TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction
1.1 Background of the organization
1.2 Introduction to Woven Sack/Raffia
2. Classification of Woven Sacks
2.1 According to weaving
2.2 Based on application
3. Polymeric materials for Woven Sack
3.1 High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
3.2 Polypropylene (PP)
3.3 PP vs. HDPE
3.4 Other materials
3.5 Additives
3.6 Effect of polymer variables
4. Process steps for Woven Sack
4.1 Manufacturing of tapes
4.2 Weaving of tapes
4.3 Lamination
4.4 Printing
4.5 Bag conversion
5. Tapeline (Manufacturing of Tapes)

5.1 Extrusion of Cast film

5.2 Quenching
5.3 Orientation
5.4 Annealing
6. Weaving Technology
6.1 History of Weaving
6.2 Principle of Weaving
6.3 Classification of Loom
6.4 Weaving process
7. Bag Conversion System
7.1 Machine specification
7.2 Parts detail
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8. Troubleshooting
8.1 Tapeline
8.2 Circular Weaving machine/Loom
8.3 BCS
9. Testing and Quality control
9.1 Testing of Raw material
9.2 Intermediate product testing
9.3 Final product/Sack testing
APPENDIX-A Practical Log sheets
APPENDIX-B Various calculations
APPENDIX-C Glossary
REFERENCES

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 CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE ORGANIZATION
The need fort rained manpower or the skill development for Raffia
Industry has been highlighted in various forms from time to time. The
skill level and educational background of the work force determines the
productivity, quality& professional is of any Manufacturing Industry.
At present, the skill development in Plastics Woven Fabric or
Raffia Industry is taken care in the informal way, i.e. persons
acquire skill at the work-place (On the Job). There has been any
operative need to create a Formal Training set up to train & produce
Operators, Supervisors/Production Executives for Raffia Industry to
improve technical competence of the employed manpower, which
resulted in the establishment of TECHNICAL TRAINING
ANDRESEARCH CENTRE (TTRC) a division of LOHIA CORP.
LTD., CHAUBEYPUR, KANPUR (U.P).

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 FIG.1

[Link]. has envisioned establishing a state of art

Technology/Technical Training & Research Centre (TTRC) at Kanpur with prime
objective to develop skilled technical manpower for the Plastics Woven Fabric or Raffia
Industry. It would be the first of its kind initiative in India for the Raffia industry to
meet the consistent demand of trained operators & supervisors.

1.1.1 PRIME OBJECTIVE: -A. Hands on technical training to x pass

students for creating employability skills as Operators/Technicians for
Tapeline and Loom.

B. Act as a technical training and support Centre for the existing

Operators, Supervisors and Managers of the Raffia industry of Indian and
abroad.

C. Provide in-house training to technical staff, new recruits of

LOHIACORP. LTD. in the area of Tapeline, Circular loom, and Bag
conversion system.

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 D. Organize custom made/tailor made training courses for raffia industries of
India and abroad.

E. Project guidance to the new Entrepreneur.

The notion of the “Technical Training & Research Centre” has been
evolved out of the LOHIA CORP. LTD. think tank to integrate “2Ms,
Machinery &Manpower” to exclusively support the global Raffia
industry- A unique approach for the first time by a machine manufacturer.

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1.1.2 RESOURCES TO MEET OBJECTIVES: -
A. Well-developed academic facilities for conduct of theory & practical sessions on
technical facets of Plastic Woven Sack/Raffia Industry.

B. Dedicated residential campus with a professional management setup.

C. Library with rich collection of Text & reference books.

D. Management & Faculty, trainers of TTRC is drawn from the

experienced pool of Professionals, Academicians, Technocrats who see
experience & knowledge blended with able guidance of Group’s Chairman
Shri Raj Kumar Lohia will facilitate in developing TTRC as the
National Technical Training & Support center for raffia Industries in India.

E. State of Art Infrastructure and Workshop for practical training

&research.

F. Assistance in placement for successful candidates.

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 INTRODUCTION TO WOVEN SACK/RAFFIA
Weaving is one of the oldest skills known to humans, dating back to
prehistoric times. Clothes have given a distinct identity to almost all
civilizations of the world. India especially stands out in this regard. It has
glorious past in the production of textiles, the use of printing blocks in
India goes as far back as 3000 B.C., and some historians are of the view
that it may have been the original name of textile printing. The export of
printed fabric (from India) to China can be dated to the fourth century B.C.,
where they were much used and admired, and later imitated. The industry
in India grew at such a pace that it became major supplier of textiles to the
rest of the world. Evidence of Indian textile dread in ancient times has
been recorded from China in the east to Italy in the west. These textiles
were very expensive and used to bring enormous wealth to India.
Weaving is the process of making fabrics by interlacing the
threads lengthwise and width wise commonly known as “Warp” and
“Weft in a regular order. The operation is performed in a machine known
as “loom”. Two sets of yarns are interlaced, almost always at right
angles to each other. One called warp, runs lengthwise in the loom, the
other, called the filling weft or woof, runs crosswise. The raising and
lowering sequence of warp threads in various sequences gives much
possible weave structure.
Now a day different type of packages is used in the market such as
for cement, fertilizer, heavy duty goods etc.
1.1.3 SCENARIO OF WOVEN SACK INDUSTRIES IN INDIA: -
Woven sack Industry has started in late 1970’s with the help of Blown film
plant and Flat Loom which have been later switched over to cast film
line and high-speed circular weaving machine. This development of high-
speed circular weaving machine and cast film line came to our country
sometime around 1982. due to non-availability of sacking material from
jute industry because of low production of jute. The initial utilization of
woven fabric has gone to packing of fertilizer. The industry has
experienced good growth between 1983 to 1987. During this period, there
were about 520

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 Units been registered with Govt. Of India for producing woven
sacks for fertilizer industry. Around mid-1987 IDBI marked this
industry in the negative list as well as the same time jute reservation
bill have been introduced due to which there were about 100 odd units
went to closure. No doubt, the basic reason was demanding supply gap
due to non-development of new product as well as poor management of
machine, man& money. There were units having 100 kg per hour tape
output plant withonly4-6 looms instead of 12 looms. Similarly, units with
150 kg tape output plant with 10 looms instead of 12/16 looms which
created non viability of the project because the main machine i.e. tape
extrusion line was not balanced with appropriate number of looms.
Similarly, people have gone for low cast machine, which could not give
required production leading to payment of dues to financial institute.

Similarly, the manpower cost of various small units were not

properly planned due to which the overhead cost have increased which
lead to low realization. Regarding management of money initially,
people have planned the units with working capital of 30 days whereas
in our country no supplier gets payment before 60-90 days. Hence, due
to poor finance planning the various small and medium scale units come
to closure.
After going through the above problems in the industry we have
suggested financial institute about the various applications of woven sacks
industry and due to our regular follow up and display the people from
the cement industry came forward and accepted the woven fabric for
cement packaging. So, by 1990 people have really understood the
industry operation and profitability up to some extent and by 1991 the 2 nd
phase of expansion has started which continued up to 1995. At present,
the total number of units in operation is 750. Out of which 500 units are
in small scale, 215 units are in medium scale and 35 units are large
scales. Total polymer processed by woven sacks industry is around
4,43,000 MT.
Even on reaching to this stage of 750 woven sacks units, it is
heartening to know that majority of new units are still not aware about the
working and the profitability of woven sacks units. Therefore, I would like
To mention the key areas of woven sack industry which is a sunder.

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1. The viability of the project comes with a unit size of minimum 30 looms
which means payback of plant and machinery will come in 3 years where
as payback of the total project can be considered as 4/5years.

2. The conversion cost at the factory comes to around Rs15/-whereas from

the market one gets around Rs 22/- per kg. Therefore, profitability
becomesonlyRs.7/-perk go material processed.

3. The saving of electricity, wastage and overload cost becomes a key

factor for profitability venture.

4. To start with 30 looms, project the cost of the project comes to Rs. 6
Crores. Therefore, one has to loan for at least 25 crores project within 5
years duration if one wants to become more viable and profitable.

People who want to start in a smaller capacity in the beginning to

learn the technique of the trade. It is an advisable to start with minimum
12-16 looms project with a project cost of around 7 million fertilizer sacks
or 11 million cement sacks. But at the same time, one should keep
sufficient space for the expansion with second line within two years period.

No doubt, we have very large packaging material’s requirement for

the country of our size. Therefore, one should also plan a different product
mix to cater to different market segment and after getting sufficient
exposure, one can then venture to export market also.

A woven sack of woven fabric does not have limitation of marketing

all over India from any part of the country because transportation cost per
sacks is not very high. Therefore, people should consider India, as a market
not localized market.
One very important issue to be considered for woven sack
industry is Manpower training. Therefore, it is necessary for woven sack
industry to consider in-house training program enabling them to train
manpower on regular basis.

So, to summaries for successful industrialist, it is necessary to

concentrate on management of machine, man, money and reduce power
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cost, wastage cost and overhead cost.

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 CHAPTER-2
CLASSIFICATION OF WOVEN SACKS

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2.1 DIFFERENT TYPES OF WOVEN FABRIC/SACK

According to applications/shapes of woven fabric we can classify the

woven sack as following.

Tarpaulin

FIBC
Plain/normal
Packaging
Leno fabric
WOVE Cement/
NFABR Fertilizer
Antiskid
IC fabric

Ventilated

2.1.1 PLAIN/NORMAL FABRIC: -Plain/Normal fabrics are commonly

used in packaging of materials and covering, such as for packaging of
cement, fertilizer & for heavy duty goods FIBC (flexible intermediate
bulk) container is used.

2.1.2 LENO FABRIC: -Leno fabrics are used for packaging of vegetables
like, onion and potatoes etc. Leno bags are low mesh(4x6,6x4,4x4) fabrics.
2.1.3 ANTISKID FABRIC: - These types of fabrics are used where
we want long piles of bags for storage. Problem of slippage is not there if
we make a pile of many bags, because surface of these bags is rough due to
twisting of warp tapes.
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2.1.4 VENTILATED FABRIC: -Ventilated bags are special type
bags which are used for packaging of fruits and that things which in
which air passing is necessary. In ventilated bags there are alternative
groups of warp tapes supported by yarn.

2.2 APPLICATION WISE CLASSIFICATION OF

WOVEN BAGS AND THEIR SPECIFICATIONS AS PER
STANDARD

We can classify the woven sacks according their applications as cement

bags, fertilizer bags, and tarpaulin, FIBC and sugar bags. Their
specifications area also given below as per BIS standard.
1. CEMENT BAG
Bag material-Polypropylene
(PP)Type-Valve type without
lamination Printing-Mainly two
colors
Std. Cap Size Mesh Weight Tape Fabric GSM %
acit (l x (gm) Denier strength Of Elong
y w (kgf) fabric ation
)
BIS:1165 50(k 71x4 10x10 70(±6%) 900 87 82 20
2-2000 g) 8 (±6%)
cm.

2. FERTILIZER
Bag material-HDPE or PP with UV
Type - Reverse laminated
Printing-mainly 2 colors
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 Std. Cap Size Mesh Weight Tape Fabric GSM %
acit (l x (gm) Denier strength of Elong
y w (kgf) fabric ation
)
BIS:9755- 50(k 92x6 10x10 120- 1000 69-L 88(±6 20
2003 g) 1cm. 130(±6%) 87-w %)

3. FOODGRAIN
Bag material-HDPE or PP with UV
Type - Anti slip Weave
Printing- Single or Two Colors
Std. Cap Size Mesh Weight Tape Fabric GSM %
acit (l x (gm) Denier strength Of Elong
y w (kgf) fabric ation
)
BIS:1488 50(k 100 12X1 120- 1000 90 105 20
7-2000 g) X57 2 130(+6, -
cm. 3%)

4. SANDBAG
Bag material- PP with UV
Type- Bags are used with Tying Cord (PP rope)
Printing- Single or Two Colors
Std. Cap Size Mesh Weight Tape Fabric GSM %
acit (l x (gm) Denier strength Of Elong
y w) (kgf) fabric ation
BIS:1425 50(k 84X 10X1 55(±6%) 850 75 76 20
2-2003 g) 38c 0
m.

