PACKAGING

Food packaging is defined as a coordinated system of preparing food for transport.

Distribution, storage, retailing and end use to satisfy the ultimate consumer with optical cost.
Food packaging is an essential part of modern society; commercially processed food could
not be handled and distributed safely and efficiently without packaging. The World
Packaging Organization (WPO) estimates that more than 25% of food is wasted because of
poor packaging (WPO, 2009). Thus, it is clear that optimal packaging can reduce the large
amount of food waste. Moreover, the current consumer demand for convenient and high-
quality food products has increased the impact of food packaging.

Definition of packaging:
Packaging has been defined as a socio scientific discipline which operates in society to ensure
delivery of goods to the ultimate consumer of those goods in the best condition intended for
their use.
The Packaging Institute International (PII) defines packaging as the enclosure of products,
items or packages in a wrapped pouch, bag, box, cup, tray, can, tube, bottle or other container
form to perform one or more of the following functions: containment, protection,
preservation, communication, utility and performance. If the device or container performs
one or more of these functions, it is considered a package.
Other definitions of packaging include a co-ordinated system of preparing goods for
transport, distribution, storage, retailing and end-use, a means of ensuring safe delivery to the
ultimate consumer in sound condition at optimum cost, and a techno-commercial function
aimed at optimizing the costs of delivery while maximizing sales.
Package, Packaging, Packing:
It is important to distinguish between the words "package," "packaging" and "packing." The
package is the physical entity that contains the product. Packaging was defined above and in
addition, is also a discipline. The verb "packing" can be defined as the enclosing of an
individual item (or several items) in a package or container.
Functions of packaging:
The basic functions of packaging are more specifically stated:
• Containment: depends on the product’s physical form and nature. For example, a
hygroscopic free-flowing powder or a viscous and acidic tomato concentrate
• Protection: prevention of mechanical damage due to the hazards of distribution
• Preservation: prevention or inhibition of chemical changes, biochemical changes and
microbiological spoilage
• Information about the product: legal requirements, product ingredients, use etc.
• Convenience: for the pack handlers and user(s) throughout the packaging chain
• Presentation: material type, shape, size, colour, merchandising display units etc.
• Brand communication: e.g. pack persona by the use of typography, symbols, illustrations,
advertising and colour, thereby creating visual impact
• Promotion (Selling): free extra product, new product, money off etc.
• Economy: for example, efficiency in distribution, production and storage
• Environmental responsibility: in manufacture, use, reuse, or recycling and final disposal.
Packaging has four primary functions i.e. containment, protection, convenience and
communication.
1. Containment:
All products must be contained before they can be moved from one place to another. The
"package", whether it is a bottle of cola or a bulk cement rail wagon, must contain the product
to function successfully. Without containment, product loss and pollution would be wide
spread. The containment function of packaging makes a huge contribution to protecting the
environment from the myriad of products which are moved from one place to another. Faulty
packaging (or under packaging) could result in major pollution of the environment.
2. Protection:
This is often regarded as the primary function of the package: to protect its contents from
outside environmental effects, such as water, moisture vapour, gases, Levels of packaging –
Functions of packaging –Packaging environments – Functions/ Environment grid odours,
micro-organisms, dust, shocks, vibrations and compressive forces, and to protect the
environment from the product.
For the majority of food products, the protection afforded by the package is an essential part
of the preservation process. For example, aseptically packaged milk and fruit juices in
paperboard cartons only remain aseptic for as long as the package provides protection.
Likewise, vacuum packaged meat will not achieve its desired shelf life if the package permits
oxygen to enter. In general, once the integrity of the package is breached, the product is no
longer preserved.
Packaging also protects or conserves much of the energy expended during the production and
processing of the product. For example, to produce, transport, sell and store 1 kg of bread
requires 15.8 MJ (mega joules) of energy. This energy is required in the form of transport
fuel, heat, power and refrigeration in farming and milling the wheat, baking and retailing the
bread and distributing both the raw materials and the finished product. To produce the low
density polyethylene (LDPE) bag to package a 1 kg loaf of bread requires 1.4 MJ of energy.
This means that each unit of energy in the packaging protects 11 units of energy in the
product. While eliminating the packaging might save 1.4 MJ of energy, it would also lead to
spoilage of the bread and a consequent waste of 15.8 MJ of energy.
3. Convenience:

Trend towards "grazing" (i.e., eating snack type meals frequently and on-the- run, rather than
regular meals), the demand for a wide variety of food and drink at outdoor functions such as
sports events and leisure time, have created a demand for greater convenience in household
products. The products designed around principles of convenience include foods which are
pre-prepared and can be cooked or reheated in a very short time, preferably without removing
them from their primary package.
Sauces, dressings and condiments that can be applied simply through aerosol or pump-action
packages minimize mess. Thus packaging plays an important role in meeting the demands of
consumers for convenience.
Two other aspects of convenience are important in package design. One of these can best be
described as the apportionment function of packaging. In this context, the package functions
by reducing the output from industrial production to a manageable, desirable "consumer"
size. Thus, a vat of wine is "apportioned" into bottles, a churn of butter is "apportioned" by
packing into 25 ml packet and a batch of ice cream is "apportioned" into 2 L plastic tubs.
An associated aspect is the shape (relative proportions) of the primary package with regard to
consumer convenience (Ex., easy to hold, open and pour as appropriate) and efficiency in
building into secondary and tertiary packages. In the movement of packaged goods in
interstate and international trade, it is clearly inefficient to handle each primary package
individually. Here, packaging plays another very important role in permitting primary
packages to be unitized into secondary packages (Ex., placed inside a corrugated case) and
secondary packages to be unitized into a tertiary package (Ex., a stretch-wrapped pallet). This
unitizing acitivity can be carried a stage further to produce a quarternary package (Ex., A
container which is loaded with several pallets). As a consequence of this unitizing function,
handling is optimized since only a minimal number of discrete packages or loads need to be
handled.
4. Communication:
A package functions as a "silent salesman". The modem methods of consumer marketing
would fail were it not for the messages communicated by the package. The ability of
consumers to instantly recognize products through distinctive branding and labeling enables
supermarkets to function on a self-service basis. Without this communication function (i.e., if
there were only plain packs and standard package sizes), the weekly shopping expedition to
the supermarket would become a lengthy, frustrating nightmare as consumers attempted to
make purchasing decisions without the numerous clues provided by the graphics and the
distinctive shapes of the packaging.
Other communication functions of the package are equally important. Today the widespread
use of modem scanning equipment at retail checkouts relies on all packages displaying a
Universal Product Code (UPC) that can be read accurately and rapidly. Nutritional
information on the outside of food packages has become mandatory in many countries.
But it is not only in the supermarket that the communication function of packaging is
important. Warehouses and distribution centers would (and sometimes do) become chaotic if
secondary and tertiary packages lacked labels or carried incomplete details. When
international trade is involved and different languages are spoken, the use of unambiguous,
readily understood symbols on the package is imperative. UPC’s are also frequently used in
warehouses where hand-held barcode readers linked to a computer make stock-taking quick
and efficient. Now the use of radio frequency identification (RFID) tags attached to
secondary and tertiary packages is beginning to revolutionize the supply chain.
PROPERTIES
Typical properties for the food packaging system fall into
1. Barrier property.
Barrier properties refer to the packaging's ability to resist the absorption of light, moisture,
and oxygen. These properties come from the accumulation of the individual films used in the
construction of the packaging.
Flexible films have large variations in their barrier properties, depending on the different
types of film or even the difference in thickness of the same film. Due to this, the co-
manufacturer must understand the approximate amount and type of protection required for a
given product or ingredient.
The barrier properties of films and other packaging materials are described by two main
factors; the Water Vapour Transmission Rate (WVTR) and the Oxygen Transmission Rate
(OTR):

 WVTR:  The steady-state rate at which water vapour permeates through a film at

specified conditions of temperature and relative humidity.
 OTR:  The steady-state rate at which oxygen gas permeates through a film at
specified conditions of temperature and relative humidity.

The lower the value of either the WVTR or the OTR, the better the barrier to moisture or air.
Gas barriers
Gas barriers are widely used in packaging materials to prevent contact between the contents
of a package and contaminates like gasses, odors, and pollution. Improving barrier properties
is an important goal for manufacturers of films used for products such as foods, cosmetics,
agricultural chemicals, and pharmaceuticals. Today we are going to look at the importance of
gas barriers in food packaging.

