they are called sp3
SC

orbitals).
NOTE: Read “ sp3 “ as “ s p three”. or “yes pee three”

2px 2py 2pz

Energy

2s sp3 hybrids
The hybridisation enables the carbon to have four identical sp3 hybrid
orbitals and these have one electron each. Since carbon has four unpaired

256 X Class Carbon and its Compounds

electrons, it is capable of forming bonds with four other atoms may be
carbon or atoms of some other monovalent element. When carbon reacts
with hydrogen, four hydrogen atoms allow their ‘s’ orbitals containing one
electron each to overlap the four sp3orbitals of carbon atom which are
oriented at an angle of 109o28/ . (Four orbitals of an atom in the outer
shell orient along the four corners of a tetrahedron to have minimum
repulsion between their electrons). The nucleus of the atom is at the centre
of the tetrahedron. See figures below:

A
AN
overlap

G
N overlap
LA
This leads to form four sp3 – s sigma bonds between carbon atom and
four hydrogen atoms. All these bonds are of equal energy.

sp2 hybridisation
TE

How do you explain the ability of C – atom to form two single covalent
bonds and one double bond?
Consider ethene / ethylene (CH2 = CH2) molecule as the example.
T,
ER
Energy

2px 2py 2pz 2pz

2s sp2 hybrids
In the formation of CH2=CH2 each carbon atom in its excited state
SC

undergoes sp2 hybridisation by intermixing one s-orbital (2s) and two

p-orbitals (say 2px, 2py) and reshuffling to form three sp2 orbitals. Now
each carbon atom is left with one ‘p’ orbital (say pz) unhybridised. The
three sp2 orbitals having one electron each get separated around the nucleus
of carbon atoms at an angle of 120o. When carbon is ready to form bonds
one sp2 orbital of one carbon atom overlaps the sp2 orbital of the other
carbon atom to form sp2 – sp2 sigma (σ) bond. The remaining two sp2
orbitals of each carbon atom get overlapped by‘s’ orbitals of two hydrogen
atoms containing unpaired electrons. The unhybridised pz orbitals on the
two carbon atoms overlap laterally as shown in figure to form a π bond.
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 257
 That means there exists a sigma (σ) bond and a pi (π) bond between two
carbon atoms in ethene molecule. Hence, the molecule ethene (C2H4) is

H H

C C

H H

A
σsp2-s

AN
σsp2-s

σsp2-sp2

figure of

G
C 2H 4
πp z-p z

σsp -s
2

N σsp2-s
LA
The common name for Ethene is Ethylene.
sp hybridisation
Each carbon is only joining to two other atoms rather than four (as in
TE

methane or ethane) or three (as in ethene). Here the carbon atoms hybridise
their outer orbitals before forming bonds, this time they only hybridise
two of the orbitals.
They use the ‘s’ orbital (2s) and one of the 2p orbitals, but leave the
T,

other 2p orbitals unchanged. The new hybrid orbitals formed are called sp
hybrid orbitals, because they are made by an s-orbital and a p-orbital
ER

reorganizing themselves.
How do you explain the ability of carbon atom to form one single
bond and one triple bond?
SC

To know the ability of ‘C’ to form one single bond and one triple bond,
let us consider ethyne (acetylene or C2H2) molecule as our example.

πp y-p y

Η σsp-sp Η

σs-sp πp z-p z σs-sp

figure of C2H2
258 X Class Carbon and its Compounds
 In acetylene molecule there exists a triple bond between two carbon
atoms and the fourth valency of each carbon atom is satisfied by hydrogen
atoms (H–C C–H ).
In C2H2 molecule there are two carbon atoms and two hydrogen atoms.
In excited state each carbon atom undergoes sp- hybridisation by mixing
its one ‘s’ orbital (2s) and one ‘p’ orbital (2px) and reshuffling to form two
identical orbitals known as sp-orbitals. Each carbon atom has two
unhybridised p-orbitals (say 2py, 2pz).

A
AN
Energy

2px 2py 2pz 2py 2pz

2s sp hybrids

G
One sp-orbital of a carbon overlaps the sp-orbital of other carbon to
give sp-sp sigma bond. The other sp-orbital of each carbon atom overlaps
N
‘ s ’ orbital of a hydrogen atom to form a s-sp sigma bond. The unhybridised
‘p’ orbitals of one carbon atom laterally overlap the unhybridised ‘p’ orbitals
LA
of other carbon atom to give two π bonds between two carbon atoms
(say πpy-py, πpz-pz , see figure). Thus ethyne molecule H–C C–H and
there exists three σ-bonds and two π-bonds in the molecule.
TE

Think and discuss

Discuss the bond distance between the nuclei of carbon atoms that
T,

H H
form bonds and bond energies order of H–C =_ C–H, C C and
ER

H H H H

H C C H
Explain it.
H H

∧
What are bond angles HCH in CH4, C2H4 and C2H2 molecules?
SC

Allotropes of Carbon
The property of an element to exist in two or more physical forms
having more or less similar chemical properties but different physical
properties is called allotropy. The different forms of the element are called
allotropes. Allotropes form due to the difference in the arrangement of
atoms in the molecules.
The allotropes of carbon are classified into two types. They are
• Amorphous forms • Crystalline forms
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 259
 Amorphous forms
Different amorphous allotropes of carbon are: Coal; Coke; Wood
Charcoal; Animal charcoal; Lamp black; Gas carbon; Petroleum coke; Sugar
charcoal.
Crystalline forms
Carbon atoms can arrange themselves into different hybridised
chemical bonds. Therefore they exhibit different physical and chemical
structures such as diamond and graphite. Carbon in solid phase can exist

A
in three crystalline allotropic forms: diamond, graphite and
buckminsterfullerene.

AN
Diamond and graphite form covalent network structures whereas
buckminsterfullerene has a molecular solid structure with discrete C60
molecules. As these crystalline allotropes differ in their structures, they

G
possess different physical properties.
Diamond
N
In diamond each carbon atom undergoes in its excited state sp3
LA
hybridisation. Hence, each carbon atom has a tetrahedral environment. The
three dimensional structure of diamond is as shown:
TE
T,
ER

Lattice structure of diamond Diamond structure

As C-C bonds are very strong any attempt to distort the diamond
SC

structure requires large amount of energy. Hence diamond is one of the

hardest materials known.
Graphite
Graphite forms a two dimensional layer structure with C-C bonds within
the layers. There are relatively weak interactions between the layers.
In the layer structure, the carbon atoms are in a trigonalplanar
environment. This is consistent with each carbon atom in sp2 hybridisation.
Interactions between the sp2 orbitals (overlaps) lead to the formation of
C-C bonds. Each carbon atom is with one unhybridised ‘p’ orbital. The
260 X Class Carbon and its Compounds
 The arrangement of carbon atoms in graphite layers

A
unhybridised ‘p’ orbitals interact to form a π system which is delocalised

AN
over the whole layer. The interactions known as London dispersion forces
o
between the layers which are separated by a distance of 3.35 A are weakened
by the presence of water molecules so that it is easy to cleave graphite.
For this reason graphite is used as lubricant and as the ‘lead’ in pencils.

G
• How do you understand the markings (writings) of a pencil on a
paper?
N
When we write with a pencil, the interlayer attractions breakdown
LA
and leave graphite layers on the paper. Pencil marks are easy to remove
from paper with an eraser because, the layers do not bind strongly to the
paper. Graphite is a good conductor of electricity because of the
TE

delocalised π electron system.

Buckminsterfullerene (C60)
Buckminsterfullerenes are molecules of varying sizes that are
composed entirely of carbon. The arrangement of these molecules leads
T,

to the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, or tube depending upon their

orientations. Fullerenes are formed when vaporized carbon condenses in
ER

an atmosphere of an inert gas.

Do you know?
The buckminsterfullerene, or usually just fullerene for short, was discovered
SC

in 1985 by a team of scientists, Robert F. Curl, Harold W. Kroto and Richard E.

Smalley from Rice University and the University of Sussex, three of whom were
awarded the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. They are named so for the resemblance
of their structure to the geodesic structures devised by the scientist and architect
Richard Buckminster “Bucky” Fuller.

Buckyballs: Spherical fullerenes are also called buckyballs.