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5. FIBC
Bag material- PP with UV
Type-Various designs
a- Lifting arrangement
b- Top filling arrangement
c- Bottom discharge arrangement
Printing- Single or Two Colors
BIS STANDARDS FOR FIBC PRODUCTS:
IS14738(Part1):1999– Definitions related to FIBC
IS 14738 (Part2):1999–Specifications, requirements, certifications and
marking
IS14738(Part3):1999– Test Methods- Cyclic Top Lift Test
IS14738 (Part 4):1999 –Test Methods- Compression/Stacking
TestIS14738(Part5):1999– Test Methods- UV Resistance Test
Part Weight Fabric Tape Tape Strength %Elongation
of (GSM) mesh denier denier
FIBC warp weft
warp Weft warp weft
Body 160-230 12x14- 1300- 1300- 230 250 20 18
16x16 1600 2100
Base 180-240 13x13- 1300- 1400- 250 270 20 15
18x18 1800 2200
Top 100-140 12x12- 1000- 1000- 160 160 16 16
panel 14x14 1300 1300

Spout 100-120 10x10- 800- 800- 140 140 16 16

12x12 1000 1000

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6. SUGARBAG
Bag material-HDPE or PP with UV
Type- Bags are used with inner Liner
Of LDPE/LLDPE
Printing- Single or Two Colors
Std. Cap Size Mesh Weight Tape Fabric GSM %
acit (l x w (gm) Denier strength Of Elong
y ) (kgf) fabric ation
BIS:1496 50(k 90X 12X1 125(±6%) 1000 90 105 20
8-2001 g) 59c 2
m.

7. TARPAULIN
Bag material-HDPE
Type- Laminated on both sides,
Bonding of 2 fabrics by heat sealing
Std. LXW Mesh Fabric Tape Fabric %
cm. weight denier strength Elongation
(kgf)
BIS:7903- - - 200 (+5 600-750 100 20
2005 &-2.5%)

Common Sizes of Tarpaulin in market

Quality GSM Sizes in feet (in all GSM)
Light 95 06 x 04 07 x 05 06 x 06 08x06
Medium 120 09 x 06 09 x 09 12 x 09 12 x 12
Heavy 135 15 x 09 15 x 12 18 x 12 18 x 15
Super 60 21 x 15 21 x 18 24 x 12 24 x 15
Deluxe 70 24 x 16 24 x 18 24 x 21 27 x 16
Special 225 30 x 20 30 x 21 30 x 24 30 x 27
Ex. strong 250 30 x 30 36 x 30
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2.3 TYPES OF FIBC BAGS

FIBC bags can be classified on the basis of lifting method and on the
basis of loading/discharging of material from the bag.
2.3.1 ON THE BASIS OF LIFTING METHODS: -

On the basis of lifting of the bag we can classify the FIBC bags in
following four types.
(A) Cross corner loops
(B) Side seam loops
(C) Sleeve lift
(D) Hood lift
2.3.2 ON THE BASIS OF LOADING DISCHARGING METHODS: -

On the basis of loading and discharging of the material from bag, FIBC
can classify as follows.
(A) Discharging spout
(B) Iris protection
(C) Sewn cover
(D) Protection flap

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CHAPTER-3
POLYMERIC
MATERIALS
FOR
WOVENSACK

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Plastics are having a wide range of properties, due to which they are used
in the woven sack industries, the one and very important reason of
using plastics in woven sacks is that plastics have very low density than
other materials so, they are very light in weight & also process ability
of the plastics are very easy. Weaving of plastic tapes are also a easier
process than weaving of other materials. Following are some reasons due
to which plastic materials are used frequently in woven sack industries.

A) Light in weight.

B) Higher strength to weight ratio

C) Easy processability.

D) Low energy required for manufacturing.

E) Minimum post finishing required.

F) Corrosion Resistant.

G) Better aesthetics.

H) Wide color range.

Polyethylene, Polypropylene, Nylon, & Polyesters are commonly used raw

materials for making woven sacks. Polypropylene has emerged as a leader
in the woven sack industry because of its light weight, ease of extrusion
and orientation, higher strength and low cost. Following are some
materials used for woven sack.

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2.1 HIGH DENSITY POLYETHYLENE (HDPE)
High density polyethylene is a highly crystalline polymer, having very low
density after polypropylene. At one time ethylene for polymerization was
obtained largely from molasses, a byproduct of sugar industry. From
molasses may be obtained ethyl alcohol and this may be dehydrated to
yield ethylene. Today the bulk of ethylene is obtained from petroleum
sources. When supplies of natural or petroleum gas are available the
monomer is produced in high yield by high temperature cracking of ethane
and propane. Good yield of ethylene may also be obtained if the
gasoline (petrol) fraction from primary distillation of oils ‘cracked’.

FIG.3 HIGH DENSITY POLYETHYLENE

2.1.2 PROPERTIES OF HDPE: -High density polyethylene is a more

crystalline polymer than any other polyethylene as LDPE or LLDPE, it
has many advantageous properties which are very important for woven
sack industries, these are as following.

 Low density (0.940~0.965)

 Melting range (130-135)

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  Very good chemical resistance
 High tensile strength, stiffness and creep
 Better abrasion resistance and hardness
 Excellent low temperature toughness
 Good thermal stability
 Good insulation properties

2.2 POLYPROPYLENE(PP)

Polypropylene is a linear polymer, composed of repeating unit of

isopropane or propylene. propylene monomer is obtained mainly from
petroleum, natural gas, or from fractions of naphtha. By refining of oil and
gas production propane is obtained and by dehydration of propane
monomer of polypropylene, Propylene is obtained.

FIG.4 POLYPROPYLENE

2.2.1 PROPERTIEES OF POLYPROPYLENE: -Polypropylene has

lowest density to any other polymer due to this property pp has a broad
market in the field of woven sack due to very less weight. PP also has
many advantageous properties which are given below.
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 Very low density (0.890~0.905)
 Melting range(160-165C)
 Good surface hardness and scratch resistance
 Good dimensional stability
 Outstanding hinge properties
 Excellent electrical properties
 Good chemical resistance
 Steam sterilizable

2.3 PP VS HDPE

There are following differences between properties of HDPE and PP

for woven sacks.

 PP is having lowest density among all the known thermoplastics and

is5% lower than that of HDPE. Hence, the fabric made from it will
be lighter than that of HDPE fabric.
 PP has superior tenacity values.
 PP has a tertiary carbon atom on its back bone chain which is highly
liable. Hence, during processing at higher temperature and storage of
product in open, PP is more prone to degradation in comparison to
HDPE. This is very important point especially due to environmental
conditions in India. Use of UV stabilizer adds to cost.
 PP is stiffer than HDPE and hence tape produced from PP gets
easily fibrillated. To avoid this, anti-fibrillating agent based on
calcium carbonate (CaCo3) master batch has to be incorporated.

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 However, CaCo3 being abrasive material, increases wear and tear of the
screw and barrel. Hence PP extruder required more maintenance
compared to HDPE tape plant.

2.4 OTHER MATERIALS

Worldwide PP and HDPE consumption is more than any other polymeric

materials. About 98% market of woven sack or monofilament is covered
by these two very suitable materials for woven sack, Polypropylene and
High-density polyethylene. But nowadays in woven sack industries
some other materials are also used as Nylons, Polyesters etc.

2.5 ADDITIVES

Additives for plastics are materials which incorporated in to the monomer

or polymer to improve the processing parameters the performance of
the finished product. They are added in the basic resin in the form of the
masterbatches in small quantities. In case of woven sack mainly used
additives are Anti fibrillating agent, UV stabilizers, Acid neutralizers and
Lubricants.

Anti fibrillating agents are used to decrease the splitting tendency

of polypropylene and to give strength to it. Calcium carbonate is used
as Anti fibrillating agent, which is used in woven sack at the time of
tape manufacturing. Up to 10% of calcium carbonate is allowed, after its
limit strength decreases continuously, but now day industries are using
calcium carbonate up to 50% as a filler material which is very cost
effective. UV stabilizers are also used in case of polypropylene tapes from2
to 4%. UV stabilizers are used to protect the fabric from UV radiation in
sun light, and increase the life of woven fabric. These are
amines(hindered), benzoates, or carbon black.

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2.6 EFFECT OF POLYMER VARIABLES

Polymer variables as molecular weight, Molecular weight distribution

(MWD), Stereo regularity have significant effect on properties of tape.
2.6.1 MOLECULAR WEIGHT (MELT FLOW):- Molecular weight of
polypropylene has a significant effect on processing and tape
properties. Melt flow index is a indication of molecular weight. As
molecular weight increases (melt flow index decreases) tenacity
increases and % elongation decreases at a particular draw ratio.
However as molecular weight decreases, tenacity and % elongation
decreases.
Polypropylene grades of higher melt flow tend to process easier than
lower melt flow grades i.e., extrusion pressures are lower for a given
extrusion rate.
Repol H030SG has a melt flow index of 3 gm/10min by virtue of
which it gives an optimum balance of tape properties and processability.

2.6.2 MOLECULAR WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION (MWD): - Molecular

weight distribution is a function of catalyst system and polymerization
process. Molten PP is shear sensitive i.e., Apparent viscosity decreases as
applied pressure increases. PP with broad MWD is more shear sensitive
than the one with narrow MWD. Hence broad MWD PPs are easier to
process than one with narrow MWD. MWD is found to have little
effect on physical properties of PP.
Repol H030SG is a moderately broad molecular weight distribution
polymer. Hence it exhibits good processability.

2.6.3 STEREO REGULARITY: -Polypropylene has a methyl group

attached to every other carbon atom. Unless these methyl groups are
arranged in one position relative to the chain (isotactic arrangement),
PP cannot crystallize. The crystallinity is responsible for the strength,
stiffness and solvent resistance of PP. Higher the isotactic content,
better the physical properties of the tape. Xylene soluble determines the
percentage of lower molecular weight fraction in polypropylene.
Higher Xylene soluble will lead to decreased tenacity, increased
shrinkage, stickiness and weaving problems. On the other hand, lower
soluble will lead to tape splitting and drawbacks.
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CHAPTER-4
PROCESS STEPS
FOR “WOVEN
SACK”

26|Page
PROCESS FLOW CHART FOR WOVEN
SACK MANUFACTURING

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Plastics woven sacks are usually made out of Polypropylene/High density
polyethylene. These are either laminated, or supplied without lamination
depending upon end application. PP/HDPE woven sacks are most cost
effective and functionally superior alternative to traditional packaging.
PP/HDPE woven sacks are suitable for providing tail or made
specifications as required for various sectors of packaging.

For manufacturing of a woven sack following steps are used in

which some are optional, can be used depending upon the end application.

 Manufacturing of Tapes
 Weaving of Tapes
 Lamination
 Printing
 Conversion of fabric into bags

So, above steps are used to make a woven sack. Printing and
Lamination are the additional or we can say optional steps for a woven
sack. These are not necessary for all woven sacks. Lamination and
Printing is done depending on end application of the sacks.

4.1 MANUFACTURINGGOFTAPES

The tape used for woven sack manufacturing is generally produced by Cast
Film Extrusion. In this process, thermoplastics material (HDPE/PP) in the
form of small beads or granules (often called resin in the industries) is
gravity fed from a top mounted hopper in to the barrel of the extruder.
Additives such as colorants and UV stabilizers (in either liquid or pellet

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Form) are often used and can be mixed with granules of HDPE/PP prior to
feeding into hopper. Then, the material enters through the feed throat (an
opening near the rear of the barrel) and comes into contact with the screw.
The rotating screw forces the granules forward into the barrel which is
heated to the desired melt temperature of the molten plastic (Which can
range from 200C to 275C depending on the polymer). In most processes, a
heating profile is set for the barrel in which three or more temperature-
controlled heater zones gradually increase the temperature of the barrel
from the rear (where the plastic enters) to the front. This allows the plastic
granules to melt gradually as they are pushed through the barrel and lowers
the risk of overheating which may cause degradation in the polymer.
The melt flows through the screw flights & then passed through a T-die to
form a film.

This film is quenched in water bath and is conveyed by nip and top
roller to the Slitting unit where film thus formed, is slit in to the form of
strips/tapes. These strips are then oriented by stretching them under heated
condition a tape determined ratio. Finally, the tapes are wound on
cheese winders.

4.2 WEAVING OF TAPES

Weaving the tapes in to fabric in a process similar to weaving of textiles.

These flat tapes are then woven into circular fabric by circular weaving
machine. Thus, woven circular fabric is then cut into required
dimension. Thread from the bobbin in the circular loom’s creel stand is
woven into tubular cloth the weaving of raffia tapes into cloth is carried
out in circular looms, which produce circular fabric of desired width.

The process of weaving is Automatic and continuous in nature.

Numbers of circular looms are installed so as to match the effective output
of raffia tape manufacturing plant. The fabric produced by each loom is
continuously wound on rotating pipes of PVC.

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4.3 LAMINATION OF THE WOVEN FABRIC

This is an additional process depending on the end application of the

woven sacks. Lamination is the process in which premade or extruded
film is bonded onto the surface of the fabric, generally with thermal or
adhesive bonding. A typical lamination plant COATEC1600/90 has
following parts.

