Water Profile and Challenges in Cyprus

Image 1 Island of Cyprus aerial view (Copernicus Sentinel data (2015)/ESA, CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO)

Name: Ahmed Mostafa Abuzeid

Matriculation number: 2742492

Module code: 11-02-3431

Water Profile and Challenges in Cyprus – TU Darmstadt 2023 – Ahmed Mostafa Abuzeid
Table of Contents:
1. Introduc�on

2. Background: Water Resources in Cyprus

3. The Impact of Water Shortage

4. Strategies for Water Management in Cyprus

4.1 Water Conserva�on Measures
4.2 Desalina�on
4.3 Water Reuse and Recycling
4.4 Rainwater Harves�ng

5. Legisla�ve and Ins�tu�onal Framework

5.1 Water Management Organiza�ons
5.2 Water Policy and Legisla�on

6. Challenges in Water Management

6.1 Climate Change and Drought
6.2 Limited Natural Water Sources
6.3 Water Pricing and Affordability

7. Technological Advancements
7.1 Desalina�on Technologies
7.2 Smart Water Grids and Metering
7.3 Wastewater Treatment Innova�ons

8. Public Awareness and Educa�on

8.1 Water Conserva�on Campaigns
8.2 School Programs and Curriculum Integra�on

9. Conclusion

10. References

Water Profile and Challenges in Cyprus – TU Darmstadt 2023 – Ahmed Mostafa Abuzeid
1. Introduc�on:

Water scarcity is a pressing global issue affec�ng various regions, and Cyprus, a Mediterranean island
na�on, faces its own unique challenges in managing water resources. This report delves into the
strategies employed by Cyprus to address water shortage, emphasizing the significance of
conserva�on measures, desalina�on, water reuse, and rainwater harves�ng. Addi�onally, it discusses
the legisla�ve framework, challenges, technological advancements, and the role of public awareness
campaigns in fostering sustainable water management prac�ces.

Figure 1 Cyprus faced worst seasonal water scarcity conditions for European countries in 2019, measured by the water
exploitation index plus (WEI+) (Source: European Environment Agency)

Water Profile and Challenges in Cyprus – TU Darmstadt 2023 – Ahmed Mostafa Abuzeid
2. Background: Water Resources in Cyprus:

Cyprus, located in the eastern Mediterranean, is characterized by a semi-arid climate with limited
rainfall. The country's semi-arid climate, characterized by hot and dry summers, limited rainfall, and
high evapora�on rates, contributes to a scarcity of freshwater sources.

Cyprus has a complex hydrological system that mainly relies on rainfall, underground aquifers, and a
few rivers and dams. The island's natural water resources, however, are insufficient to meet the
increasing demands of its growing popula�on and thriving tourism industry. With limited natural
water sources, Cyprus has been compelled to explore innova�ve strategies to ensure sustainable
water management.

The island's water resources have historically been managed through a combina�on of surface water
and groundwater extrac�on. However, over the years, the increased extrac�on rates and prolonged
drought periods have resulted in significant deple�on of the island's aquifers. This deple�on has led
to a decline in groundwater levels, seawater intrusion into coastal aquifers, and land subsidence in
some areas.

The major rivers in Cyprus, such as the Pedieos, Kouris, and Yialias, are rela�vely short and seasonal,
flowing primarily during the winter months when rainfall is higher. These rivers are cri�cal for
agricultural irriga�on and the replenishment of dams and reservoirs, but their limited flow rates
restrict their poten�al as a consistent water source.

Dams and reservoirs play a vital role in storing water during the rainy season to meet the water
demand during the dry periods. The major dams in Cyprus include the Kouris Dam, which is the
largest with a capacity 115 million m3 and supplies water to the southern part of the island, and the
Asprokremmos Dam, which serves the Paphos region. These reservoirs help regulate water supply
and support various sectors, including agriculture, industry, and domes�c use.