Buckminsterfullerene (C60) contains nearly spherical C60 molecules
with the shape of a soccer ball.
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 261
 A
AN
Buckminsterfullerene (C60) 3D structure of Buckminsterfullerene (C60)
Fullerene, C60 molecule contains 12 pentagonal and 20 hexagonal
faces on its soccer ball shape, and each carbon atom has sp2 hybridized

G
orbitals.
Fullerenes are under study for potential medicinal use - such as specific
N
antibiotics to target resistant bacteria and even target certain cancer cells
such as melanoma.
LA
Nanotubes
Nanotubes are another allotropic
TE

form of carbon discovered in 1991by

Sumio li jima. Nano tubes consist of
hexagonal arrays of covalently bonded
carbon atoms, similar to the sheets in
T,

graphite. Unlike the flat graphite sheets,

in nanotubes the sheets are rolled into
ER

cylinders. Due to this reason they are

called nanotubes. Nanotubes like
graphite, are electrical conductors and
can be used as molecular wires. In
SC

integrated circuits nanotubes are used

instead of copper to connect the
components together. Scientists
Single-walled carbon
inserted biomolecules into nanotubes
nanotube or Buckytube
to inject them into a single cell.
Versatile nature of carbon
By the eighteenth century scientists tried to explain the difference
between the compounds in a broader way.

262 X Class Carbon and its Compounds

 Do you know?
Graphene - The new wonder material:

A
AN
3D illustration showing a sheet of A piece of graphene aerogel - weighing
graphene only 0.16 milligrams per cubic
centimeter - is placed on a flower.
As its name indicates, graphene is extracted from graphite, the material used

G
in pencils. Like graphite, graphene is entirely composed of carbon atoms. For a
thickness of 1mm graphite contains some 3 million layers of graphene. The
N
carbons are perfectly distributed in a hexagonal honeycomb formation only in
LA
0.3 nanometers thickness.
Graphene conducts electricity better than copper. It is 200 times stronger
than steel but six times lighter. It is almost perfectly transparent to light.
TE

J. J. Berzelius (1807) named the compounds that derived from living

organism as organic compounds and those from non-living materials as
inorganic compounds. He thought that organic compounds would be
prepared in the living bodies through vital force, the essence of life. As this
T,

force is absent outside the living bodies, it was thought that the so called
organic compounds could not be synthesized in the laboratories.
ER

Surprisingly F. Wohler (1828) produced an organic compound Urea in

the laboratory by heating an inorganic salt ammonium cyanate.
O
SC

heat H C H
NH4CNO N N
H H
Ammonium Urea
cyanate
It inspired many other chemists and they were successful to prepare the
so called organic compounds, methane, acetic acid etc., in the laboratory.
This gave a death blow to the idea that organic compounds are derived
from living organism. Chemists thought about a new definition for organic
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 263
 Wöhler Friedrich (1800 – 1882)
German chemist who was a student of Berzelius. In
attempting to prepare ammonium cyanate from silver cyanide
and ammonium chloride, he accidentally synthesized urea in
1828. This was the first organic synthesis, and shattered
the vitalism theory.
Wöhler pursued the matter further and discovered that urea
and ammonium cyanate had the same chemical formula, but

A
very different chemical properties. This was an early discovery of isomerism, since

AN
urea has the formula CO(NH2)2 and ammonium cyanate has the formula NH4CNO.

compounds. After observing the structures and elements of organic

compounds, they defined organic compounds as compounds of carbon.

G
Therefore, organic chemistry is totally allotted to carbon compounds.
• Allotting completely one special branch in chemistry to compounds
N
of only one element. Is it justified when there are so many elements
LA
and their compounds but not with any special branches?
We understand that all molecules that make life possible –
carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, hormones, and vitamins
TE

contain carbon. The chemical reactions that take place in living systems
are of carbon compounds. Food that we get from nature, various medicines,
cotton, silk and fuels like natural gas and petroleum almost all of them are
carbon compounds. Synthetic fabrics, plastics, synthetic rubber are also
T,

compounds of carbon. Hence, carbon is a special element with the largest

number of compounds.
ER

Catenation
Another peculiar behaviour of carbon is its ability to form longest
chains with its own atoms. If any element forms bonds between its own
SC

atoms to give big molecules we call that property as catenation property.

Carbon has the ability to form longest chains containing millions of carbon
atoms in molecules like some proteins. Sulphur, phosphorus and some
other non metals have this property but to a very less extent.
You have understood that carbon can form:
H
a) Four single covalent bonds ,
C
H H
H
264 X Class Carbon and its Compounds
 b) A double bond and two single covalent bond s ( C C )
c) A single covalent bond and a triple bond (–C C), or two double
bonds (C = C = C) with its own atoms or atoms of other elements – to
satisfy its tetravalency.
This ability of carbon to form bonds in so many ways made it as
versatile element in nature. Hence, carbon’s ability 1) to form largest
number of compounds 2) to show catenation 3) to form various types of
bonds made it the versatile element.
Hydrocarbons

A
• What are hydrocarbons?

AN
The compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen in their molecules
are called hydrocarbons.
Hydrocarbons are classified into two categories known as open chain
hydrocarbons and closed chain hydrocarbons. Open chain hydrocarbons

G
are also called aliphatic hydrocarbons or acyclic hydrocarbons.
Open and closed chain hydrocarbons
N
Let us observe the following structural formulae of different
LA
hydrocarbons.
1) CH3–CH2–CH2–CH2–CH3 n-pentane, a straight chain compound
2) CH3–CH–CH2–CH3. Iso pentane, a branched chain compound
TE

|
CH3

3) CH2 – CH2 cyclo pentane, a cyclic compound or a ring compound

T,

| |
CH2 CH2
ER

CH2
• Do all the above compounds have equal number of C and H atoms?
In the first example you will notice that all carbons are linked to one
another resulting a linear structure, where as in the second example four
SC

carbons are linked in linear way and the fifth carbon is linked to the parent
chain resulting a branch. In the third example we find that carbon chain is
closed to form a ring. So, it is a closed chain hydrocarbon or ring
hydrocarbon.
All hydrocarbons (both Aliphatic and cyclic hydrocarbons) are again
classified as Alkanes, Alkenes and Alkynes:
1) Hydrocarbons containing only single bonds between carbon atoms are
called Alkanes. (C–C)
2) Hydrocarbons containing atleast one double bond between carbon
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 265
 atoms are called Alkenes. (C=C)
3) Hydrocarbons containing atleast one triple bond between carbon atoms
are called Alkynes. (C ≡ C)
Saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons
The hydrocarbons containing only C–C single bonds are known as
saturated hydrocarbons. All alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons. The
hydrocarbons that contain at least one double bond (C=C) or contain atleast
one triple bond (C ≡ C) between the two carbon atoms are called

A
unsaturated hydrocarbons. Alkenes and Alkynes are the examples for
unsaturated hydrocarbons.

AN
Straight chain, branched chain and closed chain hydro carbon
compounds may be saturated or unsaturated. See the following examples.
1) Which of the following compounds are unsaturated?

G
a) CH3–CH2–CH3 b) CH3 – CH = CH2
c) CH – CH2
|| | N d) HC ≡ C – CH = CH2
LA
CH – CH2
e) CH3 – CH – CH= CH2 f) CH3–CH2– CH2– CH2
| |
TE

CH3 CH2 – CH3

2) Identify the compounds in the following, as branched chain and closed
chain compounds.
a) CH3 – CH – CH – CH3 b) CH2 – CH2
T,

| | | |
CH3 CH2 – CH3 H3C – CH – CH2
ER

CH3
|
c) CH – CH2 ≡
d) HC C – C – CH3
|| | |
SC

CH CH2 CH3

CH2
Binding of carbon with other elements
We have understood that the compounds of carbon and hydrogen are
called hydrocarbons.
• Can carbon form bonds with the atoms of other elements?
Practical observations reveal that carbon forms compounds not only
with atoms of hydrogen but also with atoms of other elements like oxygen,
266 X Class Carbon and its Compounds
nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, halogens etc.
Let us see the compounds of carbon with other elements.
Functional groups in carbon compounds
The characteristic properties of an organic compound depend mainly
on an atom or group of atoms in its molecule known as the functional
group.
Organic compounds are classified by the type of functional group they
contain. Functional groups are responsible for the behavior of the organic

A
compounds. Compounds containing the same functional group undergo
similar types of reactions.

AN
Carbon compounds with C, H, X.
• Compounds containing C, H, X where ‘X’ represents halogens (Cl, Br,
I atoms).