The most common chemicals and compounds targeted for keeping out of packaging are
oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapor, aromatic hydrocarbons, residue, odor, flavors, smoke,
environmental contaminates and more. Gas barriers are intended to maintain the quality of
the product. Purposes include:

 Keep gas inside the package

 Keep moisture in the package to prevent the contents from dehydrating
 Prevent moisture from entering the package
 Keep perfume or flavor inside the packaging
 Keep undesirable odors or flavors from entering or leaving the packaging

Options for Gas Barriers in Food Packaging

Glass containers, metal cans, laminated products lined with aluminum, and plastics can
provide a proper barrier to oxygen and other contaminants. Some differences exist between
the various packaging systems, and the options are evaluated with these in mind:
  Permeability of gasses (like O2, CO2, and N2)
 Water vapor
 Aroma compounds
 Light permeability

Metals

Metals like tinplate and aluminum are some of the longest-term solutions for packaging
foods. This type of packaging prevents microbes, light, and oxygen from affecting the
products inside. The downfall is that metal is prone to corrosion.

Glass

Glass has high barrier properties, especially when preserving the aroma and taste of its
contents. It is a popular choice because it is inert and nontoxic. A big concern is that
transparent glass is visible to light, and light-sensitive contents should be stored in colored
glass. Also, if it is not closed properly, it may compromise the barrier.

Laminates

Laminates feature multiple layers of foil, paper, plastic, or a mixture of multiple materials.
When combining materials, the manufacturer can obtain more strength and barrier protection
than using a single element. For example, laminates made of paper, foil, or polyethylene must
have a plastic layer for heat sealing to create a leak-free container.

Plastic

Plastic packaging is increasingly replacing traditional barrier methods because of its

flexibility, variability, thermal stability, and barrier properties. Plus, plastic tends to be less
expensive than metal and glass. Unlike metal or glass, however, there is great variation in its
permeability, dependent on crystallinity, molecular orientation, chain stiffness, free volume,
cohesive energy density, and more. Permeate properties—like molecule size and nature—and
external conditions also cause differences.

Plastic is not a particularly effective gas barrier on its own. There are many methods that are
used to improve the barrier properties of plastic, like biaxial orientation processes. It results
in increase toughness, stiffness, clarity, and oil and grease resistance. It is often used for
plastics like polypropylene, polyethylene terephthalate, and polyamide.

HEAT SEAL RANGE

Seal area represents the most problematic part in food packaging for controlling the moisture
and gas ingress and preserving product quality.

The flexible packaging must be securely sealed. A good sealing prevents leakage of content
and its volatiles. It eliminates microbial contamination risk and also minimizes the changes in
head space gases and moisture content. Therefore, the integrity of seal area has to be taken
into consideration in flexible food packaging to prevent quality changes and ensure safety of
food products.
Sealing of flexible packaging film can be achieved by several methods. These methods can
be based on melting and joining of sealant layers using heat sealing or on the application of a
cold-seal adhesive coating to the inner surface of the packaging film.2 Heat sealing is the
most common method, which has been used for decades to shape and close the plastic
packaging materials in the food industry. Common approaches to heat generation include seal
bar (seal jaw) sealing, hot wire (hot knife) sealing, induction sealing, hot air sealing,
pneumatic sealing and ultrasound sealing. 

TEAR RESISTANCE
Tear strength is simply the force it takes to rip a plastic film. Tear strength is commonly used
for testing stretch film and other plastics. 
Tear strength is commonly measured in grams per mil of gauge. Most stretch films have high
elongation and therefore have better tear resistance.
Tear resistance is important because it helps to measure protective values of the stretch film,
as well as the strength required to open the stretch film when torn open.
Mechanical Properties
The evaluation of mechanical attributes is essential for food packaging because it enables the
possible loss-free distribution of food products during transportation and storage while
providing a sufficient level of protection. The behavior of the material against stress applied
to its surface is correlated with the mechanical attributes of packaging films. Packaging
materials must be mechanically strong and extensible enough to withstand manufacturing and
consumer stresses. The tensile strength (TS), Young’s modulus (EM), elongation at break
(EAB), and activation energy (Ea.) are some of the distinct mechanical properties that are
necessary for the edible packaging films to be feasible. These parameters are evaluated to
adequately assess the mechanical parameters of an edible packaging film.
Tensile strength (TS) and elongation at break (EAB) are the two critical parameters
commonly used to evaluate the mechanical properties.
Tensile strength is a mechanical property of edible films that represents the maximum stress
the film can endure before breaking. Tensile strength is typically denoted by σ and expressed
in units of MPa per mole. Elongation at break (%) is the capacity of the film to withstand
shape changes without breaking.
Young’s modulus provides information about the stiffness of the material and explains how
the flexibility and mechanical characteristics of a film correlate to its chemical composition.
Young’s modulus is denoted by E or Y and expressed in units of GPa.