4.3.1 EXTRUDER UNIT: -The extruder unit has a universal barrier

screw for high output and excellent melt-quality, which is achieved by
controlled heating and cooling in barrel zones and proper mixing of melt
using static mixer before die. The extruder unit is mounted on the rigid
structure on top and moves perpendicularly to the machine axis. The
extruder unit is withdrawn outside from its working position whenever
the machine is stopped. The coating die has a profile for perfect flow
properties of theme lt with highly polished flow channels.

4.3.2 DIE AND CHILL ROLL: - The Laminator unit is equipped

with Corona Treater, a preheating roll and a chill roll. The inner
construction of chill roll ensures better temperature uniformity on its
surface. Internally cooled construction in pressure roller ensures that
temperature of rubber surface does not go high while coating. The chill
roll is mounted on a frame which can bead just in all three axes.

4.3.3 WEB REVERSING UNIT: -The tubular woven fabric is reversed

during running through a turn bar arrangement so as to coat on both sides
of the fabric tube in a single operation. This helps in saving of space,
energy and also gives flexibility of production.

The continuous rewind system uses an AC motor driven contact roller

for wrinkle free rewinding of the coated fabric. This unit has a
semiautomatic roll change over feature. For roll splicing, the web is
automatically cut with the help of a rod less cylinder and the beginning of
the new web is pasted into new core. The coated fabric roll is hydraulically
moved by unloading arms and delivered onto the ground.
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The winding shaft once removed, is prepared and loaded again with help
of loading arms on the unit.

FIG.5 TYPICAL LAMINATION PLANT (COATEC1600/90)

4.4 PRINTING OF BAGS

Printing of the fabric is also an optional process depending upon end

application. Printing of the fabric can be done after cutting and stitching of
bags or before it.
LOHIA CORP. LTD. have combined their expertise and experience
with Pelican Rotoflex Pvt. Ltd. to offer high speed Flexographic printing
press up to 6 colors for tubular PP/HDPE woven fabric films. Pelican is
established maker of flexographic and rotogravure printing machine for
flexible packaging substrate and has global presence with more than
300installations.

Flexography (often abbreviated to flexo) is a form of printing

process which utilizes a flexible relief plate. It is essentially a modern
version of letterpress which can be used for printing on almost any type of
substrate, including plastic, metallic films, cellophane, and paper. It is
widely used for printing on the non-porous substrates required for
various types of food packaging (it is also well suited for printing large
areas of solid color).
31|Page
 FIG.6 PRINTING PLANT (SOLO PRINT 4150 WVN 6 CL 850)

4.5 BAG CONVERSION SYSTEM

After lamination & printing, fabric goes to bag conversion system where
final shape of sacks is given. A bag conversion system consists of mainly
following steps.

4.5.1 CUTTING: - By cutting of fabric of desired length we can get

the sack. Cutting can be of two types, first process is called hot cutting
in which, heated cutter is used. This type of cutting is used in
unlaminated bags. And second one is called cold cutting in which, cold
cutter is used. This type of cutting is done into laminated bags.

4.5.2 FOLDING: - After cutting of the bag of desired length, bags are
conveyed to folding unit by conveyer assembly. There are two types of
folding one is single folded and other is double folded, depending on end
application.

4.5.3 STITCHING: -After folding stitching is done to close the

bottom portion of the bag. For stitching sewing machine is used and high
strength yarns are used for stitching. Stitching can be of any mesh (no. Of
stitches in 10 cm. length) depending upon end application. After stitching,
stacker unit is there which makes the stacking of final bags.
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CHAPTER-5

TAPELINE
(MANUFACTURING
OF TAPES)

33|Page
 LINE DIAGRAM OF LOREX MODEL

18 17 16 15 14 131211109876543a213b

LOREX TAPELINE
LOREXTAPELINE

1. Main Motor 9. T-Die/Coat hanger die

2. Gear Box 10. Quenching Tank

3. B. Component Dozing & Mixing Unit 11. Slitting Unit

A. Main Hopper 12. Holding Unit

4. Feeder Box (sleeve) 13. Edge trim Unit

5. Barrel 14. Hot Air Oven

6. screw 15. Stretching Unit

7. Screen and Breaker plate 16. Annealing Unit

8. Melt Pump 17. Winder Assembly

18. WCB (Waste Collection Box)

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 LINE DIAGRAM OF DUOTEC MODEL

20 19 18 17 16 1514131211109876543a213b

DUOTECTAPELINE
DUOTECTAPELINE

1. Main Motor 9. T-Die/Coat hanger die 18. Annealing Unit

[Link] [Link] 19. Winder Assembly

3.B. Component Dozing & Mixing Unit 11. Beta Gauge 20. WCB
A. Main Hopper 12. Slitting Unit

4. Feeder Box (Sleeve) 13. Holding Unit

5. Barrel 14. Edge Trim Unit

6. Screw 15. ISU (intermediate stretching unit)

7. Screen & Breaker plate 16. Hot Air Oven

8. Melt Pump 17. Stretching Unit

35|Page
DUOTEC TAPELINE

LOREX TAPELINE

36|Page
Stretched tapes are uniaxially oriented thermoplastic semifinished
products with a high width to thickness ratio. These tapes can be converted
into twines, ropes, woven and knitted fabrics. Arrange of applications
for stretched tapes have expanded considerably from woven sacks to
tarpaulins, primary carpet backing, industrial fabric, carpet yarn,
Ropes, geotextile fabrics, concreter in for cement etc.

5.1 MANUFACTURING OF TAPES

The principal stages involved in tape manufacturing are:

 Extrusion of film
 Quenching of film
 Slitting of film into tapes
 Orientation of tapes
 Annealing of tapes
 Winding of tapes

5.1.1 FILM EXTRUSION PROCESS: -Polyethylene or

polypropylene (main material used) can be formed into film by two
processes.
[Link] BLOWN FILM PROCESS: - The raw material is melted in
extruder and pumped through the circular die, where it is extruded as a
tube in vertical direction. The tube is inflected with air and blown to a
bubble. The bubble is then flattened by a collapsing frame before it is
passed through the slit between the nip rolls.
The recommended die gap is around 1.0 mm & blow up ratio
(bubble diameter/Die diameter) used is 1:1 which is much less than used
for normal high density films. This method is not practiced due to many
technical & practical reasons such as poor physical properties &
cooling efficiency in adequate gauge control, denier variation problems
etc.
[Link] CAST FILM PROCESS: - In this process, Plastic material is
extruded in the form of flat film through a slit die and then quenched in the
water bath but in blown film process, air is used for cooling hence,
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Cooling efficiency of blown film is poor than cast film. Blown film is
therefore stiffer and opaque than cast film. Blown film also requires higher
stretch ratio during orientation to achieve optimum physicals. Due to slight
orientation during the film blowing operation, transverse direction strength
is higher in blown film as compared to that of cast film and hence tendency
to fibrillate is less in blown film. The cast film is preferred due to better
gauge control and thereby producing tapes with minimum denier variation
and higher output.

PP/HDPE can be processed on conventional extruders with three

zone screws viz. feed, compression and metering. Barrier type of screws
are used for cast film extrusion, for PP barrier and HDPE barrier
screws are used for cast film extrusion of PP and HDPE respectively. The
output obtained from PP/HDPE depends upon the L/D ratio (Length to
Diameter Ratio). Higher the L/D ratio, higher will be the output per
revolution of screw. For good melt homogeneity and optimum output,
extruders with L/D ratios of 24:1upto30:1are preferred, whilst
compression ratios between 3.0 - 3.5 should be used. Screw diameters
range from 65 upwards.
The type of die use misreferred to as a coat hanger die/T-die which
provides a good stream lined flow.

FIG.7(A)MANI FOLD T-DIE (B) DIFFERENT TYPES OF DIES

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5.1.2 QUENCHING OF THE FILM: - The polymer melt is partly
oriented during extrusion through a die. To prevent melt relaxation the
melt is quenched rapidly after exiting from the die. Fast cooling promotes
a finer crystalline structure of polymer in the film which in turn improves
the performance of film during the stretching operation, apart from
rendering better physicals.

In cast film, the cooling is done by quenching the film in a water

tank. The film from the die is directly taken into the tank filled with water.
film quality and performance of the resulting tapes mainly depend on the
quenching conditions. During quenching, the significant parameters which
control the physicals of the tapes are die-water distance (air gap) and
quench water temperature.

Operation with a lower air gap will reduce the time for melt
relaxation and result in films, with higher strength. A very fast rate of
quench will result in a very fine crystal structure in the film, which will
give higher clarity and strength, than a film which is quenched at slower
rates. To achieve optimum strength and elongation, air gap in PP is 30-
40mm at the temperature 18-45C of water bath and in HDPE air gap is
recommended between 20 – 30 mm at the temperature 20 – 30 C.

After quenching film is conveyed further by nip roll and a top roller,
an air knife is also used below the top roll to make the surface of the film
free from water. After top roller an Aspiration unit which is optional is
sometimes used to suck remaining water from the film surface.

FIG.8 QUENCH TANK

Type equation here .
5.1.3 SLITTING OF FILM INTO TAPES:- Both flat and tubular films
after quenching are slit into tapes of specific width according to the end
43|Page
use requirement. The slitting tools generally used are industrial or surgical
blades with sharp edges. Blunt blades produce poor cuts, which leads to
problems in drawing, winding and weaving of tapes. The blades are
equally placed on a bar using spacers and are set at an angle of 30 to 60
degree within the film. Initial tape width is adjusted by selecting
appropriate spacer.
Spacer width of 5-6.2 mm is recommended for cast film line and 6-8
mm for blown film line. After slitting unit, a two godet holding unit is
there to give proper tension to the tapes, then a small edge trim unit is used
to take the side tapes which are not uniform in thickness and width,
there is a cutter in this unit by which unwanted tape is cut into pieces and
goes to main hopper by recycling pipe and recycling hopper and
reprocessed.

5.1.4 ORIENTATION OF TAPES: - Partially crystalline thermoplastics,

namely e.g. Polyethylene (HDPE) and polypropylene (PP) are ideal
materials for making oriented products. In a stretching process, the
macromolecules are given an orientation in the direction of draw, called
machine direction (mono axially orientation). The orienting ability of
polymer is determined by its spherules structure. When tension is applied,
amorphous regions get oriented first between folded lamellae and
spherules boundaries. During drawing or stretching, energy conversion
takes place. The oriented structure is heated nearly to its melting
temperature to reduce amorphous region tension and subsequent shrinkage
of tapes is avoided.

Orientation is accomplished by stretching the tapes while passing

them through a hot air oven or a hot plate, maintained at the
temperature just below the melting temperature of the polymer. Stretching
of the tapes is done by passing them over two sets of rollers, one is
before oven and other is after oven called holding and stretching unit
respectively, operating at different speeds. Ratio of speed of second set
of rollers (S2), operating at high speed, to that of first set (S1) is termed
as stretch ratio (SR). Stretch ratio is recommended for tape is 5 to 7.
Stretching of tapes in presence of heating media imparts in
molecular/chain orientation and thus greatly increases the mechanical
strength of tapes.
Either hot plate or hot air oven is used for heating media during
orientation.
44|Page
[Link] HOT AIR OVEN: - Tapes from the first set of godets (S1) are
taken through an oven on to the second godet rollers (S2). Hot air is blown
in the oven, counter current to the movement of tapes, and re-circulated
through a blower - heater system at linear flow rate of 10-30 meter/sec.
Higher flowrate of circulating air is preferred as it enables faster and
more uniform heating of the tapes and lower the risk of leaving some
areas in tapes undrawn or under drawn. Once the required tape
properties are obtained, the orientation temperature and the stretch ratio
are kept constant and checked randomly throughout the process.

In hot air oven system, uniform heating of the tapes takes place,
which ensures better tape properties compared to the Hot plate system. The
length of this unit is around 6 meters and its width is slightly more than
that of the godet rolls, for all the tapes to traverse freely. A good
temperature control system with accuracy of at least ±5°C is required. Hot
air circulation in the oven should be adequately controlled to avoid
excessive turbulence.

[Link] HOT PLATE: - Hot plates are heated by electrical heaters or

by circulating hot oil. In this system, tapes are in close contact with the
hot surface while they are oriented. Some processors prefer hot plate oven
for HDPE processing due to better strength & higher filler loading.