G
Eg: CH3Cl, CH3– CH2–Br, CH2Cl – CH2I, CH3 – CHCl2
These are known as halogen derivatives of hydrocarbons or halo
hydrocarbons. N
LA
Carbon compounds with C, H, O.
Halo Hydrocarbons
• Compounds containing C, H, O are of different types:
TE

Alcohols
If a hydrogen atom of H2O molecule is replaced by ‘R’ we get alcohols
R-OH.
The hydrocarbons that contain –OH group are called alcohols. Observe
T,

the following examples:

CH3OH, CH3CH2OH, CH3-CHOH-CH3 etc.
ER

General formula of alcohols is R – OH where ‘R’ is alkyl group, CnH2n+1.

Aldehydes
The hydrocarbons with functional group –CHO are called aldehydes.
Observe the following examples:
SC

H – C = O, CH3 – C = O, CH3 – CH2 - C = O etc.

| | |
H H H
Formaldehyde Acetaldehyde Propionaldehyde

General formula of aldehydes is R – CHO, where R = alkyl group

or hydrogen and -CHO is functional group.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 267

 Ketones
C
The hydrocarbons with C O functional group are called ketones.
C
O O
|| ||
CH3 – C – CH3, CH3 – CH2 – C – CH3 etc.
Di methyl ketone ethyl methyl ketone

C
C O group is known as Ketone group(common system)
C
General formula of Ketones is R C O

A
R/

AN
R and R1 are alkyl groups which may be same or different.
Carboxylic acids
The general molecular formula of carboxylic acid is R – COOH,

G
where R is an alkyl group or H atom.
H – C = O, CH3 – C = O, CH3 – CH2– C = O
|
OH
Formic acid
|
OH N
Acetic acid
|
OH
Propionic acid
LA
– C = O group is called the carboxyl group.
|
OH
TE

Ethers
Ethers are carbon compounds related to H2O in such a way that both
hydrogen atoms are replaced by two alkyl groups which may be same or
different.
T,

Eg: CH3 – O – CH3 , CH3 – CH2 – O – CH3, CH2 = CH – O – CH3 etc.

Di methyl ether ethyl methyl ether methyl vinyl ether
ER

Esters
These compounds are derivatives of carboxylic acids. If the hydrogen
atom of - COOH gets replaced by ‘R’, the alkyl group esters are obtained.
O O O
SC

|| || ||
CH3 - C - OCH3, CH3 - CH2 – C - OCH3 , CH3 - CH2 – C – OCH2CH3 etc.
Di methyl ester ethyl methyl ester Di ethyl ester

Compounds containing C, H, N
Amines
If hydrogen atom is replaced from NH3 by an alkyl group are called
Amines. - NH2 group is called amine group.

268 X Class Carbon and its Compounds

 NH2
|
Eg: CH3–NH2, CH3–CH–NH2, CH3CH2NH2, CH3–CH2–C–CH3 etc.
| |
CH3 CH3

Do you know?
We may compare amines to NH3 as we have done ROH and R – O – R/ to

A
H2O. If one Hydrogen Atom is replaced from NH3 by an alkyl group we get primary
amines. If two hydrogen atoms of NH3 are replaced by two alkyl groups (same or

AN
different) we get secondary amines and if all the three hydrogen atoms are replaced
by the same or different alkyl groups we get tertiary amines.
CH3 NH CH3 N

G
H3C H3C CH3
Secondary amine (Tertiary amine)
N-methyl methane amine
N N, N-dimethyl methane amine
LA
Isomerism
Observe the following two structures:
TE

(a) CH3–CH2–CH2–CH3 (b) CH3–CH–CH3

|
CH3
• How about their structures? Are they same?
• How many carbon and hydrogen atoms are there in (a) and (b) structures?
T,

• Write the condensed molecular formulae for (a) and (b).Do they have
same molecular formulae?
ER

The first one is called butane (or) in the common system it is known
as n-butane.
The second one is called 2-methyl propane or iso-butane in the
common system.
SC

We find both of these compounds in nature. They have different

properties due to the difference in their structures. Compounds of this
type which have the same molecular formula but different properties are
called isomers.
The phenomenon of possessing same molecular formula but different
properties by the compounds is known as isomerism. The compounds that
exhibit isomerism are called isomers.
(iso = same; meros = part, i.e., they have same molecular formula)
In the above example isomerism is due to the difference in the
structures. Therefore, it is called the structural isomerism.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 269

 Try to draw different structures for the following carbon compounds
and name the isomers of each (Take the help of your teacher)
(a) C5H12 (b) C6H14
Homologous series
Till now we have classified Organic compounds on the basis of
carbon chains and functional groups. There is another classification
based on Homologous series.
The series of carbon compounds in which two successive compounds
differ by –CH2 unit is called homologous series.

A
Eg: 1) CH4, C2H6, C3H8 …

AN
2) CH3OH, C2H5OH, C3H7OH …
If you observe above series of compounds, you will notice that each
compound in the series differs by –CH2 unit by its successive compound.
Homologous series of organic compounds have following

G
characteristic features.
1) They have one general formula.

N
Eg: alkanes (CnH2n+2); alkynes(CnH2n-2); alcohols (CnH2n+1)OH etc.
2) Successive compounds in the series possess a difference of (-CH2)
LA
unit.
3) They possess similar chemical properties due to the same functional
group
TE

Eg: alcohols, aldehydes and carboxylic acids have functional groups

C–OH, C–CHO and C-COOH respectively.
4) They show a regular gradation in their physical properties (see the
table-1).
For example: we may take alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, alcohols,
T,

aldehydes, and carboxylic acids etc. as homologous series. The individual

members of a homologous series are called homologs.
ER

Observe the following tables 1, 2 and 3. They represent three different

homologous series.
Table-1: Homologous series of Alkanes
Alkane Molecular Structure No. of Boiling Melting Density
SC

formula carbons Point ( C) Point ( C)

o o (gml at20 C)
-1 o

Methane CH4 H-CH2-H 1 –164 –183 0.55

Ethane C2H6 H-(CH2)2-H 2 –89 –183 0.51
Propane C3H8 H-(CH2)3-H 3 –42 –189 0.50
Butane C4H10 H-(CH2)4-H 4 0 –138 0.58
Pentane C5H12 H-(CH2)5-H 5 36 –136 0.63
The general formula of this homologous series Alkanes is CnH2n+2, where
n = 1,2,3...
270 X Class Carbon and its Compounds
 Table-2:Homologous series of Alkenes
Alkane No. of Carbons Structure Formula
Ethene 2 CH2 =CH2 C2H4
Propene 3 CH3-CH=CH2 C3H6
Butene 4 CH3-CH2-CH=CH2 C4H8
Pentene 5 CH3-CH2-CH2-CH=CH2 C5H10

Alkenes have general molecular formula CnH2n, where ‘n’ is 2, 3, 4, …

A
Table-3: Homologous series of Alkynes

AN
Alkane No. of Carbons Structure Formula
Ethyne 2 _ CH
HC = C2H2
Propyne 3 _ CH
CH3- C = C3H4

G
Butyne 4 _ CH
CH3-H2C-C = C4H6
CH3-CH2-CH2-C =_CH
Pentyne 5
N
Alkynes have general molecular formula CnH2n-2, where ‘n’ is 2, 3, 4, …
C5H8
LA
Nomenclature of organic compounds
We have millions of organic compounds. As number of organic
compound is very big it is difficult to remember their names individually.
TE

To overcome this problem they have to be properly named. For this, the
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) had been
formed, and one of its responsibilities is to name the organic and inorganic
compounds in a systematic order. The basic idea behind the systematic
T,

nomenclature is that there should be only one name for the given structure
throughout the world and also there should be only one structure for the
ER

given name.
The IUPAC name of an organic compound consists of three parts : 1) Word
root 2) Prefix 3) Suffix.
SC

1) Word Root : The number of carbon atoms present in the molecules

or principle chain is called word root.
C1 - Meth; C2 - eth; C3 - prop; C4 - but ; C5-pent; C6 - hex;
C7 - hept; C8-oct; C9-non; C10 - dec and so on.
2) Prefix : The substituents in the molecule are shown as the prefix.
Prefix again has several parts known as primary prefix secondary
prefix, numerical prefix and number prefix.
Primary prefix : It is useful only for cyclic compounds (Cyclo). If
the compounds are not cyclic, this part of the name is absent.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 271

 Secondary prefix : This tells about the second grade functional groups
known as substituents. For example halogens, alkyl groups(R), alkoxy
groups(-OR) etc. which are written as halo, alkyl, alkoxy.
Numerical prefix : When the same substituent, multiple bond or
functional group is repeated twice, thrice etc., are denoted by di, tri,
tetra... respectively.
Number prefix : This tells about to which carbon atoms of the
compound the substituent(s), multiple bond(s) or functional group(s)
are attached.
3) Suffix : The functional groups in the molecule are shown as the suffix.

