Learning Institute Your Source for HVAC&R Professional Development Fundamentals of Water System Design (SI Edition) A Fundamentals of HVAC&R Series Self-Directed Learning Course me) 1791 Tullie Circle NE * Atlanta, GA 30329 » www.ashrae.orgASHRAE Learning Institute Fundamentals of Water System Design (SI Edition) Prepared by Richard A. Hegberg, P.E. Hegberg & Associates ASHRAE 1791 Tullie Circle NE Atlanta, GA 30329 ASHRAE Learning Institute SI Conversion by Gerry Pa Australian Institute of Air Conditioning & Heating, Inc. SI Conversion sponsored by the Australian Institute of Refrigeration, Air Conditioning & Heating Ine.ASHRAE Fundamentals of HVAC&R Series Fundamentals of. Psychrometries Air System Design Steam System Design Heating and Cooling Loads Heating Systems Thermodynamics Water System Design Refrigeration CoB Talay Fundamentals of... HVAC Control Systems HVAC Systems Refrigeration Standard 62.1-2010, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor ‘Air Quality Standard 90.1-2004, Energy Efficiency in New Buildings Fundamentals of Water System Design ST A Course Book for Self-Directed or Group Learning, ASHRAE Learning Institute ASHRAE is a registered trademark in the U.S, Patent and Trademark Office, owned by the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineer, Inc © 1999 ASHRAE All rights reserved, No. part of this publication may be reproduced without permission in writing from ASHRAE, execpt by a reviewer who may quote brief passages or reproduce illustrations in 4 review with appropriate credit; nor may any part of this Book be reproduced, stored in a retieval system, wed in any Way or by any means (electronic, photocopyin recording or ther) without permission in waiting from ASHRAE, Requests For permission should be submited! at wwwwashrac.org/permissions ASHRAE has compiled this publication with eare, but ASHRAF has not investigated, and ASHRAE expressly disclaims any duty o investigate, any product, serve, process, procedure, ‘design of the like that may be described herein. 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Phil For course information or to order additional materials, please contact: ASHRAE Leaming Institute Telephone: 404/636-8400 1791 Tullie Cirle, NE Fax: 404/321-5478 Atlanta, Ga 3032) Web: wo waashrae.org/ali E-mail: [email protected] Any errors or omissions in the data should by brought tothe attention of Special Publications via e-mail at [email protected] "Any updateserrata to this publication will be posted on the ASHRAE Web site at wewashrac.org/publicationupdates.Learning Institute 1791 Tale Circe, NE # Atanca, GA 30329-2305 USA + Phone 678.539.1146 + Fax 878.539.2146 + wwwashrae org Karen M, Murray Email: [email protected] Manager Professional Development Dear Student, Welcome to an ASHRAE Learning Institute (ALI) self-directed or group learning course. 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Murray Manager of Professional Development ASHRAE AN INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION| Table of Contents Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts + Instructions + Study Objectives for Chapter 1 + LI Introductory Concepts + 1.2 Basic System Components 1.3 Heat Transfer in Hydronic Systems +14 Load Systems *+ The Next Step + Summary * Bibliography + Skill Development Exercises for Chapter | Chapter 2 Piping System Design * Instructions + Study Objectives for Chapter 2 . Basic Considerations Design Philosophy Sizing Piping Flow Rate Measurement + The Next Step + Summary * Bibliography * Skill Development Exercises for Chapter 2 RoaSE Chapter 3 Pipe Material sand Fittings «+ Instructions + Study Objectives for Chapter 3 +31 Pipe Materials +32 Corrosion Valves and Fit ngs Backflow-Prevention Devices +35 Pipe Selection + The Next Step + Summary + Bibliography + Skill Development Exercises for Chapter 3 Fundamentals of Water System Design Table of Contentsa Chapter 4 Centrifugal Pumps + Instruci + Study Objectives for Chapter 4 + 4.1 Types of Pumps +42 Pump Selection +43 System Design Considerations = The Next Step + Summary * Bibliography + Skill Development Exercises for Chapter 4 ons Chapter 5 Terminal U1 it Performance and Control + Instructions + Study Objectives for Chapter 5 5.1 Types of Terminals + 5.2 Performance and Control +53. System Control Characteristics +54 System Control Configurations + The Next Step + Summary + Bibliography + Skill Development scises for Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Expansion Tanks and Air Elimination * Instructions + Study Objectives for Chapter 6 + 6.1 Open and Closed Water Systems +62 — Hydronic Accessories +63 Sizing Expansion Tanks + The Next Step + Summary * Bibliography * Skill Development Exercises for Chapter 6 Table of Contents Fundamentals of Water Sssiom Design< S Chapter 7 Piping System Development * Instructions * Study Objectives for Chapter 7 + 7.1 Piping System Design +72 Direct Return Analysis + 7.3. Reverse Return Analysis +74 Primary-Secondary Analysis +75 Types of Pumps and Valves + 7.6 Primary-Secondary Application Study + 7.7 Antifreeze Solutions for Low Temperature Applications +78 Pumping Design Factors « The Next Step * Summary * Bibliography * Skill Development Exercises for Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Matching Pumps to Systems * Instructions + Study Objectives for Chapter 8 +81 +8. +83 +84 +85 +86 +387 +88 Matching the Pump to the System Parallel Pumping Series Pumping Standby Pumps ‘Trimming Pump Impellers Two-Speed Pumping Variable Speed Pumping Source Distribution Pumping + The Next Step ummary + Bibliography + Skill Development Exercises for Chapter 8 Fundamentals of Water System Design Table of ContentsA Chapter 9 Water Chillers and Load Control + Instructions + Study Objectives for Chapter 9 + 9.1 Basic Water Chiller Components °92 Refi ation Cycle *9.3 Heat Transfer Chiller +94 — Refrigeration Power +95 Chiller Types and Control + 9.6 Chiller Piping Arrangements +97 Chiller Energy Performance +98 — Thermal Storage + Summary * Conclusion * Bibliography ill Development Exercises for Chapter 9 ‘Skill Development Exercises for All Chapters Table of Contents Fundamentals of Water System DesignChapter 1 Contents of Chapter 1 + Instructions Study Objectives for Chapter 1 +11 Introductory Concepts + 1.2 Basic System Components + 1.3 Heat Transfer in Hydronic Systems +14 Load Systems +The Next Step mmary * Bibliography * Skill Development Exercises for Chapter 1 Instructions Read Chapter | and, at the end of the chapter, answer all of the questions, Study Objectives for Chapter 1 After studying the material in this chapter, you should: + Know what determines the load. + Understand the difference between closed and open systems. + Know the components of a hydronic system. * Understand heating versus cooling source devices + Understand how systems meet part-load conditions + Be able to identify temperature and pressure ranges for low, medium and high temperature water systems. + Know what sensible, latent and total heat loads are and how they affect design water flow. + Be able to identify examples of heating and cooling load devices. + Know how load diversity suggests a reduction in total cooling capacity required. Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts5 LI Introductory Concepts Water system design depends on the designer's ability to evaluate the space loads, occupaney pat- tems and indoor environment requirements. This chapter examines the actual process of water system design and provides information on how to evaluate space loads. I also provides strategiesand formulas for mastering the key requirements for water systems. Water systems that convey heat to or from a conditioned space or process with hot or chilled water are frequently called hydronic systems. In general, these systems employ centrifugal pumps to force water flow from a heating or a cooling source to the conditioned space or load by means of various piping, pumping, con- trol and terminal arrange- mments.! ae Given the design require- Load ments, it is the designer's task toevaluate the space loads re- sulting from building con- struction, weather distribution, occupancy patterns, indoor en- vironment requirements and other internal loads to deter- mine the total load (see Fig- “NE ure 1-1), subject to the local building codes. The loads in- Figure 1-1, Source-Load clude: transmission, solar ra- diation, infiltration, ventilation air, people, lights, power, ap- pliances and materials in and te} out. The historical weather distri- DISTRIBUTION bution for the project location is important, and a means to control the systems at part- load conditions to maintain comfort conditions for the oc- cupants must be studied for proper design. The designer must weigh the cost of the source utilities available, and also the efficiencies of boilers and chillers or other hydronic sources to determine the most efficient system design (see Figure 1-2). The system must eeee Figure 1-2. Source-Distribution-Load Chapter 1 Water System Design Comeepts Fundamentals of Water System Design1:3 be able to operate between part-load and full-load conditions. In many cases, the hydronic system is a support system providing the heating or cooling medium for heat transfer equipment in an air distribution system. This course is intended to ac- quaint the student with the DISTRIBUTION =——__PUMP various hydronic principles and practices available for to} consideration in a project's design concept. Figure 1-3 shows the ba- ie components