Water Profile and Challenges in Cyprus – TU Darmstadt 2023 – Ahmed Mostafa Abuzeid
 Image 2 Kouris Dam structure in the foreground and reservoir in the background (Photo by :@CyprusPictures)

Another essen�al component of Cyprus's water resources is underground aquifers. These aquifers
are natural underground reservoirs that store groundwater and provide a crucial source of
freshwater. The most significant aquifer in Cyprus is the Akro�ri aquifer, located in the southern part
of the island. However, over-pumping and unsustainable extrac�on prac�ces have led to a decline in
groundwater levels, threatening the long-term sustainability of these aquifers.

Water Profile and Challenges in Cyprus – TU Darmstadt 2023 – Ahmed Mostafa Abuzeid
Image 3 (a) Population (in thousands) diagram from 1961 to 2013; (b) Annual Precipitation in Cyprus (mm) for the
corresponding years (Source: Cystat and WDD statistics).

Water Profile and Challenges in Cyprus – TU Darmstadt 2023 – Ahmed Mostafa Abuzeid
 Image 4 Declination of annual area average precipitation in Cyprus 1900-2008 (Source: World Bank Group)

Climate change models predict more frequent and harsh summer droughts in the future, owing to
the combined effect of rising temperatures and decreased precipita�on, notably in southern Europe.

The combina�on of limited rainfall, overexploita�on of water resources, and climate change impacts,
such as prolonged droughts and rising temperatures, has resulted in a chronic water shortage in
Cyprus. The popula�on growth, coupled with the expansion of the tourism industry, has further
intensified the strain on water resources.

3. The Impact of Water Shortage:

The impact of water shortage on Cyprus is far-reaching and affects various sectors of the economy,
society, and the environment. The total needs arise to: 250 MCM / year. The scarcity of water
resources poses significant challenges and necessitates the implementa�on of sustainable strategies
to mi�gate its adverse effects and to meet those needs.

Water Profile and Challenges in Cyprus – TU Darmstadt 2023 – Ahmed Mostafa Abuzeid
Sectors in demand:

Agriculture: Agriculture is a vital sector in Cyprus, and water scarcity directly affects crop produc�on
and agricultural ac�vi�es. Limited water availability leads to reduced irriga�on, affec�ng the yield
and quality of crops. Farmers face challenges in sustaining their livelihoods, and the agricultural
sector may experience economic losses. Water scarcity also restricts the cul�va�on of water-
intensive crops, impac�ng the diversity of agricultural produc�on.

Tourism: Cyprus is a popular tourist des�na�on known for its beau�ful beaches, resorts, and outdoor
ac�vi�es. However, water scarcity can affect the tourism sector significantly. Hotels, resorts, and
recrea�onal facili�es require substan�al amounts of water for swimming pools, irriga�on, and other
ameni�es. Water shortages can lead to reduced tourist sa�sfac�on, limited water-based ac�vi�es,
and poten�al economic losses for the tourism industry.

Industry: Industries in Cyprus rely on water for various processes, such as manufacturing, cooling,
and cleaning. Water scarcity can disrupt industrial opera�ons, leading to reduced produc�on
capacity and increased costs. Some industries may need to implement water-saving technologies or
alterna�ve water sources to maintain their opera�ons. Limited water availability can also discourage
poten�al investments in water-dependent industries.

Image 5 Overview of sectors of water demand in Cyprus. (Source : World Bank Group)

Domes�c Water Supply: Water scarcity directly affects households and their access to clean and safe
water. Water ra�oning, reduced water pressure, and periodic disrup�ons in supply become more
common during �mes of water shortage. This situa�on poses challenges for daily ac�vi�es, hygiene
prac�ces, and overall quality of life for residents. It may also lead to conflicts among households and
communi�es over limited water resources.