A
It also contains several parts known as primary suffix, secondary
suffix, numerical suffix and number suffix etc.

AN
Primary suffix : This tells about the saturation of the compound.
For saturated (C-C) single bonded compounds it is ‘ane’.
For unsaturated (C=C) double bonded compounds it is ‘ene’.

G
For unsaturated triple bonded (C C ) compounds it is ‘yne’.
Secondary suffix : This tells about the functional groups with the
particular term. While writing the names of the derivatives of
N
hydrocarbons the last letter ‘e’ of ane, ene, yne is dropped if the suffix
starts with a vowel. ‘e’ should be maintained if the suffix including
LA
numerical preffix with a consonent.
For example: For hydrocarbons it is ‘e’
for Alcohols it is ‘ –ol ’
TE

Aldehydes it is ‘ –al ‘
Ketones it is ‘ –one ‘ and
Carboxylic acid it is ‘ –oic acid’
You can see some more secondary suffixes and primary suffixes in
table 4.
T,

The following order is to be followed while naming carbon compound.

The order is as follows:
ER

Numbers - Numerical Prefixes – Secondary Prefix – Primary Prefix - Word Root – Numbers
1 2 3 4 5 6
-Numerical Prefix, Primary Suffix, numbers, numerical Prefixes and Secondary Suffixes.
SC

7 8 9 10 11

What differences do you find among (1) (2) (3) and (6) (7) (8) and
(9) (10) (11) numbers.
(1), (2) are numbers and numerical designations to be written for
secondary prefixes(3) which tell about the position and repetitions of
second grade functional groups known as substituents respectively.
1 2 3 4
Eg: CH3–CH–CH–CH3 2, 3 – di chloro but an e
| | (1) (2) (3) (5) (8) (11)
Cl Cl
272 X Class Carbon and its Compounds
 (6) and (7) tell about the positions and repetitions of the multiple
bonds in the structures of the molecule of the compound. These are related
to the primary suffix (8) that tells about the unsaturation.

5 4 3 2 1
Eg: CH3-CH=CH-C ≡ CH pent – 3 – ene – 1 – yn – e
(5) (6) (8) (9) (8) (11)

(9) and (10) tell about the positions and repetitions of the functional
group or principal functional group (11) in a poly functional compound. It

A
gives the information which carbon represents it or to which carbon that
functional group is attached and how many times it is repeated. If it comes

AN
only once we need not write mono i.e., if no numerical prefix is present it
is understood that the functional group is not repeated. Similarly, in the
names of aliphatic compounds word root (5), primary suffix (8) and

G
secondary suffix (11) are definitely present and all others may or may
not be present. If there are more than one similar functional groups, ‘e’
letter of primary suffix may not be replaced. N
LA
Eg: CH3-CH2-CH-CH2-OH but ane – 1,2 – di ol
| (5) (8) (9) (10) (11)
OH
TE

Punctuation: Numbers are separated by comma (,) and numbers &

designations by hyphen(-)
If you find more than one substituent in the structure you have to follow
alphabetical order while naming them. For this numerical prefixes should
T,

not be considered. Substituents: X (halo), R (alkyl), -OR (alkoxy),

-NO2 (nitro), NO (nitroso) etc.
ER

If you find more than one functional group in the structure you select
the principal functional group and write it as secondary suffix. All other
functional groups become substituents.
SC

A decreasing order of priority for choosing and naming a principal

characteristic group. This should be written as secondary suffix.

(C) indicates that “C” of functional group is included in the main carbon
chain.
-COOH > -COOR > -CHO > >C=O > R-OH > -NH2
Acid ester aldehydes ketones alcohols amines

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 273

 Suffixes and prefixes for some important characteristic functional groups:
Class Formula Prefix Suffix

Acid halides -COX halocarbonyl carbonyl halide

(Where X is halogen atom)
-(C)O-X oyl halide
Alcohols -OH hydroxy ol
Aldehydes -CHO formyl carbaldehyde

A
Amides -CONH2 carbamoyl carboxamide

AN
Amines -NH2 amino amine
Carboxylic acids -COOH carboxy carboxylic acid

G
-(C)OOH oic acid
Ethers -OR (R)alcoxy
Esters -COOR
(C)OOR
N oxycarbonyl
R - oxycarbonyl
(R)…carboxylate
(R)… oate
LA
Ketones -C = O oxo -one
Nitriles -CN cyano -carbonytrile
TE

-(C)N Nitrile
Numbering carbon atoms
1) We can number carbon atoms from left to right or from right to left so
that sum of the numbers indicating the positions of substituents and
T,

functional groups should be minimum possible.

2) The functional group carbon should be given the lowest number even if
ER

it does not obey Rule (1).

3) The carbon atoms of the chain terminating functional group say –CHO,
or –COOH groups should be given always number ‘1’ even if it does not
obey Rules (1) & (2).
SC

Longest Chain rule : Select the longest continuous chain of Carbon atom
which is known as parent chain or principle chain. All the other Carbon atoms
constitute in the chain are branched chains or side chains.

1 2 3 4 5

CH3 -- CH -- CH2 -- CH -- CH3

CH3 CH3
274 X Class Carbon and its Compounds
Lowest Number rule : The Carbon compound which contains only one
substituent number the Carbon atom in such a way that the carbon atom
carrying the substituent get the lowest number.
5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5

CH3 -- CH -- CH2 -- CH2 -- CH3 CH3 -- CH -- CH2 -- CH2 -- CH3

CH3 CH3
(Incorrect method) (Correct method)

A
Lowest Sum rule : If there are two or more substituents in the carbon
compounds the parent chain is numbered from the end which gives the

AN
lowest sum of more substituent carbon.
CH3 CH3
1 2 3 4 5 6 6 5 4 3 2 1

CH3 -- CH -- CH2 -- CH2 -- C -- CH3 CH3 -- CH -- CH2 -- CH2 -- C -- CH3

G
CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3
(2+5+5 = 12 Incorrect method)
N (2+2+5 = 9 Correct method)
LA
Alphabetical Order : When two or more different groups are present,
such groups are arranged in alphabetical order.

Activity 1
TE

Observe the names of the following compounds. Divide the given name
as per the notations given above and identify the parts in the name through
the numbers given above from (1) to (11) and write them in your note
T,

book. Take the help of your teacher

❖ CH3–CH2–CH2–CH3 : Butane
ER

4 3 2 1

❖ CH3–CH2–CH=CH2 : But-1-ene
SC

1 2 3 4
❖ CH3–CH–CH2–CH3 : 2-Chloro butane
|
Cl

1 2 3 4
❖ CH3–CH–CH–CH3 : 2, 3 – dichloro butane
| |
Cl Cl

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 275

 4 3 2 1

❖ CH3–CH= C =CH2 : Buta 1, 2- diene

4 3 2 1

❖ CH3–CH2–CH2–CH2–OH : Butan – 1 – ol

4 3 2 1

❖ CH3–CH2–CH2–CHO : Butanal

A
❖ CH3–CH2–CH2–COOH : Butanoic acid

AN
❖ CH2–CH2 : Cyclo butane
| |
CH2–CH2

G
❖ Br Br : 1,2 – di bromo cyclo butane
| |
CH– CH
| | N
LA
CH2–CH2

❖ CH3–C–CH2–CH2–CH3 : Penta n – 2 - one

||
TE

O
❖ CH2–CH–CHO : 2, 3 – di chloro propanal
| |
Cl Cl
T,

solution : 2,3 - di chloro prop an al

(1) (2) (3) (5) (8) (11)
ER

Let us observe some more examples.

NOTE: (C) designates a carbon atom included in the name of the parent
hydride and does not belong to a group designated by a suffix or a prefix.
SC

Example: CH3–CH2–CHO propanal - (C) of CHO included in the

name of the main chain.
CH3–CH–COOH 2- formyl propanoic acid - ‘C’ of CHO
| not included in the name of main
CHO (parent) chain.

