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99 views65 pagesLinux Notes For Professtionals
Uploaded by
Muhammad Shams QureshiCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
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Linux
Notes for Professionals
Chapter 2: Detecting Linux aistrbution
50+ pages
of professional hints and tricks
Prete
eee
ano}
pool Set filename
chmod -R dir- Change the permissions of a directory recursively. To change permission of
name a directory and everything within that directory, use this command.
chnod go=tr myfile Add read permission for the owner and the group.
chmod a +rux myfile Allow all users to read, write or execute myfile.
chmod go -r myfile Remove read permission from the group and others.
chown owner filename Change ownership of a file to user owner.
chgrp grp_owner filename Change primary group ownership of file Filename to group grp_owner.
Change primary group ownership of directory dirr-name to group grp_owner
chgrp -R grp-owner dir-name recursively. To change group ownership of a directory and everything within
that directory, use this command,
Section 1.3: Hello World
Type the following code into your terminal, then press [Enter
echo “Hello World”
This will produce the following output:
Hello World
Section 1.4: Basic Linux Utilities
Linux has a command for almost any tasks and most of them are intuitive and easily interpreted.
Getting Help in Linux
Command Usabi
man Read the manual page of .
man Read the manual page of , related to the given section.
man -k Output all the software whose man pages contain keyword.
man -K Outputs all man pages containing within them.
aerators Output all the applications whose one line description matches the word editor.
When not able to recall the name of the application, use this command.
help In Bash shell this will display the list of all available bash commands.
help In Bash shell, this will display the info about the bash command.
info View all the information about .
dpkg -1 Output a list of all installed packages on a Debian-based system.
dpkg -L packageName Will list out the files installed and path details for a given package on Debian.
dpkg -1 | grep ~i Return all .deb installed packages with irrespective of cases.
less /var/1ib/dpkg/evailable Return descriptions of all available packages.
whatis vim List a one-line description of vim.
Display usage information about the . Sometimes conmand -h also
works, but not for all commands.
help
User
lentification and who is who in Linux world
Command Usability
hostname Display hostname of the system.
GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals 5 hostname -f Displays Fully Qualified Domain Name (FQDN) of the system.
passwd Change password of current user.
whoami Username of the users logged in at the terminal,
who List of all the users currently logged in as a user.
Display current system status, time, duration, list of users currently logged in on system and other
user information.
last Who recently used the system,
last root When was the last time root logged in as user.
lastb Shows all bad login attempts into the system.
chmod Changing permissions - read, write,execute of a file or directory.
Process related information
Command Usability
List all processes sorted by their current system resource usage. Displays a continually updated
= display of processes (By default 3 seconds). Use q key to exit top.
ps List processes currently running on current shell session
ps -u root List all of the processes and commands root is running
ps aux _Listall the processes by all users on the current system
Section 1.5: Searching for files by patterns in name/contents
common and task of someone using the Linux Command Line (shell) is to search for files/directories with a
certain name or containing certain text. There are 2 commands you should familiarise yourself with in order to
accomplish this:
Find files by name
find /var/wwn -name ‘*.css
This will print out the full pathyfilename to all files under /var www that end in .css. Example output:
Ivar /wuw/htnl/text-cursor.css
Ivar /wuw/htnl/style.css
For more info:
man find
Find files containing text
grep font /var/mu/html/style.css
This will print all ines containing the pattern font in the specified file. Example output:
font-weight: bold;
font-family: monospace;
Another example:
grep font /var/wuw/html/
GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals This doesn't work as you'd hoped. You get:
arep: /var/wmi/html/: Is a directory
You need to grep recursively to make it work, using the -R option:
grep -R font /var/www/html/
Hey nice! Check out the output of this one:
no dice
"; try againe/b>
"; ‘ed>Error: ‘ed>Error : Ivar /www/htnl/admin/index.php: echo ‘ uname -a ‘SunOS hope 5.7 Generic.186541-@8 sun4m sparc SUNW, SPARCstation-10 All the options: -s,-kernel-name Print the kernel name. -n, -nodename Print the network node hostname. kernel-release —_Print the kernel release. -v,~kernel-version _Print the kernel version. -m, machine Print the machine hardware name, “Pp, ~processor Print the processor type, or "unknown. ~-hardware-platform Print the hardware platform, or "unknown. -0, ~operating-system Print the operating system. ~help Display a help message, and exit. ~version Display version information, and exit. Section 2.5: Detect basic information about your distro just execute uname -a On Arch: $ uname -a Linux nokia 4.6.4-1-ARCH #7 SHP PREEMP Mon Jul 11 19:12:3 T 2016 x86_64 GNU/Linuxenter Section 2.6: Using GNU coreutils So the GNU coreutils should be available on all linux based systems (please correct me if | am wrong here). If you do not know what system you are using you may not be able to directly jump to one of the examples above, hence this may be your first port of call $ uname -a On my system this gives me the following... Linux Scibearspace 3.16.0-4-amd64 #1 SMP Debian 3.16.7-ckt25-2+deb8u3 (2016-07-02) x86_64 GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals B GNU/Linux Here you can see the following Scibearspace : the name of my pe * Scibearspace : the name of my pe 3.16.0-4-amd64: the kernel and architecture SMP Debian 3.16.7-CKT25-2+deb8u3 : tells me | am running debian with the 3.16 kernel Finaly the last part | am running debian 8 (update 3). | would welcome any others to add in results for RHEL, and SuSe systems. Section 2.7: Find your linux os (both debian & rpm) name and release number Most of linux distros stores its version info in the /etc/Isb-release (debian) or /etc/redhat-release (RPM based) file. Using below generic command should get you past most of the Debian and RPM derivatives as Linux Mint and Cent-Os. Example on Ubuntu Machine cat /etc/+release DISTRIB_ID=Ubuntu DISTRIB_RELEASE=14..04 DISTRIB_CODENAME=trusty DISTRIB_DESCRIPTION="Ubuntu 14.04 LTS" GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals 4 Chapter 3: Getting information on a running Linux kernel Section 3.1: Getting details of Linux kernel We can use command uname with various options to get complete details of running kernel. Linux dfl-ws-5084 4.4.0-64-generic #85-Ubuntu SMP Mon Feb 20 11:50:30 UTC 2017 x86_64 x86_64 x86_64 GNU/Linux ‘As per man page here few more options Usage: uname [OPTION]. Print