Water Profile and Challenges in Cyprus – TU Darmstadt 2023 – Ahmed Mostafa Abuzeid
Ecosystem and Environment: Water scarcity has a profound impact on the environment and natural
ecosystems in Cyprus. Reduced water availability affects wetlands, rivers, and coastal ecosystems,
leading to habitat degrada�on and biodiversity loss. Lower water levels in rivers and dams can harm
aqua�c species and disrupt the balance of ecosystems. Addi�onally, excessive groundwater pumping
and seawater intrusion due to over-extrac�on can lead to soil saliniza�on and land subsidence,
affec�ng agricultural produc�vity and damaging the natural environment.

Socioeconomic Implica�ons: Water scarcity can have socioeconomic implica�ons for communi�es
and vulnerable groups. Limited access to water resources can dispropor�onately affect marginalized
popula�ons, exacerba�ng inequali�es. Affordability of water can become a concern, as increased
costs associated with water scarcity may burden low-income households. Addi�onally, water scarcity
can lead to popula�on displacement, as people may be forced to migrate in search of areas with
beter water availability.

4. Strategies for Water Management in Cyprus

4.1 Water Conserva�on measures:

Water conserva�on measures play a crucial role in addressing water scarcity in Cyprus. The
government, in collabora�on with water management organiza�ons and the public, has
implemented various strategies to promote responsible water use and ensure the sustainable
management of water resources as follows:

1. Water Restric�ons and Regula�ons: The government of Cyprus has implemented water
restric�ons and regula�ons to manage water consump�on effec�vely. These restric�ons
include specific watering schedules for gardens and agricultural lands, limita�ons on car
washing, and regula�ons on filling swimming pools. These measures aim to control water
usage during peak demand periods and promote efficient water use prac�ces.

2. Leak Detec�on and Repair: Iden�fying and repairing water leaks is crucial to conserving
water. Water management organiza�ons in Cyprus conduct regular leak detec�on campaigns
and encourage residents and businesses to report leaks promptly. Timely repair of leaks
helps reduce water loss and wastage.

3. Smart Water Metering: Smart water metering systems have been introduced to monitor and
manage water consump�on more efficiently. These meters provide real-�me data on water
usage, allowing individuals and businesses to track their consump�on paterns and iden�fy
opportuni�es for conserva�on. Smart metering enables beter water management and
facilitates early leak detec�on.

4. Water-Efficient Appliances and Fixtures: Promo�ng the use of water-efficient appliances and
fixtures is essen�al in reducing water consump�on. The government encourages the
installa�on of low-flow faucets, showerheads, and toilets that help conserve water without

Water Profile and Challenges in Cyprus – TU Darmstadt 2023 – Ahmed Mostafa Abuzeid
 compromising func�onality. Addi�onally, incen�ves and subsidies are provided to encourage
households and businesses to upgrade to water-efficient appliances.

5. Educa�on and Public Awareness: Public educa�on and awareness campaigns play a vital role
in promo�ng water conserva�on prac�ces. The government, water management
organiza�ons, and non-governmental organiza�ons conduct public awareness campaigns to
educate individuals, schools, and communi�es about the importance of water conserva�on
and responsible water use. These campaigns provide informa�on on efficient irriga�on
techniques, water-saving �ps, and the impact of water scarcity on the environment and
society.

6. Xeriscaping and Drought-Tolerant Landscaping: Encouraging xeriscaping techniques and

drought-tolerant landscaping prac�ces helps reduce the demand for irriga�on water. The use
of na�ve, drought-resistant plants, mulching, and efficient irriga�on systems minimizes water
requirements for landscaping purposes. The government promotes the adop�on of
xeriscaping principles through guidelines, educa�onal materials, and incen�ves.

7. Rainwater Harves�ng: Rainwater harves�ng is a prac�ce that involves collec�ng and storing
rainwater for later use. Cyprus encourages rainwater harves�ng in both urban and rural
areas. Rainwater collec�on systems, such as rain barrels and cisterns, are promoted,
par�cularly for non-potable uses such as irriga�on, toilet flushing, and cleaning purposes.

