KEY FEATURES

KEY FEATURES
• Differing visions of democracy
• Nature and impact of apartheid
• Role and impact of state terror and repression
• Resistance to apartheid
• Changes in society
• Reasons for the collapse of apartheid
• International responses to apartheid
SURVEY
HISTORICAL CONTEXT
BACKGROUND
6 APRIL 1652 • Original Dutch settlement
• Founded on racial division and isolation of Dutch colony from natives
1835 - 1840 • First wave of Voortrekkers during the Great Trek
• They established Boer settlements in the interior of South Africa
1899 - 1902 • British versus Dutch war in South Africa
31 MAY 1910 • Created as a self-governing dominion of the British Empire, joining the four
previously separate British colonies: Cape Colony, Colony of Natal,
Transvaal Colony, and Orange River Colony
1913 • Natives Land Act ➝ prevented blacks from buying land outside reserves
everywhere except Cape Province
31 MAY 1961 • Became Republic of South Africa

POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, AND DEMOGRAPHIC ISSUES IN SOUTH

AFRICA IN 1960
ISSUES IN SOUTH AFRICA IN 1960
POLITICAL ECONOMIC
• Increasing African dissent + protest against inequality • The 1960s were a time of
→ African unions, political parties + squatters economic prosperity for SA
• White voters wanted stronger laws and tougher action however, only the whites
• Whites viewed African protest/independence as a growing benefited
crisis, fearing a power shift in SA → Average income level of
• Population Registration Act (1950) required racial classification a black South African
of South Africans was less than 10% of
• Passbooks to be carried at all times by non-white South white population
Africans → For other POCs (incl.
• Rapid decolonisation of Africa post WWII Asians) their income was
• Majority of African nations achieve independence in the 1950s less than 20% of white
and 60s population
• SA is increasingly politically isolated • Black communities experienced
• UN and the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) demanded SA poverty, and apartheid laws
enter the modern world and end its racial policies ensured that funding for all
• Winds of Change speech made by British PM Harold Macmillan facilities was minimal
in 1960
→ Made it clear that racism and segregation in SA should
end

SOCIAL DEMOGRAPHIC
• Racial segregation led to significant inequality in all facets of • Under apartheid, the SA
life population was classes into four
SOCIAL DEMOGRAPHIC
• Racial segregation led to significant inequality in all facets of • Under apartheid, the SA
life population was classes into four
• The government continued to develop policies to further groups: Whites, Coloureds,
perpetuate these inequalities Asians, and Blacks
→ Regulated movement of black people in and out of • White population lived a
urban centres privileged lifestyle and
→ Black people had no parliamentary representation dominated the political sphere,
• Frustration over passbooks ➝ Sharpeville massacre in 1960 left despite being a small
69 protesters dead percentage of the total
population
• In 1960, the SA population of 16
million comprised of:
→ 19% Whites
→ 68% Blacks
→ 3% Asians
→ 9% Coloureds

APARTHEID: IDEOLOGY, POLICY, AND PRACTICE

IDEOLOGY
• Ideological foundation of apartheid was that the different races in SA needed to be separated
for their own mutual benefit
• Main ideas of apartheid were based on the philosophy of scientific racism, a pseudo-science
belief that empirical evidence could justify racial discrimination
• Afrikaners believed it was impossible and ungodly for the different races and cultures to live
together as one
→ Insistence on racial separation ➝ political/legal doctrine of apartheid established
→ Policy of separate development enforced by white SA government