certain system information. With no OPTION, same as -s. a except omit -p and “s, _ -m, “Pe -0, --help --version seal kernet-name --nodename --kernel-release kernel-version machine processor hardware- platform --operating-system iif print aur unknown: print print print print print print print print the the the the the the the the information, in the following order, kernel name network node hostname kernel release kernel version machine hardware name processor type (non-portable) hardware platform (non-portable) operating system display this help and exit output version information and exit GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals 6 Chapter 4: Shell The shell executes a program in response to its prompt. When you give a command, the shell searches for the program, and then executes it. For example, when you give the command Is, the shell searches for the utility/program named Is, and then runs it in the shell. The arguments and the options that you provide with the utilities can impact the result that you get. The shell is also known as a CLI, or command line interface. Section 4.1: Changing default shell Most modern distributions will come with BASH (Bourne Again SHell) pre-installed and configured as a default shell. The command (actually an executable binary, an ELF) that is responsible for changing shells in Linux is chsh (change shell). We can first check which shells are already installed and configured on our machine by using the chsh -1 command, which will output a result similar to this: [user@localhost ~]$ chsh -1 Ibin/sh Idin/bash Isbin/nologin fuse /bin/sh Jusr/bin/bash Jusr/sbin/nologin Jusr/bin/fish In some Linux distributions, chsh -1 is invalid. In this case, the list of all available shells can be found at /etc/shells file. You can show the file contents with cat: [user@localhost ~]$ cat fetc/shells # /etc/shells: valid login shells Ibin/sh [bin/bash Jsbin/nologin Jusr/bin/sh Jusr/bin/bash Jusr/sbin/nologin Jusr/bin/fish Now we can choose our new default shell, e.g. fish, and configure it by using chsh -s, [user@localhost ~]$ chsh -s /usr/bin/fish Changing shell for user Password Shell changed Now all that is left to do is preform a logoff-logon cycle, and enjoy our new default shell If you wish to change the default shell for a different user, and you have administrative privileges on the machine, ‘you'll be able to accomplish this by using chsh as root. So assuming we want to change user2's default shell to fish, we will use the same command as before, but with the addition of the other user's username, chsh -s Just /bin/ fish user_2. In order to check what the current default shell is, we can view the SSHELL environment variable, which points to the path to our default shell, so after our change, we would expect to get a result similar to this, GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals 16 ~ © echo SSHELL Jusr /bin/fish chsh options: -s shell Sets shell as the login shell ist-shells Print the list of shells listed in /etc/shells and exit. help Print a usage message and exit. version Print version information and exit. Section 4.2: Basic Shell Utilities the Shell prompt Default command prompt can be changed to look different and short. In case the current directory is long default command prompt becomes too large. Using PS1 becomes useful in these cases. A short and customized command pretty and elegant. In the table below Psi has been used with a number of arguments to show different forms of shell prompts. Default command prompt looks something like this: user@host ~ in my case it looks like this: bruce@gothan ~ $. It can changed as per the table below: Command Utility PSI=\w$' ~ § shell prompt as directory name. In this case root directory is Root. PSI=\h$' gotham $ shell prompt as hostname PSI=\u$' bruce $ shell prompt as username 22:37:31 § shell prompt in 24 hour format 10:37 PM shell prompt in 12 hour time format 732 will show the history number of command in place of shell prompt PS1="dude $' dude $ will show the shell prompt the way you like ‘Some basic shell commands Command Utility Ctrl-k cutykill ctrl-y yank/paste Ctrl-a will take cursor to the start of the line Ctri-e will take cursor to the end of the line ctri-d will delete the character after/at the cursor Ctri-1 will clear the screen/terminal ctri-u will clear everything between prompt and the cursor Ctrl-_ will undo the last thing typed on the command line Ctrl-< will nterrupt/stop the job/process running in the foreground GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals 7 ctri-r reverse search in history ~/.bash.history stores last 500 commands/events used on the shell history will show the command history will show all the commands in history having keyword (useful in cases
history | grep +25 you remember part of the command used in the past)
Section 4.3: Create Your Own Command Alias
If you are tired of using long commands in bash you can create your own command alias.
The best way to do this is to modify (or create if it does not exist) a file called .bash_aliases in your home folder. The
general syntaxis:
alias conmand_alias=' actual_command
where actual_command is the command you are renaming and command_alias is the new name you have given it.
For example
alias install="sudo apt-get -y install’
‘maps the new command alias instal to the actual command sudo apt-get -y install. This means that when
you use install in a terminal this is interpreted by bash as sudo apt-get -y install.
Section 4.4: Locate a file on your system
Using bash you can easily locate a file with the locate command. For example say you are looking for the file
mykey.pem:
locate mykey.pem
Sometimes files have strange names for example you might have a file like random7897_mykey_0fidw.pen. Let's say
you're looking for this file but you only remember the mykey and pem parts. You could combine the locate
command with grep using a pipe like this:
locate pem | grep mykey
Which would bring up all results which contain both of these pieces.
Note that not all systems have the locate utility installed, and many that do have not enabled it. Locate is fast and
efficient because it periodically scans your system and caches the names and locations for every file on it, but if that
data collection is not enabled then it cannot tell you anything. You can use updatedb to manually initiate the
filesystem scan in order to update the cached info about files on your filesystem,
Should you not have a working locate, you can fall back on the find utility:
find / -name mykey.pem -print
is roughly equivalent to locate mykey pen but has to scan your filesystems) each time you run it for the file in
question, rather than using cached data. This is obviously slower and less efficient, but more real-time, The find
utility can do much more than find files, but a full description of its capabilities is beyond the scope of this example.
GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals 8 Chapter 5: Check Disk Space
Section 5.1: Investigate Directories For Disk Usage
Sometimes it may be required to find out which directory consuming how much disk space especially when you are
used df -h and realized your available disk space is low.