5.1.5 ANNEALING OF TAPES: -Drawn tapes are "annealed"

immediately after stretching operation. This helps to minimize tape
shrinkage which may occur as a result of residual stresses in the
oriented tapes. Annealing is done by heating the stretched tapes while
they are passing over from second godet rollers to third godet rollers;
the latter being maintained at a slightly lower speed (5% less) than the
former. The annealing ratio is a function of second and third godet
rollers. The annealing temperature is slightly lower (5-10°C) than the
orientation temperature, then there is two sets of rollers which are cool.
For PP, it is between 125 – 145°C, while for HDPE it is between 100-
110°C. Alternatively, tapes can be annealed by using hot godet rolls,
which are usually heated electrically or by circulating hot oil. Relaxation
takes place over a short gap (the distance between the rolls).

45|Page
5.1.6 WINDING OF TAPES: - Generally speaking, the winding section
in woven sack industry has been a concern as well as neglect. Concern
because the loom dynamics and fabric quality depend a lot on the condition
of the bobbin, the neglect because even a bad bobbin works on the loom.
The last few years have seen a significant rise in the manufacturer’s
awareness of the winding section.
A winder assembly does three functions:
 To revolve the bobbin such that it takes up the tape at a speed in which
the extruder produces it the motor does this job.
 To lay the tape uniformly across the bobbin, this is achieved by the
motion of the camshaft-slider-thread guide assemble.
 To control the winding tension throughout the bobbin diameter. This is
achieved by the dancing arm mechanism in inverter winders and the
magnetic coupling mechanism in the magnetic type winders.

Following are some terms used in winding:

(a) LINE SPEED: -The speed at which tape is produced by the extruder
expressed in meters per minute.
(b) WINDING RATE: - The surface speed of the tape at the diameter
of winding. This is variously termed as winding speed, wind rate, take
up speed etc.
(c) CROSS RATIO: -the number of spindle rotation in one complete cycle
of tape transverse, angle at which each crossing winds at bobbin. For a
mechanical type winder cross ratio is 11.24 and 13.30 for a auto type
winder.
(d) TRAVERSE LENGTH: -Length at which tapes are wound on the
cheese pipe or bobbin.

How the winding speed is accommodated when the extruder is

producing tape at a constant line speed?

The tape pulls at the motor as the diameter increases, and thus puts an
increased load, which in turn reduces the motor speed. This reduction
in motor rpm brings down the winding rate. Inverter winders increase the
load on the motor by the dancer mechanism thus attaining a fairly
constant winding rate. In magnetic winders, as motor load increases, the

46|Page
magnetic clutch speed, which is a non-positive drive, keep slipping behind
the motor speed. Hence, in practice, the increase in winding rate is never
realized even through the diameter builds up.

FIG.9WINDERASSEMBLY

5.2 EFFECT OF PROCESSING VARIABLES ON

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF TAPES

5.2.1 DRAW/STRETCH RATIO: - As draw ratio increases, tenacity

increases and % elongation decreases. Higher draw ratio increases the
alignment of the polymer molecules.

A draw ratio between 5:1 to 7:1 is optimum for obtaining a tape with
good combination of mechanical properties, non-fibrillating tendency and
curl free tapes. The draw ratio also determines initial cross-section of
the slit strip/mono filament which is required for obtaining final width
of the tape or size of mono filament.

5.2.2 TEMPERATURE: - Extrusion temperature i.e. the temperature

profile on the extruder affects the melt temperature and extruder output.

Quench temperature is also another important variable as the rate of

cooling has a significant effect on the strength and characteristics of the
product. In the stretched tape process, rapid cooling with low quench
temperature produces a film of higher crystallinity which results in poor
orientation. Also the tendency to fibrillate is less.

47|Page
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON TAPE PROPERTIES: -

FIG.10 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON SHRINKAGE

As in above graph, as orientation temperature is increased, the residual

shrinkage decreases.

FIG.11 EFFECT OF ORIENTATION TEMPERATURE ON TENACITY

NOTE: - As the orientation temperature increases, tenacity increases and %

elongation remains relatively constant. Eventually a temperature is
reached where tenacity decreases rapidly, with corresponding increase
in %elongation.

5.3 NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN EXTRUSION SYSTEM

FOR TAPE LINE

48|Page
5.3.1 BACKGROUND: - the technology to produce polyolefin tapes
is known since almost 30 years. Instead of occasional deviations, the
basic principle has remained the same. In co-operation with raw
material producers and the machine manufacturers have improved the
aggregates and line concepts to such a degree that a new line concept has
emerged.

5.3.2 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS: -Since the first line was introduced,

extrusion technology has advanced considerably, as far as cost
effectiveness and production quality is concerned. The cost
effectiveness has been improved by:

 Increasing the specific output capacity

 Better utilization of energy
 Improved production stability
 Reduction of film thickness variation
 Recycling of scrap generated upto20%

All the components of the tape line have contributed to these

improvements. However, the development in the extrusion system has the
highest impact on the reduction in cost/kg of output of tapelines. This has
been mainly possible due to the fact that the consumption of raw material
could be reduced without increasing energy and investment costs.

Currently, the conventional extruders used in tape extrusion lines can

be classified in regard to their feed bushing as:
(a) Grooved bush
(b) Plain bush
Advantages and disadvantages of extruders with smooth and with
grooved bushings areas follows.
(a) GROOVE BUSHING: -
Typical applications for this kind of extruder are:
49|Page
 (+) Extrusion of different polyolefins (for example HDPE and PP) with
one screw.
 (+) High through put on small extruders.
 (+) Extrusion of polymers with high viscosity.
 (+) Process with high pressure drops at the die(500bar).
 (-) Reduced life time caused by wear (because of high pressure level)
 (-) Not capable of processing high contents of film flakes.
(b)SMOOTH BUSHING: -

This kind of extruder is standard extruder, if a producer is processing only

one type of polymer with medium or low viscosity. The pressure drop
at the die should not exceed 200-250 bar in combination with a smooth
feeding.

 (+) Good homogenization and mixing

 (+) Long lifetime
 (-) Low specific through put
 (-) Through put depending upon backpressure
With the existing technology as the backdrop let us evaluate the new
technology. A break-up of the cost of production for woven sacks indicates
the following.
 Raw material 82%
 Interest 9%
 Power 4%
 Labour 3%
 Other heads 2%
Hence, it is clear that any reduction in the raw material cost will have
major effect on the product cost/profit ability. The following attributes
are important for improvement in extrusion system.

 Improving of the thickness tolerance of the unstretched film.

 Improving of the efficiency of the line
50|Page
 Processing of high contents of shredded tapes (startup waste without
influencing the tape properties)

The above will lead t cost reduction of raw material. To fulfil all these
requirements an extrusion system, which gives more flexibility than
standard extruders but at the same level of investment cost is required.

The extrusion system consists mainly of a 27 L/D long adiabatically

functioning extruder in conjunction with a gear pump. The pump allows
the extruder to work at a lower pressure level, there for allowing
optimization of the screw geometry for process steps feeding, melting and
homogenizing and making it possible to achieve a low melt
temperature coupled with excellent temperature constancy even at a high
screw speed.

51|Page
CHAPTER-6

WEAVING
TECHNOLOGY
(WEAVING OF
TAPES)

52|Page
CIRCULAR WEAVING MACHINE/LOOM
(LSL-6)

FIG.12 LSL-6 (6 SHUTTLES)

53|Page
Weaving is one of the oldest skills known to humans, dating back to
prehistoric times. Clothes have given a distinct identity to almost all
civilizations of the world. India especially stands out in this regard. It has
glorious past in the production of textiles, the use of printing blocks in
India goes as far back as 3000 B.C., and some historians are of the view
that it may have been the original name of textile printing. The export of
printed fabric (from India) to China can be dated to the fourth century B.C.,
where they were much used and admired, and later imitated. The industry
in India grew at such a pace that it became major supplier of textiles to the
rest of the world. Evidence of Indian textile dread in ancient times has
been recorded from China in the east to Italy in the west. These textiles
were very expensive and used to bring enormous wealth to India (as
Pliny, historian of ancient Rome, complains in the writings).

Weaving is the process of making fabrics by interlacing the

threads lengthwise and width wise commonly known as “warp” and
“weft in a regular order. The operation is performed in a machine known
as “loom”. Two sets of yarns are interlaced, almost always at right
angles to each other. One called warp, runs lengthwise in the loom, the
other, called the filling weft or woof, runs crosswise. The raising and
lowering sequence of warp threads in various sequences gives much
possible weave structure.

6.1 HISTORY OF WEAVING

Weaving is the process of formation of fabric with interlacement of two or

more sets of yarn or tapes using a stable machine called loom. Human
beings have started using the woven fabrics since the dawn of the history.
 Egyptians made fabric some 6000 years ago.
 Silk was one of the most important products in China 4000 years ago.

54|Page
 In the third century shading mechanism introduced in Europe.
 In 12th century invention of first wooden hand loom in England.
 In 1733 shuttle invented by John Key but that is hand operated.
 In 1785 invention of power loom.
 In early 1800 power loom operated by steam power.
 In 1895 loom operated by electric engines.
 At beginning of 1930, each weaving machine driven or operated by
individually electric motor.
 This loom drive concept has remained in use until the present.
 Continuous weft insertion on circular loom was proposed before the
end of the 19th century.
 After mid. 90 multiphases circular weaving machines were invented.
 In India too, there existed some of the finest hand-woven fabrics. There
are references in Tamil literature, that the great poet, Tiruvallur was a
hand loom weaver.

6.2 THE BASIC PRINCIPLE OF WEAVING

Weaving consists of making textile from yarn. The yarn can be made
of, such as wool, cotton, and silk, polymers or glass fibers. In the
weaving process the threads are stretched parallel on the weaving
machine. These stretched threads are known as warp threads (wound on
the cheese pipe or warp beam). Other threads, known historically as the
woof or weft but now referred to as the filling, are inserted one by one
through a gap (the shed) in the warp threads, at right angles to them. As
each filling thread is inserted it is pressed up against the previous ones,
in a process known as beating up. The basic principle has remained
unchanged throughout the centuries. A textile is formed by weaving the
filling threads one by one between the warp threads.

55|Page
 In the loom the warp threads are led through eyes in metal rods known as
heddles, one for each thread. Alternate heddles are joined together in a
frame. There are at least two frames, together making up the harness. The
purpose of harness is to move the warp threads up and down. By
moving one frame up and other down, an opening (the shed) is formed in
the warp threads, through which the filling thread is inserted. The frames
are then moved in possible directions, binding the filling thread into
warp. Each time a filling thread is inserted, it is pressed against the
previous ones by a reed. The reed is a large, circular frame consisting of
fine iron wires that keep the warp threads parallel to one another.

FIG.13 PRINCIPLE OF WEAVING

In a conventional loom, the filling threads are inserted by a flying shuttle.

In modern weaving machines, however, they are inserted by rapier
(gripper), air jet, water jet or projectile technology. The type of weaving
machine, the technology used and the filling threads are determined by the
type of textile to be produced. The Picanol group manufacturers air jet and
rapier weaving machines exclusively.

6.3 CLASSIFICATION OF LOOM

56|Page
 6.3.1 BASED ON NUMBER OF PHASES:-

WEAVING
MACHINES

SINGLEPHASE MULTI
PHASE
SHUTTL SHUTTLE WEFTWAVE
E LESS WARP
CIRCUL
WAVE
AUTOMATICLOOM PROJEC AR
HAND POWERLOOM RAP JET
LOOM TILE IER
FLAT
WATER/AIRJET
SINGLEPROJCTILEBILATERALPICKING
RIGIDRAPIERSINGLE/DOUBLE

FIG.14
6.3.2 BASED ON WEFT INSERTION SYSTEM:-

LOOMS

SHUTTLE SHUTTLELESSLOOM
LOOM

AUTOMATIC
NON-AUTOMATICLOOMS
PROJECTI WATER
LS RAPIER AIRJET
OOM LE JET

FIG.15

57|Page
6.3.1 SINGLE PHASE WEAVING LOOM (FIRST GENERATION): -
There is sequence in primary motion of weaving and each of them repeated
once in each weaving cycle. Or one shed is opened during one cycle. The
weft insertion, which is principle weaving operation, takes place only
at discrete intervals.

[Link] SHUTTLE LOOMS: -Weft yarn insert through a instrument

called shuttle. The shuttle loom is oldest type of weaving loom which uses
a shuttle which contains a bobbin of filling yarn or tape that appears
through a hole situated in the side. The shuttle is batted across the loom
and during this process, it leaves a trail of the filling at the rate of about
110 to 225 peaks per minute(ppm). Although very effective and versatile,
shuttle looms are low and noisy. Also, the shuttle sometimes
Leads to abrasion on the warp tapes and at other times causes warp breaks.
As a result, the machine has to be stopped for tying the broken tapes.
Shuttle loom is three types:

(1) HAND LOOM: - Every operation is performed manually.

