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Biochemistry

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Abdulaziz Muhammed
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65 views42 pages

Biochemistry

Uploaded by

Abdulaziz Muhammed
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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> fvo ve Biochemistry is both a life science and a chemical science; it explores the chemistry of living organisms and the molecular basis for the changes occurring in living cells. Millions of complex chemical reactions are going on in the human body at any given time, ranging from the balance of the endocrine system to the storage and utilization of fuel molecules such as glucose. By studying and understanding these highly complex reactions, biochemists have found better ways to fight infections and diseases at the molecular level. Since an Engineer cannot repair a vehicle if he does not understand how it works, so a biochemist must understand how the living system works in order to proffer solutions in disease states. Thus much of biochemistry deals with the structures and functions of cellular components such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids collectively known as biomolecules. The main focus of biochemistry is in understanding how biological molecules give rise to the processes that occur within living cells, which in tur relates grealy to the study and understanding of the whole organism (human being). eferr to oye ace chemu © Paw esse 0 as Mm OY ganims: 1 9 aye aa Phung oa Biss jhe study Wing hings ok She i also \Anoun af brstoge cod ie Me eet tL oe ft compounds and aad Some cells are teplaced every 72 hours in our body while some spend up to ten years before they die, Also, some cells remain in our body throughout our lifetime, There are two basic types of cells in nature and these are prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, Prokaryotic cells are the simplest cells and are without a nucleus and cell organelles while eukaryotic cells are sophisticated cells with a well-defined nucleus and cell organelles. A group of cells forms tissue, various tissues forms an organ and different organs make up the body. It is important to understand compartmentalization and the functions of Various organelles present in the cells. Most biochemical Teactions take place inside the cell but in different organelles; for example, energy generation takes place inside the mitochondria, Thorough understanding of cell structure will help you to understand the ee causes of many diseases and the biochemical mechanisms of their treatment. agi MODULE2 STRUCTURE OF ANIMAL CELL, A living cell is defined as the fundamental unit of life and it is the smallest unit capable of exhibiting the characteristics of life. The cell was discovered in 1665 by Robert Hooke while examining a thin slice of cork under his new crude microscope. He observed numerous porous structures and named it the cell. The animal cells have different shapes and sizes; some are circular, spherical, cylindrical, fibrous etc. Redblood cells called erythrocytes are one of the smallest animal cells while ova are among the largest. In terms of length, nerve cells are the longest. For ease of Tepresentation, circular structure is commonly used to illustrate the structure of the animal cell pinocytotic vesicle \s an lysosome lochond vesicles oppathtue rough ER eo (oroticalom) ER cell (plasma) _, ‘membrane @EM.Anmarrong 2001 STRUCTURE OF THE ANIMAL CELL - ANSWER ANY FIVE. ounstioy 5 VI. a) Explain the word os in your own terms b) What isa pH c) List four nitrogenous bases of DNA \—2. a) What are vitamins? ene b) Write short note on Nucleic acids vt eet c) Draw the structure of D ant isomers of. glucose, ~~ 3. a) Describe the phosphate buffer system, b) Classify Amino acids based on nutritional requirenent c) Outline four (4) biological importance of water, ~ 4. a) What are Buffers? b) Write on the classification of. Protein based on its composition ~ ©) List any five (5) amino acids, lye 5. a) Write short note on fatty acids < b) Outline the classification of lipids ¢) Give four(4)functions of