du:
du command summarizes disk usage of the set of FILEs, recursively for directories
It's often uses with -sh option:
-s, --sunmarize
display only a total for each argument
myhardware.html
$ sudo Ishw -xml > myhardware. xml
To show PCI info
$ Ispei -tv
GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals To see USB info
$ Isusb -tv
To display BIOS information
$ dnidecode -q | less
To see specific information about disk (disk sda in example) you can use:
$ hdparm -i /dev/sda
Few additional utilities/commands will help gather some extra information:
$ smartctl -A /dev/sda | grep Power_On_Hours # How long has this disk (system) been powered on in
total
$ hdparm -tT sdev/sda # Do a read speed test on disk sda
$ badblocks -s /dev/sda # Test for unreadable blocks on disk sda
Section 6.4: Find CPU model/speed information
Ubuntu:
$ cat /proc/cpuinfo
Sample Output:
processor ®
vendor_id GenuineIntet
cpu family: 6
model 15
model name Intel(R) Core(TH)2 Quad CPU 06600 @ 2.40GHz
stepping: 11
cpu MHz 1596.000
cache size 4096 KB
physical id @
siblings 4
core id o
cpu cores 4
apicid 20
initial apicid =: 0
fpu yes
fpuexception —: yes
cpuid level 10
wp yes
flags fpu vme de pse tsc msr pae mce cx8 apic sep mtrr pge mca cmov pat pse36 clflush dts
acpi mmx fxsr sse sse2 ss ht tm pe syscall nx lm constant_tsc arch_perfmon pebs bts rep_good pni
dtes64 monitor ds_cpl vmx est tn2 ssse3 cx16 xtpr pdem lahf_lm tpr_shadow vnmi flexpriority
bogomips —: 4800.18
clflush size 64
cache_alignment —: 64
address sizes 36 bits physical, 48 bits virtual
power managenent
processor 3
vendor_id GenuineIntel
cpu family 6
GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals 2B model 15
model name Intel(R) Core(TH)2 Quad CPU 06600 @ 2.40GHz
stepping: 11
cpu MHZ 1596.000
cache size 4096 KB
physical id 0
siblings: 4
core id 3
cpu cores 4
apicid 3
initial apicid =: 3
fpu yes
fpuexception : yes
cpuid level 10
wp yes
flags fpu ve de pse tsc msr pae me cx8 apic sep mtrr pge mca cov pat pse36 clflush dts
acpi mmx fxsr sse sse2 ss ht tm pe syscall nx Im constant_tsc arch_perfmon pebs bts rep_good pni
dtes64 monitor ds_cpl vmx est tn2 ssse3 cx16 xtpr pdcm lahf_lm tpr_shadow vnmi flexpriority
bogomips —: 4800.30
clflush size 64
cache_alignment —: 64
address sizes: 36 bits physical, 48 bits virtual
power managenent
count processor (including cores):
$ grep -c processor /proc/cpuinfo
Section 6.5: Process monitoring and information gathering
Overall you have two ways to monitor processes at linux host
Static monitoring
Most widely used command is ps (i.e., process status) command is used to provide information about the currently
running processes, including their process identification numbers (PIDs).
Here few useful options to gather specific information.
List processes in a hierarchy
$ ps -e -0 pid,args --forest
List processes sorted by 9% cpu usage
$ ps -e -0 pcpu, cpu,nice, state, cputime,args --sort pcpu | sed '/* 0.0 /d°
List processes sorted by mem (KB) usage.
$ ps -e -orss=,args= | sort -b -k1,1n | pr ~THSCOLUHNS:
List all threads for a particular process ("firefox-bin" process in example }
$ ps -C firefox-bin -L -o pid, tid, pcpu, state
After finding specific process you can gather information related to it using 1sof to list paths that process id has,
open
GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals 26 $ 1sof -p $$
Or based on path find out list processes that have specified path open
$ sof ~
Interactive monitoring
Most commonly known tool for dynamic monitoring is:
$ top
That mostly default command that have huge amount options to filter and represent information in real time (in
comparison to ps command
Still there are more advance options that can be considered and installed as top replacement
$ htop -d 5
or
$ atop
Which has ability to log all the activities into log file (default atop will log all the activity on every 600 seconds) To this
list there are few specialised commands as iotop or if top
$ sudo iotop
GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals a Chapter 7: Is command
Section 7.1: Options for Is command
Full list of options:
1s a listall files including hidden file starting with .”
1s --color colored list [=always/never/auto)
1s -d ist directories - with "#7
1s -F add one char of */=>@| to enteries
1s -i list file's inode index number
1s -1 list with long format - show permissions
1s -1a list ong format including hidden files
1s -1h list long format with readable file size
1s -1s list with long format with file size
1s -r list in reverse order
1s -Rlist recursively directory tree
1s -s list file size
1s -S sort by file size
1s -t sort by time & date
As -X sort by extension name
Section 7.2: ls command with most used options
Is shows files and directories in present working directory. (if no arguments are passed.) (It doesn't show hidden
files which starts with . by default.)
user@ubuntu14:/usr$ 1s
bin games include lib 1ib82 local sbin share sre
To see all files (hidden files/folders also). Use 1s -a OR 1s -all
user@ubuntu14:/usr$ 1s -2
bin games include 1ib 1ib32 local sbin share src
To differentiate between files and folders and symbolic links and other, use 1s -F OR 1s --classify
user@ubuntu14:~$ 1s -F
bash_profile_course chat_epps/ Desktop/ Downloads/__foxitsoftware/
Public/ _test/_bin/ —ClionProjects/ Documents/ IDE/_—Music/
Pictures/ Templates/ Videos/
GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals 28 Here, ending characters are used to distinguish files and folders.
"7 suggest directory.
“suggest executables.
"@" suggest symbolic links.
To get more details about the files and directories, use 1s -1
user@ubuntu14:~/example$ 1s -1
total 6464
-rw-r--r-- 1 dave dave 41 Dec 24 12:19 Z.txt
drwxr-xr-x 2 user group 496 Dec 24 12:00 adirectory
a_file
srw-r--r-- 1 user group 6 Dec 24 12:03 a_newer_file
To set the default target for your system
Managing services at runtime
* systenct] start [service-nane] To starta service
* systenct] stop [service-nane] To stop a service
* systemct] restart [service-nane] To restart a service
+ systenct] reload [service-nane] To request service to reload its configuration
* systemctl status [service-name] To show current status of a service
Managing autostart of services
+ systemct] is-enabled [service-name] To show whether a service is enabled on system boot
* systemct] is-active [service-name] To show whether a service is currently active(running)
+ systemct1 enable [service-nane] To enable a service on system boot
© systemetl disable [service-name] To disable a service on system boot
Masking services
+ systemet1 mask [service-name] To mask a service (Makes it hard to start a service by mistake)
+ systemet2 unmask [service-name] To unmask a service
Restarting systemd
systemct1 daemon-reload
GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals 32 Chapter 10: Managing Services
Section 10.1: Diagnosing a problem with a service
‘On systems using systemd, such as Fedora => 15, Ubuntu (Server and Desktop) >= 15.04, and RHEL/CentOS >= 7:
systemct1 status [servicename]
.where [servicename] is the service in question; for example, systemct1 status sshd.
This will show basic status information and any recent errors logged.
You can see further errors with journalct1. For example, journalct1 -xe will load the last 1000 logged into a pager
(like 1ess), jumping to the end. You can also use journalct -f, which will follow log messages as they come in.
To see logs for a particular service, use the -t flag, like this:
journalctl -f -t sshd
Other handy options include -p for priority (-p warnings to see only warnings and above), -b for "since last boot",
and -S for "since" — putting that together, we might do
journalctl -p err -S yesterday
to see all items logged as errors since yesterday.