of a hy- dronic system that the de- ner must define for an iv ‘AC system; namely, a SOURCE LOAD LOAD source of heating or cool- ing, a distribution system and the load components There are different classi- fications of hydronic sys- tems; the most common types are summarized be- Ze low. As you familiarize yourself with the various Two.way THREE-WAY systems, remember that CONTROL VALVE CONTROL VALVE different factors may come into play for each. Figure 1-3, Source ~ Distribution ~ Part-Load Water systems may be closed or open types. The fundamental difference between them is the interface of the water with a compressible gas (such as air) or an elastic surface (such as a diaphragm). A closed water system is defined as one with no more than one point of interface with a compressible gas (air) or surface (see Figure [~4). This definition is fundamental to understanding the hydraulic dynamics of these sys- tems (to be discussed under expansion chambers). ‘An open system has more than one such interface. For example, a cooling tower has at least two points of interface: the tower basin and the discharge pipe or nozzles entering the tower. In Figure 1-5, the difference between the hydraulics of the systems becomes evident as one ana- lyzes the two systems. However, one major difference is that certain hydraulic characteristics of open systems do not occur in closed systems. For example, in a closed system: + Flow cannot be motivated by static head differences; + Pumps do not provide ft; and, + The entire piping system is always filled with water. These factors affect the installation and operating costs of the system over its service life. Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts14 Expansion _ Distribution \ Pump Distribution System Source Load at ure I-4, Hydronic System Fundamentals (Closed System) Closed water systems are classified by operating temperature. (While these classifications are defined by the ASME Boiler Codes and provide a useful means of categorizing wa- ter systems, Australasian students should be aware that boiler systems are also classified under Australian Standards according to construction, type, pressure rating, output capac- ity and fuel type.) Closed water sys- tems are classified as follows: + Low temperature water (LTW) system. This hydronic heat- ing system operates within the pres- sure and temperature limits of the ASME Boiler Code for low-pressure boilers (see Figure 1-6). The maxi- mumallowable working pressure for low pressure boilers is 1100 kPa, with a maximum temperature of 120°C. The usual maximum work- ing pressure for LTW boiler systems is 200 kPa, although boilers specifically designed, tested and stamped for higher pressures are frequently used. Steam-to-water and water-to- water heat exchangers are also used for heating low temperature water. + Medium temperature water (MTW) system. This hydronic heating system operates at temperatures between 120°C and 125°C, with pressures not exceeding 1100 kPa (see Figure 1-7). The design supply water temperature is approximately 120°C to 150°C, with a pressure rating of 1000 kPa for boilers and equipment. nv. orn Figure 1-5. Cooling Tower (Open System) Chapter 1 Water System Design Comeepis Fundamentals of Water System Design15 Distribution Pump Typical REVERSE RETURN Figure 1-6. Low Temperature Water System — Direct or Reverse Return, Connections far Two oF More Boilers in HTW Systems Pressurized by Steam or Nitrogen Gas Pipi Figure 1-7. Medium or High Temperature Water System Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts5 + High temperature water (HTW) system. This hydronic heating system operates at tem- peratures over 175°C, with pressures not exceeding 2070 kPa, The maximum design supply water temperature is about 200°C, with a pressure rating for boilers and equipment of 2070 kPa (see Figure 1-7). The pressure/temperature rating of each component should be checked for eompli- ance with the system’s design versus the manufacturer's ra ne. * Chilled water (CHW) system. A hydronic cooling system normally operates with a desig supply water temperature of 4°C to 13°C (usually 6°C or 7°C) within a pressure range of 825 kPa. Figure 1-8 shows a small-to medium-sized system with constant speed pumping employing three- way valves to ensure constant flow in the chiller source and balancing valves on each load for flow measurement and adjustment, Larger systems may employ two-way control valves and different chiller piping and pumping arrangements to reduce pumping power. Antifreeze or brine solutions may be used for applications (process applications) that require tem- peratures below 4°C or for coil freeze protection. Well or bore water systems can use supply tem- peratures of 15°C or higher Figure 1-8. Chilled Water System — Direct Return Piping * Dual temperature water system. This hydronic combination heating and cooling system circulates hot and/or chilled water through separate supply and retumn pipes to common terminal coils (see Figure 1-9). This system operates within the pressure and temperature limits of LTW systems, with usual winter design supply water temperatures of about 35°C to 65°C and summer supply water temperatures of 4°C to 7°C. System design should consider protection to prevent temperature shock to the chiller or boiler on cycle changeover. Chapter 1 Water System Design Comeepts Fundamentals of Water System Design7 Figure 1-9, Dual Temperature, Four Pipe Water System * Condenser water (CW) system. Open water systems are typically used in refrigeration condenser water systems as once-through or cooling tower systems. (Once-through systems may not be legally allowed in Australia and other countries if connected to mains water supply.) Figure /-10 shows a water cooled condenser using bore or river water. The return is run higher than the condenser so that the condenser is alway’ full of water. Water flow through the condenser is modu- lated by a control valve in the supply line, This is usually actuated by condenser head pressure to maintain a constant condensing temperature with load variations. Unions for pen Head ise aut wt Removal Compression Drain Thermometers Receiver Figure 1-10, Condenser Open Water System (Once Through) Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 1 Water System Design Conceptsa Figure J-11a shows a cooling tower application.' The basic requirements for any cooling tower pipework are to ensure that the condenser water pump suction is flooded so that it has sufficient net positive suction head to operate without cavitation and to ensure a positive head on the pump flanges and seals. The pipework arrangement should also prevent water from draining back to the cooling tower on pump shutdown; this may cause the sump to overflow, resulting in loss of water and chemicals to waste. This is often facilitated by using a check valve fitted on the discharge side of the pump. Figure I-11b shows two cooling tower applications to protect against low outdoor temperature conditions. Water flows to the pump from the tower basin, and the level should be above the top of the pump casing for positive prime, and piping pressure drop should be minimized. Return te alow evel belo tan vetueaseras once Pie _ ¥ Sereen * waste Staine_/ Pune. @= Quek Fit VaNve crearvine/ ran tose meas beens Thermal Peeks Figure I-11a, Condenser Cooling Tower System Indoor Reservoir Indoor Heater Figure 1-11b. Condenser Cooling Tower System Inside Reservoir or Heated Sump Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts Fundamentals of Water System Design|: © 1.2 Basic System Components Figure 1-12 shows the fundamental components of @ closed hydronic system. Actual systems generally have additional components (such as valves, vents, ete.), but these are not essential to the basic principles underlying the concept of the system. These fundamental components are: + Source system * Load system + Pump system + Distribution system n chamber 12. Hydronic System Fundamental Components Source, The source is the point where heat is added in a heating system or removed from a cooling xystem, Ideally, the amount of energy entering or leaving the source equals the amount entering or leaving through the load system, Under steady-state conditions, the load energy and source energy are equal and opposite. In reality, energy conversion and/or transfer is not perfect and the source has an efficiency of less than 100%. Each type of source has its own efficiency characteristics as a function of load. You must consider this source efficiency in the system design process. Any de- vice that can be used to heat or cool water under controled conditions can be used as a source device. Sources typically function in one of two ways: + By converting chemical, electrical or solar energy to heat, which is then tran ‘water in the system; or + By transferring heat from one system to another. The most common source devices for heating and cooling systems are: + Heating source devices: Hot water generator or boiler; steam-to-water heat exchanger (see Figure 1-13); water-to-water heat exchanger (see Figure I-13); solar collector pan- els; heat recovery or salvage heat device; exhaust gas heat exchanger; incinerator heat exchanger; heat pump condenser; and air-to-water heat exchanger, Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts{1 * Cooling source devices: Electric compression chiller (see Figure 1-14); thermal absorp- tion chiller (see Figure J-14); heat pump evaporator; air-to-water heat exchanger; and