Module-2: Energy; Source, Conversion and

Storage (8 hr)
1.Batteries: Introduction, classification of batteries as primary, secondary and reserve
batteries with examples
2. Components, construction, working and applications of modern batteries; i) Na-ion
battery,
3. Components, construction, working and applications of modern batteries ;ii) solid
state battery (Li-polymer battery) and
4. Components, construction, working and applications of modern batteries; iii) flow
battery (Vanadium redox flow battery)
5. Fuel Cells: Introduction, construction, working and applications of methanol–oxygen
6. Fuel Cell: Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cell
7. Solar Energy: Introduction, importance of solar PV cell,
8. Construction and working of solar PV cell, advantages and disadvantages.
A battery is a device consists of two or more galvanic cells arranged in series or parallel
or both that can generate electrical energy. Batteries are mainly classified into three types.

i).Primary (single-discharge) Batteries:

These are the batteries in which net cell reaction is not completely reversible, therefore these are
not rechargeable.
Example: Leclanche cell (Zn-MnO2), Magnesium cell (Mg-MnO2), Zn-air cell (Zn-O2),
Lithium primary cell etc.

ii) Secondary Batteries: These are the batteries in which net cell reaction is completely
reversible and therefore these are rechargeable.
Example: Lead-acid, Nickel- cadmium, Nickel-metal hydride, Lithium-ion batteries.

iii) Reserve Batteries: A reserve battery also called as stand-by battery, these batteries are used
to deliver high power for relatively short periods of time.
 Cells are comprised of 3 essential components.

The Anode is the negative or reducing electrode that releases

Basic Components of battery electrons to the external circuit and oxidizes during and
electrochemical reaction.

The Cathode is the positive or oxidizing electrode that acquires

electrons from the external circuit and is reduced during the
electrochemical reaction.

The Electrolyte is the medium that provides the ion transport

mechanism between the cathode and anode of a cell.
Electrolytes are often thought of as liquids, such as water or
other solvents, with dissolved salts, acids, or alkalis that are
required for ionic conduction. It should however be noted that
many batteries including the conventional (AA/AAA/D)
batteries contain solid electrolytes that act as ionic conductors at
room temperature.
Construction, working and applications of modern batteries; i) Na-ion battery,

The sodium ions are transferred to the negative electrode through the electrolyte to be
inserted there into the active material. Accordingly, an oxidation (positive electrode) and
reduction (negative electrode) reaction take place at the respective electrode. The cell voltage
increases as the cell is charged.
Anode: Sodium metal intercalated on graphite is used as anode and copper foil is used
to collect charges.
Cathode: Layered carbon is intercalated with NaCoO2 or NaMnO2
Electrolyte: Commonly used electrolytes are NaPF6 in PEC and PPC
Separator: Polymer membrane

Battery representation: NaxC6 / NaPF6 in PEC / Na(1  x)CoO2

NaPF6 sodium; hexafluorophosphate

Working:

Discharge reactions
At anode: NaxC6 xNa+ + xe- +6C

At cathode: Na(1-x)CoO2 + xNa+ + xe- NaCoO2

Net Cell : NaxC6 + Na(1-x)CoO2 NaCoO2 + 6C

Recharging reactions
At Cathode: xNa+ + xe- +6C NaxC6

At Anode: NaCoO2 Na(1-x)CoO2 + xNa+ + xe-

Net Cell: NaCoO2 + 6C NaxC6 + Na(1-x)CoO2

Advantages
Sodium resources are more abundant.
The cost of sodium-ion batteries is about 30% lower than that of lithium batteries.
Sodium-ion batteries are safer and are not easy to produce lithium dendrites.
Disadvantages of sodium ion batteries
Lower energy density of sodium ion batteries.
It has short cycle life.
The industrial chain is still incomplete.
Components, construction, working and applications of modern batteries ;ii) solid state
battery (Li-polymer battery)
A battery which uses solid electrolyte is called as solid state battery.
Example: Li-polymer battery
Construction:

Anode: Anode contains a lithium carbon (such as graphite) and copper

foil as a charge collector

Cathode: The cathode contains a lithium metal oxide (such as lithium-

cobalt oxide (LiCoO2)) and aluminium is used as a charge collector

Battery representation: Electrolyte: A solid polymer electrolyte such as poly(methyl

LixC6 / PMMA / Li(1  x)CoO2
methacrylate) (PMMA), poly(acrylonitrile) (PAN), poly(vinylidene
fluoride) (PVdF), and poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO)
Working:
The anode and cathode are separated by an electrolyte that interacts with the anode to generate
electrons, which creates a charge gradient in the cell. As the anode becomes negatively charged, the
electrons travel along a conducting wire to the cathode, creating an electrical current. The whole system
undergoes redox reaction, where the anode loses electrons and becomes oxidized while the cathode
gains electrons and is reduced.