POLICY
• Main principles of apartheid policy
→ Separate development for black people in their own territories according to their
national character
→ No political rights for black people in 'white' areas
→ Influx control and apartheid in industry
→ Division of black labour among the various economic sectors
→ Indians should preferably be repatriated, but otherwise would be segregated like blacks
and coloureds
PROHIBITION OF MIXED • Prohibited marriages between whites and members of other
MARRIAGES ACT, 1949 races
IMMORALITY AMMENDMENT • Forbade sexual relations between whites and members of other
ACT, 1950 races
POPULATION REGISTRATION • Provided for a central population register where all people
ACT, 1950 would be classes as whites, coloureds, Asians, or blacks
• Mixed marriages over generations made classifications difficult,
often families would be separated as they were classed as a
different race
GROUP AREAS ACT, 1950 • Provided for a particular area to be proclaimed as an area for a
particular racial group, in 'white' areas, black people were
forced to move out
 • Mixed marriages over generations made classifications difficult,
often families would be separated as they were classed as a
different race
GROUP AREAS ACT, 1950 • Provided for a particular area to be proclaimed as an area for a
particular racial group, in 'white' areas, black people were
forced to move out
SUPPRESSION OF COMMUNISM • Banned communism and all other political protest groups in SA
ACT, 1950
NATIVE LAWS AMMENDMENT • Controlled the movement of black people in and out of urban
ACT, 1952 centres and cities
ABOLITION OF PASSES ACT, 1952 • Did not abolish passes, actually enforced pass books or
reference details, including racial group
• All black men living in 'white' areas need to carry a pass book
containing personal details
• These books needed to be renewed regularly
SEPARATE AMENITIES ACT, 1953 • Marked out all public places and services with signs determining
what areas were for which racial groups
• Black and coloured public services and areas were always
significantly inferior to that of whites
BANTU EDUCATION ACT, 1953 • Placed control of education in the hands of white government
• Black students forced to undertake courses separate to white
students
• Black students were trained as domestic servants for their
white masters
• Maths and science deemed unnecessary for black students
NATIVE LABOUR (SETTLEMENT • Prohibited registered trade unions from accepting black
OF DISPUTES) ACT, 1953 workers as members and forbade black workers to strike

PRACTICE
• In 1959, under the Promotion of Bantu Self-Government Act, the SA government introduced
homelands or Bantustans, which were ethnic tribal homelands for black people ➝ separated
• White government spent no money on financing services for Bantustans
• Pass books ➝ carried by black Africans when entering white areas for the purpose of work
• 13% of the country divided into 10 homelands (80% of the population lived in these areas)
→ Impoverished rural areas with no capacity to function as separate states
→ Relocation of black Africans meant that they were no longer considered citizens and
were forced to work as foreign migrants without citizens rights
• Influx control laws instituted by SA government to limit number of passes issued to blacks
• Pass raids were common, people caught not carrying them were often treated with violence,
arrested, and sent back to their homelands

IMPACT OF APARTHEID ON RURAL AND URBAN COMMUNITIES

INTERNATIONALLY
• South Africa's political, social, and economic policies were directly contrary to the
decolonisation and desegregation taking place in the rest of the modern world
• They faced some international criticism over apartheid
→ Diplomatic, sporting, and economic ties still existed with other nations
• Condemnation from other countries strengthened the determination of the white government

ECONOMICALLY
• Mining and minerals was the main reason for the rapid increase in South Africa's economy
 • They faced some international criticism over apartheid
→ Diplomatic, sporting, and economic ties still existed with other nations
• Condemnation from other countries strengthened the determination of the white government

ECONOMICALLY
• Mining and minerals was the main reason for the rapid increase in South Africa's economy
• During the 1960s, the number of people employed in gold mining doubled
• Cheap black labour and new technologies propelled the economy
• Whites prospered as a result of the booming economy
• Meanwhile blacks lived in poverty despite being the backbone of the South African economy
→ They had not benefitted from an increase in wages

TOWNSHIPS
• South African society began to urbanise during the 1960s
• Many black communities were bulldozed from existence to make way for white suburbs
• Under the Group Areas Act, boundaries of the black homelands were redrawn by the
government
→ This was so townships could be included near white factories, making labour cheaper
• Facilities in townships were significantly inferior
• Bantustans were overcrowded and poverty stricken
NATIONAL RESISTANCE TO APARTHEID
NATURE, GROWTH, AND IMPACT OF THE ANC AND PAC
ANC
• African National Congress (ANC) was created in 1912 as the South African Native National
Congress (SANNC)
• The Communist Party of South Africa (CPSA) organised much of the resistance to apartheid in
the 1940s and 50s, and was led mostly by white communists
→ The banning of the party in 1952 made protest organisation difficult
• In 1944, the ANC changed its approach to mass protest by the creation of the ANC Youth
League
→ Members included: Anton Lembede, Nelson Mandela, Oliver Tambo, and Walter Sisulu
→ They demanded more assertive 'Program of Action' Encouraged mass protests, boycotts
of white services, and passive resistance against laws e.g. pass laws
• Series of non-violent protests during the 1950s known as the Defiance Campaign (1952).
→ Was ineffective as police simply responded with extreme violence
→ Many peaceful protesters were jailed or heavily fined
→ ANC forced to call off the campaign
• After the Defiance campaign, many groups joined to form the Congress Alliance
• Congress Alliance made a series of demands compiled into the Freedom Charter (26 June 1955)
→ The people will govern
→ All national groups shall have equal rights
→ People share in the country's wealth
→ Land shared among those who work it
→ All equal before the law
→ Equal human rights
→ Shall be work and security
→ Doors of learning and culture open to all
→ Houses, security, and comfort
→ Peace and friendship