water-to-water heat exchanger. A typical large chilled water system with multiple chillers, various load controls and compound pumping is shown in Figure I-14, This system provides variable flow, constant supply tempera- ture chilled water, multiple chillers, two-way valve control and the advantage of adding chilled water storage. One design issue shown is the placement of the common pipe for the chillers. With the common pipe located at the opposite end of the chiller production section, the chillers will unload from right to left. With the common pipe in the alternate location (between the chilled water production and the loads), the chillers will load and unload equally in proportion to their capacity (see Chapter 9 for further discussion), ‘Condensate or Hot Water Retumn Figure 1-13. Steam-to-Water or Water-to-Water Heat Exchanger Figure 1-14. Multiple Chiller-Variable Flow Chilled Water System Chapter 1 Water System Design Comeepts Fundamentals of Water System Design|: * ‘ary considerations in selecting a source device are the design capacity and the part- load capability, which when combined define the turndown ratio, The turndown ratio, expressed in percent of design capacity, is: enna 10M nimum Sepa) Il Design Capacity The reciprocal of the turndown ratio is sometimes used. For example, a tumndown ratio of 25% may also be expressed as a turndown ratio of 4. ‘The turndown ratio has a significant effect on the successful performance of a system, and lack of consideration far this capability of the source system has heen responsible for many systems that do not function properly or do so at the expense of excess energy consumption. The turndown ratio has a significant impact on the ultimate system design selection because operating efficiencies tend to decrease as the turndown ratio decreases, Generally, the larger the boiler or chiller on a single unit basis, the more difficult it is to achieve acceptable operation efficiencies and, therefore, acceptable costs for the low load portion of its seasonal operation. Seasonal operation at less than 50% load can, in the case of heating, be over 50% of its total duty hours; in northern climates, a similar ratio may occur during cooling seasons. This presents the designer with a dilemma. You must specify a system that meets the maximum. requirements, but in doing that, the system may operate ineffectively for most of its duty season. One approach to solving this dilemma is by using multiple sources of lower capacity (see Figure 114). Another design consideration is the diversity of the cooling load. Carrier’ states that “diversity of cooling load results from the probable non-occurrence of part of the cooling load on a design day. Diversity factors are applied to the refrigeration capacity in large air-conditioning systems. These factors vary with location, type and size of the application, and are based entirely on the judgment of the engineer.” The diversity factor, as a ratio of actual load/design load, can be applied to people and lighting loads in large multistory office, hotel or apartment buildings. For example, in an office building, the diversity factor for the refrigeration capacity due to people may be from 0.75 to 0.90 and, due to the lighting, from 0.70 to 0.85. In addition, the design engineer must consider the storage load factors for heat gain due to lighting and solar gains by glass. Specific methods of load control for chilled water plants will be discussed later in this course. But, the following example shows that improved control and reduced operating costs will result if two or more chillers of lower capacity are considered rather than a single large unit. Under part-load operation, the excess capacity is reduced by phasing out units, allowing the remaining units to operate at greater efficiencies and with lower costs. Consider multiple chillers, in the following, arrangements (see Figures 1-15a and 1-15b): Two Units Three Units 1 @ 60% load 1 @ 50% load 1 @ 40% load 1 @ 25% load 1 @ 25% load Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts4:12 Distribution foe Pump uw = = 2 — Chiller Pumps -<_—__ Figure 1 |Sa. Multiple Chiller Example Distribution Pump CHILLER CHILLER CHILLER g 8 ae Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts Fundamentals of Water System DesignLE TET In addition to offering the potential of improved operational efficiencies, we can eliminate the expense of providing a standby should it be a project requirement. Full standby can be accom- plished by duplicating the largest unit of either set, or duplicating the smallest is practical and can provide 80% (two at 40%) for the two-unit group and 75% (three at 25%) minimum standby for the three-unit group. The economics available for a single boiler versus a multiple boiler hot water plant, including power required for ancillary equipment, are illustrated by the following chart (for system schemat- ics, see Figures 1-16a, 1-16b and 1-16c). System 1 2 3 aes | com | 3500 | aso | ao | i500 | 1500 eweew |e eps ps ps ps epew [7s [as ps ps mam | = [sf ? fe? |? iced | = |» |» | ws | we | aes ‘Note that a light load condition for System 1 requires 22 kW for the ancillary equipment to operate, while System 2 requires 7 kW ancillary and System 3 requires only $ kW ancillary. Because the system will operate at light loads many hours of the year, the operating cost of such ancillary equipment must be compared over the operating season. In addition, some boiler manufacturers may require a separate pump to circulate the boiler, with a ‘minimum boiler flow at light loads to reduce thermal shock and tube bumout. ‘Note check valves in the pump discharge to prevent backflow through an idle boiler or chiller when multiple units are provided (see Figures 1-15a, 1-15b, 1-168 and 1-16c). Fundamentals of Water System Design (Chapter 1 Water System Design ConceptsFigures 1-16a and 1-16b. Mul le Boiler Examples Figure 1-16c. Multiple Boiler Example Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts Fundamentals of Water System Design|: 1S Design trade-offs. Remember, the improved efficiency comes with an initial installation cost pen- alty. As the designer, you must work out the acceptable trade-off in initial installation cost that a customer will accept for reduced operational expenses over the life of the system, This will be easier to accomplish when backup system requirements are considered in the decision, System temperatures. As the designer, you must design temperatures and temperature ranges by considering the performance and economics of the components. For example, for a cooling system that must maintain 50% RH at 25°C (see Figure 1-17), the dewpoint temperature is 13°C, which sets the maximum return water temperature near 13°C (15.5°C maximum); the lowest practical temperature for refrigeration, considering the freezing point and the economics, is about 4.5°C. This temperature spread then sets constraints for a chilled water system. For a heating system, the maximum hot water temperature (as established by the ASME Low Pressure Code) is normally 120°C, with low pressure systems operati and with space temperature requirements of little over 24°C, the actual operating supply temperatures and the temperature ranges are set by the desi relating to the distribution and pumping systems favor the use of the maximum possible tempera- ture range Av. Load. The load is the point where heat flows out of or into the system from the space or process; it is the independent variable to which the remainder of the system must respond. Outward heat flow characterizes a heating system, and inward heat flow characterizes a cooling system. The quantity ‘of heating or cooling is calculated by one of the means discussed in the following section. 2 = 2 gk 2 2 55 —€ WZ 3 DP 10% Rh = R 45°C 13°C 24°C + =Temperature Figure 1-17. Psychrometric Chart-Chilled Water Example Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts|: 6 1.3 Heat Transfer in Hydronic Systems Seystnie He ow CooLing oF AiR The quantity of heat entering or leaving the airstream (see Figure 1~18) is expressed by q= Q,p,¢, 4t I where: heat transfer rate, KW Q, — = air flow rate, m/s P, = density of air, kg/m? 6, = specific heat of air, kifke:°C At = air temperature change, For standard air with density of 1.2 kg/m’ and specific heat of 1.0 kI/kg.°C, this equation becomes: = 1.0 kike-°C x 1.2 kg/m? q=12@, At 13 Examen 1-1 Assume in the system shown in Figure 1-18 that the air upstream of the heating coils is 15°C and the air temperature leaving the heating coils is 55°C. Given that c, = 1.0 kl/kg-°C, Q, = 2500 Lis and the density is 1.2 kg/m', calculate the heat transfer rate of the system: q = 1.2Q, ar = 12 m'/s°C q = (1.2) (2.5 ms) (55°C - 15°C) q = 120kW Heating Coil pk} 15°C SS 55°C Air 2500 Lis Fan a Figure 1-18. Sensible Heating Example Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts Fundamentals of Water System Design|< 17 ‘The heat exchanger or coil must then transfer this heat to the water. The quantity of sensible heat transferred to the heated or cooled medium in a specific heat exchanger is a function of the surface area, the mean temperature difference between the water and the medium, and the overall heat transfer coefficient, which is a function of the fluid velocities, properties of the medium, geometry of the heat transfer surfaces and other factors (see Figure 1-19a). It may be expressed by. q=UA(LMTD) Ia where: q heat transfer rate, W U_—_ =overall coefficient of heat transfer, W/m’ A wurface area, m? LMTD = logarithm mean temperature difference, heated medium to water, Heating Coil \ 60°C 55°C Air Duct 1200 mm x 900 mm Figure 1-19a. Coil LMTD Example Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts|S Exams 1-2 In Figure 1-19a, assume that the coil has a U of 850 W/m-°C/row. The upstream temperature is 15°C and the air temperature leaving the coil is 35°C. Water enters the heating coil at 70°C and leaves at 60°C. The duct size is 1200 mm x 900 mm and the coil has four rows. Find the heat transfer rate (see also Figure 1-196): First, determine the LMT! I-4b LMTD = Sfos = Af Mines 45 in| 4% Minin = 15 Min 45-15 e Sa73°C Next, using LMTD, find q: q = UAC@MTD) [850 (W/n?.