Levels of packaging:

We can categorize packaging systems into four groups:

primary packaging, secondary packaging, distribution or tertiary packaging, and unit load.
Primary packaging
The first-level package that directly contacts the product is referred to as the “primary
package.” For example, a beverage can or a jar, a paper envelope for a tea bag, an inner bag
in a cereal box, and an individual candy wrap in a pouch are primary packages, and their
main function is to contain and preserve the product. Primary packages must be non-toxic
and compatible with the food and should not cause any changes in food attributes such as
color changes, undesired chemical reactions, flavor, etc.
Secondary packaging
The secondary package contains two or more primary packages and protects the primary
packages from damage during shipment and storage. Secondary packages are also used to
prevent dirt and contaminants from soiling the primary packages; they also unitize groups of
primary packages. A shrink wrap and a plastic ring connector that bundles two or more cans
together to enhance ease of handling are examples of secondary packages.
Tertiary package
The tertiary package is the shipping container, which typically contains a number of the
primary or secondary packages. It is also referred to as the “distribution pack- age.” A
corrugated box is by far the most common form of tertiary package. Its main function is to
protect the product during distribution and to provide for efficient handling.
Unit load/ Quaternary package
A unit load means a group of tertiary packages assembled into a single unit. If the corrugated
boxes are placed on a pallet and stretch wrapped for mechanical handling, shipping and
storage, the single unit is referred to as a “unit load.” The objective is to aid in the automated
handling of larger amounts of product. A fork-lift truck or similar equipment is used to
transport the unit load.
Consumer/industrial packaging
Packaging systems can also be categorized into consumer and industrial packaging.Consumer
packaging means a package that will be delivered to the ultimate consumer in the retail store.
Usually, primary and secondary packages fit in this category. Industrial packaging means a
package for warehousing and distribution to the retail store. Tertiary packages and unit loads
fit in this category.
Not all package systems are actually composed of a set of primary, secondary, and tertiary
packages. For example, the packaging system for potato chips usually consists only of a
flexible barrier bag and a corrugated shipping container before they are palletized, while
mayonnaise jars are sold in a club store as a two-pack consisting of plastic bottles, shrink
wrap, corrugated boxes, and pallet. Often, the distinction between consumer and industrial
packaging is more clear-cut than between primary, secondary, and tertiary packaging.

Types of packaging materials

Depending on the hardness, the packaging materials are of three types :
i) Flexible packaging materials : Plastic films, Paper, Aluminum foil.
iii Semi-rigid packaging materials : Paperboard/cardboard/containers, PET and PVC
containers, Aluminum containers, Molded containers.
iii) Rigid packaging containers : Glass containers, Metal cans, Fibre board containers,
wooden boxes/crates/barrels.

FLEXIBLE PACKAGING MATERIALS

You can fold these materials in any manner as per your packaging needs. Their final shape
conforms to the enclosed material. Generally, these packaging materials are used for retail
individual or family packs as wrappers, pouches, preformed bags etc. Presently, plastic films
are most widely used flexible packaging materials. You might have felt some differences in
these films. These are of several types and differ in their physical, chemical and functional
properties. Here, we shall discuss some of the important flexible packaging materials which
are in general used for the packaging of meat and meat products.
Plastic Films
(i) Cellophane was the first commercial flexible film. It is a natural plastic film derived from
bleached pulp which is treated with acid and alkali and then plasticized to get cellophane. It
can be suitably coated on one side to impart various functional properties. This is a low cost
film. Various types of this film bear letter designation on the basis of its properties e.g.,
C - coloured
M - moisture proof
S - heat sealable
T - transparent
D - demi (one side) coated