If journalct! is not available, or if you are following application error logs which do not use the system journal, the
‘tail command can be used to show the last few lines of a file. A useful flag for tail is -F (for “follow, which causes
tail continue showing data as it gets appended to the file, To see messages from most services on the system:
tail -f /var/log/messages
Or, if the service is privileged, and may log sensitive data
tail -f /var/log/secure
Some services have their own log files, a good example is audit, the linux auditing daemon, which has its logs
stored in /var/log/audit/. If you do not see output from your service in /var/log/messages try looking for service
specific logs in /var/log/
Section 10.2: Starting and Stopping Services
On systems that use the System-V style init scripts, such as RHEL/CentOS 6:
service start
service stop
‘On systems using systemd, such as Ubuntu (Server and Desktop) >= 15.04, and RHEL/CentOS >= 7:
systenct] dnsmasq
systemct] dnsmasq
GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals 3 Section 10.3: Getting the status of a service
‘On systems that use the System-V style init scripts, such as RHEL/CentOS 6:
service status
‘On systems using systemd, such as Ubuntu (Server and Desktop) >= 15.04, and RHEL/CentOS >= 7.0:
systemct1 status
GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals
34 Chapter 11: Modifying Users
Parameter Details
The name of the user. Do not use capital letters, do not use dots, do not end it in dash, it must not
username
include colons, no special characters. Cannot start with a number.
Section 11.1: Setting your own password
passnd
Section 11.2: Setting another user's password
Run the following as root:
passwd username
Section 11.3: Adding a user
Run the following as root:
useradd usernome
Section 11.4: Removing a user
Run the following as root:
userdel usernone
Section 11.5: Removing a user and its home folder
Run the following as root:
userdel -r username
Section 11.6: Listing groups the current user is in
groups
More detailed information about user and group numerical IDs can be found with the ié command.
Section 11.7: Listing groups a user is in
groups username
More detailed information about user and group numerical IDs can be found with id username.
GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals 35 Chapter 12: LAMP Stack
LAMP (Linux Apache MySQL PHP) consists of the Linux operating system as development environment, the Apache
HTTP Server as web server, the MySQL relational database management system (RDBMS) as DB (Data Base) system,
and the PHP programming language as Server side (Back End) programming language.
LAMP is used as a Open Source stack of technologies solution to web development area. Windows version of this,
stack is called WAMP (Windows Apache MySQL PHP)
Section 12.1: Installing LAMP on Arch Linux
With this line we will install all the necessary packages in one step, and the last update:
pacman -Syu apache php php-apache mariadb
HTTP
Edit
Jetc/httpd/conf/httpd conf
Change ServerAdnin youexample.com as you need.
‘The folder of the WEB Pages by default is ServerRoot “/etc/httpd". Directory must be set to the same folder, so
change the line
This folder must have read and execution access, so
chnod o#x /ete/httpd
Change AllowOverride from none (default) to All so htaccess will works.
Now you need the ~/public_html folder for each user. (to get the root page of each user as
http://localhost/~yourusername/. Unremark this line:
Include conf/extra/httpd-userdir .conf
Now as root you need to create the ~/public_htm1 for each user and change the access to (755) of each one.
chnod 755 shome
chnod 755 /home/username
chnod 755 /home/username/public_htm)
You can comment out this line if you want to use SSL:
LoadModule ssl_module modules/mod.ss1.so
Ifyou need to use virtual domains, uncomment the line:
Include conf/extra/httpd-vhosts .conf
and in fete/httpd/conf /extra/httpd-vhosts.conf you must to add all the virtual domains. (plus into /etc/hosts
if you want to test those virtuals domains)
GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals 36 Edit setc/httpd/conf /extra/httpd-default .conf and change ServerSignature to Off and ServerToken to Prod
for hiding critical data
PHP
Edit: /eteshttpd/cont snttpd..conf
Comment out: LoadModule mpm_event nodule modules/mod_npn_event.so
Uncomment: LoadModule mpn_prefork module modules/nodmpn.prefork.so
As last item in the LoadModule list, add LoadModule php7module modules/1ibphp7.so
As last item in the include list, add Include conf /extra/php?_nodule.conf
Edit Jete/php/php ini
Uncomment extension=nysqli.so and extension=pdo_nysql.so
Change the timezone as you need, for example:
date. timezone = Anerica/Argentina/Buenos_Aires, date.default_latitude = 0.0, date.default_longitude
= 0.8
MysQL
Run as root:
mysql_install_db --user=mysql --basedir=/usr --datadir=/var/lib/mysql
Now you have the root of the MySQL Server.
Start MySQL daemon:
systemct] enable mysqld
systemct1 start mysqld
At last, run:
sh /usr/bin/mysql_secure_installation
That all to get a web server ready to be customized as you need.
Section 12.2: Installing LAMP on Ubuntu
Install apache:
sudo apt-get install apache?
Install MySql:
sudo apt-get install mysql-server
Install PHP:
GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals
7 sudo apt-get install phpS 1ibapache2-mod-phps
Restart system:
sudo systenct] restart apache2
Check PHP installation:
php -r ‘echo "\n\nYour PHP installation is working fine. \n\n\n"
Section 12.3: Installing LAMP stack on CentoOS
Install Apache Web Server
First step is to install web server Apache.
sudo yun -y install httpd
Once itis installed, enable (to run on startup) and start Apache web server service.
sudo systenctl enable --now httpd
Point your browser to:
http://localhost
You will see the default Apache web server page.
Install MariaDB Server
Second step is to install MariaDB:
sudo yun -y install mariadb-server
Then start and enable (on startup) the MariaDB server:
sudo systenct] enable --now mariadb
As needed, use mysql_secure installation to secure your database.
This script will allow you to do the following:
+ Change the root user's password
* Remove test databases
* Disable remote access
Install PHP
sudo yum -y install php php-common
Then restart Apache's httpd service.
sudo systemctl restart httpd
To test PHP, create a file called index.php in /var/www/html.
Then add the following line to the file:
GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals
38 ‘Then point your browser to:
http://localhost/index.php
You should see information related to your server. If you do not, ensure that php is for sure installed correctly by
running the following command:
php --version
If you receive something like:
PHP 5.4.16 (cli) (built: Nov 6 2016 00:29:02) Copyright (c) 1997-2013 The PHP Group
Then PHP is installed correctly. if this is the case, please ensure that you've restarted your web server.
GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals 39 Chapter 13: tee command
Options Description
‘append ‘Append to the given FILEs. Do not overwrite.
ignore-interrupts ignore interrupt signals.
help Display a help message, and exit.
version Display version information, and exit.
tee- read from standard input and write to standard output and files.
The tee command is named after the T-splitter in plumbing, which splits water into two directions and is shaped like
an uppercase T.
tee copies data from standard input to each FILE, and also to standard output. In effect, tee duplicates its input,
routing it to multiple outputs at once.
Section 13.1: Write output to stdout, and also to a file
The following command displays output only on the screen (stdout).
gis
The following command writes the output only to the file and not to the screen.