°Cyfrow} (1.2 m x 0.9 m) (27.3°C) (4 rows) = 100246 W (100.25 kW) 70" Nyy = 70° - 58° = 18°C 55° Age = 60°15" = 45°C TEMPERATURE, °C DISTANCE, Figure 1-19b. Coil LMTD Example Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts Fundamentals of Water System Design|: 1° Latent COOLING AND DEHUMIDIFICATION OF AIR ‘The quantity of heat removed from the cooled medium (see Figure /-20) when both sensible cooling and dehumidification are present is expressed by Wah 1-5 where: 4, = total heat transfer rate, KW W = mass flow rate of cooled medium, kg/s Ah = enthalpy difference of entering and leaving conditions of cooled medium, ki/kg Expressed for a cooling coil, this equation becomes: 4, = O,p,4h 16 where: Q, = air flow rate, mvs p, = density of air, kg/m" is 1.2 kg/m’ and the formula reduces to: CHWR 11°C hy = 32 kd/kg 28°C 54.5 kulkg Figure 1-20. Cooling and Dehumidification Coil Example Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts1: 20, Exam 1-3 For the system shown in Figure 1-20, determine the heat transfer rate for the sensible cooling/ dehumidification process, assuming entering air is 28°C and enthalpy is 54.5 kI/kg, and discharge air is 11°C and saturated at enthalpy of 32 kI/k; g, =1.2@, 4h 1.22.5 miss) (5 = 675 kW Hear TRANSFERRED TO OR FROM WATER ‘The quantity of heat transferred to or from the water is a function of the flow rate, the specific heat and the temperature drop or rise of the water as it passes through the heat exchanger. The heat transferred to or from the water is expressed by: 4, =me, At 1-8 where: q,, = heat transfer rate from water, KW 1m = mass flow of water, ke/s ¢, = specific heat of water, kI/kg-K (at constant pressure) At= temperature increase or decrease across unit, °C. (Note: temperature difference °C is often expressed in terms of kelvin, K) ‘These equations are also used to express the heat carrying capacity of the piping or distribution system of any portion of that system. In this regard, the temperature differential Ar, sometimes called the temperature range, is established or identified. For any flow rate through the piping, q,, is called the heat carrying capaci With water systems, it is common to express the flow rate in litres per second (L/s), in which case the equation becomes: 4, = 0.001 p,c,Q, At 19 wher vater flow rate, L/s Q, p,, = density of water, kg/m? For typical conditions in which density is 1000 kg/m? and speci tion becomes: heat is 4.19 ki/kg-K, the equa 4, = 4190. at 10 ‘The last two equations can be used to express the heat transfer across a single load or source device, or any quantity of such devices connected across a piping system. In the design or diagnosis of a system, the load side may be balanced with the source side by these equations. Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts Fundamentals of Water System DesignA Examte: Heating Cou. For a single system similar to that shown in Figure 1-18, assume the heat transfer rate across the coil is 120 KW and the Ar of the water supplying the coil is 10°C (water and air at standard condi- tions). Find the water flow rate required for the system: Gy = 4.19 0, At Solving for Q,, we get 4 Or Tion 120_ kW. 2, = 4.19 Vag K) (kg -K ©, = 2.88 Us Exampte: Cootne Con. Assume g, (cooling coil) = 67 kW and Ar = 7: 67_kW 4.19 KI) (22 Je) ke -K ) Qo. 23.L/s Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts1: 22 14 Load Systems Load systems are the devices (terminal units) that convey heat from the water for heating or to the water for cooling of the space or process. Most load systems are basically water-to-air finned coil heat exchangers or water-to-water heat exchangers. The specific configuration is usually used to describe the device. Common configurations include: * Heating load devices: Preheat coils in central air-handling un air-handling units (see Figure !-21); zone or central reheat coil baseboard radiation; convectors; unit heaters; fan coil units; water-to-water heat exchang- ers; radiant heating panels; and snow melting panels. heating coils in central ned-tube radiation; Zooling load devices: Coils in central units (see Figure 1-21); fan coil units (see Figure 1-22); induction unit coils; radiant cooling panels; and water-to-water heat exchangers. Return Air , Humidifier Fan Figure 1-21. Single-Zone Central AHU ~ Heating and Cooling Coils Room Discharge Coil Control ¥ f] Valve Fan Room or Unit Mount Thermostat Fitters |——$—> — Recirculated Air HW/CHW Changeover Supply Figure 1-22. Fan Coil Uni Chapter 1 Water System Design Comeepts Fundamentals of Water System Design|: 23 The Next Step In Chapter 2, you will be introduced to piping system design. Summary Chapter 1 covered the following topics: + What determines the load. * The difference between closed and open systems. + Components of a hydronic system. + Heating versus cooling source devices. + How systems need to meet part-load conditions. + Temperature and pressure ranges for low, medium and high temperature water systems. * Sensible, latent and total heat loads and how they affect design water flow. + Examples of heating and cooling load devices. + How load diversity suggests a reduction in total cooling capacity required Bibliography 1. ASHRAE, 1996. ASHRAE Handbook-HVAC Systems and Equipment, Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE. Chapter 12. 2. Sauer, H., Howell, R. 1994, Principles of Heating, Vemilating and Air-Conditioning. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE. Chapter 5. 3, AIRAH. 1994. AIRAH Application Manual-Air-Conditioning Load Estimation and Psychrometrics. Melbourne, Vietoria, Australia: Australian Institute of Refrigeration, Air-Condi- tioning and Heating Inc. a, Australia: 4, AIRAH. 1995, AIRAH Application Manual-Cooling Towers. Melbourne, Victo Australian Institute of Refrigeration, Air-Conditioning and Heating Inc. 5. Cartier Corp. 1965. Handbook of Air Conditioning System Design. New York, NY: MeGraw- Hill, Chapter 3. Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts25 ‘Skill Development Exercises for Chapter 1 Complete these questions by writing your answers on the worksheets at the back of this book 1-01. Water systems that convey heat to or from a conditioned space or process with hot or chilled water are frequently called 1-02. What is the fundamental difference between closed and open types of water systems? 1-03. A cooling tower has at least two points of interface. What are they? 1-04. What is the maximum working pressure for LTW boiler systems? 1-05. What is a CHW system? How is it different from a CW system? 1-06. What are the fundamental components of a closed hydronic system? 1.07. Explain the most common source devices for heating and cooling systems, 1-08. Explain what load means. 1-09, What factors influence the heating and cooling load requirements? 1-10. Define sensible heat transfer 1-11. Name five heating load devices and describe how each is used in system applications. Chapter 1 Water System Design Concepts Fundamentals of Water System Design2: | Chapter 2 Piping System Design Contents of Chapter 2 * Instructions + Study Objectives for Chapter 2 + 2.1 Basic Considerations + 2.2 Design Philosophy 2.3 Sizing Piping 24 Flow Rate Measurement + The Next Step + Summary * Bibliography * Skill Development Exercises for Chapter 2 Instructions Read Chapter 2 and, at the end of the chapter, answer all of the questions. Study Objectives for Chapter 2 fier studying the material in this chapter, you should: + Understand Bernoulli’s principle + Know the three steps in design of a fluid distribution system. + Understand the difference between direct return and reverse return piping, and if they can be combined. + Know methods to allow thermal expansion, + Be able to determine pressure drop in piping. » Know the difference between laminar and turbulent flow, and what index quantifies it. * Understand piping roughness factors + Know what governs pressure drop in a piping system. Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 2 Piping System Design2 2.1 Basic Considerations The piping system is a key component of the distribution system, and good design practice can significantly affect the performance and energy efficiency of an HVAC system. This chapter dis- cusses the key aspect of piping system design, including pipe sizing and system design philosophy. In the design of any fluid distribution system, you must consider the following three steps:! + Establishing the piping design philosophy and objectives: + Sizing the pipes; and + Calculating or determining the pressure drop in the system as a whole or in various sub- elements or branches. To achieve the best energy efficiency, you may need to repeat these steps several times to optimize the design, Relationship Between Pressure and Head Pressure is generally expressed in newtons per square metre (N/m?) and is known as a pascal (Pa) The term head is sometimes used to describe static pressures within a hydronic system and is expressed in metres (m), The use of metres-head means the value is independent of fluid density, For example, the pressure at the base of a4 m column of water at 4°C is about 39 kPa, compared to about 38 kPa for the same 4m column of water at 80°C, This is due to the reduction in fluid density as the fluid temperature is raised. Fortunately, one term may be easily converted to the other, provided that the fluid density is known, using the following relationship P= pez where: = pressure, pascals, Pa = fluid density, kg/m* = 9.81 mis? = head, m aD Pressure Drop. From an instructional standpoint, it is important to understand the concept of pressure drop before discussing design philosophy and sizing. In general, to direct a flow of water through a piping system, a pressure difference must be created to overcome the friction head due to the piping length, type of fittings, elevation changes and pressure requirements at the receiving end. Bernoulli analyzed the flow of water through a piping system and theorized that it must obey the law of the conservation of energy, where the energy can never be created or destroyed but only transformed or directed in its flow (see Figure 2-1), Many engineering texts on thermodynamics Chapter 2 Piping System Design Fundamentals of Water System Design2: and fluid mechanics have explained this concept and developed a general energy equation for analyzing the fluid flow in a process. An energy balance is made equating all of the energy entering the process to that leaving plus the heat added or subtracted and the work done by or on the fluid per unit of time. Bernoulli and Euler’ developed this concept into the well-known Bernoulli equation for the flow of an incompressible liquid with addition of a term for pressure loss Ap due to flow in the pipe: a 28 += -Z+22+ptep pale Zw, = metres elevation above/below datum locity, mvs ressure, Pa Pro density, kg/mm g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s? ap = pressure loss in Pa of fluid flowing through pipe Figure 2-1. Bernoulli's Theorem Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 2 Piping System Designa Figure 2-2 is measured, and the pipe size is the same for the entering and leaving conditions. hows an example of a piping system where two gauge readings are taken, the elevation According to the Bernoulli theorem (Equation 2-1): ; 2 Ap = 998.97 x 9.81 (-30) +0 + 10° (700-500) = -294 000 + 500 000 = 206 000 Pa = 206 kPa So we see a total loss of 206 kPa due to the piping and fitting friction and the elevation head loss (assuming the same size pipe ID at 1 and 2, V, = V,). Note that for cold water, 1 m static head approximates 9.8 kPa pressure. Ap Py vy, ® 700 kPa > p, V,=V, =e = 998.97 kg/m’ (at 15°C) for water Figure 2-2. Bernoulli Piping Example Chapter 2 Piping System Design Fundamentals of Water System Design2: 2.2 Design Philosophy In the direct return system, the length of supply and return piping through the subcircuits is un- equal. This may cause unbalanced flow rates and requires careful balancing (o provide each subcircuit with design flow. Ideally, the reverse return system provides nearly equal total lengths for all termi- nal cin its. Will the design provide the most economical geometrical solution through vertical and/or horizontal distribution? Figure 2-3 shows a direct return piping system, as compared to a reverse return piping system shown in Figure 2~4. As a designer, you must make several important decisions based on design philosophy before starting the design process. Will this be a basic plan or a combination of direct, and reverse systems, as shown in Figure 2 Design philosophy and objectives are most often overlooked by designers. It is in this step that the why and how of the system are addressed, including other considerations such as: « Is the system to be constant flow? For example, are three-way valves inserted to handle part-load conditions by reducing flow through the load, while maintaining nearly con- stant flow through the source? Or is the flow through the load heat transfer coils to be constant while allowing the flow through the source to vary? + Will the system have intermittent flow, such as on/off control to start/stop a pump for a zone or a load coil or, if this is a small system, to start/stop the distribution pumping? + Is variable flow being considered? For example, two-way valves vary the flow in the load coils that result in variable flow in the source. Ditibuton ee Typical oad , SOURCE Direct Return Piping Layout ‘Supply Main Drop Direct Retum Main Drop Pressure Drop Diagram Figure 2-3. Direct Return Piping Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 2 Piping System Design26 Distribution mee Typical © @) ved SOURCE Reverse Return Piping Layout Supply Main Drop Reverse Retum Main Drop Pressure Drop Diagram Figure 2-4, Reverse Return Piping Typical Loads U Direct Return Risers on ! 0 [ C | t 1 Supply to Other Zones od Distribution = <—— SOURCE] — Pump Return from Other Zones Reverse Return —— Figure 2-5. Direct Return Riser and Reverse Zone Piping Chapter 2 Piping System Design Fundamentals of Water System Design2: 7 + Will the pump speeds be varied with the load? How will the variable system flow affect the flow through the source? (The variable speed concepts and valve arrangements will be discussed in later sections.) + In the pressure distribution of a direct return system (in Figure 2-3), the available pres- sure drop for a load circuit is greatest near the system pump and decreases the farther away the load is from the source-pump. Care must be taken by the designer to size and select the control valves to ensure adequate flow distribution and proper close-off, + In the pressure distribut n of a reverse return system (in Figure 2-4), the pressure drop fora load circuit is uniform (if the load pressure drops are similar), even as the distance is, increased from the source pump. A key reason for the reverse return design is to assist the two-way control valve with a more uniform pressure drop. Selection of control valves must ensure adequate flow and proper close-off, but this is not as critic: return design. as the direct * The designer should consider balancing valves because the control valve may provide a larger flow than the design flow, and the balancing device will permit field measurement and readjustment. + Is thermal expansion to be handled through geo- metrical offset configurations (see Figure 2-6) or by using mechanical joints (see Figure 2-7)? For example, steel pipe may increase its length by13.6 mm per 30 m if its temperature increases from 0°C to 40°C, or by 34 mm from 0°C to 100°C. The system must be designed to handle thermal expan- sion and contraction of the piping. Failure to prop- erly design for thermal expansion can result in pip- ing distortion, noise and possible system failures. Arrangement of the piping and its suspension from the building structure must also be given specific attention by the designer if quiet operation is to be attained. Rigid attachment of the pipe to the structural members of a building, especially at mid-span, provides a direct link that will transmit objectionable vibration and sound. The exception would be at preselected points of the piping that must serve as anchors to control the amount and direction of movement due to expansion and contrac- Figure 2-6. Piping Expansion, tion. The AIRAH Application Manual-Air Conditioning Offset Piping Water Piping and the 1996 ASHRAE Handbook-HVAC Systems and Equipment contains recommendations regarding anchor specification and spacing.'* ‘These are examples of concems and questions that should be answered in the early steps of the design process. Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 2 Piping System Design2:8 Figure 2-7. Piping Expansion — Mechanical Joint 2.3 Sizing Piping Sizing the pipe is not to be confused with pressure drop calculations, although the pressure drop is generally used as a primary consideration in the sizing. In most fluid systems, the size of the piping is established on the basis of the friction loss per running metre of pipe. The fluid velocity is then used as a limiting selection parameter. The equation most often used that relates pressure drop, flow rate and pipe size is the Darcy- Weisbach Equation: ABE where: Ap = energy lost through friction, expressed as pressure drop, Pa of fluid flowing riction factor (0.10 to 0.010) 1 =pipe length, m D_ =pipe diameter, m Ve luid average velocity, m/s p =density of fluid, kg/m* Figure 2-8 shows an experimental arrangement for determining head loss in a pipe.” Chapter 2 Piping System Design Fundamentals of Water System Design2:9 Pressure Drop Figure 2-8. Experimental Arrangement for Determining Head Los ina Pipe Fluid velocity is calculated from the Continuity Equation: v-2 23 A where: V__ = flow velocity, m/s o flow rate, m'/s A cross-sectional area of the pipe, m? Pipe sizing is covered in the AIRAH Application Manual ~ Air Conditioning Water Piping and the 1997 ASHRAE Handbook-Fundamentals.