(2) POWER LOOM:-(nonautomatic) The shuttle is changed by hand.
(3) AUTOMATIC LOOM: -A power driven loom on which the shuttles
are changed automatically.

[Link] SHUTTLE LESS LOOM: - Many kinds of shuttle less looms are
used for weaving such as projectile looms, water jet looms, or air jet looms
etc.
(1) PROJECTILE LOOM: - A weaving machine in which the weft
thread is gripped by jaw(s) fitted in a projectile, which is then propelled
through the shed. It has a small hook like device that grips the end of
the filling tape. It is sometimes called missile loom as the picking action is
done by a series of small bullet like projectiles which hold the weft tape
and carry it through the shed and then return empty. All the filling tapes
are inserted from same side of the loom.

(2) RAPIER LOOM: -Rapier looms are machines in which the mean so
scarring the weft through the shed is fixed in the end of a rigid rod or in a
flexible ribbon, this being positively driven. A rapier machine may have a
rapier to carry the weft across the full width or a single rapier operating

58|Page
Bilaterally with a centrally located bilateral weft supply or two rapiers
operating opposite sides of the machines.

(3) WATER JET LOOM: - in water jet loom, a water jet is propelled
across the shed with the force that takes the filling tape to the other
side. In it a premeasured length of weft tape is carried across the loom by a
jet of water. These looms are very fast with speeds upto 600 PPM and very
low noise.

(4) AIR JET LOOMS: -In air jet loom, a jet of air is projected across
the shed with the force, that takes the filling tape to other side i.e., a jet of
air is used to propel the weft tape through the shed at speeds of upto 600
PPM. Uniform weft tapes are needed to make fabrics on this loom.

6.3.2 MULTIPHASE WEAVING LOOM (SECOND

GENERATON): - Further increase in production rate of woven fabric
requires new technologies such as multiphase weaving. In the filling
direction shade wave principle, a number of shed in weft direction are open
subsequently for insertion of weft. Shed are arranged in wave like form one
side to another so that weft carrier lids into each shed.

As the weft carrier enters one portion of the warp, the shed is
formed, as the carrier leave that area the shed changes. As a result, at any
moment, there are several shuttles in the shed, each carrying a different
tape.

FIG.16
59|Page
[Link] WARP WAVE: - In a warp wave there are many warp tapes
are consisted, which are locked by many filling tapes at every picking.
Warp wave is formed by the shed process.

[Link] FILLING WAVE: - The multiphase loom can form many

different sheds at different places, thereby enabling insertion of number
of filling tapes, one behind the other.
Weaving is the major method of fabric construction. In weaving two
or more set of tapes at right angle are interlaced to each other. Tape that is
vertical or parallel to fabric edge is warp tape and tape that are
horizontal to fabric edge is weft tape. Weaving process is carried out on
a loom. On the conventional loom, the length wise tape (warp tape) wound
on a warp beam and conveyed to a cloth roll, each of them are placed at
each of the loom.

(a) CIRCULAR LOOMS: - These looms are particularly used for

making tubular fabrics. A shuttle device in it circulates the weft in a
shed formed around the machine. A circular loom is primarily used for
bagging material.
 In a circular loom warp is circular, and there are continuously
circulating shuttles running around the periphery in a wave or ripple
shed.
 Shuttles cannot leave the shade and have a continuous motion.
 Shuttles are driven electro magnetically and each shuttle runs in its own
shed.
 Warps are divided into two segments and form the shed with smal l
heddle frames or wires.
 The beat up is performed by needle gears.

(b) FLAT LOOMS: - These looms are particularly used for making flat
looms. There is sheds are in flat manner. Tarpaulin is made by this flat
loom.
Weaving is done by two methods, either on flat looms or by using
circular looms. Circular looms are preferred over flat looms due to the
following advantages.
 Higher output of fabric.
 Better retention of mechanical properties.

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 Sack output is higher because of only one side stitching.
 Saving up to20-25%due to superior coverage, as the tape do not get
twisted.

FIG.17 CIRCULAR WEAVING PROCESS

5.4 MECHANISM AND FUNCTIONOF CIRCULAR

WEAVING MACHINE

6.4.1 CREEL ASSEMBLY: -Creel is a steel pipe construction with creel

stands, cross connections, spindles and bobbin adaptors. Two no’s creel are
used at the either side of the machine to hold warp bobbins. It feeds
individual warp tapes to the inlet mechanism.

FIG.18 CREEL ASSEMBLY

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6.4.2 WARP IN FEED SYSTEM: - Consisting of inlet and intermediate
roller, comb assembly insures smooth delivery of individual tape to the
compensator.

FIG.19

6.4.3 MAIN DRIVE MECHANISM: -Function of main drive mechanism

is to give rotary motion to the cam with the help of main motor and pulleys
at desired speed. The system consists of main motor, v-belt and step down
pulleys/gearbox.

FIG.20 (A) CAM, (B) MOTOR

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 FIG.21 COMPENSATORS AND EARTHING RING

6.4.5 SHEDDING MECHANISM: -Shedding mechanism moves the

warp tapes up and down and allows the shuttle to pass in between the warp
tapes. Following are some assemblies of the shedding mechanism.
 Jockey lever assembly
 Heddle belt assembly
 Cam
In the shedding mechanism, cam provides oscillating motion to swinging
lever. Heddle belts are attached with the end of the swinging lever with the
connecting plate and connecting strip. Swinging lever gives reciprocating
motion to the heddle belts.

FIG.22 (A) JOCKEY LEVER, (B) HEDDLE BELT

6.4.6 REED RING ASSEMBLY: - Reed ring having circular tape red
tracks and two radial tracks for movement of the shuttle. The movement of
the shuttles in the reed ring is controlled by pusher and stopper block on
cam.

FIG.23

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6.4.7 SHUTTLE ASSEMBLY: - Shuttle slay the weft tapes in the fabric.

FIG.24
6.4.8 WEFT BREAK SENSOR: - Magnetic sensor is used to stop the
machine at the time of weft tape breakage or run off and helps in
wastage reduction.

FIG.25MAGNETICSENSOR

6.4.9 SPREADING MECHANISM: -Spreading mechanism is having

round holder as well as spreader assembly. This mechanism is used to
guide the fabric between take up roller weaving ring. It also prevents
crease formation in the fabric upto its delivery to the take up roller.

6.4.10 CWM CONTROLLER: -The CWM controllers control the speed

of the haul off. It facilitates feeding of desired mesh within the machine
capacity range. It is not possible in case of mechanical gearing. Changing
of mesh is also easy as compare to mechanical system.

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6.4.11 GUSSETING DEVICE: - It is used in the machine to make gusset
(inside fold) on both side of tubular fabric. The gusset helps in providing a
box type construction to the bag.

FIG.27 GUSSETING MECHANISM

6.4.12 TAKE-UP MECHANISM: -Take-up mechanism has one take-up

roller, one pressure roller and a gear box assembly. In case of mechanical
machine, take up roller driven by take up gear box fitted in the base frame
and device to take-up rollers is given by chain sprocket system. In case of
electronic loom, take-up roller is driven by haul of gear box fitted with
motor which is synchronized and controlled by CWM controller. Big
machine has to emery rollers and one guide roller.

FIG.28

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6.4.13 SLITTING DEVICES: - Ultrasonic/thermal slitting devices with
adjustable control designed for longitudinal cutting of the tubular
fabric cloth from the center/side edge.
6.4.14 FABRIC WINDER ASSEMBLY: - Cloth winder is designed for
winding the tubular/flat cloth on cores. There are three types of cloth
winders.
 Surface winder
 Magazine winder
 Rocking arm winder

6.4.15 DEVICES FOR SURFACE WINDER: - Following three types of

drives are used for surface winder.

 TMG (magnet type)

 Torque motor (dimmer controlled)
 With load cell system (normal induction motor with gearbox)

FIG.29 (A) SURFACE WINDER WITH LOAD CELL, (B) MAGAZINE

WINDER, (C) ROCKING ARM WINDER

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6.5 WEAVING PROCESS
In general, weaving involves using a loom to interlace two sets of
threads at right angles to each other, the warp which runs longitudinally
and the weft that crosses it. One warp thread is called an end and one
weft thread is called a pick. The warp threads are held to stand in parallel
to each other, typically in a loom. There are many types of looms.
Weaving can be summarized as a repetition of these three actions, also
called primary motion of the loom.

6.5.1 PRIMARY MOTION: -

(A) SHEDING: - Where the ends are separated by raising or lowering held
frames (heddles) to form a clear space where the pick can pass, or
providing the path for weft tape. This is done by raising and lowering of
frame.
Shading mechanism:
CREEL CREEL EYELET
SMALL COMB MAX DRAG ROLLER STEEL
ROLLER EYELET BOW COMPENSATOR
HEDDLEBELT REED RING WEAVING RING
FIG.30 THREAD METHODOLOGY
Shed geometry and shed characteristics require a great consideration
and precision because it is the zone in which the tapes are converted into
fabric. In circular loom shedding mechanism is a Cam or Tappet type.
Shed angle should not be exceeding 25 degrees with very poor warp. The
heddle shaft motion is operated by cam or eccentrics. The motive cam
converts the rotary motion of the main shaft of the weaving machine
into the reciprocating motion of the heddle frame. In circular loom cam

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Shedding mechanism is positive type in which heddle shaft are both raised
and lowered by the cam system of the shedding mechanism.

FIG.31
(B) PICKING: -The method of passing the weft threads which
traverses across the fabric through shed is called picking. The inverted
weft is known as pick. It is also called weft insertion motion. This
motion follows the shedding motion. In circular loom filling tape is
inserted by means of a shuttle. As the harnesses raise the heddle or
held, which raise the warp tape, the shed is created. The filling tape is
inserted through the shed by a small carrier device called a shuttle. the
shuttle is normally pointed at each end to allow passage through the
shed. In a traditional shuttle loom, the filling tape is wound onto a quill,
which in turn is mounted in the shuttle. The filling tape emerges through a
hole in the shuttle as it moves across the loom. A single crossing of the
shuttle from one side of the loom to the other is known as a pick.

FIG.32
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(C) BEATING UP: - As the shuttle moves across the loom laying
down the fill tape, it also passes through openings in another frame
called reed (which resembles a comb). With each picking operation, the
reed presses or battens each filling tape against the portion of the fabric
that has already been formed. The point where the fabric is formed is
called the fell.

The main function of beat up mechanism is the reciprocating motion

of reed. During weaving reed performs the following functions:
(1) It holds the warp end at given distance thus deter mine the warp density
and fabric width.
(2) It guides the weft carrier across the warp.

(3) The most important function of reed is to beat up every inserted

weft thread to the fabric fell.

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FIG.33 BEATING UP PROCESS

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6.5.2 SECONDARY MOTION:-Secondary motions of the loom are the
following:
(A) LET OFF MOTION: -Where the warp is let off the warp creel at
a regulated speed to make the filling even and of the required design.
The motion which delivers warp in the weaving area at the required rate
and at a suitable constant tension by winding it from a flanged beam called
let off motion. Means the motion that release the warp is called let off
motion.

FIG.34
(B) TAKE UP MOTION & WIND-UP MOTION: -The motion
which withdrawals fabric from the weaving area, at the constant rate that
will give the required spacing and winds the fabric onto a roller is
called take up motion. This motion withdraws fabric from weaving area
at constant rate that will give the required pick spacing and then wind it on
to a roller.

The main part of the mechanism is the take up rollers, which draws
the cloth at the regular rate, and the number of picks per inch decides this
rate. The take up roller is covered with emery cloth or harder rubber
depending upon type of cloth woven. The drive to take up roller is by a
train of gear wheels put into motion directly from the main shaft.
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 FIG.35
6.5.3 TERTIARY MOTION: - The tertiary motion of the loom are the
stop motions: to stop the loom in the event of a thread break. The two main
stop motions are following.
(A) WARP STOP MOTION: -A mechanism to stop the loom
automatically if a warp thread breaks. The most common type is
mechanically operated.

The principle of operation of a warp stop-motion is as follows. A

metal vane is fitted on each warp thread. Above the hole for the thread
in the vanes there is a longitudinal slot through which two racks pass.
The outer rack is fixed and inner is moveable. The inner rack performs
reciprocating motion inside the fixed rack. If a thread breaks, the vane
drops and by falling between teeth of the racks, stops the motion of the
moveable rack which causes the loom to shut down. Warp stop motion also
exist that operate electromagnetically, in this case the fall ofa vane when
warp thread breaks close an electrical circuit and stops the loom. These
mechanisms free the weaver from the need to watch for warp
breakages, which is important when operating several automatic
machines simultaneously, and prevent the occurrence of defects in the
fabric.