Thus, MST cellophane refers to a film which is moisture proof, heat sealable and transparent.
Earlier, nitrocellulose coated cellophane was very much in use for the packaging of fresh
meat in developed countries, where its coated side was kept away from meat.
(ii) Polyethylene (PE) is the most coanmonly used plastic film of these days due to low cost,
easy availability and unique properties. It is obtained by polymerization of ethylene. Low
density polyethylene (LDPE) is prepared at a very high atmospheric pressure at about I 50-
200°C, whereas high density polyethylene (HDPE) is prepared at comparatively low
atmospheric pressure and temperature. These grades of the film have different functional
properties but chemically there is no difference. Polyethylene is a tasteless, odourless and
non-toxic film. These properties make it highly suitable for packaging food items. You can
safely use this film upto a temperature of 70°C. It starts softening at 90°C and melts at 100°C.
It does not rupture immediately, rather it will first stretch to some extent. It h& the unique
property of sealability of itself by the application of heat.
Low density polyethylene (LDPE) film is transparent to translucent, highly flexible and has
comparatively low permeability to water vapours, but it is fairly permeable to oxygen, carbon
dioxide or odours. HDPE film is translucent to opaque and comparatively less permeable to
water vapours and gases. It is fairly oil and grease resistant as compared to LDPE. You might
have noticed black or yellow polyethylene pouches and bags being used by the butchers.
These are used and recycled plastic films. Polyethylene and other plastic films thrown here
and there are collected by the scavengers. These are purchased by the plastic factory owners
and converted into coloured bags after adding dyes. These are not fit for packing any food
item because they contain synthetic dye (colour), which on prolonged use may cause cancer.
(iii) Polypropylene (PP) is another plastic film which is also in general use. It has a good
gloss, high flex strength and resistance. It softens at a temperature of 1 50°C, so it can be
used to pack food products at moderately high temperature. It is also sometimes used for
packaging those raw meat products which are subjected to heat treatment or cooked in the
pack itself at a later stage. The film is readily heat sealable and has low water vapour
permeability. It also shows a good resistance to oil and grease. It is used in making laminates
also.
(iv) Polyamide usually called Nylon film in the trade is inert, heat resistant and has excellent
mechanical properties. Nylon-6 is a tasteless and odourless film and thus ideal for use in the
packaging of fresh and processed foods. It can be sterilized by steam. It is used for making
laminates of good inertness and low permeability. It has excellent gas barrier properties.
(v) Polyester film is also inert and has excellent strength. It is widely used in lamination as
outer, abrasion resistance layer for food pouches. Polyethylene terepthalate (PET), a polyester
of importance is sold in United States of America by the name of Mylar. Mylar is highly
resistant to high temperature and can be handled in thin gauges. That's why it is used in
lamination with aluminum foil.
(vi) Polyvinyl chloride is a plasticized film for packaging. This film has low folding
endurance. So its use has declined these days.
Saran is produced with vinyl chloride. This is clear, non-toxic, almost impervious to gas
transmission and has very low water vapour transmission rate. This is used for meat and meat
product.
You may also note that ionomer is an ideal bonding agent between two or more packaging
films in the making of a laminate. It has good seal property and resistance to oil as well as
grease.
Many thermoplastic films such as PE, PP etc. act as shrink film. These are used for wrapping
large and uneven cuts of fresh meat and dressed poultry. The meat cuts are over wrapped
with this film and passed through hot air tunnel or dipped in hot water (90T) for few seconds.
The film almost shrinks to the size of the meat cuts. These shrink films give neat appearance
and contour tight package. The packaged products can be stored under freezer temperature as
these films can withstand very low temperature even to -45O C.
In modem packaging, laminate is a popular term. It is a combination of different flexible
packaging materials such as plastic, paper or foil bonded together by heat or adhesive
forming a composite structure of uniform thickness and flexibility.
For example - PolyesterRE, PaperlAluminum foilIPE
These laminates provide required functional properties, heat sealability and improve barrier
properties. Now technology is much more developed and produces a composite film in one
pass, no bonding between separate films is needed for a composite film. This is known as
coextruded film. Here two or more polymers fiom a common dye are extruded to come out as
a single layer. Thereby the cost of the composite structure and the thickness of the film are
reduced.
For example -
LDPE/HDPE/ LDPE
LDPE/ LDPE
LDPE/ HDPE.