PAC
• The Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) formed in 1959 as a splinter group off the ANC ➝ led by
Robert Sobukwe
• The PAC drew much support from Soweto and other black areas around Cape Town where the
ANC was not influential
• ANC policy was non-racial democratic, whereas the PAC was pro-African and, as some have
argued, anti-white
• PAC claimed to stand solely for the liberation of an oppressed Africa and its repressed people.

NATURE, GROWTH, IMPACT

ANC PAC
NATURE • Non-violent demonstrations • Liberation of oppressed Africa
NATURE, GROWTH, IMPACT
ANC PAC
NATURE • Non-violent demonstrations • Liberation of oppressed Africa
• Mass protests and boycotts and its repressed people
• Passive resistance to laws • Black people to be
• Policy: racial democratic freedom for all responsible for policy matters
races
GROWTH • Program of action ➝ Defiance Campaign ➝ • Splinter group within ANC
Congress of Alliance and the Freedom • Support from Soweto and
Charter other black areas near Cape
Town
IMPACT • Not particularly effective ➝ government
responded with extreme oppressive actions
→ Extreme violence, jail sentences

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SHARPEVILLE MASSACRE

SHARPEVILLE MASSACRE
• 21 March 1960 ➝ protest against Pass Laws organised by the PAC
• Over 5000 protesters marched to the Sharpeville police station to burn their passes in protest
→ Police inside opened fire and killed 69 protesters, wounding 180
• At the same time in the Langa Township near Cape Town, the PAC also demonstrated with
around 20,000 gathering
→ Police opened fire, killing 2 and wounding 49

SIGNIFICANCE OF SHARPEVILLE
• South Africa received international condemnation following Sharpeville
• Pass Laws were suspended for one day following the protest of 30000 at the house of
parliament in Cape Town
• Vulnerability of white SA and undercurrent of black unrest was made very clear to the SA
government and the world
• ANC and PAC banned and forced to operate underground
• Nelson Mandela and Oliver Tambo of the ANC fled overseas
• Both ANC and PAC changed from non-violent protest to direct military action
→ Umkhonto we Sizwe (ANC) and Poqo (PAC)
• By 1964, majority of internal leadership of both groups had been arrested and jailed
→ Rivonia arrests and trial of 1963-1964

ROLE OF NELSON MANDELA

UMKHONTO WE SIZWE, 'THE SPEAR OF THE NATION' (MK)
• Post Sharpeville ➝ ANC was forced underground
→ Banning of the ANC left no option but to pursue violence ➝ non-violent protest was
ignored for decades
→ Mandela pushed for sabotage against power stations and other strategic government
buildings + symbols of apartheid (Bantu Affairs Office) 1961
§ Objective to harm white economy + bring worldwide attention to the ANC cause

• Mandela successfully operated underground for almost 2 years

→ Travelled across SA and Europe (Britain)
§ Managed to avoid police dressed as a chauffer
 buildings + symbols of apartheid (Bantu Affairs Office) 1961
§ Objective to harm white economy + bring worldwide attention to the ANC cause

• Mandela successfully operated underground for almost 2 years

→ Travelled across SA and Europe (Britain)
§ Managed to avoid police dressed as a chauffer
• Most important work was leading the MK and keeping newspapers informed of the ANC's
political aims
• Mandela arrested in August 1962 in Natal ➝ received 3 year sentence for incitement

RIVONIA TRIAL, IMPRISONMENT ON ROBBEN ISLAND, 'FREE MANDELA'