276 X Class Carbon and its Compounds

 Example-1: CH3CH2OH
Principal functional group : -OH (-ol)
Parent hydride : CH3 – CH3
Parent hydride + one Principal functional group CH3CH2OH
Name of the compound Eth an ol
(5) (8) (11)
Example-2: OH OH
| |

A
CH2 – CH2

AN
Parent hydride + two Principal functional groups OH OH
| |
Name of the compound eth ane – 1,2 – di ol CH2 – CH2
(5) (8) (9) (10) (11)

G
O
||
Example-3:CH3-C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-OH
Principal functional group >(C) = O N -one
LA
Parent hydride CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 Heptane
Parent hydride + Principal functional group
O
TE

||
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-C-CH3 Heptan -2-one
Substituent -OH Hydroxy
T,

O
||
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
OH-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2 -C-CH3
ER

Name of the compound 7 – hydroxy hept an – 2 – one

–– –––––– ––– –––– –– ––––
(1) (3) (5) (8) (9) (11)
SC

Note: In the solution the principal functional group >C=O (Keto) group
is given more priority than to –OH (alcohol).
Example-4:CH2 = CH – CH2 – CH –CH3
|
OH

Parent hydride CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH3 Pentane

Principal functional group -OH -ol
Principal hydride + Principal functions Pentan – 2 – ol

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 277

 Subtractive modification (-2H) -en

Name of the compound: Pent - 4 - en - 2 - ol

(5) (6) (8) (9) (11)
Cl
8 7 6 5 | 4 3 2 1
Example-5: CH2 = C = C – CH –CH2 – CH2 – CH – CH2
| | |
Cl OH OH
5,6 – di chloro – octa – 6,7 – di en – 1,2 – di ol
––– –– ––––– –––– ––– –– –– ––– ––– –––

A
(1) (2) (3) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11)
OH
Example-6:

AN
1 CH3
6 2
2,3 – di methyl – cyclo hex an – 1 – ol
5 3 –––
(1)
–– –––––
(2) (3)
––––
(4)
–––
(5)
––
(8)
––
(9)
–––
(11)
4 CH3

G
Write the names of the organic compounds which have the following structure.

1. CH3 -- CH2 -- CH2 -- CH2 -- CH3

N Cl CH3 H
10. CH3 -- CH -- C -- C -- CH3
LA
Cl H
2. CH3 -- CH -- CH2 -- CH3
Cl CH3 H
CH3
11. CH2 = CH -- C C -- CH3
TE

CH3
3. CH3 -- C -- CH3 Cl H

CH3 Cl CH3
12. CH2 = C = CH -- C -- CH2
T,

4. CH3 -- CH2 -- CH -- CH3 Cl

CH3 Br
CH3
ER

13. CH ≡ C -- CH = C -- CH2
5. CH2 -- CH2 -- CH2 Cl OCH3
CH3
14. CH ≡ C -- CH = C -- CH2
SC

6. CH3 -- CH2 -- CH2-- CH2-- CH2-- Cl Cl

7. CH3 -- CH2 -- CH2-- CH -- CH3 15. CH2 -- CH2

Cl
Cl CH2 CH2
8. CH3 -- CH2 -- CH-- CH -- CH3 CH2
Cl
Cl Br 16. CH -- CH2
9. CH3 -- CH2 -- C-- C -- CH3 CH CH2
Br Cl CH2
278 X Class Carbon and its Compounds
 OH
17. CH -- CH -- Br 20. CH3 -- CH2-- CH2-- CH2-- CH2
CH CH2
OH
CH2
21. CH2 = CH -- CH2-- CH -- CH2
18. CH -- CH -- Br Cl
CH CH-- Cl
COOH
CH2
22. CH3 -- CH2 -- CH2-- CH -- CH2

A
19. C ---- C -- Br Cl

AN
C C -- Cl OH
CH2 23. CH3 -- CH2 -- CH2-- C -- CH3
Cl

G
How to draw structure of a compound
• Can we write the structure of a compound if the name of the compound
is given?
N
Yes, we can write the structures from the name of the compound as
LA
follows:
1) From the word root in the name write the carbon atoms in the main
chain
TE

2) Select counting of carbon atoms in the appropriate manner from left

to right or right to left as for the name given.
3) Attach the substituents to respective carbon atoms as per their numbers
T,

and numerical designations.

4) Find the functional group if any from the name of the compound see
that it is correctly arranged in the structure.
ER

5) Keeping in view that the tetravalency of each carbon atom has to be

satisfied use hydrogen atoms in the required number and complete the
structure..
SC

Examples:
1) 2–methyl pentan–3–ol
2) 2–bromo–3–ethyl penta–1, 4–diene
3) 3–bromo–2–chloro–5–oxohexanoic acid
4) 3–amino–2–bromo hexan–1–ol
5) 3, 4–dichloro but–1–ene
CH3 OH
| |
1 2 3 4 5

Solution : 1. CH3 - CH - CH - CH2 - CH3

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 279
 Chemical properties of carbon compounds
Though we have millions of organic compounds, the reactions they
undergo are limited. Some important reactions among them are discussed
here.
They are:
1) Combustion 2) Oxidation reactions
3) Addition reactions 4) Substitution reactions

A
1. Combustion reactions
Carbon, and its compounds burn in presence of oxygen or air to give

AN
CO2, heat and light.
The process of burning of carbon or carbon compound in excess of
oxygen to give heat and light is called the combustion reaction. In the

G
reactions carbon is in its maximum oxidation state of 4+ in the product.
Eg: 1) C + O2
2) 2C2H6 + 7O2
N
CO2 + Energy
4CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
LA
3) CH3CH2OH + 3O2 CO2 + 3H2O + Energy
Generally, saturated hydrocarbons burn with a clear light blue flame,
TE

whereas unsaturated hydrocarbons burn with yellow flame with soot

(carbon). If air is not sufficiently available during combustion, even
saturated hydrocarbons give sooty flame. When Coal, Petroleum etc., burn
in air, they give oxides of sulphur and nitrogen in addition to CO2 and H2O
T,

which pollute the environment. When Coal or Charcoal is burnt sometimes

they just glow red without flame. This is because to get a flame gaseous
ER

fuels should burn.

Most of the aromatic compounds burn with sooty flame.
• Why do sometimes cooking vessels get blackened on a gas or kerosene
SC

stove?
Because of the inlets of air getting closed, the fuel gases donot
completely undergo combustion. Hence, it forms a sooty carbon form
which gets coated over the vessels.
A combustion reaction is generally defined as any reaction that sustains
a flame. It usually involves burning with oxygen, though some exceptions
are there, combustion reaction is always exothermic, that is energy is
liberated during combustion reaction.

280 X Class Carbon and its Compounds

 2. Oxidation reactions
Though combustion is generally oxidation reaction, all oxidation
reactions are not combustion reactions. Oxidation reactions may be carried
out using oxidizing agents. Oxidizing agents or Oxidants are substances
that oxidize other substances. They themselves undergo reduction.
Eg: Alkaline Potassium permanganate or Acidified Potassium
dichromate in solutions act as oxidizing agents and supplies oxygen to
convert alcohols into carboxylic acids.
Ethyl alcohol undergoes oxidation to form the product Acetaldehyde

A
and finally Acetic acid.(see following equation)

AN
CH3CH2OH alkaline KMnO4+Heat CH3CHO CH3COOH
acidified K2Cr2O7+Heat
Ethanol Ethanal Ethanoic acid
(Ethyl alcohol) (Acetaldehyde) (Acetic Acid)

G
3. Addition reactions
Unsaturated organic compounds that contain multiple bonds
N
(=, bonds) like alkenes and alkynes undergo addition reactions to become
LA
saturated. During the reactions addition of the reagent takes place at the
double bonded or triple bonded carbon atoms.

CH3C =_ C–CH3 Ni catalyst CH3CH=CH–CH3 Ni catalyst CH3–CH2–CH2–CH3

TE

H2 H2
But–2-yne But–2-ene Butane

In the above reactions ‘Ni’ acts as ‘catalyst.’

• Do you know what a ’catalyst’ is?
T,

A catalyst is a substance which increases the rate of a given reaction

without itself finally undergoing any chemical change.
ER

These reactions are commonly used in the hydrogenation of vegetable

oils using nickel as catalyst. Vegetable oils generally have long unsaturated
carbon chains, while animal fats have saturated carbon chains.
SC

Think and discuss

• Why we are advised not to use animal fats for cooking?
• Which oil is recommended for cooking? Why?

Fats and oils are both of fatty acids. Oils are generally liquids at room
temperature due to unsaturated fatty acids but fats are solids due to saturated
fatty acids.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 281

 4. Substitution reactions
A reaction in which an atom or a group of atoms in a given compound
is replaced by other atom or group of atoms is called a substitution reaction.
Alkanes, the saturated hydrocarbons are chemically least reactive.
Therefore they are also called paraffins (parum = little; affins = affinity,
i.e., no affinity towards chemical changes). However they undergo some
chemical changes under suitable conditions which are substitution
reactions.