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 The warp stop motion stops the loom when warp thread breaks
during weaving. The warp mechanism will stop the loom if the shuttle gets
trapped between the top and bottom layers of the shed. It thus prevents
excessive damage to the warp threads, reed wires and shuttles. This
warp stops motion function through compensator.

(B) WEFT STOPS MOTION: - The object of weft stop motion is to stop
the loom when a weft thread breaks or gets exhausted. This motion
helps to avoid cracks in a fabric. There are two types of sensor which work
during weft stop that are

(1) MAGNETIC SENSOR: - Whenever weft thread or tape break and

magnet which are in boom return to back and sensor sense that and stopped
the machine.

(2) COLOR SENSOR: - Whenever weft packet or bobbin remain to empty

then sensor sense its black color and stopped the machine immediately.

FIG.36 (A) COLOR SENSOR (B) MAGNETIC SENSOR

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 CHAPTER-7

BAG CONVERSION
SYSTEM (BCS)

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BAG CONVERSION SYSTEM/MACHINE
(BCS 850/40)

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Materials such as fabric, plastic film, foil and cloth often are produced in
long, continuous sheets that are rolled up for more-convenient handling
and transportation. These rolls of material vary significantly in size and
weight- ranging from 2 to 200 in. wide and weighing as much as several
tons. The converting machine takes these continuous film of thin, flat
materials- known as fabric- threads them through processing machines
(such as folding and slitting machines) and convert or changes the fabric
of material into an intermediate form or final product. For example,
converters equipment might take a fabric of plastic cut it into lengths and
fuse their edges, thus converting it into plastic bags. This activity is known
as bag converting system.

FIG.38 PARTS OF BCS MACHINE

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7.1 BCS MACHINE SPECIFICATION DETAILS

DISCRIPTION MINIMUM MAXIMUM LIMIT

LIMIT
Capacity 12 40bags/min.
Length(mm) 500 1350
Width(mm) 300 850
Hot cutting speed(bag/min) 12 40
Width*speed(bag/min) - 600*40
Cold cutting speed 12 35
(bag/min)
Print bag speed(bag/min) 12 35

7.2 MACHINE PARTS AND FUNCTIONS

Bag conversion machine’s layout is as following. In which different parts

of bag conversion machine is indicated.

FIG.39 LINE DIAGRAM OF BCS

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7.2.1 UNWINDING UNIT: - Bag conversion machine consists of an
unwinding unit where roll of circular woven fabric can be easily
mounted without any requirement of external lifting device. Edge
position control unit (EPC) supplied with the machine takes care of
minor variations in fabric rolls and maintains edge of the fabric in line
with the transfer unit.

This unit convey the fabric further by rotating in opposite

direction of fabric layer.

FIG.40
7.2.2 ACCUMULATOR UNIT: - The accumulator unit is provided to
accommodate and keep reserve of any extra length of fabric opened during
continuous unwinding and is also helpful in maintaining uniform tension
of fabric. Print mark sensor is supplied as standard with the machine to cut
the fabric as per marking on pre-printed fabric roll.

FIG.41
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 7.2.3 CUTTING UNIT: - Machine is equipped with a hot cutting unit
suitable for un-laminated fabric in conjunction with mouth opening device
which helps in easier opening of leading edge of the cut length.
Servomotor used is helpful in cutting the fabric of pre-set length with
minimum cut length variation.

Cutting can be done by two types, one is hot cutting used for
unlaminated bags and other is cold cutting used for laminated bags. In
hot cutting for PP bags 250 to 290 degree C temperature is given.

FIG.42

7.2.4 BOTTOM FOLDING AND SEWING UNIT: - These cut lengths

are then transferred to the bottom folding and sewing unit with the help of
transfer conveyor. With the help of sensors provided, the sewing machine
can be automatically stopped for the duration when no cut lengths are
received from cutting unit in case of any problem or exhaustion of
fabric roll etc. Variable frequency drive system is provided to
synchronize the cutting unit, conveyor and sewing unit. The thread
cutter unit is operated through an electronic sensor.

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 FIG.43 (A) SEWING UNIT (B) FOLDINGUNIT

7.2.5 BAG STACKING AND CONVEYER UNIT: - The finished bags

are discharged onto a delivery conveyor after counting and stacking the
pre-set number of bags.

FIG.44

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 CHAPTER-8

TROUBLESHOOTING
GUIDE (TAPE
LINE/LOOM/BCS)

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8.1 TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE FOR TAPELINE

Problems at the time of manufacturing of tapes and their remedies are

given bellow.
SR. NO. PROBLEM REMEDIES
1 Film puncture  Clean die lip
 Optimize temperature profile
2 Tape breakage  See under film puncture
 Check hot plate temperature
 Reduce stretch ratio
 Reduce quench tank
temperature
 Set die gap
3 Low tenacity  Increase stretch ratio
(Tensile strength)  Increase oven/hot plate
temperature
4 High elongation  Reduce quench tank
temperature
 Increase oven/hot plate
temperature
 Increase stretch ratio
 Reduce airgap
5 Denier variation  Adjust die gap and clean die if
required to get
uniform film thickness
 Check uniformity of
temperature on hotplate
 Check spacer thickness with
Vernier
 Check pressure roller and its
pressure
6 Fibrillation of tapes  Check sharpness of blade son
spacer
 Reduce stretch ratio
 Check for wrinkles in the tape
 Check winder tension
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 7 Shrinkage of tapes  Increase annealing temp,
check speed of godet 3
 Improve heat conduction
during annealing

8.2 TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE FOR LOOM

Common faults in circular loom and their remedies:

SR. NO. PROBLEM CAUSE REMEDIES
1 Under/Over fabric (a) Incorrect ID  Use ID of
width of weaving appropriate
ring size
(b) Improper gap  Adjust gap to
between correct
insertion finger
and clothing
ring
2 Holes in fabric (a) Mending of  Adopt correct
tape is incorrect procedure
after warp  Adjust tension
breakage by using
(b) Improper tension rod
tension in warp  Avoid
tape double
(c) Dou winding
ble
winding in
Bobbin
3 Roughness of (a)Due to lesser  Adjust correct
fabric tension of weft tension
Tension pad
4 Crushing of (a) Over width of  Use correct
weft tape tape tape width
(b) Higher weft  Adjust correct
tension weft tension
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 5 Folding of warp (a)Irregular  Adjust
tape spacing between to uniform
warp tape, reed spacing
ring and heddle
belts

Some other problem also occurs in circular weaving machine, which

are given following.
8.2.1 MISSING WEFT:-

 Usually, this is due to malfunctioning of magnetic sensor.

 Verify the problem by exchanging the sensor with other
machine.
 A common cause of this problem is shifting of boom magnet
assembly from the position.
 Magnet on reversing should fall under the magnetic sensor.
8.2.2 UNDER WIDTH FABRIC: -

Either wrong weaving size is being used or weft tension is too high. It
could be due to higher winding tension of cheese winders.
8.2.3 OVER WIDTH FABRIC:-

Either wrong weaving ring is being used or weft tension is too low.
Insertion finger setting may be incorrect.
8.2.4 HOLES IN FABRIC:-
Warp tape got fibrillate during running of machine, loosening of warp
tapes due to slippage of bobbin, sharp edges/cut or protruding parts on
shuttles, causing holes in fabric.
8.2.5 OVER TIGHT FABRIC:-

Excess weft tension, bobbin winding is tight, shuttle parts are not moving
freely and interrupted movement of guide rollers are the causes of it.
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8.2.6 WARP TAPE FOLDING: -

Warp density is higher than required, uneven mending of warp tapes,

excess warp tension, are the causes of warp tape folding.
8.2.7 BAD FABRIC TEXTURE: -

High weft tension and denier variation in warp within the weft bobbins are
the causes of bad fabric texture.
8.2.8 WEFT TAPE LOOSENING: -

Improper weft tape mending i.e., path is not correct, leather pad is
unavailable are causes of weft tape loosening.
8.2.9 WEFT TAPE FOLDING:-
Means weft density is higher than required, excess warp tension, improper
maintenance of shuttle assembly, creel disc is moving tight, and warp
density is more.
8.2.10 WIDTH VARIATION IN LOOM:-

Means uneven gap in between weaving ring and insertion fingers, uneven
weft tension for weft bobbins, higher weft bobbins winding tension at
cheese winder, higher warp tape tension, restricted movement of guide
rollers and inlet rollers and restricted movement of shuttle assembly parts.
8.2.11 WEFT TAPE SNAPPING:-

It means bobbin holders are not moving freely, weft tension is less,
acceleration time fed in MMI is less (it should be approx. 6-7 sec.),
entanglement of weft tape due to less deceleration time fed in MMI (it
should be approx. 4-5sec.), leather pad/felt is not present at tension pad,
eye of insertion finger is worn out or damaged, weft bobbin having side
slippage of tape, weft bobbin (cheese tube is loose) in side flange and
rubbing with foam washer.

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8.3 TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE FOR BAG
CONVERSION MACHINE (BCS)

When any alarm is occurred, eliminate its causes and wait for about
5minutes for cooling before resuming operation, ensure safety, then
reset the alarm, and restart operation, otherwise injury may occur.

SR. PROBLEM CAUSE REMEDY

NO.
1 Emergency stop Emergency Close emergency switch
switch opened by after carrying out a
operator for any specification for which
emergency action emergency switch is
opened.
Check wiring emergency
Switch in console and
control box.
2 Stacking Machine is stuck Check load current with
Conveyor somewhere Help of multimeter.
motor overload Set current limit of
respective over load as
per given on name plate
of motor.
Check wiring of overload.
3 Delivery Machine is stuck Check load current with
conveyor motor somewhere help of multimeter.
overload Set current limit of
respective over load as
per given on name plate
of motor.
Check wiring of overload.
4 Thread broken Sewing machine Put thread in sewing
alarm Thread broken machine.
5 Bag jammed in Accumulation of Clean bag path.
Cutter area bag in cutting
area

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 7 Low Insufficient Check wiring connections
temperature temperature of heater and thermos
couple sensor.
to run the Check that appropriate
machine temperature is set in main
menu.
8 High High Check whether
temperature Temperature of thermocouple sensor
knife beyond set is working
value properly or not.
9 Print mark There is no print Check whether web roll is
missing mark on the web with print mark or not.
Check whether print mark
sensor is configured for
appropriate background
And mark color.
10 Accumulator Accumulator Check accumulator motor
arm opposition arm may reach running and dancer up and
Tot opposition down factor setting.
of arm

Some other problems are also occurring during bag conversion, means at
the time of cutting, folding or sewing, that areas following.
8.3.1 WHEN BAG CUTTING IS NOT PROPER: - In a bag conversion
system cutting can be done by two methods first one is Hot cutting (for
unlaminated bags) and second one is cold cutting (for laminated bags).
(A) HOT CUTTING: -If bag is not cutting properly the following may be
some of the reasons.
(1) Heater temperature is too low or high.
(2) There may be gap between hot cutter edge and cutting block.

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 To overcome the problem, decrease heater temperature if cut web is
sticking due to overheating and increase temperature in case clear
printing of cut web is not taking place.
 To adjust the gaps, adjusting nuts may be tightened/loosened to
exert/relieve pressures through studs to increase/decrease the gap. This
gap can be gauged/assessed through passage of light to by filler gauge.

(B) COLD CUTTING: -Please check the sharpness of the edge of cold
knife and change the knife if required.

8.3.2 WHEN BAG MOUTH OPENING IS NOT

SATISFACTORY: - The problem may be due to following reasons.
(A) Hot cutter temperature may be too high causing fusion of cut
web edges, which may not get separated by action of the mouth-
opening roll.
(B) Worn-out liner of mouth opener roll and corresponding liner stuck
on the base, and abrasive surface of the liner get worn out after long
working of the mouth opener roll. The liner surface may be
examined and changed, if required.

8.3.3 PROBLEMS ON FOLDING AND SEWING: - Nonuniform

bag fold and stitch line not parallel to fold. This problem may be due to
mismatch in main conveyor and sewing machine speeds which should
be set by adjusting sewing machine speed.

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 CHAPTER-9

TESTING AND
QUALITY CONTROL

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In the field of woven sack raw material for a woven fabric or sack is tape,
which is produced from cast film process and for producing tape from cast
film extrusion raw materials used are virgin plastics and additives which
are the master batches of that additive with base plastic. So, this is
important to test the starting material means raw material, used in cast film
extrusion which is called raw material testing. Then intermediate product
(tape, fabric) testing is also done and at last final product (woven sack)
testing we have to do for quality control.