CAMPAIGN
TRIAL AND IMPRISONMENT 1963 – 1964
• Activities of Mandela and MK came to a sudden halt ➝ police arrested MK executives like
Walter Sisulu
→ Police found evidence that the MK was planning a large scale military operation
(Mayibuye) ➝ members of the ANC + Communist Party were arrested and charged with
sabotage (Mandela was brought from jail to stand trial with them)
→ Death penalty withheld as sentence due to global scrutiny
§ Instead sentenced to life in prison on Robben Island
• Broke leadership of the MK and the spirit of resistance
• Role of Mandela significant during this time:
→ Recharged the spirit of resistance
→ Used the trial as a platform to respond to the oppression by the white society in SA
→ Gained a high international profile + became the focal point and international
figurehead in anti-apartheid protests

FREE MANDELA CAMPAIGN

• ANC leader Oliver Tambo introduced the 'Free Nelson Mandela' campaign in 1980, making him
a household name
• This fuelled the international outcry against South Africa's racist regime
• Mandela's release was the number one priority of the blacks as it was hoped that his release
would bring about negotiations for ending apartheid and beginning a new non-racial
democratic system

SIGNIFICANCE OF STEPHEN BIKO AND THE BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS

MOVEMENT
SIGNIFICANCE
• Banning of ANC and PAC left political vacuum in black politics during the 1960s
• Void filled by Stephen Biko's Black Consciousness Movement (BCM) and SA Students
Association (SASA)
→ Biko (young medical student at University of Natal) ➝ powerful writer
→ SASA ➝ breakaway group that demanded change and argued that white in SA would
not take the steps to end apartheid, only pride in black culture and history +
advancement in BCM could

• Biko expressed that only black people could liberate themselves in a white society (white were
too accustomed to the racist policies of apartheid)
→ Black people must end all economic and social dependence on white people to be free
Biko set up community health clinic with other university students ➝ free medicine and
• Biko expressed that only black people could liberate themselves in a white society (white were
too accustomed to the racist policies of apartheid)
→ Black people must end all economic and social dependence on white people to be free
• Biko set up community health clinic with other university students ➝ free medicine and
treatment to those in need
→ Gained national and international attention from his clinics, published criticisms of white
oppression gained
→ Gained apartheid governments attention ➝ detained and banned in 1973 without trial
• From 1973 onwards, Biko was under close scrutiny from SA police for his community and
political programs
→ In 1977, he was arrested and held naked in a cell for 18 days
→ Interrogated and beaten into a coma ➝ died from internal bleeding and head wounds
on the way to the hospital
• Death of Biko ruled 'accident' ➝ BCM banned and medical clinics were destroyed by SA police
REPRESSION AND CONTROL BY SA GOVERNMENT
NATURE, IMPACT, AND SIGNIFICANCE OF TACTICS OF REPRESSION AND
OPRESSION
CHANGE IN THE 1970s
• Fall of the 1960s economic boom ➝ increase in unemployment
• Black population increasing much faster than the white population ➝ imbalance
• Resistance from black organisations intensified
• International pressure against apartheid increased
• Continuation of apartheid laws + policies + enforcing bodies became very expensive
• SA neighbours were setting up independent black governments

'TOTAL STRATEGY'
• SA leader P.W. Botha introduced policy of 'Total Strategy' to counter the threat of 'Total
onslaught' from its enemies (both internal and external)
• Government intended to introduce a number of reforms in the hope of winning black support
→ Included changes in apartheid laws and policies
§ Separate amenities act
§ Laws against interracial sex and marriage
→ Recognising African Trade Unions
→ Ending some segregation in business and employment
• Also introduced new policies like:
→ Granted limited independence to four homelands
→ Planned reorganisation of urban townships - providing them with adequate facilities,
housing, water, etc
§ Hoping to reduce frequency of riots
→ Government allowed a Tricameral Parliament ➝ giving 'coloured' people and Indians
representations in parliament
§ Black people still excluded and denied the right to vote