*” The general range of pipe friction loss used for design- ing economical hydronic systems is between 400 and 500 Pa/m, For controlling velocity noise, AIRAH suggests a velocity limit of 2.5 mis. A pressure drop limit of 500 Pa/m for pipe size above 50 mm size is suggested, but this is subject to the designer's selection, Maximum water velocity ‘versus operation hours to minimize erosion may also be considered in the design. After a pipe size has been selected for a known pipe material, flow rate and friction factor, the Darcy-Weisbach Equation can be used directly to calculate the head loss, in metres of fluid flowing ‘We wish to show you some classical approaches for determining pipe diameter because you need to know these if you are required to evaluate a pipe sizing program for accuracy. In the 1800s, Reynolds showed that fluids can flow through a pipe under two different conditions: laminar flow and turbulent flow.* He demonstrated that when dye was injected in a glass pipe with low water velocities (see Figure 2-9), the stream of dye stayed in layers (laminar flow), up to Re = 2000. However, as the velocity was increased, the layer of dye wavered and then broke up, diffusing with the water because of intermingling of the particles or of the water, turbulent flow (Re > 2000). Reynolds defined the Reynolds number (Re) as: Re=DV pit 4 where: D_ =inside pipe diameter, m average fluid velocity, m/s fluid density, kg/m* dynamic viscosity, Pa-s Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 2 Piping System Design2 0 Dye Valve Figure 2-9, Reynold's Laminar Versus Turbulent Flow Demonstration” The Reynolds number is a non-dimensional parameter relating pipe diameter, fluid velocity and the fluid viscous properties. By relating these fluid flow parameters, it enables the development of charts relating flow conditions and pipe characteristics. These charts present experimental data that can be used in pipe sizing and pipe system design. Reynolds’ study had shown that the friction factor in laminar flow range is equal to: f= 64 Re 2s Nikuradse® demonstrated the effect of pipe surface roughness on friction for both the laminar and turbu- lent regions (see Figure 2-10) and defined a roughness factor, €/D. Figure 2-10 can be used to deter- mine the friction factor when the Reynolds number and the pipe roughness factor €/D are known. Moody demonstrated that a transition region appears between Re of 2000 to 10,000, as shown on his diagram" (see Figure 2-1 J). The Moody diagram shows friction factor (/) from 0.01 to 0.08 as a function of the relative roughness (e/D) of the pipe or tubing and the Reynolds number (DVp/u). The relative roughness (€/D) can be determined from another Moody graph (see Figure 2-12) por- traying pipe diameter, pipe material and relative roughness of pipe." ‘The kinematic viscosity (¥) may also be used in the Reynolds formula, since v tuting the Reynolds number can be written as following: /p. m/s, Substi- Re= DY os Chapter 2 Piping System Design Fundamentals of Water System Design0.10 lh Tce 0.08 £ 008 0.0538 be < ea loorsss gam Sea 00859 — 008 tT loose 2 ltt Tacos CI 02 = Senna oat se 2 sm 2 5 1 2 3 Reynolds Number R, = aaa Figure 2-10, Relation of Reynolds Number, Fri and Relative Roughness for Similar Pipes a LaDtT) ot b' 2" el elt oT Lag. tally or Abeer ana t ses cle Yuadne, Rog Pee — tT i z _ " * . 7 ot Reynolds NumberRe= YP sme Figure 2-11, Moody Chart"® Showing Relationship Between Friction Factors and Reynolds Numbers for Water Flow Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 2 Piping System Design| a03 oot | 0.009 0x 00 0008 Relative Rougtness, 000 1 or CompleleTubuence, Rough Pines oon 0000 0.00007 Figure 2-12, Friction Factors and Relative Roughness for Various Pipes" Table 2-1 lists typical values of density and absolute (dynamic) viscosity (j1) for different fluids.* The 1997 ASHRAE Handbook-Fundamemtals’ also refers to the Colebrook Equation for determin- ing the friction factor (f) in the turbulent flow range: 114-24 87 | = Vf D’ReVF Chapter 2 Piping System Design Fundamentals of Water System Designical Values of Density and Absolute Viscosity for Various Fluids* Dynamic Tempe, | Dery fe Liquids Water 70 999.6 131 Cakiam elie brine Seoywe] 20 100 16 aomrywe] 20 1180 20 ambyw| 1S 160 ut Tyke aheo! Puc] 20 m5 205 Twa] 1S 1015 140 20%inwae| 1S 10238 195 Toteinwnee] 0 1020 2 aranwaer] 0 a3 32 Awomnie disctot| 40 3 Heavy sel ot 5 30 Famace helo 0 7 Pee 40 640 ox Gales, Kaded 50 720 ox Gasoline, unkaded 30 730 os Seawater 5 1030 134 Gases Ae (TAP) 20 128 ois ‘Ar (70 KPa 20 202 018 A (700 KPa) 20 937 a018 Nal ps 20 on oo Grou 20 220 ooi2 aon 20 5.80 0012 Onypen (KPa 20 007 Oxygen (700 EPs) 20 590 020 Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 2 Piping System Design28 Ap = pressure loss, kPa Q = flow rate, Lis d= internal pipe diameter, mm C_ =the pipe roughness factor Typical values of C are 150 for plastic pipe and copper tubing, 140 for new steel pipe, and down to 100 and below for badly corroded or very rough pipe. 100 00 20 20 € 80 4 40 30 20 on 20 Oo Zw 0 B® 3 Be 6 as 4 = 3 22 2 we + 1 oe 08 06 06 04 os a3 03 o2 02 04 o4 2 8 SF 88 8338 838 888 S 889882 8 22 288 Pressure Drop (Pa/m) ‘Absolute Roughness c= 0.048 Pipe intemal Diameters (mm) Nome 15 20 25 45D ss e100 tas 150 REAWD a1 Ae ava abo ste ako eer oy ten tha0 tbe Figure 2-13a. Pressure Loss 20°C Water in Medium Steel Pipe" Chapter 2 Piping System Design Fundamentals of Water System Design2: 1S Recommended values" of the C factor are: 150 for plastic pipe and copper tubing; 140 for new steel pipe; 100 for steel pipe after 20 years of use and down to 80 after 30 years, or for badly corroded or very rough pipe. ‘The ASHRAE Handbook notes that the Darcy-Weisbach Equation with friction factors from the ‘Moody chart, or the Colebrook Equation or the Hazen-Williams Equation are fundamental to cal- culating pressure drop in hot and chilled water piping. Charts calculated from these equations (such as Figures 2-13a and 2-13b) show flow rates and head loss for medium steel pipe.” The AIRAH Application Manual has similar charts for various grades of steel, copper and PVC pipes.’ 100 0 80 80 60 60 40 40 30 20 on 20 o g 10 10 et Be 8 Be 6 ae 4 = a 22 2 we 4 1 08 08 06 06 o4 04 03 03 02 02 os 04 ef x 82888 8 38 883 88 383 SB 889883 882 288 Pressure Drop (Pa/m) Absolute Roughness «= 0.046 Fipe Internal Diameters (mm) Nomoe 15 20 2 2] ] asm as 80 Rawle 1 ae ara so Mm sO. ey coy teat 1900 tbo Figure 2-13b. Pressure Loss 82°C Water in Medium Steel Pipe! Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 2 Piping System Design26 Tables and charts are avail- able from many sources. OF ten, these will be for steel Table 2-2. Friction Loss for Water, 50 mm Nominal Medium Steel Pipe!’ pipes to ANSI B36 standards, Discharge, vy, 1s mvs schedule 20 or 40. These may differ slightly from pipes that 0.30 O14 5.751 comply with Australian stan- 0.40 os 9.799 dards such as ASI074. 0.50 o2s lasts Hence, because the value for . 2 20.763 friction loss in pipes is de- Ose iar nae rived by calculation and is a 0.70 0.32 27.623 function of internal pipe di- 0.280 0.36 35.373 ameter, different sources may i, 0.90 oat 43.996 offer slightly different values. 1.00 o.as 53.475 A typical table for SO mm iso alsa wipe. nominal pipe is shown in Table 2-2." In commercial a ad eee installations, the tables sug- 1.60 0.72 127.698 gest adding 15% to the fric- 1.80 ost 158.824 tion loss to allow for aging. a60 oad eee ais 291.835 1.35 409.054 3.50 Ls 544.210 4.00 1.81 696.895 4.50 2.03 866.766 5.00 2.26 1053.525 5.50 2.48, 1256.910 6.00 27 1.476.687 6.50 2.94 1712.648 7.00 3.16 1964.600, 7.50 3.39 32.369 8.00 3.61 2515.704 8.50 3.84 2814.727 9.00 4.06 3129.029 9.50 4.29 3458.570 10.00 4.52 3803.229 11.00 4.97 4537.449 12.00 3.42 5330.846 Chapter 2 Piping System Design Fundamentals of Water System Design2: 17 2.4 Flow Rate Measurement ‘Taken from the 1997 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals,"* Table 2-3 lists various means of mea- suring fluid flow rate. The values for volume or mass flow rate measurement’s"® are often deter- mined by measuring pressure difference across an ice, nozzle or venturi tube. These types of meters have different advantages and disadvantages. For example, the orifice plate is more easily changed than the complete nozzle or venturi tube assembly. However, the nozzle is often preferred jent is more precise. The venturi tube is a nozzle followed by an expanding recovery section to reduce net pres to the orifice because its discharge coe! Fluid meters use a wide variety of physical techniques to make flow measurements;'*!?"* those more prevalently used are described in the following section, The search for high-accuracy flow measurement includes the arrangement of appropriate calibration procedures. While these used to beavailable only in calibration laboratories, they are now frequently purchased along with flowmeters. so that flow measurements can be efficiently and effectively assured and validated at high levels of ilities and procedures, realistic traceability should be established and maintained for the calibration facilities and procedures, performance. To assure and validate calibration fa Direct and Indirect Flow Measurement Methods Both gas and liquid flow can be measured quite accurately by timing a collected amount of fluid that is determined gravimetrically or volumetrically. While this method is commonly used for calibrating other metering devices, itis particularly useful where the flow rate is low or intermittent and where a high degr is required, These systems are generally large and slow, but in their simplicity, they can be considered primary devices. accuras ‘The variable area meter or rotameter is a convenient direct reading flowmeter for liquids and gases. This is a vertical, tapered tube in which the flow rate is indicated by the position of a float sus- pended in the upward flow. The position of the float is determined by its buoyancy and the up- wardly directed fluid drag. A velocity traverse (made using a pitot tube or other velox flow rates in the field or cal ¥y measuring instrument) measures air is method can be impres at low velocities rates large nozzles. TI and impractical where many test runs are in progress. Venturi, Nozzle and Orifice Flowmeters Flow in a pipeline can be measured by a venturi meter (see Figure 2~/4), flow nozzle (see Figure 2-15) or orifice plate (see Figure 2-16). The Australian Standard 2360, Measurement of Fluid Flow in Closed Conduits, describes measurement of fluid flow in pipes using the orifice, nozzle and venturi, and specifies their construction.