9.1 RAW MATERIAL TESTING

Following tests are performed for the quality control of raw materials
which are used in cast film extrusion for producing intermediate
product (tape).

9.1.1 MELT FLOW INDEX (MFI) TEST: - It is a measure of the ease

of flow of the melt of a thermoplastic polymer. It is defined as the mass of
polymer, in grams, flowing in ten minutes through a capillary of a specific
diameter and length by a pressure applied via prescribed alternative
gravimetric weights for alternative prescribed temperatures. [1]The method
is described in the similar standards ASTMD1238, ISO 1133 and
BIS11360.

Melt flow rate is very commonly used for polyolefins,

polyethylene being measured at 190°C and polypropylene at 230°C. The
plastics converter should choose a material with a melt index so high
that he can easily form the polymer in the molten state into the article
intended, but on the other hand so low that the mechanical strength of the
final article will be sufficient for its use.

MEASUREMENT: - The procedure for determining MFI is as follows.

(1) A small amount of the polymer sample (4 to 5 grams) is taken in the
specially designed MFI apparatus which is nothing but a miniature
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extruder. The apparatus consists of a small die inserted into the extruder,
with the diameter of the die generally being around2.095mm.

(2) The material is packed properly inside the barrel to avoid formation
of air pockets.

(3) A piston is introduced which acts as the medium that causes extrusion
of the molten polymer.

(4) The sample is preheated for a specified amount of time : 5 min at

190°C for polyethylene and 6 min at 230°C for polypropylene.

(5) After the preheating a specified weight is introduced onto the piston.
Examples of standard weights are 2.16kg, 5kg, etc.

(6) The weight exerts a force on the molten polymer and it immediately
starts flowing through the die.

(7) A sample of the melt is taken after desired period of time and is
weighed accurately.

(8) MFI is expressed as grams of polymer/10 minutes of flowtime.

Synonyms of Melt Flow Index are Melt Flow Rate and Melt Index. More
commonly used are their abbreviations: MFI, MFR and MI. Melt flow rate
is an indirect measure of molecular weight, with high melt flow rate
corresponding to low molecular weight. At the same time, melt flow rate is
a measure of the ability of the material's melt to flow under pressure.
Melt flow rate is inversely proportional to viscosity of the melt at the
conditions of the test, though it should be borne in mind that the viscosity
for any such material depends on the applied force. Ratios between
twomeltflowratevaluesforonematerialatdifferentgravimetricweightsareof
ten used as a measure for the broadness of the molecular weight
distribution. Confusingly, MFR may also indicate "melt flow ratio", the
ratio between two melt flow rates at different gravimetric weights. More
accurately, this should be reported as FRR (flow rate ratio), or simply flow
ratio. FRR is commonly used as an indication of the way in which
90|Page
Rheological behavior is influenced by the molecular mass distribution of
the material. PP material having MFI 3 to 6 gm/10min and HDPE .9 to 2
gm/10 min is suitable for woven sack for making tapes.

FIG.45MFITESTINGMACHINE
9.1.2 DENSITY MEASUREMENT: - The density of plastic materials
is defined as the weight per unit volume and is expressed in grams per
cubic centimeter. The test method developed to determine the density of
plastics very accurately, is based on observing the level to which a test
specimen sinks in a liquid column exhibiting a density gradient in
comparison with standard specimens of known density. A number of
calibrated glass floats of precisely known density are introduced into the
density gradient and allowed to sink in the column to a point where the
glass floats density matches that of the solution. A series of such floats
of differing densities within the range of the column serves as a means of
calibrating the column (2). The float position vs. Float density is plotted.
When a specimen of unknown density is introduced into the column,
the measurement of its position upon reaching equilibrium, when
referred to the calibration line, gives an accurate measurement of its
density.

Liquid systems recommended for use in density gradient columns

are Methanol-benzyl alcohol, isopropanol-water etc. Density test is done as
per ISOR 1183 and ASTMD 1505.
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9.2 INTERMEDIATE PRODUCTTESTING

9.2.1 UV RETENTION TEST: -To determine the effect of UV radiation

and weathering on the breaking strength, the HDPE/PP woven fabric shall
be exposed as given in BIS 14738.

TEST CONDITION: -The test shall be carried out with fluorescent

UV lamp type B. The duration of the test shall be 144 hrs (for low denier)
and 200 hrs (high denier). The test cycle shall be 8 hrs at 60C with UV
radiational alternating with 4 hrs at 50C with condensation.

TEST PROCEDURE: - Cut a 2meter length tape or fabric, divide it into

two parts. Measure strength and elongation of one part and put the second
part in UV retention testing machine. After completing the test take second
one and again measure the strength and elongation and calculate % change
in strength and elongation.

9.2.2 TENSILE STRENGTH: - Maximum load applied to a

specimen before rupture is called strength of that specimen. Tensile
strength measurement is done on UTM (universal testing machine)
machine as per standards ASTMD 882 and BIS 1969.

In woven sack there are two types of tests are performed, grab
test in which we measure strength of fabric and modified grab or slit test
which is used for tapes. Specimen of length 25 to 50cm. Recommended
and width of fabric should be 10 cm., maximum speed of machine for
this test is300_+15 mm/min, applied load should be 200N for tapes, 500N
for normal fabrics and 1000N for FIBC type fabrics.

FIG.46 TENSILE TESTING MACHINE

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9.2.3 SHRINKAGE: - This test is performed mainly in tapes, for
measuring shrinkage we take a tape of 1 meter and put it for some times in
40-45C and after cooling measure again its length. If initial length is A and
final length is B then % shrinkage we can calculate by following formula.

% Shrinkage= Initial length -Final lengthX100

Initial length
Only 3 – 4 % shrinkage is acceptable.
9.2.4 ELONGATION: - How long a tape or fabric stretch before
rupture is called elongation. Elongation can also be measured at UTM
machine. Elongation % can be calculated as follows.
% Elongation= Final length -Initial length X100

Initial length

Elongation of 18 to 25% is recommended.

9.2.5 DENIER: - Grammage of 9000meter long tape is called denier. We

can calculate denier by cutting a tape sample of 9 meter and then multiply
by 1000 we can get denier of that tape, for ease of calculation.

Ex- 800 denier tape means 9000meter long tape have its weight 800gm.

9.2.6 TENACITY (GPD): -It is also called GPD (gram per denier), GPD
can be calculated by following given formula. GPD value is calculated for
tapes.

Tenacity (GPD)= Strength(kgf)*1000

Denier

9.2.7 GSM (GRAM SQUARE METRE): - GSM is calculated for fabric.

It is the weight of a fabric of 1 meter square. It is calculated by dividing
weight of 1metre fabric by fabric size(flat size).
93|Page
9.2.8 TAPE WIDTH: - Width of the tape is depend on the spacer size
used and stretch ratio given. Tape width can be calculated by following
formula.
Tape width = Spacer size
Stretch ratio
9.3 FINAL PRODUCT TESTING

Different types of woven sacks are the final product of woven sack
industries, so tests are performed on the bags as size of the bag (length
X width), strength (lengthwise & width wise), stitching mesh (number
ofstitchesper10cm), folding (single or double), seam(stitch)strength, etc.

All above tests can be performed manually without using any

device. Other tests which are very similar to intermediate product tests
are also performed on the bags as GPM (gram per meter), GSM (gram
per square meter), elongation and UV retention test etc.

Some special tests are also performed on the bags, peel off is one of
the special type tests which is done in case of printing bags to check
the adhesion property of the printing.

94|Page
APPENDIX-A
PRACTICAL LOG
SHEETS

95|Page
LOGSHEET-96(TAPEPLANT)

Raw material- Polypropylene (PP)

Date–13/07/2021 Time-2:00PM

Plant no.- 01 Lot no.-E-01

Raw material Brand name Grade Batch no. Qnty(kg) Initial width(mm)
1 PP/HDPE Repol H030SG J1210887 100 Final width(mm) 2.5
2 CaCo3 Alok Super 122610 25 Spacer size(mm) 5.6
3 M.B. No. Of tapes 67
4 UV
5 Tio2
6 M. F comp.
7 R.P(reprocess)
8 Other
Temperatures-

Parts name Actual Set Parameters Mt/Min Amp

1 Barrel 1 229 230 Holding unit 62.7
2 250 250 Stretching unit 1
3 266 265 2 345
4 Annealing unit 320
5 Nip roller 58.8
2 Screen changer 265 265 Top roller 59.7
3 Adapter A 262 265 Screw rpm 46.8
B Melt pump
4 Die 1 265 265 P1 150bar
2 268 265 P2
3 265 265 P3
4 Stretching ratio 5.5
5 %Relaxation 7.2
6 Quality 800/2.5
7 Time 3:00PM
5 Melt pump temp. 260 Denier 810
6 Sleeve temp. 22 Strength 3.8kgf
7 Quenching temp. 35 35 GPD 4.7
8 Hot A.O. temp. 155 158 Elongation 23%
9 Annealing temp. 75 75 Tape width 2.508
BETAGUAGE

Sr. No. Min. Max. Avg.

96|Page
 LOGSHEET-97(TAPEPLANT)
Raw material- High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)

Date– 15/07/2021 Time-2:00PM

Plant no.-01 Lot no.-E-01

Raw material Brand name Grade Batch no. Qnty(kg) Initial width(mm)
1 PP/HDPE Relene E52009 H1221999 100 Final width(mm) 2.5
2 CaCo3 Alok FMBA plus 30632 20 Spacer size(mm) 5.6
3 M.B. No. Of tapes 68
4 UV
5 Tio2
6 M. Fcomp.
7 R.P(reprocess)
8 Other
Temperatures-

Parts name Actual Set Parameters Mt/Min Amp

1 Barrel 1 220 220 Holding unit 55.8
2 230 230 Stretching unit 1
3 250 250 2 300
4 Annealing unit 280
5 Nip roller 52.4
2 Screen changer 250 250 Top roller 52.9
3 Adapter A 250 250 Screw rpm 30.5
B Melt pump
4 Die 1 250 250 P1 195bar
2 245 250 P2
3 250 250 P3
4 Stretching ratio 5.5
5 %Relaxation 6.6
6 Quality 800/2.5
7 Time 2:00PM
5 Melt pump temp. Denier 800
6 Sleeve temp. 20 20 Strength 3.5kgf
7 Quenching temp. 21 20 GPD 4.37
8 Hot A.O. temp. 136 135 Elongation 24%
9 Annealing temp. 72 74 Tape width 2.5mm
BETAGUAGE

Sr. No. Min. Max. Avg.

97|Page
LOGSHEET-98(TAPEPLANT)

Raw material-Polypropylene (PP)

Date– 16/07/2021 Time- 12:00PM

Plant no.- 01 Lot no.-E-01

Raw material Brand name Grade Batch no. Qnty(kg) Initial width(mm)
1 PP/HDPE Repol H030SG J1210887 100 Final width(mm) 2.34
2 CaCo3 Alok Super 122610 25 Spacer size(mm) 5.6
3 M.B. No. of tapes 60
4 UV
5 Tio2
6 M. F comp.
7 R.P(reprocess)
8 Other
Temperatures-

Parts name Actual Set Parameters Mt/Min Amp

1 Barrel 1 230 230 Holding unit 21
2 249 250 Stretching unit 1 116.6
3 2
4 Annealing unit 111.3
5 Nip roller 19.8
2 Screen cha. 261 260 Top roller 20
3 Adapter A 260 260 Screw rpm 15.3
B Melt pump
4 Die 1 265 265 P1 55bar
2 266 265 P2
3 265 265 P3
4 Stretching ratio 5.6
5 %Relaxation 7.0
6 Quality 797/2.34
7 Time 12:00PM
5 Melt pump temp. 237 Denier 797
6 Sleeve temp. 22 Strength 2.8kgf
7 Quenching temp. 35 35 GPD 3.5
8 Hot A.O. temp. 120 120 Elongation 22%
9 Annealing temp. 75 75 Tape width 2.34
BETAGUAGE

Sr. No. Min. Max. Avg.