A
For example, methane (CH4) reacts with chlorine in the presence of
sunlight. Hydrogen atoms of CH4 are replaced by chlorine atoms.

AN
sunlight
CH4 + Cl2 CH3Cl + HCl
Methane Methyl Chloride Hydrogen Chloride
sunlight
CH3Cl + Cl2 CH2Cl2 + HCl

G
Methyl Chloride Methylene Chloride Hydrogen Chloride
sunlight
CH2Cl2 + Cl2 CHCl3 + HCl
Methylene Chloride

CHCl3 + Cl2
N
sunlight
Chloroform

CCl4 + HCl
Hydrogen Chloride
LA
Chloroform Carbon Hydrogen Chloride
Tetrachloride
Some important carbon compounds
TE

Many carbon compounds are invaluable to us. But here we study, the
properties of Ethanol (Ethyl alcohol) and Ethanoic acid (Acetic acid)
which are two very important carbon compounds.
Ethanol (Ethyl alcohol)
T,

Preparation: Ethanol is prepared on large scale from ethene by the

addition of water vapour to it in the presence of catalysts like P2O5 ,
ER

Tungsten oxide at high pressure and temperature.

catalyst
CH2 = CH2 + H2O CH3CH2OH
ethene 100-300 atm ethyl alcohol
SC

At 300 oC

Grains such as corn, wheat, barley are common sources for ethanol.
Therefore, it is also called grain alcohol.
Cooking grain + sprouted barley glucose yeast ethanol + CO2
(starch) (called Malt) enzymes

The process of conversion of starches and sugars to C2H5OH is called

fermentation process.
Properties
Ethanol is a colourless liquid with characteristic sweet odour. Pure
ethanol boils at 78.3 oC. Pure ethanol is called absolute (100 %) alcohol.
282 X Class Carbon and its Compounds
Denatured alcohol is ethanol that contains impurities that make it
undrinkable. The impurities are methanol, methyl isobutyl ketone, aviation
gasoline etc. It is toxic and 200 ml of it is a fatal dose to an adult. Solution
of about 10% ethanol in gasoline (gasohol) is a good motor fuel.
Ethanol is commonly called alcohol and is active ingredient of all
alcoholic drinks. Consumption of small quantity of dilute ethanol causes
drunkenness. In addition, as it is a good solvent it is also used in medicines
such as tincture iodine, cough syrups and many tonics

A
• Do you know how the police detect whether suspected drivers have
consumed alcohol or not?

AN
The police officer asks the suspect to blow air into a plastic
bag through a mouth piece of the detecting instrument which

G
contains crystals of potassium-di-chromate (K 2Cr2O7). As
K2Cr2O7 is a good oxidizing agent, it oxidizes any ethanol in the
driver’s breath to ethanol and ethanoic acid.
N
Orange Cr2O72- changes to bluish green Cr3+ during the process
of the oxidation of alcohol. The length of the tube that turned into
LA
green is the measure of the quantity of alcohol that had been drunk.
Now a days police are using even an electronic instrument
containing small fuel cell that measures the electrical signal
TE

produced when ethanol in the breath is oxidized.

The police even use the IR Spectra to detect the bonds
C – OH and C – H of CH3 – CH2OH.
T,

Chemical properties
As ethanol is similar to water molecule (H2O) with C2H5 group in place
ER

of hydrogen, it reacts with metallic sodium to liberate hydrogen and form

sodium ethoxide.
2C2H5OH + 2Na 2C2H5ONa + H2
SC

Ethanol sodium ethoxide

Action of conc. H2SO4: Ethanol reacts with conc. H2SO4 at about

170 C (443 K) to give ethene. It is a dehydration reaction. H2SO4 is a
o

dehydrating agent and removes H2O.

at 170 C o
CH3CH2OH CH2 = CH2 + H2O
Conc.H2SO4

Ethanoic acid (Acetic acid or CH3COOH)

Ethanoic acid is a colourless liquid with characteristic unpleasant odour.
It is soluble in water and more acidic than H2O or ethanol, but less acidic
than mineral acids.
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 283
 Ethanoic acid is commonly called as acetic acid. 5-8% solution of
acetic acid in water is called vinegar and is used widely as a preservative in
pickles.
Chemical Reactions
Acidity: (Reaction with metals and alkalies)
1) Ethanoic acid reacts with active metals like Na to liberate hydrogen.
This reaction is similar to that of ethanol.
2CH3COOH + 2Na 2CH3COONa + H2

A
acetic acid sodium sodium acetate

2) Ethanoic acid reacts with NaOH to form sodium acetate and water.

AN
CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COONa + H2O
sodium hydroxide

3) Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogen

G
carbonate which are weaker bases and liberates CO2.
2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2

CH3COOH + NaHCO3 N
Sodium carbonate

CH3COONa + H2O + CO2

LA
sodium bi carbonate

The strength of acids may be expressed in terms of their pKa values.

4) Esterification Reactions O
TE

• What are esters?

C
Esters contain the functional group C O–C
/ /
The general formula is R – COO - R . R and R are alkyl groups or
T,

phenyl groups.
Activity
Activity-22
ER

Test Take 1 ml of ethanol (absolute alcohol) and 1ml of

tube
glacial acetic acid along with a few drops of concentrated
containing
reaction sulphuric acid in a test tube.
SC

mixture
Warm it in a water-bath or a beaker containing water
Beaker Water
Wire for at least five minutes as shown in Fig.
gauze Pour the warm contents into a beaker containing
Tripod 20-50 ml of water and observe the odour of the resulting
stand
Burner mixture.
• What do you notice?
You will notice that the resulting mixture is a sweet
Formation of ester odoured substance. This substance is nothing but ethyl
acetate, an ester. The reaction in activity – 2 is called
esterification reaction.
284 X Class Carbon and its Compounds
Esterification
The reaction between carboxylic acid and an alcohol in the presence
of conc. H2SO4 to form a sweet odoured substance, ester with the functional
O
group is called esterification.
C
C O–C

The esterification reaction is slow and reversible.

A
The equation for the reaction between an acid RCOOH and an alcohol
/
R OH

AN
(where R and R/ can be the same or different) is:

O O
/
R–C + R OH R–C + H2 O

G
O–H O–R /

N
So, for example, if you want to prepare ethyl ethanoate or ethyl acitate
from ethanoic acid and ethanol, the equation would be:
LA
O conc.H2SO4 O
CH3–C + CH3CH2OH CH3–C + H2O
O–H
TE

O–CH2CH3
Ethanoic acid Ethanol ethyl acetate
(acetic acid) (ethyl alcohol)

Soaps – Saponification and Micelles

Do you know what ‘soap’ is?
T,

Soap is a sodium or potassium salt of a higher fatty acid like palmitic

acid (C15H31COOH), stearic acid (C17H35COOH), oleic acid (C17H33COOH)
ER

etc. The formula of a soap in general is RCOONa or RCOOK, where

R = C15H31 ; C17H35 etc.
Fats are esters of higher fatty acids and the trihydroxy alcohol known
SC

as glycerol.
When fats are treated with sodium hydroxide, sodium salts the fatty
acids and glycerol is formed. The sodium salts of these higher fatty acids
being soaps the reaction is the soap formation reaction which is generally
called as ‘saponification reaction’.
Saponification reaction
Alkaline hydrolysis of tri esters of higher fatty acids producing
soaps is called saponification.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 285

 Soaps are good cleansing agents. Do you know how they do this?
For understanding this you should know about a ‘true solution’ and a
colloidal solution.
• What is a true solution?
A true solution is that in which the solute particles dispersed in the solvent
are less than 1nm in diameter. A colloidal solution contains the solute known
as ‘dispersed phase’ with its particles with diameters greater than 1nm but
lesser than 1000 nm in the solvent known as ‘dispersion medium’.

A
Soap is an electrolyte. When soap is put in water in very small amount

AN
it gives low concentrated solutions. It gives true solution but, above a
particular concentration known as critical micelle concentration (CMC),
the soap particles get aggregated and these aggregated particles are of
colloidal size known as micelles or associated colloids.