$ 1s > file
The following command (with the help of tee command) writes the output both to the screen (stdout) and to the
file
$ 1s | tee file
Section 13.2: Write output from the middle of a pipe chain toa
file and pass it back to the pipe
You can also use tee command to store the output of a command in a file and redirect the same output to another
command.
The following command will write current crontab entries to a file crontab-backup..txt and pass the crontab
entries to sed command, which will do the substituion, After the substitution, it will be added as a new cron job.
$ erontab -1 | tee erontab-backup.txt | sed 's/old/new/’ | crontab -
Section 13.3: write the output to multiple files
You can pipe your output to multiple files (including your terminal) by using tee like this:
$ ls | tee filet file2 files
Section 13.4: Instruct tee command to append to the file
By default tee command overwrites the file, You can instruct tee to append to the file using the -a option as shown
GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals 40 GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals
a1 Chapter 14: Secure Shell (SSH)
secure shell is used to remotely access a server from a client over an encrypted connection. OpenSSH is used as
an alternative to Telnet connections that achieve remote shell access but are unencrypted. The OpenSSH Client is.
installed on most GNU/Linux distributions by default and is used to connect to a server. These examples show use
how to use the SSH suite to for accept SSH connections and connecting to another host.
Section 14.1: Connecting to a remote server
To connect to a server we must use SSH on the client as follows,
# ssh -p port useréserver-address
* port - The listening ssh port of the server (default port 22).
* user - Must be an existing user on the server with SSH privileges.
+ server address - The IP/Domain of the server.
For a real world example lets pretend that you're making a website. The company you chose to host your site tells
you that the server is located at web-servers.com on a custom port of 2020 and your account name usr has been
chosen to create a user on the server with SSH privileges. In this case the SSH command used would be as such
# ssh -p 2020 [email protected]
If account name on the remote system is the same as the one one the local client you may leave the user name off.
So if you are usr1 on both systems then you my simply use web-servers..com instead of usr [email protected].
When a server you want to connect to is not directly accessible to you, you can try using Proxyump switch to
connect to it through another server which is accessible to you and can connect to the desired server.
# ssh -J [email protected]:2020 usr2610.0.0.2 -p 2222
This will let you connect to the server 10.0.0.2 (running ssh on port 2222) through server at 10.0.0.1 (running ssh on
port 2020). You will need to have accounts on both servers of course. Also note that the -j switch is introduced in
OpenSSH version 7.3,
Section 14.2: Installing OpenSSH suite
Both connecting to a remove SSH server and accepting SSH connections require installation of openssh
Debian:
# apt-get install openssh
Arch Linux:
# pacman -$ openssh
Yum:
# yum install openssh
GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals 42 Section 14.3: Configuring an SSH server to accept connections
First we must edit the SSH daemon config file. Though under different Linux distributions this may be located in
different directories, usually itis stored under /etc/ssh/sshd_config
Use your text editor to change the values set in this file, all lines starting with # are commented out and must have
this character removed to take any effect. A list of recommendations follow as such.
Port (chose a number between @ - 65535, normaly greater than four digits)
PasswordAuthentication yes
Allowsers —userl user2 ...ete
Note that it is preferable to disable password logins all together and use SSH Keys for improved security as explained in
this document.
Section 14.4: Passwordless connection (using a key pair)
First of all you'll need to have a key pair. if you don't have one yet, take a look at the ‘Generate public and private
key topic’
Your key pair is composed by a private key (id_rsa) and a public key (id_rsa.pub). All you need to do is to copy the
public key to the remote host and add its contents to the ~/. ssh/authorized_keys file.
(One simple way to do that is:
ssh @ ‘cat >> ~/.ssh/authorized_keys’ < id_rsa.pub
Once the public key is properly placed in your user's home directory, you just need to login using the respective
private key:
Section 14.5: Generate public and private key
To generate keys for SSH client:
ssh-keygen [-t rsa | rsa1 | dsa ] [-C ] [-b bits]
For example:
ssh-keygen ~t rsa -b 4096 - C myenaileenail..com
Default location is ~/.ssh/id_rsa for private and ~/ .ssh/id_rsa.pub for public key.
For more info, please visit man.openbsd.org.
Section 14.6: Disable ssh service
This will disable the SSH server side service, as if needed this will insure that clients cannot connect via ssh
Ubuntu
sudo service ssh stop
GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals B sudo systemctl disable sshd.service
Debian
sudo fetc/init.d/ssh stop
sudo systemct] disable sshd.service
Arch Linux
sudo killall sshd
sudo systemct] disable sshd.service
GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals
44 Chapter 15: SCP
Section 15.1: Secure Copy
scp command is used to securely copy a file to or from a remote destination. If the file is in current working directly
only filename is sufficient else full path is required which included the remote hostname e.g
remote_user@some_server.org:/path/to/file
Copy local file in your CWD to new directory
scp localfile.txt shome/friend/share/
Copy remote file to you current working directory
scp rocky@arenaS1 net: Jhome/rocky/game/data.txt ./
Copy file from one remote location to another remote location
Sep [email protected]:/beacon/Light/bitmap.conf [email protected]:/beacon/night/
To copy directory and sub-directories use ‘+r’ recursive option to scp
sep -r [email protected]:~/project/* ./workspace/
Section 15.2: Basic Usage
# Copy remote file to local dir
Sep user@remotehost .com:/remote/path/to/ foobar .md /local/dest
# Copy local file to remote dir
sep foobar.md user®renotehost .com:/remote/dest
# Key files can be used (just like ssh)
scp -i my_key.pem foobar.md user@remotehost .com:/remote/dest
GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals 45 Chapter 16: GnuPG (GPG)
GnuPG is a sophisticated key management system which allows for secure signing or encrypting data. GPG is a
command-line tool used to create and manipulate GnuPG keys.
GnuPG is most widely used for having SSH (Secure Shell) connections without password or any means of interactive
authentication, which improves security level significantly.
Following sections describe ways to create, use, and maintain security of GnuPG keys.
Section 16.1: Exporting your public key
In order for your public-private keypair to be of use, you must make your public key freely available to others. Be
sure that you are working with your public key here since you should never share your private key. You can export
your public key with the following command:
9p9 —armor —export EMATL_ADDRESS > public_key.asc
where EMAIL_ADDRESS is the email address associated with the key
Alternately, you can upload your public key to a public key server such as keys.gnupg.net so that others can use it,
To do so, enter the following in a terminal:
gpg —list-keys
Then, search for the 8-digit string (the primary ID) associated with the key you want to export. Then, issue the
command:
‘gpg —send-keys PRIMARYID
where PRIMARY ID is the actual ID of that key.
Now, the public key has been uploaded to the key server and is publicly available.