98|Page
LOGSHEET-99(TAPEPLANT)

Raw material-Polypropylene (PP)

Date– 09/07/2021 Time-2:30PM

Plant no.-01 Lot no.-E-01

Raw material Brand name Grade Batch no. Qnty(kg) Initial width(mm)
1 PP/HDPE Repol H030SG J1210887 100 Final width(mm) 2.5
2 CaCo3 Alok Super 122610 25 Spacer size(mm) 5.6
3 M.B. No. Of tapes 68
4 UV
5 Tio2
6 M. F comp.
7 R.P(reprocess)
8 Other
Temperatures-

Parts name Actual Set Parameters Mt/Min Amp

1 Barrel 1 230 230 Holding unit 54.8
2 250 250 Stretching unit 1
3 262 265 2 295
4 Annealing unit 277
5 Nip roller 51.4
2 Screen changer 265 265 Top roller 51.9
3 Adapter A 266 265 Screw rpm 29.5
B Melt pump
4 Die 1 265 265 P1 190bar
2 264 265 P2
3 265 265 P3
4 Stretching ratio 5.5
5 %Relaxation 6.9
6 Quality 804/2.5
7 Time 2:00PM
5 Melt pump temp. 260 Denier 804
6 Sleeve temp. 22 Strength 3.4Kgf
7 Quenching temp. 35 35 GPD 4.3
8 Hot A.O. temp. 155 160 Elongation 24%
9 Annealing temp. 75 75 Tape width 2.5
BETAGUAGE

Sr. No. Min. Max. Avg.

99|Page
APPENDIX-B

VARIOUS
CALCULATIONS
A. USEFUL CALCULATIONS FOR TAPEPLANT
1. Spacer Size (mm)=/Stretch Ratio X Width of Tape (mm)
2. Stretch Ratio = Stretching Speed
Holding Speed
3. Production (Kg/hr) =Denier X Final Line Speed X No. Of Tapes
150000
4. Elongation %=Tape final length – Initial length X100
Initial length
5. Tape Thickness Stretched= Denier
9000 X Tape Width X Density
6. Unstretched Tape Thickness = Stretch Ratio X Stretched
Tape Thickness
7. Denier Setting Formula = Holding Speed X Actual Denier
Required Denier
8. Relaxation % = Stretching Speed – Annealing Speed X 100
Stretching Speed
9. GPD (Gram Per Denier) =Strength (Kgf) X 1000
Denier
10. Gear Ratio Formula= Motor Speed X Motor Pulley Dia.
Screw RPM X Gear Box Pulley Dia.
11. Useful Width (Flat Film) =Film Width–(Edge Trimon Extruder)
B. USEFUL CALCULATIONS FOR CIRCULAR LOOM

1. Bag Weight (gm)= Cut length x Width X 2 X Mesh X Denier

180000
2. GSM = Weight of One meter Fabric
Width of Fabric X 2
3. Size Of Ring = Size of Fabric (inch) x 16.17
4. Fabric GSM = Warp Denier X Warp Mesh + Weft Denier X Weft Mesh
228.6
5. Loom Production (Mt/Hr)= 1.524 X PPM
Weft Mesh
6. Loom Production (Mt/Hr) = Tape Width X PPM X 60
1000
7. PPM (picks Per Minute) = No. Of Shuttle X Cam RPM
8. No. Of Warp Tape= Size of fabric (inch) X Mesh X 2
9. No. Of Grooves = Total no. Of Warp Tape
No. Of Heddle Belt
10. GSM = GPM X 39.37
Size of Fabric X 2
11. Denier = GSM X 228.6
2 X Mesh
12. Weaving Ring Setting = (Reed Ring Dia – Weaving Ring Dia )/2
APPENDIX-C

GLOSSARY
TERMINOLOGIES USED IN TAPELINE AND
CIRCULAR WEAVING LOOM
FABRIC: -Fabric is formed by interlacement of two perpendicular system
of yarns. These two types of yarns are known as warp and weft.
WARP: -The yarns or tapes disposed along the fabric are known as warp.

WEFT: -The yarns or tapes disposed across the fabric are known as weft.
Horizontal tapes are called weft.

MESH: -It indicates the density of warp and weft tapes in a fabric, it’s
how number of warp and weft tapes per square inch of fabric. It
expressed as
i.e.,10X10 means 10 tapes of warp and 12 tapes of weft are there in per
square inch of fabric.

LINE SPEED: -The speed at which tape is produced by the extruder

expressed in meters per minute.
WINDING SPEED: -The surface speed of the tape at the diameter of
winding on cheese winder is known as winding speed.
TRAVERSE RATIO: -The number of tapes laid per double traverse of
the thread guide is known as traverse ratio.

TRAVERSELENGTH: -Length of the tape at which tape is wound on

the cheese pipe (bobbin) is known as traverse length. For a cheese pipe
traverse length is 200 mm as per standard.

ANGLEOFWIND: The angle made by the axis of rotation of bobbin

and the direction of the tape laid on the bobbin is known as angle of wind.

GAIN:-The displacement of the tape after a complete pattern repeat is

known as gain.
TEX: -the weight in gms of 1000 meters of yarn, thread or tape is known
as tex.
DENIER: -The weight in gms of 9000 meters of yarn or tape is known
as denier.
1Denier = 9XTex

TENACITY: -The mass stress at break is known as tenacity and its

unit is gms/Denier. It is also called GPD (gram per denier).
WEAVING: -The process of interlacement of warp and weft is known as
weaving.
BOBBIN: - A small spool like body on which tape is wound. This is of
two types Iron having internal dia 35 mm and outer 37 mm, second one
is Aluminium having internal dia 35 and outer 40mm.
DOFFING (DOFF):-The removal of the textile product from a textile
machine.

DOBBY: -A device which controls the harnesses in a loom to give small

geometric patterns in the fabric being produced.

FLYWEEL: -A heavy cylindrical body used to conserve angular

momentum.

HARNESS: -A frame containing a number of heddles which is moved up

and down in the loom to help from the warp shed.
HEDDLE: -A wire or thin perforated leather belt through which a warp
end is threaded. It is fixed in harness.
KNOT: -A joint in a yarn/tape made by tying ends together.
LINEARDENSITY: -Mass per unit length of yarn or tape.
LOOM: -A mechanical machine which interweaves tape into a fabric.
SHUTTLE: -A quill carrier that is projected through the warp shed to
insert the filling tape during weaving.
SPOOL: -A double flanged bobbin.

WORM AND WHEEL: -A gear with one or more helical teeth (worm)
which engages with a toothed wheel to give a large gear ratio.
YAW: -A thin place in a fabric which is detrimental to the cloth.
SPLITTING: -When tension is applied on the tape it goes to fibrillate
means fibers are coming out of the tape which is called the splitting
tendency of the tape.

SEGMENT: -In heddle belts are divided into many parts each part is
called a segment.
BALE: -A bundle of 500 bags is called one bale.

TAPPET: -A lever or projecting part on a machine that intermittently

makes contact with a cam or other part so as to give or receive motion

TERMINOLOGIES USED IN FIBC

FIBC (FLEXIBLE INTERMEDIATE BULK CONTAINER): -It is

designed for low cost and efficient transportation. It is made from PP or
HDPE finished by suitable processes. The capacity is from 500 kg to 2000
kg and safety factor is 3:1 to 8:1. The FIBC is soft but strong, and
enhanced with acid resistant, moisture proof etc.

BAFFLE: -Pieces of fabric sewn across each corner of a tubular or 4 -

panel bag to improve a bag’s square shape & cubic capacity.
BELT PATCH: -A piece of fabric sewn either between the main fabric
of the bag body and the Lift Belt, or on top of the Lift Belt, within the belt
sewn portion, used to improve sift resistance and/or the safe working load
(SWL).
BOTTOM SPOUT: -Also called a Discharge or Inlet Spout, used as an
outlet to empty the contents of the FIBC.
CONICAL TOP: -A variation of an inlet, where the top is a pyramid -
type achieved by assembling 4 pieces of trapezoidal shaped fabric. Also
called a Cone Top.

CONNECTING BELT: -May also be called a Stevedore Belt, Rope, or

Strap. It is a belt connecting either two adjacent lift loops, or two adjacent
belt sewn portions, used alternatively for lifting. A belt or strap is usually
flat, while a rope is braided. Many people use this term loosely, so it is
useful to clarify this point-including the required length.

CORD LOCK: -A closure device to hold the rope or cord in place on the
spout - typically used on the discharge of bags. They come in a variety of
sizes.
DOCUMENT POUCH: -Typically made of either polyethylene or
polypropylene, it is where shipping or identifying documents are usually
placed, also called a Pocket or Envelope.
HEMMING: -A fold and sew operation, which prevents fraying of cut
fabric. This also provides a clean finish to the FIBC. It may be either
towards the inside or outside of the bag.
HOSE: -An accessory often used on a petal closure to facilitate tying it
off. This maybe either polypropylene or polyvinylchloride.

LAYFLATWIDTH: -The width of tubular fabric if stretched or laid flat.

It is twice the width of one bag side; i.e., a 35 x 35 bag would have a LFW
of 70".

MFY: -Multi-filament yarns, used in the weaving of bias tape / straps and
lift belts. May be constructed of polypropylene or polyester threads.

PETAL CLOSURE: -A 4-petal like spout construction used to hold in

the spout during transport.
PETAL PATCH: - A 4-piece fabric component, approximately 10cm
x10cm in size, sewn as a reinforcement to the "loop" portion of the
petal closure.
PORTHOLE: -A type of outlet construction without as pout. The hole
cut is reinforced with bi as tape/strap.
BIAS STRAP OR TAPE: -Made of multi filament yarns, (MFY),
polyester or polypropylene, and used to tie inlets and outlets. Also called a
web tie.

REINFORCED SECTION: -Section of the FIBC where the lift belt is

sewn onto the fabric. This section of fabric has twice as many Warp yarns,
which contributes to the strength of the bag. It is also called a Tramline.

REMOTEOPENINGDISCHARGE: -A type of outlet that has

provisions for discharge of material at a distance from the FIBC.

SAFE WORKING LOAD (SWF): -Maximum load which the FIBC may
carry in service, as certified.

SAFETY FACTOR: -Integer quotient between the final test load in the
cyclic top lift test and the SWL value rounded down.
SANITARYFLAP: -A bag accessory that is usually used to hold in, or
protect the spout during filling and transport.
SPOUTCOVER: -Also called a petal cover, it is a piece of fabric material
sewn between the spout and the petal closure used to hold in/protect the
spout.

TUBE LINER: -A polyethylene liner with no spouts or contours, it is a

straight cylinder, which may or may not have one end heat-sealed. The top
may be tied with the spout top's bias tape closure to hold in place. Also
called a tubular liner.
STIFF STRAP: -A type of lift belt made of MFY's as weft and PP yarns
as warp, allowing it to stand more upright on the filled bag.
WEBTIE: -Made of multifilament yarns, (MFY), polyester or
polypropylene and used to tie the inlets and outlets. Also called a Bias
Strap or Tape.

TUBE LINER: -A polyethylene liner with no spouts or contours, it is a

straight cylinder, which may or may not have one end heat-sealed. The top
may be tied with the spout top's bias tape closure to hold in place. Also
called a tubular liner.
STOPPER: -Pieces of fabric material sewn at the tip of an "x - cut". This
is to prevent bag failure at this point.
SOFTSTRAP: -A lift belt made with polyester multifilament yarns.

MULTI TRIP FIBC’S: -Bags designed in accordance with British

Standards requiring a 6:1 Safety or Service Factor, (SF). Note: we do not
offer any guarantees or recommendations for multiple uses of our bags.
Since the inspection of the used bags is beyond our control, we have no
way of knowing if a bag is damaged in its initial use.

RAFFIA: -A palm tree (Raphia, raffia) native to tropical Africa and

Madagascar, with a short trunk and leaves that may be up to 60 feet (18 m)
long. The fiber from these leaves, used for making items such as hats,
baskets, and mats.
 REFERENCES
i. Weaving: Conversion of yarn to fabric (second edition)-by P.R.
Lord, M.H. Mohamed, Woodhead publishing limited,
Cambridge, England.
ii. Barlow; A, The history and principles of weaving by hand and
power- Low, Morston, Searle and Rivingston, London,1878.
iii. Evolution in weaving machine design- by Green Wood, k, Tex, Rec,
Nov.1966,88.
iv. Handbook of plastics testing and failure analysis- by Vishnu Shah,
Wiley- Inter science, A John Wiley & Sons, INC., Publication.
v. Plastic materials- by John Bryson, Sixth Edition-1995
vi. Plastic materials-CIPET, Technical manual.
vii. Plastic processing- CIPET, Technical manual.
viii. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia- [Link],
[Link].
ix. Success with Tradition and modern technology-Sulzer,
[Link]
x. Textile world-recent developments,: Weaving technology,
[Link]
xi. Raffia and Monofilament- [Link]
xii. Cast film processing guide- Chevron, Philips Chemical Company,
[Link]
xiii. The Cast Film- Dow Chemical Company, [Link]
xiv. Lohia-group, [Link]
xv. Plastipedia - The plastics encyclopedia, Raw materials,
[Link]
xvi. Advanced plastic and material testing Inc.- American International,
[Link]