Aluminum Foil
Plain aluminum foil is used for packaging food products. Thin guage aluminum foil with pin
holes are generally laminated to paper or plastic film with bonding agent to make suitable
laminates. These laminates are used to package food products requiring protection against
light, water vapour and gases especially dehydrated cooked meat. One distinct advantage of
using aluminum foil as the outer layer of a laminate is that it provides a very good base for
colourful and decorative printing.
Paper
Glassine is smooth, dense, transparent or semi-transparent paper manufactured primarily
from chemical wood pulps. It has good resistance to grease and air. A plasticizer may be
added to make the paper still more soft and machinable.
It may be waxed, lacquered or laminated to be impervious to the transmission of moisture
vapour. This is used for wrapping fatty cuts and bacon.
Parchment paper has good grease resistance and high wet strength. These papers are
sometimes used to wrapping bacon and other fatty cuts of meat.
Following are different terms used in trade:
Frozen foods paper is a type of high moisture and water vapour resistant paper used - for
inner liners in frozen food packaging; usually specially treated glassine or bleached chemical
wood papers, waxed papers, or plain or coated vegetable parchment paper; pliable and strong
to resist cracking at freezing temperatures and for high wet strength.
Meat wrapping paper is a specially treated odourless and tasteless paper that resists meat
juices, fat and greases, and is easy to remove from any kind of meat.
Delicatessen paper is used as an inner wrap for meats and for soft foods to retain the
moisture in the food and to prevent the outer wrapper from becoming water - or grease
soaked. It is made from bleached chemical wood pulp and may be given a dry paraffin wax
treatment of about 10 to 20 - per cent of the weight of the paper.
SEMI-RIGID PACKAGING MATERIALS
A semi-rigid container is intended to maintain a definite form or shape and is not influenced
by the bulk of the contents.
Paper board sheets are cut, folded into desired form and glued. Comers can be made
stronger. The material can be made as set up paper board boxes or folding carton or tray as
per the demand. It provides convenience, strength and good product protection.
PET (polyethylene terepthalate) and PVC plastic sheets can be moulded in shape, size and
colour to suit specific product requirements. PET bottles and containers are extremely clear,
virtually unbreakable and very light weight. They are ideal for the packaging of pickled meat
products. They provide enhanced visual appeal to the products.
Plain aluminum foil of higher guage either alone or in combination with paper or plastic
foils can be pressure formed into desired shapes to serve as semi-rigid containers for various
types of food products.
Moulded pulp containers are the cheapest packaging for the shell eggs. They allow
wholesale trading of eggs along with the tray.

RIGID PACKAGING MATERIALS

Glass containers are very old and versatile packages for food packaging. Glass has many
unique properties to our advantage. It is chemically inert and is an excellent barrier to solids,
liquids and gases. It can be molded in various shapes and sizes and also allows excellent
product visibility. Glass bottles are used for packaging meat pickles etc. The main drawbacks
of glass containers are the risk of breakage and comparatively heavy weight.
Metal cans are primarily used for commercially sterilized food products. Iron sheet used for
making can has very thin tin coating on either side. It is generally applied to check rusting
and corrosion of metal cans on long term storage. To make the metal can more suitable for
food application, a further very thin coating of enamel or lacquer is applied to the tin. For
canning of meat products, a sulphur-resistant lacquer is preferred to check black
discolouration of the product. Can bodies are soldered or welded. The product is hermatically
(air tight) sealed in the can.
Rigid thermoformed plastic containers are made by exposing the plastic sheet to heat and
forming into various shapes either individual pieces or in combination. The plastic used in the
thermoformed trays are high density polyethylene, polypropylene or polyvinyl chloride. In
developed countries, thermoformed polystyrene foam trays are used for containing fresh meat
pieces or chunks which is then overwrapped with low density polyethylene.
Fibreboard containers, wooden boxes and plastic crates are used as wholesale or shipping
containers. You will learn more about them in the next unit. You will also see and identify.
various packaging material in your practical classes.