8. Agricultural Water Management: Agricultural prac�ces consume a significant por�on of

water resources. Implemen�ng efficient irriga�on techniques, such as drip irriga�on and
precision agriculture, helps reduce water consump�on in the agricultural sector. The
government provides incen�ves and support to farmers for adop�ng water-efficient
irriga�on methods and encourages the use of recycled water for irriga�on.

4.2 Desalina�on

Desalina�on has revolu�onized water management in Cyprus, playing a pivotal role in addressing the
water shortage on the island. As a water-scarce na�on, Cyprus has made significant investments in
desalina�on plants, u�lizing advanced technologies to convert seawater into fresh, potable water.
These desalina�on plants, such as the ones in Larnaca and Limassol, employ reverse osmosis (RO)
technology, which involves pushing seawater through specialized membranes to remove salt and
impuri�es. This process produces high-quality drinking water that meets the stringent standards set
by the World Health Organiza�on (WHO) and local regulatory bodies.

Larnaca desalina�on plant has an output of 64,000 m3/day and an es�mated 18 million cubic metres
a year, the project had a cost of 47 million USD.

Water Profile and Challenges in Cyprus – TU Darmstadt 2023 – Ahmed Mostafa Abuzeid
 Image 6 Larnaca desalination plant (Source: www.water-technology.net)

The adop�on of desalina�on has brought several benefits to Cyprus. Firstly, desalina�on plants have
provided a reliable and sustainable source of freshwater, mi�ga�ng the dependency on rainfall and
overexploited groundwater reserves. By diversifying the water supply, desalina�on has improved the
resilience of the water sector, ensuring a stable and consistent water supply throughout the year.
This is par�cularly crucial for the agriculture sector, where farmers rely on a steady water supply for
irriga�on purposes, and for the tourism industry, which demands a reliable source of water to meet
the needs of hotels, resorts, and recrea�onal facili�es.

Moreover, desalina�on has reduced the pressure on natural water sources, allowing them to
replenish and recover. Over-extrac�on of groundwater in the past has led to a decline in water levels
and seawater intrusion, threatening the quality and availability of freshwater resources. By
supplemen�ng the water supply with desalinated water, Cyprus has achieved a more sustainable
balance between water demand and supply, promo�ng the long-term preserva�on of its natural
water sources. Addi�onally, the u�liza�on of desalina�on has helped alleviate conflicts and tensions
over limited water resources, ensuring a fair and equitable distribu�on of water across the island.

Despite the numerous advantages, desalina�on also poses challenges for Cyprus. The energy
requirements for desalina�on processes are significant, leading to increased energy consump�on
and associated environmental impacts. Cyprus has been ac�vely exploring renewable energy
op�ons, such as solar and wind power, to power desalina�on plants and reduce the carbon footprint
associated with the process. Addi�onally, the high costs of desalina�on infrastructure and
maintenance pose financial challenges. The government has implemented various strategies,
including public-private partnerships and EU funding, to support the development and opera�on of
desalina�on plants and make the technology economically viable in the long run.

4.3 Water Reuse and Recycling

Water reuse and recycling have become crucial components of Cyprus's water management strategy,
helping to alleviate water scarcity and promote sustainable water prac�ces. Recognizing the need to
maximize water resources, the government and water management organiza�ons have implemented
various ini�a�ves to encourage water reuse and recycling across different sectors. By trea�ng and
repurposing wastewater, Cyprus has been able to augment its water supply and reduce reliance on
freshwater sources.

Water Profile and Challenges in Cyprus – TU Darmstadt 2023 – Ahmed Mostafa Abuzeid
One of the primary areas where water reuse is prominent is in the agricultural sector. Treated
wastewater, which undergoes rigorous treatment processes to meet quality standards, is u�lized for
irriga�on purposes in agricultural fields. By subs�tu�ng freshwater with recycled water, Cyprus not
only conserves precious water resources but also reduces the strain on natural water sources. Water
recycling in agriculture also contributes to improved soil fer�lity and crop produc�vity, fostering
sustainable farming prac�ces on the island.