Section 16.2: Create and use a GnuPG key quickly
Install haveged (example sudo apt-get install haveged) to speed up the random byte process. Then:
gpg --gen-key
gpg --list-keys
outputs:
pub 2048R/NNNNNNNN 2616-61-01
uid Name
sub 2048R/xxxxxxxx 2816-81-01
Then publish:
gpg --keyserver pgp.mit.edu --send-keys NNNNNNNN
Then plan to revoke: https://www.hackdiary.com/2004/01/18/revoking-a-gpg-key/
GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals 46 Chapter 17: Network Configuration
This document covers TCP/IP networking, network administration and system configuration basics. Linux can
support multiple network devices. The device names are numbered and begin at zero and count upwards. For
example, a computer with two NICs will have two devices labeled eth0 and etht
Section 17.1: Local DNS resolution
File: /etc/hosts contains a list of hosts that are to be resolved locally(not by DNS)
‘Sample contents of the file:
127.8.0.1 your-node-name.your-donain.com localhost.localdomain localhost
XXX. 200. XKK.XXX node-name
The file format for the hosts file is specified by REC 952
Section 17.2: Configure DNS servers for domain name
resolution
File: /etc/ resolv. conf contains a list of DNS servers for domain name resolution
‘Sample contents of the file:
nameserver 8.8.8.8 # IP address of the primary name server
nameserver 8.8.4.4 # IP address of the se
In case internal DNS server you can validate if this server resolve DNS names properly using dig command:
$ dig google.com @your.dns.server.com +short
Section 17.3: See and manipulate routes
Manipulate the IP routing table using route
play routing table
$ route # Displays list or routes and also re
$ route -n # Displays list of routes without resolving host names for faster results
Add/Delete route
Option Description
add or del Add or delete a route
host x.x.x.x Add route to a single host identified by the IP address
snet x.x.x.x Add route to a network identified by the network address
OW X.X.x.x Specify the network gateway
netmask x.x.x.x Specify the network netmask
default Add a default route
Examples:
GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals a7 add route toa host $ route add -host x.x.x.x etht
add route to a network $ route add -net 2.2.2.8 netmask 255.255.255.0 etha
Alternatively, you could also use cidr format to add a route to network route add -net 2.2.2.0/24 ethe
add default gateway $ route add default gw 2.2.2.1 etho
* delete aroute $ route del -net 2.2.2.0/24
Manipulate the IP routing table using ip
isplay routing table
$ ip route show # List routing table
Add/Delete route
Option Description
add or del or change or append
orventace Change a route
show or flush the command displays the contents of the routing tables or remove it
restore restore routing table information from stdin
ae this command gets a single route to a destination and prints its contents exactly as
the kernel sees it
Examples:
* Set default gateway to 1.2.3.254$ ip route add default via 1.2.3.254
* Adds a default route (for all addresses) via the local gateway 192.168.1.1 that can be reached on device ethO
$ ip route add default via 192.168.1.1 dev etha
Section 17.4: Configure a hostname for some other system on
your network
You can configure your Linux (or macOS) system in order to tie in an identifier to some other system's
IP address in your network. You can configure it:
* Systemwide. You should modify the /etc/hosts file. You just have to add to that file a new line containing:
1, the remote system's IP address ,
2. one or more blank spaces, and
3, the identifier
Example:
$ ifconfig ethe
etha Link encap:Ethernet Hitaddr xx:xx 1x 2x 2030
net addr:x.x.x.x Boast:x.x.x.x Nask:x.x.%.X
Snet6 addr XX | XX :XXXX 2 xHKK KKK/EA Scope :Liink
UP BROADCAST RUNNING MULTICAST MTU:15@0 Metric:1
RX packets :4426618 errors:@ dropped:1124 overruns:@ frame:0
TX packets :189171 errors:@ dropped:@ overruns:@ carrier:
collisions :@ txqueuelen:1@0@
RX bytes:382611580 (382.6 MB) TX bytes:36923665 (36.9 MB)
Interrupt:16 Memory :fbSe8@8e-fb600000
Ethtool - query the network driver and hardware settings
Syntax: $ ethtool
Example:
§ ethtool etha
Settings for etho:
Supported ports: [ TP ]
Supported Link modes: 10baseT/Half 1dbaseT/Fult
1O0baseT/Half 100baseT/FuLL
1000baseT/Fult
Supported pause frame use: No
Supports auto-negotiation: Yes
Advertised Link modes: 10baseT/Half 10baseT/Fult
lodbaseT/Half 100baseT/FulL
1o00baseT/Fult
Advertised pause frame use: No
Advertised auto-negotiation: Yes
Speed: 1000Hb/s
Duplex: Full
Port: Twisted Pair
PHYAD: 1
Transceiver: internal
Auto-negotiation: on
WOI-X: on (auto)
Supports Wake-on: punbg
Wake-on: g
Current message level: 6x00000007 (7)
drv probe Link
Link detected: yes
ip - show / manipulate routing, devices, policy routing and tunnels
GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals
49 Syntax: $ ip { link | ... | route | macsec } (please see man ip for full list of objects)
Examples
List network interfaces
$ ip link show
Rename interface eth0 to wan
$ ip link set dev eth@ name wan
Bring interface ethO up (or down)
$ ip link set dev etha up
List addresses for interfaces
$ ip addr show
Add (or del) ip and mask (255.255.255.0)
$ ip addr add 1.2.3.4/24 brd + dev ethe
Section 17.6: Adding IP to an interface
An IP address to an interface could be obtained via DHCP or Static assignment
DHCP If you are connected to a network with a DHCP server running, dhclient command can get an IP address for
your interface
§ dhclient
or alternatively, you could make a change to the /etc/network/interfaces file for the interface to be brought up
on boot and obtain DHCP IP
auto etho
iface eth® inet dhcp
Static configuration(Permanent Change) using /etc/network/interfaces file
If you want to statically configure the interface settings(permanent change), you could do so in the
Jetc/network/interfaces file.
Example:
terface on boot
auto eth® # Bring up the
iface ethd inet static
address 10.10.70.10
netmask 255.255.0.0
gateway 10.10.1.1
dns-nameservers 10.10.1.28
dns-nameservers 10.10.1.30
‘These changes persist even after system reboot,
GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals 50 Static configuration(Temporary change) using ifconfig utility
Astatic IP address could be added to an interface using the ifconfig utility as follows
§ ifconfig / up
Example:
§ ifconfig ethd 10.10.50.100/16 up
GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals
51 Chapter 18: Midnight Commander
Midnight Commander or mc is a console file manager. This topic includes the descripton of it's functionalities and
examples and tips of how to use it to it's full potential
pecon 18.1: Midnight Commander function keys in browsing
mode
Here is a list of actions which can be triggered in the Midnight Commander filesystem browsing mode by using
function keys on your keyboard.