® Further reference can also be made to ASME MFC-3M for fluid flow measurement and ASME Performance Test Code 19.5-72 for orifice, nozzle and venturi construction.” Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapter 2 Piping System Design1S ‘Table 2-3. Volume or Mass Flow Rate Measurement'* Measurement Means Application Range Precision Limitations Orifice and differential Flow through pipes, Above 1% -$0% Discharge cooficien and pressure measure ‘ducts and plenums” Re S000 accuracy inluenced by system for all fluids instalation conditions Nozle and differential Flow through pipes, Above Discharge cosficien and essure measurement ducts and plenums” ‘Re $000 accuracy inluenced by syster for all fuids iallation conditions ‘Venturi tube and Flow through pipes, Above Discharge coefficient and differential pressure ducts and plenums” Re $000 sceuracy inluenced by ‘measurement system for alt Nuids installation conditions| Timing given mass or Liquids or gases; Any System is bulky and slow volume Mow sed to calibrate ‘ther flowierers Rovameters Liguids or gases Any Should be calibrated for uid being metered Displacement meter Relatively sma As high Most types require volumetric low with a8 S00 Lis caliation with uid high pressure loss doponding Ising metered ‘ontype Gasometer oe volume Short-duration tests: Total flow 045% = LMG = displacement used to alibrate limited by ‘onher fowineters aval. vol labore st Any 1% Uniform velocity ise of Justified by need usually used with gases steam due 9 Tr good accuracy electrical heating) Blement ofresistance Used for check Lowerlimit 1%-5% Secondary reading o flow and differemial where system hus setby depends on accursey of pressure measuremem —_calibratedresistance readable calibration System ‘element pressure drop ‘Turbine flowmerers Liquids or gases Any 0.25% -2.0% Uses electri readout Instrument for Primarily for Lower limit 2%-4% —_Aceuracy depends on measuring velocity installed systems with set by accu uniformity of flow and ‘at point inflow ro special provision racy of velo- ‘completeness of traverse for low measurement city measure. Heat input and temper Check valve in Any 194-396 _ ature changes with heater or cooler tests ‘steam and water coil, Laminar low clement Measure liquid or gas Smmi/s 1% Fluid must be free of i and differential pressure volumetric flow rate: I mvs cil and other impurities ‘measurement system nearly linear reation- that could plug meter or ship with pressure drop; aft its calibration simple and easy 40 use Magnctohydrodynamic -Measureseletrically0.006- 1% At present state ofthe at owmeter conductive Mids and 600 Ls conductivity of Aud must (lectromagnetic) slurries; meter does be greater than 5 Simm rot obstruct flow: ‘ho moving parts ‘Swirl fowmeter and Measure quid or Above 1% = vortex shedding meter gas flow in pipe Re tos no moving parts Chapter 2 Piping System Design Fundamentals of Water System DesignPressure Gradient Figure 2-14, Typical Venturi Meter Finish ae te Low p semies won p sens eaeesas y chat Beco DISD 3mm's¢s 13mm mms 3mm Soldering and Brazing. Copper tube is usually joined by soldering or brazing socket end-fittings. Brazing materials melt at temperatures over 550°C and produce a stronger joint than solder. Health concerns have caused many jurisdictions to ban solders containing lead or antimony for joining pipe in potable water systems. In particular, lead-based solders must not be used for potable water systems, Flared and Compression Joints. Flared and compression fittings can be used to join copper, steel, stainless steel and aluminum tubing. Properly rated fittings can keep the joints as strong as the tube. Flanges. Flanges can be used for large pipes and all piping materials. They are commonly used to connect to equipment, valves and wherever it may be necessary to open the joint to permit service or replacement of components. For steel pipe, flanges are available in pressure ratings to about 17 MPa, For welded pipe, weld neck, slip-on or socket weld connections are available. Thread-on flanges are available for threaded pipe. Flanges are generally flat faced or raised face. Flat-faced flanges with full-faced gaskets are most often used with cast iron and materials that cannot take high bending loads. Raised-face flanges with ring gaskets are preferred with steel pipe because they facilitate increasing the sealing pr sure on the gasket to help prevent leaks. Other facings (such as O-rings and ring joints) are avail- able for special applications. All flat-faced, raised-face and lap-joint flanges require a gasket between the mating flange sur- faces. Gaskets are made from rubber, synthetic elastomers, cork, fiber, plastic, Teflon, metal and a combination of these materials. The gasket must be compatible with the flowing media and the temperatures at which the system is operating Welding. Welding steel pipe joints over 50 mm in diameter offers the following advantages: * Welded joints do not age, dry out or deteriorate as do gasketed joints. + Welded joints can accommodate greater vibration and water hammer, and higher tem- peratures and pressures than other joints. + For critical service, welded pipe joints can be tested by any of several nondestructive examination (NDE) methods (such as by radiography or ultrasound). + Welded joints provide maximum long-term reliability. The applicable section of the AS/NZS-1200 provides rules for welding.° This standard requires that all welders and welding procedure specifications (WPS) be qualified. Separate WPS are needed for different welding methods and materials. The qualifying tests and the variables requiring separate procedure specifications are set forth in the standard. The manufacturer, fabricator or contractor is responsible for the welding procedure and welders. Chapter 3 Pipe Materials and Fiaings Fundamentals of Water System Design3: 7 The following welding processes are often used in the HVAC industry: * SMAW — Shielded Metal Are Welding (stick welding). The molten weld metal is shielded by the vaporization of the electrode coating, + GMAW — Gas Metal Arc Welding, also called MIG. The electrode is a continuously fed wire, which is shielded by argon or carbon dioxide gas from the welding gun nozzle. * GTAW — Gas Tungsten Arc Welding, also called TIG or Heliare. This process uses a nonconsumable tungsten electrode surrounded by a shielding gas. The weld material may be provided from a separate noncoated rod. Reinforced Outlet Fittings. Reinforced outlet fittings are used to make branch and takeoff connec- tions and are designed to permit welding directly to pipe without supplemental reinforcing. Fittings are available with threaded, socket or butt-weld outlets. Other Joints. Grooved joint systems require that a shallow groove be cut or rolled into the pipe end. These joints can be used with steel, cast iron, ductile iron and plastic pipes. A segmented clamp engages the grooves, and the seal is provided hy a special gasket designed so that internal pressure tightens the seal. Some clamps are designed with clearance between tongue and groove to accom- modate misalignment and thermal movements, while others are designed to limit movement and provide a rigid system. Manufacturers’ data gives temperature and pressure limitations. Another form of mechanical joint consists of a sleeve slightly larger than the outside diameter of the pipe. The pipe ends are inserted into the sleeve, and gaskets are packed into the annular space between the pipe and coupling and held in place by retainer rings. This type of joint can accept some axial misalignment, but it must be anchored or otherwise restrained to prevent axial pullout or lateral movement, Manufacturers provide pressure-temperature data, Ductile iron pipe may be furnished with a bell-spigot end adapted for caulked, gasket and retainer ring, mechanical or flanged joints. This joint is also not restrained. Threaded Unions. Unions allow disassembly of threaded pipe systems. Unions are three-part fit- tings with a mating machined seat on the two parts that thread onto the pipe ends. A threaded locking ring holds the two ends tightly together. A union also allows threaded pipe to be turned at the last joint connecting two pieces of equipment. Companion flanges (a pair) for small pipe serve the same purpose. Special Systems Ceriain piping systems are governed by separate codes or standards, which are summarized below Generally, any failure of the piping in these systems is dangerous to the public, so local areas have adopted laws enforcing the codes. * Boiler piping — AS/NZS-1200 and AS-1271 specify piping and required stop valves on boilers.*” The field or shop work must also be inspected by authorized inspectors, * Refrigeration piping — AS-/677 covers the requirements for refrigerant piping.