G
Micelle

N
A spherical aggregate of soap molecules in water is called micelle.
When soap is dissolved in water, it forms a colloidal suspension in which
LA
the soap molecules cluster together to form spherical micelles.
Activity 3
TE
T,
ER

Micelle 3D structure of a micelle

Activity 3
SC

Formation of micelle
Take about 10 ml of water each in two test tubes.
Add a drop of oil (cooking oil) to both the test tubes and label them as
A and B.
Add a few drops of soap solution to test tube B.
Now shake both the test tubes vigorously for the same period of time.
What is that you find in them?
Can you see the oil and water layers separately in both the test tubes

286 X Class Carbon and its Compounds

immediately after
• You stop shaking them?
• Leave the test tubes undisturbed for sometime and observe. Does the
oil layer separate out?
• In which test tube does this happen first? Give your observations.
Cleansing action of soap
Suppose that we put dirty cloth in the soap solution. Dirt is mainly
greasy matter. The soap molecules are arranged radially with hydrocarbon

A
ends directed inwards into the greasy matter and ionic part directed outwards
into water.

AN
When a dirty cloth is inserted in
the solution then the hydrocarbon
part sticks to the dirt or oil. With a

G
little agitation the dirt particles get Hydrophobic Hydrophilic
entrapped by the soap micelles and end A soap molecule end
get dispersed in water due to which N
the soap water gets dirty and the cloth gets cleaned.
LA
• What is the action of soap particles on the greasy cloth?
We know that soaps and detergents make oil and dirt present on the
cloth come out into water, thereby making the cloth clean.
TE

O
Soap has one polar end (the end with C O carboxy) and one non-
polar end (the end with hydrocarbon chain) as shown
T,

Soap
in the figure. molecules
The polar end is hydrophilic in nature and this end
Soap
ER

is attracted towards water. cloth solution

The non-polar end is hydrophobic, in nature and it Dirt
is attracted towards grease or oil on the cloth, but not
attracted towards water.
SC

When soap is dissolved in water, its hydrophobic

ends attach themselves to dirt and remove it from the
cloth, as shown sequentially in the figure that follows.
• The hydrophobic end of the soap molecules move
towards the dirt or grease particle.
• The hydrophobic ends attached to the dirt particle dirt with micelle
and try to pull out. clean cloth
Representing the
• The molecules of soap surround the dirt particle cleansing action of
soap
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 287
 at the centre of the cluster and form a spherical structure called
micelle.
These micelles remain suspended in water like particles in a colloidal
solution.
The various micelles present in water do not come together to form a
precipitate as each micelle repels the other because of the ion-ion repulsion.
Thus, the dust particles remain trapped in micelles (which remain
suspended) and are easily rinsed away with water. Hence, soap micelles

A
remove dirt by dissolving it in water.

AN
Key words

Hybridisation, allotropy, diamond, graphite, buckminsterfullerene,

G
nanotubes, catenation, tetravalency, hydrocarbons, alkanes, alkenes,
alkynes, saturated hydrocarbons, unsaturated hydrocarbons, functional

N
group, isomerism, homologous series, nomenclature, combustion,
oxidation, addition reaction, substitution reaction, ethanol, ethanoic
LA
acid, ester, esterification, saponification, micelle.

What we have learnt

TE

• Carbon forms a large variety of compounds. Its tetravalency and the property of catenation and
ability to form four single bonds, a double bond and two single bonds, a triple bond and a single
T,

bond or two double bonds makes carbon versatile and brings one special branch in chemistry
for carbon compunds.
ER

• Hydrocarbons are the compounds of carbon and hydrogen.

• Hydrocarbons are of two types – saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes) and unsaturated
hydrocarbons (alkenes and alkynes).
• Carbon forms covalent bonds with its own atoms and atoms of other elements such as hydrogen,
SC

oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen and chlorine.

• The functional groups such as alcohols, aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids bestow
characteristic properties to the carbon compounds that contain them. Even C = C,C C , give
characteristic properties.
• A group / series of hydrocarbons having same general formula, with two successive compounds
possessing difference of - CH2 and with similar structures and similar properties (i.e., same
functional group) are called a homologous series.

288 X Class Carbon and its Compounds

• Carbon chains may be in the form of straight chains, branched chains or rings.
• Carbon compounds with identical molecular formula but different structures are called structural
isomers.
• Saturated hydrocarbons on combustion give carbon dioxide and water with the liberation of
heat.
• Unsaturated hydrocarbons undergo addition reactions while saturated hydrocarbons undergo
substitution reactions.
• Ethanol and Ethanoic acid (glacial acetic acid) are carbon compounds of importance in our

A
daily life.

AN
Improve your learning

Reflections on concepts

G
1. What are the general molecular formulae of
alkanes, alkenes and alkynes. (AS1)

N
2. Name the product other than water formed on burning of ethanol in air. (AS1)
3. Name the simplest ketone and write its molecular formula. (AS1)
LA
4. Name the compound formed by heating ethanol at 443 K with excess of conc. H2SO4.
(AS1)
5. Name the product obtained when ethanol is oxidized by either chromic anhydride or alkaline
TE

potassium permanganate. (AS1)

6. Write the homologous series of carbon compounds after CH3OHCH2CH3 and write the
IUPAC name. (AS1)
7. Why does carbon form compounds mainly by covalent bonding? (AS1)
T,

8. Explain how sodium ethoxide is obtained from ethanol? Give chemical equations. (AS1)
9. Explain the cleansing action of soap. (AS1)
ER

10. Distinguish between esterification and saponification reactions of organic compounds. (AS1)
11. What happens when a small piece of sodium is dropped into ethanol? (AS2)
12. Draw the electronic dot structure of ethane molecule (C2H6). (AS5)
SC

Application of concepts
1. Explain with the help of a chemical equation, how an addition reaction is used in
vegetable ghee industry. (AS1)
2. a) Write the various possible structural formulae of a compound having molecular
formulaC3H6O? (AS1)
b) Give the IUPAC names of the above compounds write their structures. (AS1)
c) What is the similarity in these compounds? (AS1)
3. Allotropy is a property shown by which class of substances : elements, compounds or
mixtures? Explain allotropy with suitable examples. (AS1)
Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 289
 4. Two carbon compounds A and B have molecular formulae C3H8 and C3H6 respectively.
Which one of the two is most likely to undergo addition reactions? Justify your answer.
(AS2)
5. 1ml of glacial acetic acid and 1ml of ethanol are mixed together in a test tube. Few drops of
concentrated sulphuric acid is added to the mixture and warmed in a water bath for 5 min.
Answer the following:
a. Name the resultant compound formed. (AS2)
b. Represent the above change by a chemical equation. (AS1)

A
c. What name is given to such a reactions? (AS1)
d. What are the special characteristics of the compound formed? (AS1)

AN
s
Multiple choice question

G
1. Which of the following solution of acetic acid in water can be used as preservative? [ ]
a) 5-10%
c) 15-20%
N b) 10-15%
d) 100%
LA
2. The suffix used for naming an aldehyde is [ ]
a) -ol b) -al c) -one d) -ene
TE

3. Acetic acid, when dissolved in water, it dissociates into ions reversibly because it is a:[ ]
a) Weak acid b) strong acid
c) weak base d) strong base
4. Which one of the following hydrocarbons can show isomerism? [ ]
T,

a) C2H4 b) C2H6 c) C3H8 d. C4H10

5. Combustion of hydrocarbon is generally accompanied by the evolution of
ER

a) Heat b) Light
c) both heat and light d) Electric current.
6. 2ml of ethanoic acid was taken in each of the three test tubes A, B and C and 2ml, 4ml and 8ml
SC

of water was added to them, respectively. A clear solution is obtained in: [ ]

a) Test tube A only b) Test tubes A & B only.
c) Test tubes B and C only d) All the test tubes.
7. If 2 ml of acetic acid was added slowly in drops to 5ml of water then we will notice[ ]
a) The acid forms a separate layer on the top of water.
b) Water forms a separate layer on the top of the acid.
c) Formation of a clear and homogenous solution.
d) Formation of a pink and clear solution.