F7_J Displays help
F2_] Opens user menu
F3 ] Displays the contents of the selected file
F4 ] Opens the selected file in the internal file editor
F5 Copies the selected file to the directory open in the second panel
F6_] Moves the selected file to the directory open in the second panel
F7_] Makes a new directory in the directory open in the current panel
FB ] Deletes the selected file or directory
F9 | Focuses to the main menu on the top of the screen
Fi@ | Exits me
Section 18.2: Midnight Commander function keys in file editing
mode
Midnight Commander has a built in editor which is started by F4 function key when over the desired file in the
browse mode. It can also be invoked in standalone mode by executing
mcedit
Here is a list of actions which can be triggered in the edit mode.
F1_] Displays help
F2 | Saves current file
F3_] Marks the start of the text selection. Move cursor any direction to select. Second hit marks the end of the
selection.
F4 ] Brings up the text search/replace dialog
F5 ] Copies selected text to the cursor location (copy/paste)
F6 | Moves selected text to the cursor location (cut/paste)
F7 | Brings up the text search dialog
GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals 52 F@ ] Deletes selected text
F9 | Focuses to the main menu on the top of the screen
Fi JExits the editor
GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals
53 Chapter 19: Change root (chroot)
Change root (chroot) is an operation that changes the apparent root directory for the current running process and
their children. A program that is run in such a modified environment cannot access files and commands outside
that environmental directory tree.
Section 19.1: Requirements
* root privileges
+ another working Linux environment,such as Live CD boot or an existing distribution
+ matching environment architectures of chroot source and destination (check current environment
architecture with uname -n)
* kernel modules which you may need in chroot environment must be loaded (for example, with modprobe)
Section 19.2: Manually changing root in a directory
1. Ensure you met all requirements, as per Requirements
2. Mount the temporary AP! filesystems:
ed /location/of /new/ root
mount -t proc proc proc/
mount --rbind /sys sys/
mount --rbind /dev dev/
mount --rbind frun run/ (optionally)
3. Ifyou need to use an internet connection in the chroot environment, copy over the DNS details:
ep fetc/resoly.conf etc/resolv.cont
4, Change root into /location/of/new/root, specifying the shell (/bin/bash in this example):
chroot /location/of/new/root /bin/bash
5. After chrooting it may be necessary to load the local bash configuration:
source /etc/profile
source ~/.bashre
6. Optionally, create a unique prompt to be able to differentiate your chroot environment:
export PS1="(chroot) $PS1
7. When finished with the chroot, you can exit it via:
exit
8. Unmount the temporary file systems:
ed /
unount --recursive /location/of /new/ root
GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals 54 Section 19.3: Reasons to use chroot
Changing root is commonly done for performing system maintenance on systems where booting and/or logging in
is no longer possible.
Common examples are:
* reinstalling the bootloader
rebuilding the initramfs image
* upgrading or downgrading packages
resetting a forgotten password
building software in a clean root environment
GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals
55 Chapter 20: Package Managers
Section 20.1: How to update packages with the apt package
manager
‘The Advanced Package Tool, aptly named the ‘apt’ package manager can handle the installation and removal of
software on the Debian, Slackware, and other Linux Distributions. Below are some simple examples of use:
update
This option retrieves and scans the Packages.g7 files, so that information about new and updated packages is
available. To do so, enter the following command:
sudo apt-get update
upgrade
This option is used to install the newest versions of all packages currently installed on the system. Packages
currently installed with new versions available are retrieved and upgraded; under no circumstances are currently
installed packages removed, or packages not already installed retrieved and installed. To upgrade, enter the
following command:
sudo apt-get upgrade
dist-upgrade
In addition to performing the function of upgrade, dist-upgrade also intelligently handles changing dependencies
with new versions of packages. It will attempt to upgrade the most important packages at the expense of less
important ones if necessary. To do so, enter the following command:
sudo apt-get dist-upgrade
Section 20.2: How to install a package with the pacman
package manager
In order to search for packages in the databse, searching both in packages’ names and descriptions:
pacman -Ss string! string?
To install a single package or list of packages (including dependencies), issue the following command
sudo pacman -S package_name1 package_name2
source
Section 20.3: How to update packages with the pacman
package manager
To update a specific program:
sudo pacman -S
To update entire the system:
sudo pacman -Syu
GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals 56 Section 20.4: How to update packages with yum
Yellowdog Updater, Modified, one of the last remaining vestiges of Yellow Dog Linux, is the package manager used
by Red Hat, Fedora, and CentOS systems and their derivatives. It can handle the installation and removal of
software packaged as rpms for these Linux distributions. Below are some simple examples of use:
search
This command will attempt to locate software packages in the configured software repositories that match the
given search criteria, and display the name / version / repository location of the matches it finds. To use it, enter the
following comman
yun search
install
This command will attempt to locate and install the named software from the configured software repositories,
recursively locating and installing any needed prerequisite software as well. To use it, enter the following command
sudo yum install
update
This option is used to install the newest versions of all packages currently installed on the system. Packages
currently installed with new versions available are retrieved and upgraded; new prerequisites are also retrieved and
installed as necessary, and replaced or obsoleted packages are removed. To upgrade, enter the following
command:
sudo yum update
Unlike apt, most yum commands will also automatically check for updates to repository metadata if a check has
not been done recently (or if forced to do so) and will retrieve and scan updated metadata so that information
about new and updated packages is available before the requested operation is performed.
GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals 7 Chapter 21: Compiling the Linux kernel
Section 21.1: Compilation of Linux Kernel on Ubuntu
Warning: be sure you have at least 15 GB of free disk space.
Compilation in Ubuntu >=13.04
Option A) Use Git
Use git if you want to stay in sync with the latest Ubuntu kernel source. Detailed instructions can be found in the
Kernel Git Guide. The git repository does not include necessary control files, so you must build them by:
fakeroot debian/rules clean
Option B) Download the source archive
Download the source archive - This is for users who want to rebuild the standard Ubuntu packages with additional
patches. Use a follow command to install the build dependencies and extract the source (to the current directory)
1. Install the following packages:
sudo apt-get build-dep linux-image-‘unat
Option C) Download the source package and build
This is for users who want to modify, or play around with, the Ubuntu-patched kernel source.
1. Retrieve the latest kernel source from kernel.org.
2. Extract the archive to a directory and ed into it:
tar xf Linux-*.tar.xz
ed Linux-*
3. Build the ncurses configuration interface:
make menuconfig
4, To accept the default configuration, press [= ]to highlight < exit > and then[ Return
5, Press| Return ]again to save the configuration.
6. Use make to build the kernel:
make
Note that you can use the -jem> flag to compile files in parallel and take advantage of multiple cores.