Beyond agriculture, water reuse and recycling are increasingly being implemented in urban areas.
Treated wastewater undergoes advanced purifica�on processes, including filtra�on and disinfec�on,
to make it suitable for non-potable uses such as landscape irriga�on, industrial processes, and toilet
flushing. These ini�a�ves help reduce the demand for freshwater in urban se�ngs, ensuring that
high-quality drinking water is reserved for essen�al purposes while op�mizing the use of recycled
water for non-potable applica�ons. Public awareness campaigns have been launched to educate and
engage residents in water recycling efforts, promo�ng a culture of responsible water use.

Furthermore, Cyprus has recognized the poten�al of graywater reuse in domes�c se�ngs. Graywater
refers to wastewater generated from household ac�vi�es such as bathing, laundry, and dishwashing.
Through treatment and filtra�on processes, graywater can be reused for purposes such as toilet
flushing and garden irriga�on. By diver�ng and trea�ng graywater, Cyprus reduces the demand for
freshwater and alleviates the burden on wastewater treatment facili�es. Government ini�a�ves have
been established to incen�vize the implementa�on of graywater systems in households and promote
the adop�on of water-saving fixtures and appliances to further enhance water efficiency.

New Wastewater Treatment Plant in Nicosia:

The New Nicosia Wastewater Treatment Plant project began in March 2010 and was finished in June
2013. It is now fully opera�onal.

The new wastewater treatment facility serves both the Turkish and Greek Cypriot communi�es,
producing high-quality treated sewerage effluent (TSE) that may be u�lised for agriculture. TSE
conforms with irriga�on regula�ons, and any TSE discharge will have a good influence on the
environment.

The UNDP assisted with project implementa�on. It fostered and supported discussion between the
two groups and monitored the project's execu�on.

Water Profile and Challenges in Cyprus – TU Darmstadt 2023 – Ahmed Mostafa Abuzeid
Image 7 2 Pages of the Project Document signed by then the Nicosia Mayor and the Deputy Regional Director dated 2009.

Image 8 Nicosia New Wastewater Treatment Plant as it stands today.

The new plant serves approximately 270,000 people from both communi�es, trea�ng an average of
30,000 m3 of wastewater per day. With an annual capacity of 10 million m3 of treated water, it offers
a significant opportunity for agricultural irriga�on, covering around 500 hectares and reducing
groundwater over-extrac�on in the area while enhancing water resources and conserva�on.

Water Profile and Challenges in Cyprus – TU Darmstadt 2023 – Ahmed Mostafa Abuzeid
Moreover, the plant produces over 3,000 tons of dry solids annually, which can be u�lized as natural
fer�lizer through the conversion of sludge into dry sludge compost. Addi�onally, the plant
incorporates an anaerobic sludge digester, enabling the produc�on of electricity from biogas and
reducing CO2 emissions by u�lizing renewable energy sources, accoun�ng for an average of 10% to
20% of its opera�on.

4.4 Rainwater Harves�ng

Rainwater harves�ng, including the design and construc�on of dams, plays a vital role in managing
water resources in Cyprus. When designing dams for rainwater harves�ng, several considera�ons
come into play. Firstly, the catchment area and its size need to be carefully assessed to ensure
op�mal collec�on of rainwater. The catchment area should have sufficient surface area, such as
roo�ops or paved areas, to effec�vely capture rainwater and channel it into the dam. Addi�onally,
the design should take into account factors such as the slope, material, and condi�on of the
catchment surface to minimize contamina�on and maximize water quality.

The storage capacity of the dam is another cri�cal design considera�on. The size of the dam should
be determined based on the an�cipated rainfall paterns and water demand. It is crucial to strike a
balance between having a sufficient storage capacity to collect and store rainwater during periods of
heavy rainfall and ensuring that the dam is not oversized, which can lead to excessive costs and
maintenance requirements. Proper lining and sealing of the dam are also essen�al to prevent water
leakage and ensure water is effec�vely retained.