290 X Class Carbon and its Compounds

8. A few drops of ethanoic acid were added to solid sodium carbonate. The possible results of the
reactions are: [ ]
a) A hissing sound was evolved b) Brown fumes evolved.
c) Brisk effervescence occurred. d) A pungent smelling gas evolved.
9. When acetic acid reacts with ethyl alcohol, we add conc. H2SO4, which acts as……….and
the process is called………………….. [ ]
a) Oxidizing agent, saponification b) Dehydrating agent, esterification
c) Reducing agent, Esterification d) Acid & esterification

A
Suggested Experiments

AN
1. Suggest a test to find the hardness of water and explain the procedure. (AS3)
2. Suggest a chemical test to distinguish between ethanol and ethanoic acid and explain the
procedure.(AS3)
3. An organic compound ‘X’ with a molecular formula C2H6O undergoes oxidation with alkaline

G
KMnO4 and forms the compound ‘Y’ that has molecular formula C2H4O2. (AS3)
a. Identify ‘X’ and ‘Y’
N
b. Write your observation regarding the product when the compound ‘X’ is made to
LA
react with compound ‘Y’ which is used as a preservative for pickles.
Suggestive Projects
1. Prepare models of methane, ethane, ethene and ethyne molecules using clay balls and match
TE

sticks. (AS4)
2. Collect information about artificial ripening of fruits by ethylene. (AS4)
3. How do you condemn the use of alcohol as a social practice. (AS7)
T,

ANNEXURE
ER

What is pKa?
pKa is the negative value of logarithm of dissociation constant of an acid.
pKa is a measure of how much an acid dissociates in a solution.
SC

pKa = -log10Ka
The lower the pKa value, the stronger is the acid.
pKa values are related to their dissociation in aqueous solutions. Note that pKa of
1.0M HCl is zero but pKa of CH3COOH is 4.76. pKa values are useful to tell about
acid strength. Strong acids have pKa < 1, acids with pKa between 1 and 5 are moderately
strong and weak acids have pKa between 5 and 15. The weakest acids have pKa > 15.
Note that pKa values less than zero are not generally given as they are of no use to give
in terms of pKa. They may be directly given in terms of Ka.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 291

 ANNEXURE

292
Nomenclature of carbon compounds
Prefix Word root Suffix

X Class
SC
Secondary Primary Continuous Primary suffix Secondary
longest carbon
prefix prefix chain
suffix
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11)
ER
Halide/ (Only for Number of Numerical Nature of Numerical Functional
Number Numerical Number Designation Number Designation
Saturation Group
Alkyle / cyclic Carbons
Designation secondary compounds)
1 - Meth
1, 2, 3.... Di functional 1, 2, 3.... Di C - C - ane 1, 2, 3.... Di - CH - Hydrocarbon - ‘e’
group 2 - Eth
T,
Cyclo C = C - ene - OH - Alcohol - ‘ol’
Tri Tri Tri
Halide 3 - Prop
Tetra C ≡ C - yne Tetra - CHO - Aldehyde - ‘al’
Tetra Floro 4 - But
- C=O - Ketone - ‘one’
Chloro
TE
5 - Pent - COOH - Carboxylic acid
Bromo
6 - Hex - ‘oic acid’
Iodo
7 - Hept - NH 2 - Amine - ‘amine’
- R-Alkyl
LA
8 - Oct - CONH2 - Amide
- CH3 - Methyl
- COOR - Ester - ‘oate’
- C2H5 - Ethyl 9 - Non
- C3H7 -Propyl.... 10 - Dec
N
Secondary functional group
NO2 -Nitro
G
NO - Nitraso
OR - Alkoxy
OH - Hydroxy
NH2 - Amino
AN
CHO - Formyl
C = O - OXO

Carbon and its Compounds

COOH - Carboxy
A
 Homi Jehangir Bhabha
Homi J. Bhabha, (30 October 1909 – 24 January 1966) was a nuclear
Physicist, founding Director and Professor of Physics at TIFR, Mumbai. He is
known as the father of the Indian Nuclear Programme. Bhabha was the founding
director of two well-known research institutions, namely the Tata Institute of
Fundamental Research(TIFR) and the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre both
institutions were the cornerstone of Indian development of nuclear reactors and
nuclear energy which Bhabha also supervised as its director.
In January 1933, Bhabha received his doctorate in nuclear physics after publishing his first scientific

A
paper, “The Absorption of Cosmic radiation”. The paper helped him win the Isaac Newton Studentship
in 1934.

AN
Starting his scientific career from Great Britain, Bhabha returned to India and accepted a post of
reader in physics at theIndian Institute of Science(IISC), Bangalore, headed by Nobel Laurate Sir
[Link]. During this time, Bhabha played a key role in convincing Jawaharlal Nehru who later
became India’s first Prime Minister, to start the ambitious nuclear programme. In 1945, he established
the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research(TIFR),Bombay and set up the Atomic Energy Commission

G
in 1948, serving its first chairman. In the 1950s, Bhabha represented India in IAEA conferences, and
served as President of the UN Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy in Geneva in 1955.

N
Bhabha gained international prominence after deriving a correct expression for the probability of
scattering positrons by electrons, a process now known as Bhabha scattering . His major contribution
LA
included his work on Compton scattering, R-process and furthemore the advancement of nuclear
physics. He was awarded Padma Bhushan by Government of India in 1954. In January 1966, Bhabha
died in a plane crash near Mont Blanc, while heading to Vienna, Austria to attend a meeting of theIAEA’s
Scientific Advisory Committee.
TE

Chintamani Nagesa Ramachandra Rao

C.N.R. Rao was born in Bangalore in a Kannada family to Hanumantha
Nagesa Rao and Nagamma Nagesa Rao. He completed secondary school leaving
T,

certificate in first class in 1947. He studied BSc at Central College, Bangalore.

He obtained his bachelor’s degree from Mysore University in 1951, in first class,
and only at the age of seventeen. He obtained a master’s in chemistry
ER

from BHU two years later. In 1953 he was granted a scholarship for PhD in IIT
Kharagpur. His first research paper was published in the Agra University Journal
of Research in 1954. He completed PhD in 1958, only after two years and nine
months, at age twenty-four.
Rao is an eminent scientist and a well recognised international authority
SC

on solid state and materials chemistry.

He is currently the Head of the Scientific Advisory Council to the Prime Minister of India.
He has published over 1,400 research papers and 45 books.
Rao was awarded Hughes Medal by the Royal Society in 2000, and he was first recipient of the
India Science Award in 2004.
Some of the major areas of his research are transition metal oxide systems, (new synthesis and
novel structures, metal-insulator transitions, CMR materials, superconductivity, multiferroics etc),
hybrid materials and nanomaterials including nanotubes and graphene.
Rao’s current passion is graphene, the new wonder material, and artificial photosynthesis.
He was awarded ‘Bharat Ratna’ by the Government of India in the year 2013.

Free distribution by T.S. Government 2021-22 293

 LEARNING OUTCOMES
The learner...
♦ Differentiates and classifies material, objects, phenomena and processes based on properties
or characteristics.
Eg: (i) Differences between Virtual & Real images, (ii) Classification of acids, bases and salts.
♦ Plans and conducts simple investigations or experiments to arrive at and verify the facts,
principles, phenomena to seek answers to queries on their own. Concludes and Communi-
cates the findings.
Eg: (i) Reaction of metals with Acids and Bases, (ii) Image formation by mirrors and lenses.

A
(iii) Identifies the gases eveolved in the reactions. (iv) writing reports.

AN
♦ Relates processes and phenomena with causes and effects.
Eg: (i) Refraction of light, (ii) Dispersion of light, (iii) Scattering of light.
♦ Explains processes and phenomena.

G
Eg: (i) Scattering of right, (ii) Formation of rainbow, (iii) Extraction of metals from ore.
♦ Calculates using the data given.

♦
N
Eg: (i) Problems based on resultant resistance.(ii) Problems based on chemical equations.
Draws labelled diagrams, flow charts, concept maps, graphs.
LA
Eg: (i) Diagram of acid reacts with metals, (ii) Solinoid, motor, dynomo, furnace.
♦ Applies learning to hypothitical situations.
TE

Eg: (i) What happens if human eye lens can not accomidate?
♦ Analyses and interprets graphs and figures.
Eg: (i) V α I Graph, (ii) Angle of deviation and angle of incidence graph.
♦
T,

Uses scientific conversations, symbols and equations to represent various quantities, elements
and units.
Eg: (i) Chemical equations, (ii) Units for electric energy, power of lens.
ER

♦ Measures physical quantities using appropriate apparatus, instruments and devices.

Eg: (i) lenses, mirrors, slabs (ii) Meter scale
♦ Derives formulae, equations, laws and applies Scientific concepts in daily life and solving
SC

problems.
Eg: (i) Omh’s law, (ii) Kirchoff’s law, (iii) Laws of resistance. (iv)Lens formula.
♦ Describes Scientific discoveries and inventions.
Eg: (i) Theoris and atomic struature, (ii) Omh’s law
♦ Designs models using eco-friendly resources.
Eg: (i) Electric motor, (ii) Models of H2O, O2 and CH4 molecules.
♦ Exhibits values of honesty, objectivity, rational thinking, freedom from myths, superstitions
beliefs while taking decisions, respect for life etc.

294 X Class Carbon and its Compounds