lipid 6, a) What are carbohydrates? ; b) Outline the classification of vitamins with example ©) List any four (4) biological buffers you know (47-2) Enumerate the classification of enzymes ~b) Outline (3) functions of carbohydrates ~ ©) List four(4)properties of enzymes EHS 20; ea ye /-MODULE2 abe ACID, BASE AND BUFFER isa proton donor. Its also a compound that dissociates in aqueous solution to produce (Ht) and a conjugate base (A). Ags reFere 400 Sein yuth @ koted pt A less thon 2 wy ny bresyen wen denen or @ subs tence 4A oneal hydreger von lun mactd gil H20- ’ ad, ac RE A! cou i HA +@—> H+" madd pm poper aN tise ty droyen av by arechvng, Acid may dissociate partially (called weak acid e.g. ethanoic acid, water) or completely (called Strong acid e.g. hydrochloric acid) in solution. In solution, weak acid establishes equili between the proton and its conjugate base. Weak acids are those which have a slight tend give up protons e.g. acetic acid. On the other hand, strong acids give up protons HCl ——H*+cr CH3COOH =———+CH3COO-+H* A Base is 2 compound that accepts proton in aqueous bases and weak bases. For example, sodium hydroxid very easily, and water is a weak base as itis a poor 4 C nes wilh tuyd oye ‘NaOH 20 PH of a solution is simply defined as the neg media. In simple terms it is a value that gives th value is expressed in a reverse or negative fon The pli of ll solutions ranges between Oand 14 ony. i 710 is neutral eg. water and pi anging fom 0 to 0.69 i acid and 7.1 to is base or alkaline. The normal pH of the blood plasma ranges between 7.35 and 7.45, average being 7.4. The intracellular pH of the tissues i 7.25 to 7.35 averaging to 7.30 and pH! of extracellular fluid is 730 0 7.40 with an average of 7.35. A decrease in the pH of blood is termed as acidosis and an increase in the pH of blood is termed as alkalosis. Alkalosis is more fatal than acidosis. Mathematically, PH = - log [H'] and pOH= -log(OH}] Ke HHA] {HA Where K is the equilibrium constant and is the Calculation of pH, pOH and pKa Examplel: If the H’ concentration SOLUTION: pH=log[H"], log[4.2x10°] = log4.2 Substitute for log [H'] in the pH=-(-2.38), the two negative cEt COB 50855080-gH 55 mous 5 6 058 O% hen an acid or a base a fawn pr / Burren ‘A buffer is a solution that resists changes in pH (hydrogen ion concentration) WI se added, A buffer contains a weak acid and its conjugate base Examples of buffer solutions are is Ox wente compaand Ak resis ke nits _Xcetate buffer (acetic acid and acetate salt), Bicarbonate buffer (carbonic fa and bicarbonate salt), hte and potassium hydrogen phosphate) ete. phosphate buffer (sodium hydrogen pose REGULATION OF pH SOLUTION BY BUFFER if GB) hydrogen ions are added to a buffer solution, the conjugate base reacts with hydrogen fons to form the acid. On the other hand, if (OH) hydroxyl ions are adde with the acid present inthe buffer to produce water and conjugate base. 4 PREPARATION OF BUFFER 4 Hlenderson-Hasselbalch equation is usually To prepare buffer, acid and base components ofthe buffer 1 Be prepared. “The equation is pH'=pka+ loa 1A OGICAL IMPORTANCE OF BUF! BIOL! Buffers are chemical substances that help Buffering is important in living 8 environment also known as homeosta evn in system. food 15 0 substenee {luk a aie a es argh i afl Ger so proton ocep wi \ 2 SYSTEM AND THEIR IMPORTANCE: ea oar GENERALBIOCHEMISTRYFORENVIRONMENTALHEALTH 1. The maintenance of blood PH is regulated via the bicarbonate buffer. This system consists or carbonic acid and bicarbonate ions, When the blood pH drops into the acidic range, this buffer acts to form carbon dioxide gas. The lungs expel this gas out of the body during the Process of respiration. During alkaline conditions, this buffer brings the pH back to neutral by causing excretion of he bicarbonate fons through the urine. ‘The phosphate buffer system acts in a manner similar to the bicarbonate buffer oa ithas a much stronger action. The intemal environment of all cells ‘emprisng hydrogen phosphate ions and dihydrogen phosphate fons, Und “ess hydrogen enters the cll, it reacts with the hydrogen them. Under alkaline conditions, the dihydrogen phosph ions that enter the cell, I