TACTICS OF REPRESSION AND OPRESSION

• White government intensified its repression to crush all opposition
• Tactics included:
→ Banning orders
§ Additional security measures and legislation were created in parliament
§ Large numbers of activists were detained without trial
§ Newspapers, radios forced to comply with censorship laws set down by the
government
→ Strengthening of the army
§ Military vastly increased
§ Modern equipment like jets, tanks, and military technology purchased from
around the world
§ Increasing white male conscription
→ Increasing civil defence forces
§ Gun ownership of white SA's was significantly higher than any other population
in the world

IMPACT ON GOVERNMENT TACTICS

• Black resistance intensified during the 1980s through numerous violent township riots
• By 1985 ➝ protests left police unable to restore order
• By 1986 ➝ SA Defence Force (SADF) was used to stop riots
 § Gun ownership of white SA's was significantly higher than any other population
in the world

IMPACT ON GOVERNMENT TACTICS

• Black resistance intensified during the 1980s through numerous violent township riots
• By 1985 ➝ protests left police unable to restore order
• By 1986 ➝ SA Defence Force (SADF) was used to stop riots
• National state of emergency was declared
→ Led to implementation of strict curfews and military patrols in cities and streets

ROLE OF SOUTH AFRICAN SECURITY FORCES

MILITARY STATE
• SA forces became a combination of police and army ➝ tactics used to help prevent riots and
maintain law and order in SA became increasingly immoral
• Large portion of SA national budget was dedicated to making SA a military state
• Tactics and government operations included:
→ Vigilantes spying on black people (Kitskonstabels)
→ Banning and banishing
→ Torture
→ Jailing in secret or made to disappear
→ Killed

ROLE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF BANTUSTANS AND INDEPENDENT BLACK

STATES
BANTUSTANS BY 1970s
• Government wanted to make a number of Bantustans fully independent black states
• Concept was to preserve 'white' South Africa, appease the rest of the world, and 'retribalise'
Africans
→ Saw them as a demonstration of liberalisation and modernisation
→ Government also hoped it would solve the 'black problem' as:
§ 'Ethnic' loyalty in the Bantustans would replace broader African nationalism
§ Split the power base of anti-apartheid groups like ANC and PAC
• Bantustans ➝ separate areas for black South Africans to live
→ Overcrowded, impoverished, and heavily reliant on SA infrastructure and economic aid
• Economic, political, and social administration of the Bantustans would eventually come under
the control of black civil administrators
→ Many black leaders opposed the homelands, but eventually came to adopt government
policies
• By the 1970s ➝ the Bantustans were a failure

RELATIONS OF NEIGHBOURING AFRICAN COUNTRIES

SECOND PHASE OF 'TOTAL STRATEGY'
• Neighbouring countries (Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Botswana, Namibia, Angola) were advancing
the process of decolonisation, gaining independence, and instituting black governments
• Apartheid governments believed Marxist governments were supporting neighbouring countries,
that they were determined to aid the ANC and other freedom fighter organisations
• As a result, SADF carried a policy of forward defence by carrying out undercover cross-border
operations
→ Aimed to destabilise countries by supporting the opposing revolutionary forces +
causing civil wars
§ E.g. while illegally occupying Namibia and in Mozambique
• As SA neighbours gained freedom and were determined not to support the apartheid regime ➝
SA attempted to seal its borders and create a 'ring of steel'
→ SADF built wire fencing along the border with Zimbabwe
→ Stationed Farmer Commando units to monitor movement on the border
 → Aimed to destabilise countries by supporting the opposing revolutionary forces +
causing civil wars
§ E.g. while illegally occupying Namibia and in Mozambique
• As SA neighbours gained freedom and were determined not to support the apartheid regime ➝
SA attempted to seal its borders and create a 'ring of steel'
→ SADF built wire fencing along the border with Zimbabwe
→ Stationed Farmer Commando units to monitor movement on the border

INTERNATIONAL RESPONSES TO SOUTH AFRICAN POLICIES

SPORTING SANCTIONS
• Since the 1960s, SA couldn't compete in either the Commonwealth or Olympic Games
→ Britain, Australia, and New Zealand banned both Test Cricket and Rugby Matches with
South Africa
• SA was deeply offended by the rejection of the nations that it believed had similar racial policies