Discharging and charging reactions: Working

Anode 
LixC6  6C + xLi+ + xe
Cathode 
Li(1  x)CoO2 + xLi+ + xe  LiCoO2
Overall 
LixC6 + Li(1  x)CoO2   LiCoO2+ 6C

Voltage produced by LiPo batteries varies from 3.7 to 4.2V

Applications of Li-Polymer batteries
1. Mobile devices
2. Power banks
3. Very thin laptop computers
4. Wireless controllers for video game consoles
5. Wireless PC peripherals
6. Batteries for Drones

Advantages of LiPo batteries Disadvantages:

1. Weight of the battery is less than lithium-ion battery 1. Cycle life is low ie: 300 to 400 cycles.
therefore posses better energy density 2. Its chemistry leads to fire when the LiPo battery is punctured.
2. Low internal resistance of a battery improves the 3. It requires special care during charging, discharging, and
shelf life. storage.
3. Higher voltage compared to Lithium-ion battery. 4. It is expensive. The cost is almost double that Li-Ion battery.
4. Higher capacity
Components, construction, working and applications of modern batteries; iii) flow battery (Vanadium redox
flow battery)

Flow battery: A flow battery, or redox flow battery, is a type of electrochemical cell where chemical energy is
provided by two chemical components dissolved in liquids that are pumped through the system on separate sides of
a membrane. Example: Vanadium redox flow battery
Vanadium redox flow battery: The vanadium redox battery (VRB), also known as the vanadium flow battery (VFB) or
vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB), is a type of rechargeable flow battery. It employs vanadium ions as charge
carriers.

Construction: A vanadium redox battery consists of an assembly of power cells in which two electrolytes are
separated by a proton exchange membrane.

Electrodes: The electrodes in a VRB cell are carbon based such as carbon felt, carbon paper, carbon cloth and graphite
felt and CNT’s

Anode: V2+/V3+ redox couple in H2SO4 electrolyte circulated over carbon based electrode. (Vanadyl Sulphate VSO4)

Cathode: V4+/V5+ redox couple in the form of oxygenated species (VO)2+/(VO2)+ in H2SO4 electrolyte circulated over
carbon based electrode.{(VO)2+ - Oxidation state of V is (IV) and (VO2)+ - Oxidation state of V is (V)} (V2O5)

Electrolytes: Vanadium salt dissolved in sulphuric acid is used as an electrolyte. The electrolyte in the positive half-
cells contains VO2+ and VO2+ ions, while the electrolyte in the negative half-cells consists of V3+ and V2+ ions.
Membrane: The most common membrane material is perfluorinated sulfonic acid (PFSA) (Nafion).
polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon). (Proton Exchange Membrane)
Vanadium redox flow battery: (a) charge reaction and (b)
discharge reaction.
Working:

Discharge reactions
At anode: 𝑉 2+ 𝑉 3+ + 𝑒 −
At cathode: 𝑉𝑂2+ + 2𝐻+ + 𝑒− 𝑉𝑂2+ + 𝐻2 𝑂

Net Cell: 𝑉 2+ + 𝑉𝑂2+ + 2𝐻+ 𝑉𝑂2+ + 𝑉 3+ + 𝐻2 𝑂

Recharging reactions
At Cathode: 𝑉 3+ + 𝑒 − 𝑉 2+
At Anode: 𝑉𝑂2+ + 𝐻2 𝑂 𝑉𝑂2+ + 2𝐻+ + 𝑒−

Net Cell: 𝑉𝑂2+ + 𝑉 3+ + 𝐻2 𝑂 𝑉 2+ + 𝑉𝑂2+ + 2𝐻 +

Application: Vanadium batteries are typically used for grid energy storage, i.e., attached to power
plants/electrical grids. ( DC-AC and AC-DC)
UPS
To store energy from renewable sources such as wind, solar
Fuel cells:
Definition: “Fuel cells are the galvanic
cells which convert chemical energy of
a fuel- oxidant system directly into
electrical energy by catalyzed redox
reactions.

A fuel cell may be represented as:

electrode/fuel/ electrolyte / oxidant/ electrode

 Advantages:
1. High efficiency and no harmful pollutants (eco friendly).
2. Charging is not required for fuel cells.
3. Silent operation.
4. They can produce direct currents for long periods at a low cost.
5. They offer high energy conversions (75%).
Limitations:
1. Cost of power is high as electrodes are costly.
2. Fuels in form of gases and oxygen need to be stored in tanks under pressure.
3. Power output is moderate.
 Construction, working and applications of methanol–oxygen fuel cell.
It is good example for liquid fuel cell. They use either acidic or alkaline medium. The preferredelectrolyte is the acidic.
Methanol is an efficient active organic fuel at low temperature.