‘The compressed kernel image can be found at arch/ [arch] /boot/bzImage, where [arch] is equal to uname -a
GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals 58 Credits
Thank you greatly to all the people from Stack Overflow Documentation who helped provide this content,
more changes can be sent to [email protected] for new content to be published or updated
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"; ‘ed>Error: ‘ed>Error : Ivar /www/htnl/admin/index.php: echo ‘ uname -a ‘SunOS hope 5.7 Generic.186541-@8 sun4m sparc SUNW, SPARCstation-10 All the options: -s,-kernel-name Print the kernel name. -n, -nodename Print the network node hostname. kernel-release —_Print the kernel release. -v,~kernel-version _Print the kernel version. -m, machine Print the machine hardware name, “Pp, ~processor Print the processor type, or "unknown. ~-hardware-platform Print the hardware platform, or "unknown. -0, ~operating-system Print the operating system. ~help Display a help message, and exit. ~version Display version information, and exit. Section 2.5: Detect basic information about your distro just execute uname -a On Arch: $ uname -a Linux nokia 4.6.4-1-ARCH #7 SHP PREEMP Mon Jul 11 19:12:3 T 2016 x86_64 GNU/Linuxenter Section 2.6: Using GNU coreutils So the GNU coreutils should be available on all linux based systems (please correct me if | am wrong here). If you do not know what system you are using you may not be able to directly jump to one of the examples above, hence this may be your first port of call $ uname -a On my system this gives me the following... Linux Scibearspace 3.16.0-4-amd64 #1 SMP Debian 3.16.7-ckt25-2+deb8u3 (2016-07-02) x86_64 GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals B GNU/Linux Here you can see the following Scibearspace : the name of my pe * Scibearspace : the name of my pe 3.16.0-4-amd64: the kernel and architecture SMP Debian 3.16.7-CKT25-2+deb8u3 : tells me | am running debian with the 3.16 kernel Finaly the last part | am running debian 8 (update 3). | would welcome any others to add in results for RHEL, and SuSe systems. Section 2.7: Find your linux os (both debian & rpm) name and release number Most of linux distros stores its version info in the /etc/Isb-release (debian) or /etc/redhat-release (RPM based) file. Using below generic command should get you past most of the Debian and RPM derivatives as Linux Mint and Cent-Os. Example on Ubuntu Machine cat /etc/+release DISTRIB_ID=Ubuntu DISTRIB_RELEASE=14..04 DISTRIB_CODENAME=trusty DISTRIB_DESCRIPTION="Ubuntu 14.04 LTS" GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals 4 Chapter 3: Getting information on a running Linux kernel Section 3.1: Getting details of Linux kernel We can use command uname with various options to get complete details of running kernel. Linux dfl-ws-5084 4.4.0-64-generic #85-Ubuntu SMP Mon Feb 20 11:50:30 UTC 2017 x86_64 x86_64 x86_64 GNU/Linux ‘As per man page here few more options Usage: uname [OPTION]. Print certain system information. With no OPTION, same as -s. a except omit -p and “s, _ -m, “Pe -0, --help --version seal kernet-name --nodename --kernel-release kernel-version machine processor hardware- platform --operating-system iif print aur unknown: print print print print print print print print the the the the the the the the information, in the following order, kernel name network node hostname kernel release kernel version machine hardware name processor type (non-portable) hardware platform (non-portable) operating system display this help and exit output version information and exit GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals 6 Chapter 4: Shell The shell executes a program in response to its prompt. When you give a command, the shell searches for the program, and then executes it. For example, when you give the command Is, the shell searches for the utility/program named Is, and then runs it in the shell. The arguments and the options that you provide with the utilities can impact the result that you get. The shell is also known as a CLI, or command line interface. Section 4.1: Changing default shell Most modern distributions will come with BASH (Bourne Again SHell) pre-installed and configured as a default shell. The command (actually an executable binary, an ELF) that is responsible for changing shells in Linux is chsh (change shell). We can first check which shells are already installed and configured on our machine by using the chsh -1 command, which will output a result similar to this: [user@localhost ~]$ chsh -1 Ibin/sh Idin/bash Isbin/nologin fuse /bin/sh Jusr/bin/bash Jusr/sbin/nologin Jusr/bin/fish In some Linux distributions, chsh -1 is invalid. In this case, the list of all available shells can be found at /etc/shells file. You can show the file contents with cat: [user@localhost ~]$ cat fetc/shells # /etc/shells: valid login shells Ibin/sh [bin/bash Jsbin/nologin Jusr/bin/sh Jusr/bin/bash Jusr/sbin/nologin Jusr/bin/fish Now we can choose our new default shell, e.g. fish, and configure it by using chsh -s, [user@localhost ~]$ chsh -s /usr/bin/fish Changing shell for user Password Shell changed Now all that is left to do is preform a logoff-logon cycle, and enjoy our new default shell If you wish to change the default shell for a different user, and you have administrative privileges on the machine, ‘you'll be able to accomplish this by using chsh as root. So assuming we want to change user2's default shell to fish, we will use the same command as before, but with the addition of the other user's username, chsh -s Just /bin/ fish user_2. In order to check what the current default shell is, we can view the SSHELL environment variable, which points to the path to our default shell, so after our change, we would expect to get a result similar to this, GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals 16 ~ © echo SSHELL Jusr /bin/fish chsh options: -s shell Sets shell as the login shell ist-shells Print the list of shells listed in /etc/shells and exit. help Print a usage message and exit. version Print version information and exit. Section 4.2: Basic Shell Utilities the Shell prompt Default command prompt can be changed to look different and short. In case the current directory is long default command prompt becomes too large. Using PS1 becomes useful in these cases. A short and customized command pretty and elegant. In the table below Psi has been used with a number of arguments to show different forms of shell prompts. Default command prompt looks something like this: user@host ~ in my case it looks like this: bruce@gothan ~ $. It can changed as per the table below: Command Utility PSI=\w$' ~ § shell prompt as directory name. In this case root directory is Root. PSI=\h$' gotham $ shell prompt as hostname PSI=\u$' bruce $ shell prompt as username 22:37:31 § shell prompt in 24 hour format 10:37 PM shell prompt in 12 hour time format 732 will show the history number of command in place of shell prompt PS1="dude $' dude $ will show the shell prompt the way you like ‘Some basic shell commands Command Utility Ctrl-k cutykill ctrl-y yank/paste Ctrl-a will take cursor to the start of the line Ctri-e will take cursor to the end of the line ctri-d will delete the character after/at the cursor Ctri-1 will clear the screen/terminal ctri-u will clear everything between prompt and the cursor Ctrl-_ will undo the last thing typed on the command line Ctrl-< will nterrupt/stop the job/process running in the foreground GoalKicker.com ~ Linux® Notes for Professionals 7 ctri-r reverse search in history ~/.bash.history stores last 500 commands/events used on the shell history will show the command history will show all the commands in history having keyword
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