* + Plumbing systems — A$-3500 covers these systems. + Sprinkler systems —AS-2//8 covers these systems.” + Fuel gas — AS-/697 and AS-20/8 prescribe fuel gas piping requirements.'”"! Pundamemtats of Water System Design Chapler 3 Pipe Materials and Fiuingsa Plastic Pipe Plastic pipe is gaining wider usage in HVAC and plumbing systems where local building codes permit, Plastic is usually lighter in weight than metal, generally inexpensive and corrosion-resis- tant. It also has a higher C factor (see Chapter 2, Equation 2-9), requiring lower pumping power and allowing smaller pipe sizes. The disadvantages of plastic pipe include the rapid loss of strength at temperatures above ambient and the high coefficient of linear expansion. The modulus of elastic- ity of plastics is low, resulting in short support span distances. Some jurisdictions do not allow certain plastics in buildings because of toxic products emitted under fire conditions. Plastic piping materials fall into two main categories: thermoplastic and thermoset. Thermoplasties ‘melt and are formed by extruding or molding. They are usually used without reinforcing filaments Thermosets are cured and cannot be reformed. They are normally used with glass fiber reinforeing filaments, Plastic piping materials include: + PVC — polyvinyl chloride + CPVC — chlorinated polyvinyl chloride + PB — polybutylene + PE — polyethylene + PP — polypropylene + ABS — acrylonitrile butadiene styrene + PVDF — polyvinylidene fluoride Thermosetting piping systems used in the HVAC industry are referred to as reinforced thermoset- ting resin (RTR) and fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP). RTR and FRP are interchangeable and refer to pipes and fittings commonly made of fiberglass reinforced epoxy resin, fiberglass rein- forced vinyl ester, and fiberglass reinforced polyester. Because pipes and fittings made from epoxy resin are generally stronger and operate at higher temperatures than those made from polyester or vinyl ester resins, they are more likely to be used in HVAC applications, Allowable Stresses. Both thermoplastics and thermosets have allowable stresses derived from test procedures as described in AS/NZS-1477 and AS-3571." The allowable stress, which is called the long-term hydrostatic pressure test, is obtained by meth- ods described in these standards. The values allowed by AS/NZS-1477 are 23.6 MPa (at 20°C) for pipes up to 150 mm, and 26 MPa (at 20°C) for pipes of 175 mm and above." Table 3-5 shows the properties for PVC pipe. As there are many formulations of the polymers used for piping materials and different joining methods for each system, manufacturers’ recommendations should be observed. Most catalogs give the pressure ratings for pipe and fittings at various temperatures up to the maximum the mate- rial will withstand, Plastic Material Selection. The selection of a plastic for a specific purpose requires careful atten- tion, All are suitable for cold water. However, plastic pipe should not be used for compressed gases or compressed air if the pipe is made of a material subject to brittle failure, For other liquids and chemicals, refer to charts provided by plastic pipe manufacturers and distributors. Chapter 3 Pipe Materials and Fiaings Fundamentals of Water System Design‘Table 3-5. Properties of Plastic Pipe Materials” Table 3-6 lists some applications that are pertinent to the HVAC industry. Descriptions follow: * PVC — PVC has the best overall range of properties at the lowest cost; it is the most, widely used plastic. It is joined by solvent cementing, threading or flanging. Gasketed push-on joints are also used for larger sizes. + CPVC — CPVC has the same properties as PVC but can withstand higher tempera- tures before losing strength. Itis joined by the same methods as PVC. +PB—A lightweight, flexible material, PB can be used up t0 99°C. Check local build ing codes for using PB in hot and cold plumbing water piping. Itis joined by heat fusion or mechanical means, can be bent to a 10-diameter radius, and is provided in coils. + LDPE — Low density PE is a flexible, lightweight tubing with good low-temperature properties. It is used in the food and beverage industry and for instrument tubing. It is joined by mechanical means (compression fittings or push-on connectors and clamps). + HDPE — A tough weather-resistant material, high density PE is used for large pipe- lines in the gas industry. Fabricated fittings are available. It is joined by heat fusion for large sizes, and flare, compression or insert fittings can be used on small sizes. +PP—A lightweight plastic, PP is used for chemical waste lines and pressure applica- tions, as itis inert to a wide range of chemicals, A wide variety of drainage fittings are available, For pressure uses, regular fittings are made. It is joined by heat fusion. + ABS — ABS is a high-strength, impact- and weather-resistant material. Certain for- ulations can be used for compressed air, and ABS is also used in the food and bever- Fundamentals of Water System Design Chapler 3 Pipe Materials and Fiuings‘Table 3-6. Manufacturers’ Recommendations for Plastic Materi Plastic Materials™* CCC PR DPE PP ARS DPR ‘Gata water service RR Rk Rk RRR Hot 60°C) water NR Rk Rk R R RoR Potable water service RR R R R R RR Drain, we wd vent ROR ON = RR DDemincraized water R OR RoR oR Delon water R oR — - R Rk RoR Salt water R oR R R RR R Heating (95°C) water N oN N N N N = R Naural gas NN NR ON ON DO = Compressed sit NON R oON OR Sonlight apd weather esistance NN NR = RR RoR Underground service R oR R R RoR R Food haning| RR RoR ROR R= Resommended or resommended imstfclen information age industry. A wide range of fittings are available, It is joined by solvent cementing, threading or flanging. + PVDF — Widely used for ultra-pure water systems and in the pharmaceutical indus- try, PVDF has a wide temperature range. This material is over 20 times more expensive than PVC. It s joined by heat fusion, and fittings are made for this purpose. For smaller sizes, mechanical joints can be used. In general, local building codes should be consulted for material compliance for any HVAC, water supply, gas supply or compressed air applications. 3.2 Corrosion For the purposes of this section, corrosion may be defined as the destruction of a metal or alloy by chemical or electrochemical reaction with its environment, Usually this is an electrochemical reac- tion similar to the one that occurs in a dry cell battery. While a complete discussion of the theory and mechanism of corrosion is far outside the scope of this course, some basic principles should be kept in mind when designing a piping system. Factors that support or promote corrosion include: + Oxygen + Solutes (soluble chemical salts that combine with moisture to form electrolytes) + Moisture (combines with oxygen and solutes to form electrolytes) + Dissimilar metals (such as brass and steel) in electrical contact + Stresses in metals + Temperature + Pressure * Velocity (for example, velocity of water flowing in a pipe) Chapter 3 Pipe Materials and Fiaings Fundamentals of Water System Designee Corrosion control methods include: + Materials selection — Constructing HVAC systems of highly corrosion-resistant mate- rial is often not possible because of economic and physical limitations. * Cathodic protection — Cathodic protection causes an electrochemical reaction to occur somewhere other than on the protected metal, Two types of cathodic protection are encountered: sacrificial and impressed current. With sacrificial cathodic protection, the metal to be protected (the cathode) is electrically connected to a sacrificial anode, which corrodes instead of the protected metal. Impressed current cathodic protection uses an external voltage source to effect the required protection, + Protective coatings — Protective coatings work either as: a barrier, preventing the metal to be protected from coming into contact with an electrolyte; sacrificially (as in galva- nized pipe, where the zine coating protects the steel pipe); or a combination of both barrier and sacrificial coating. + Environmental treatment — Inhibitors that retard the corrosion reaction may be added to er systems, or the water may be mechanically deaerated to remove oxygen. + Design — Equipment design modifications such as eliminating crevices where moisture can accumulate, and providing weepholes to allow moisture to drain may be used to reduce the likelihood of corrosion. Corrosion environments of particular concern to the piping system designer include: * Underground corrosion — Corrosion on buried pipes must always be anticipated. A corrosion survey to determine the specific conditions in which the piping will be placed should be conducted so that informed decisions about corrosion control measures may be made. Underground factors to consider include: types of soils, bacterial activity and thermal insulation. + Waterside corrosion and deposits — The most cammon water problems include: corro- sion, scale formation, biological growths and suspended solid matter. Control of waterside corrosion and deposits is effected using water treatment with corrosion-inhib- ig chemicals and mechanical treatment (filtering and mechanical deaeration). ‘The 1995 ASHRAE Handbook-HVAC Applications contains a more complete discussion of corro- jon, corrosion control, protective measures and water treatment. '® Pundamemtats of Water System Design Chapler 3 Pipe Materials and Fiuings