Reywohen & toot pl if \k bubfeing gered jubuler eee ce EHS 207 GENERALBIOCHEMISTRYFORENVIRONMENTALHEALTH Classification of Sugars [Classification based on number of — | Aldoses Ketoses * {Carbon atom : “Trioses(C3H603) Giyceraldehyde | Dihiydroxyacetone ‘Tetroses(C4H804) Brythrose Erythnulose Pentoses(CSH1005) Ribose Ribulose Hexoses(C6H1206) Glucose Fructose Heptoses(C7H1407) Sugars with differ Disaccharides: These are eon glucose), maltose (2 gluco Oligosaccharides: Thes human enzymes rather the Polysaccharides: These contains a wide variety of j which are not digestible k Examples include; cellulos Ox Ne wou . ween \ Lol |e He AH EHS 207 Isomers of Glucose Tsomerism is the occurrence of compounds with the same chemical formula but different formula, The important types of isomerism found in glucose are D and L. designation of a sugar isomer as the D form or ofits mirror image as the L form is det spatial relationship to the parent compound of the carbohydrates. The ori groups around the C atom adjacent to the terminal primary alcohol carbe sugar belongs to D or L series (when the -OH group on thi levorotatory). Epimers of Glucose Functions of carbohydrates Provide instant energy to the body. Carbohydrates which we consume: release glucose. This glucose after t i cell. It gets metabolized to rel mitochondria. Reserve food: Carbohydrat precautionary measure forth obtained by food is convert happens in the presence of th extent in the skeletal museles and provides energy: Detoxification of the body | : penn ; ns in all species from bactere to humang “fomade fom the same set of twenty amino aclds. Amin aids take part in many types of reactions, - but_themostimportantofthesestheformationofapeptidebond.Thisinvolves the joining of the a- carboxyl group of one amino acid to the a-amino group of another amino acid, with the loss of a ‘water molecule. Amino acids are grouped according to the nature of their side chains. Since amino 4 ‘acids are weak acids, their strength is expressed as pKa (negative log of ionization constant) The net charge on an amino ee on the it i i pka ofits functional groups and the pH of the surrounding. Or ae Substance AN onds incite cron of. proteins = Po Core MY Gy ogante compound ten an amuts grup and core aoa) gre ‘Cheinical nature of amino acids % ea es An amino acid consists of amino group, a carboxyl group (-COOH), a hydrogen atom (H) and a istinctive R group bonded to a carbon atom, called the a-carbon. The R group is specific to each amino acid. Amino acids in solution at neutral pH are predominantly dipolar ions also called a Zwitterions. In the dipolar form, the amino group is protonated (-NH3*) while the carboxyl group is dissociated (- , COO). The ionization state of an amino acid varies with pH. At physiological pH, carboxyl groups exist almost entirely as -COO- and amino groups predominantly as -NH3*. H Ho Bald ’ ett tug* : ti, 7 Structure of amino acid at ionization states as a function of pH 14 bankislyorot oa 94 FORMATION OF PEPTIDE BONDS _ The most important reaction of amino acids is the formation of a peptide bond. ‘This involves the joining ofthe a- carboxy group of one aminoacid to the a-amino group of another ‘amino acid, with resultant loss of a water molecule. The biosymthesis of peptide bonds requires an input of free ‘energy, whereas ther hydrolysis is thermodynamicaly favorable. Many amino acids (usually > 100) are joined by peptide bonds to form a polypeptide chain. 4 4H | 45N — C—CcooH ae Te —_ COOH I { i Aamo aed 4 RQ, Re Atma aed 2. eh z lina all ‘or alkalis but are convertible to water-soluble gelatin and are easily digestible by enzymes, 2. Bastin: Present in tendons, arteries and other elastic tissues, not convertible to gelatin, - 3. Keratins: These are proteins found inthe har and nil et. B. Globular proteins: These are globular or ovoid in shape, soluble in water and constitute the enzymes, oxygen carrying proteins, hormones ete Classification based on biological functions Proteins are sometimes described as the "work horses" of the cell because they do so many ad VENMMeHe Cakoly srs things like: Li co-oy dinoed nel INe a laimanetotethe Actasenzymes kinases, tansaminass