Methanol Oxygen Fuel cell

It consists of two porous carbon electrodes. Anode is
coated with platinum catalyst and cathode with
Palladium. A silver membrane is placed near cathode..
The electrolyte is an aqueous solution of H2SO4. The
Methane gas is continuously supplied at the anode and
oxygen is supplied at the cathode. Methanol diffuses
through the anode is adsorbed on the electrode surface.
At the cathode Oxygen diffusing through the electrode is
adsorbed and gets reduced. A membrane is placed
adjacent to cathode to prevent the diffusion of methanol
to cathode.
Working
Anode CH3OH + H2O  CO2 + 6H+ + 6e
Cathode 3/2O2 + 6H+ + 6e  3H2O
Overall CH3OH + 3/2O2  CO2 + 2H2O
Advantages
 Methanol has low carbon content and decreases carbon emissions.
 Easy oxidation of the fuel.
 Methanol is highly soluble in water.

Applications

1. Used in trains, ships and vehicles as a source of electrical energy.

2. Supplying electrical power for residential or industrial utility.

3. Used in military applications.

 Construction, working and applications of polymer electrolyte fuel cell.
Polymer electrolyte fuel cells (PEFC) are electrochemical devices, converting the
chemical energy of fuel directly into electrical energy. They are also known as Polymer
electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells or proton exchange membrane fuel cells. They
deliver high power density and offer the advantages of low weight and volume
compared with other fuel cells.

Anode: Porous carbon coated with platinum and hydrogen is used as fuel

Cathode: Porous carbon coated with electro catalyst platinum and air or oxygen is used
as Oxidant

Electrolyte: The most typical polymer electrolyte membrane is the perfluorosulfonic-

acid- type ion exchange membrane such as Nafion
Working:
Hydrogen supplied to the anode side is oxidized, and produced H+ moves
through the membrane to the cathode side. This H+ is used in the reaction
in which water is formed by the reduction of oxygen supplied to the
cathode side. As the electrons generated at the anode flow through the
external circuit to arrive at the cathode, an electric current can be
retrieved. The reactions at the anode and cathode, and the overall
reaction, are given as follows.

Anode: H2 → 2H+ + 2e−

Cathode: ½ O2 + 2H+ + 2e− → H2O
Overall reaction: H2 + ½ O2 → H2O
Advantages

High power density

Operating temp less than 100˚C

Longer life

Easy oxidation of fuel (Spontaneous)

Disadvantages

Heat produced can not be used for co-generation additional power

Applications: Vehicles, portable applications, telecommunications, waste water treatment plants
etc

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 Energy Conversion
A device which converts one form of energy into another form is called energy conversion system.
Example: PV cell and Fuel cell
Photovoltaic cells
Photovoltaic cells or Solar cells are the semiconductor devices which converts sunlight into direct current
electricity.
A typical silicon photovoltaic cell is composed of a thin poly
Construction and working of photovoltaic cells
crystalline silicon wafer consisting of an ultra-thin layer of

e
phosphorus doped. (n-type) silicon on top of boron doped (p-
e type) silicon. Hence a p-n junction is formed. A metallic grid
Sunlight Sunlight

Metal grid forms one of the electrical current contacts of the diode and
Anti reflective layer e

allows light to fall on the semiconductor between the grid

n-type layer

Electron hole lines as shown in Fig. An antireflective layer between the

h
+e
pair
grid lines increases the amount of light transmitted to the
+e Application
p-type layer Electron hole

pair semiconductor. The cell’s other electrical contacts is formed

Metal contact

by a metallic layer on the back of the solar cell.

PV cell works on the principle of photoelectric effect E=hγ, When light radiation falls
on the p-n junction diode, electron – hole pairs are generated by the absorption of the
radiation. The electrons are drifted to and collected at the n-type end and the holes are
drifted to p-type end. When these two ends are electrically connected through a
conductor, there is a flow of current between the two ends through the external circuit.
Thus photoelectric current is produced.

Applications:

PV can meet the need for electricity for parking meters, temporary traffic signs,
emergency phones, radio transmitters, water irrigation pumps, stream-flow gauges,
remote guard posts, lighting for roadways, and more.
Advantages of PV cells:

 Fuel source is vast and infinite.

 No emissions, no combustion or radioactive residues for disposal.
 Does not contribute to global warming or pollution.
 Low operating cost and high reliability.
No moving parts and so no wear and tear.
 No recharging is required.
They do not corrode.
Disadvantages of PV cells:

 Sunlight is relatively low density energy.

 High installation cost.
 Energy can be produced only during daytime.
Importance of Solar PV cells
PV cells or panels convert sunlight, which is the most abundant energy source on
earth, directly into electricity.

They have many advantages including completely silent operation, adaptability

into various weather and installation environments, and no moving parts. They
also require minimal maintenance and have a long life.

They generate electricity without producing emissions of greenhouse or any other gases.

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