ECONOMIC SANCTIONS
• In England, the 'Free Mandela Campaign' grew stronger and many students led anti-apartheid
movements and marched on banks to demand disinvestment in SA
→ By 1986: the European Common Market banned the purchase of SA iron and steel
→ By 1987: more than 250 international companies had withdrawn from SA (General
Motors, Ford, Coca Cola)
• Corporate disinvestment in SA saw the Rand fall by 35 percent in value ➝ causing immediate
financial crisis
• Economic sanctions were arguably the most effective method to show white supremacists the
world considered apartheid morally reprehensible
→ Some historians argued that these sanctions broke the back of apartheid
THE COLLAPSE OF APARTHEID
POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, AND SOCIAL FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE END
OF APARTHEID
FAILURE OF 'TOTAL STRATEGY'
• Policy of total strategy + counter revolution did not stop the anti-apartheid groups from
protesting for political and social equality for all races in South Africa
• State of emergency failed to make SA safer for white people
→ Many white people suffering loss of liberties under the censorship and rigid laws of the
military state
• ANC in exile continued to attack 'soft targets' (shopping centres and post offices)
• Many white people were becoming disillusioned with apartheid and feeling the rejection of
their society and culture by the rest of the world

UNITED DEMOCRATIC FRONT (UDF)

• 1983 ➝ UDF (a multi-racial party) was formed with the aim of uniting all resistance groups in
the fight against apartheid
• Highly successful dues to:
→ High profile leaders like Desmond Tutu and Nelson Mandela
→ Members became a uniting force ➝ by 1985 gaining over 2 million members

INTERNATIONAL FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE END OF APARTHEID

ECONOMY LED INTO A RECESSION
• 1988 ➝ cost of running the military state was staggering
→ Sanctions had driven the economy into a recession - 'Sanction busting' wasn't able to fix
the problem
→ SA was unable to obtain foreign loans or foreign investment
• Impact of 'Free Mandela Campaign', sporting sanctions, severe international criticism, military
and technical equipment embargoes and isolation ➝ crippling SA
• Collapse of Soviet Union eliminated global communist threat that had previously underpinned
apartheid

PROBLEMS FACING THE NATIONAL PARTY AND THE ANC IN THE

TRANSITION TO DEMOCRACY IN SOUTH AFRICA
TIMELINE
• 1989 ➝ P.W. Botha resigned after a mild stroke and the failure of the 'total strategy'
→ Botha replaced by F.W. de Klerk
• 1990 ➝ de Klerk opened parliament ➝ began dismantling apartheid state
→ Rescinded ban on ANC, PAC, SA communist party, 30 other political organisations
→ Freed political prisoners like Nelson Mandela on 11 November 1990
→ Suspended the death sentence
• The transition to democracy was challenging ➝ threat of civil war
→ Meetings were held to lay out new SA democracy ➝ a convention for Democratic South
Africa (CODESA)
§ ANC and National Party debated their differing visions of democracy - CODESA II
paved the way for a new constitution and national election

PROBLEMS FACING THE NATIONAL PARTY

• The traditional rulers of SA wanted to hold power for as long as possible
• Right-wing white extremists vowed to prevent free elections and to assassinate Nelson
 Africa (CODESA)
§ ANC and National Party debated their differing visions of democracy - CODESA II
paved the way for a new constitution and national election

PROBLEMS FACING THE NATIONAL PARTY

• The traditional rulers of SA wanted to hold power for as long as possible
• Right-wing white extremists vowed to prevent free elections and to assassinate Nelson
Mandela ➝ wanted to create an Afrikaner homeland
• Other white extremists were letting off bombs and interrupting official CODESA meetings

PROBLEMS FACING THE ANC

• Dealing with the national party (particularly other anti-apartheid parties like Inkatha)
→ Natal/KwaZulu province, Chief Buthelezi in Inkatha refused to have anything to do with
constitutional negotiations ➝ led to violence to break out between ANC and Inkatha -
led to assassination of Chris Hani, national hero of ANC
• ANC wanted 'one person, one vote' multiracial democracy immediately
• ANC appeared to be losing their political base - feared white extremists were supplying Inkatha
weapons and instigating the fighting between the two black political groups to prevent SA
march towards democracy

PROBLEMS FACING THE ANC

• All races turned out - determined to vote
→ ANC won the election and Nelson Mandela became the President of free SA (after 3
decades in jail)
→ F.W. de Klerk became Deputy President