i a 4 is ora a Act as storage proteins e.g. myoglobin, ferritin F Tyansperk Storage Act as regulatory proteins e.g. peptide hormones, DNA binding proteins Actas structural protein e.g. collagen, proteoglycan Act as protective proteins e.g. blood clotting factors, Immunoglobins, Act as transport protein e.g. hemoglobin, plasma lipoproteins Act as contractile or motile proteins e.g. actin, tubulin Bese en compenten « 0 Shope : a n Biology col funchon vole ef protemn “ Solubhty Protevns acid into: a. Monounsaturated Fatty Acids (MUFA): They contain only one double bond per fatty 8 atoms and acid. Oleic acid is the most abundant monounsaturated FA in nature with Cl cist? cis? means position of the double bond) Palmitoleie acid is another example of MUFA, and it is present nearly in all fats. Palmitoleic has C16 atoms and isd? (cist? ‘means position of the double bond) Name of fatty ‘Number ofearbon atoms Position of the double bond Palmitoleic acid 16 cis? pee. Oleic acid 18 isd? ° ‘These are the FAs obtained from plant seeds. b. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA): PUFA, double bonds are usually ‘They usually contain 2 or more double bonds. Tn separated by a methylene (CH) group. PUFA are present in oils such as soya bean oil, Examples of PUFA are linoleic, linolenic groundnut oil, sunflower, benne-seed oll ete. 3 fatty acid respectively. they are also called omega 6 and omega and arachidonic acids; 50 referred to as essential PUFA because animals cannot ‘These two PUFA are als synthesize them, therefore they must be supplied he body in the diet. 4 ye hitd BHS 207 ‘MODULE? Nameoffatiyacid [Nember of carbon [Number of double | Position of the atoms bonds double bond Tinoleie acid 8 2 cis 12 Tinolenie acid 18 3 eiga 1215 ‘Arachidonic acid 20 4 gig 8 1114 asp farh acud vefers: to alecier predwed placing one —F Ihe Gs Ben atoms of hejboderben Eyre Eaceen grP > Classification of Lipids Lipids can be classified in to the following: 1. Simple lipids: These are esters of fatty acids with different alcohols. ied lind ates 45 ol sygQurut molvcle mee ve pager & as: COLYER What wilh at duysclue in HO buf dissect nenpeter Celt) Sul neg" > REPS Tits: - These are esters of fatty acids with glycerol. They are known as triacylelycerols (TAG) or triglycerides. > Waxes: - Esters of fatty acids with high molecular weight monohydrie alcohols > ‘Trineylglycerols: These are esters of fatty acids with a glycerol and are storage forms of Fpids in mammals, Triacyleyeerols also called traeylplycerides exist a8 simple or mixed types depending on the type of fatty acids that form esters with the glycerol. Triacylglycerols are mainly found in special cells called adipocytes (ft cells), of the mammary gland, abdomen and under skin of animals. Scturated fatty aati) aefers fo a 7 i ate linkage I, /t J actd tour u a aA carbon chain wifl, no double son oe wile J wade unseturmted FoHy hue ome oy mere double b | a chemo! Fenmulee = Paimbe aed P es Chay COO 95 ss Bech iiscce ie ccd CWE Carta ec~oo 14 = Munshe acié © cts Cet yp Coons ¥ Structure of Triacylglycerides 2 Compound lipids:- Simple lipids in combination with some other groups are called SOmpound lipids. Depending upon the group (prosthetic sro) up) attached the compound lipids are further classified as: ® Phospholipids: - They contain a Phosphoric acid asthe prosthetic group. Depending upon the aleohol present they are grouped into Glycerophospholipids (the alcohol is glycerol) ©8- —_Phosphatidylchotine, __phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidyiserine, Phosphatidylinositol ete and Sphingophospholipids (the alcohol is sphingosine) e.g. Sphingomyelin which contains a fatty acid atthe amino group. » Glycolipids: These lipids contain a fatty acid, sphingosine and carbohydrate residues. They are also known as cerebroside. 3. Derived lipids: Derived lipids are the hydrolytic products ofthe simple and compound lipids, They include fatty acids and steroids. uyeci( ) es Super ste stvond rt Sera lae; Cored TD penned earn Mi a 10. 115 12. 2 ony & worebous macrom , se conubtoenls

pelrshes esf-c “ Compound reid fhe esters

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