Furthermore, the design of rainwater harves�ng dams should incorporate adequate filtra�on and
purifica�on mechanisms to maintain water quality. Sedimenta�on basins, filters, and screens can be
incorporated into the design to remove debris and par�cles from the collected rainwater.
Addi�onally, water treatment processes, such as disinfec�on or chlorina�on, may be implemented to
ensure the harvested water is safe for various uses.

In Cyprus, several example dams have been constructed to facilitate rainwater harves�ng and
augment the water supply. These dams play a crucial role in capturing and storing rainwater,
providing a valuable resource during periods of drought or water scarcity.

One prominent example of a dam used for rainwater harves�ng in Cyprus is the Kannaviou Dam.
Located in the Paphos District, the Kannaviou Dam serves as a mul�-purpose reservoir, primarily
used for irriga�on and water supply. The dam collects rainwater from the surrounding catchment
area, storing it for later use in agriculture and other sectors. The Kannaviou dam near Paphos
became the eighth dam in Cyprus to overflow last year, as the island's overall reservoir capacity
reached 89% due to abundant rainfall throughout the winter months.

Kannaviou, with a capacity of 17.17 million cubic metres, is the island's fourth biggest dam. It was
constructed in 2006 and has overflowed four �mes since then: on March 2, 2010, January 28, 2012,
December 23, 2012, and January 7, 2020.

Asprokremmos Dam near Paphos, Cyprus, flooded in early February 2022 for the seventh �me since
it was erected in 1982, when heavy weather swept across the island. The Kannaviou Dam contributes
significantly to water availability, suppor�ng agricultural ac�vi�es and ensuring a stable water supply
in the region.

Water Profile and Challenges in Cyprus – TU Darmstadt 2023 – Ahmed Mostafa Abuzeid
 Image 9 Kannaviou Dam aerial view overlooking the reservoir. (Photo by: Petros Kyriakides)

Another notable example is the Dipotamos Dam, situated near the town of Achna in the Famagusta
District. The Dipotamos Dam on the Pentaschonios river serves as a key rainwater harves�ng facility,
providing water for agricultural irriga�on and livestock use. With a capacity of 15.5 million cubic
meters, it plays a vital role in suppor�ng local agriculture and ensuring water security in the region.
The dam captures rainwater from its catchment area and stores it for use during dry periods,
reducing dependence on other water sources.

Image 10 Aerial view of Dipotamos dam and the Dipotamos reservoir. (Photo extracted from investcyprus.org.cy)

Water Profile and Challenges in Cyprus – TU Darmstadt 2023 – Ahmed Mostafa Abuzeid
The Argaka Dam is another noteworthy example of rainwater harves�ng infrastructure in Cyprus.
Located in the Polis Chrysochous area, the Argaka Dam is primarily used for irriga�on purposes. It
collects rainwater from its catchment area, contribu�ng to the water supply for agricultural ac�vi�es
in the region. With a capacity of approximately 2.5 million cubic meters, the Argaka Dam
demonstrates the effec�veness of rainwater harves�ng in suppor�ng sustainable agriculture and
preserving valuable freshwater resources.

These dams, among others in Cyprus, demonstrate the successful implementa�on of rainwater
harves�ng techniques. By capturing and storing rainwater, they provide a valuable water supply
during periods of water scarcity and contribute to sustainable water management. Rainwater
harves�ng dams play a vital role in diversifying water sources, reducing pressure on groundwater
reserves, and promo�ng efficient water use in various sectors, including agriculture, irriga�on, and
livestock farming.

5. Legisla�ve and Ins�tu�onal Framework

5.1 Water Management Organiza�ons

Cyprus has established several water management organiza�ons to oversee and regulate the
country's water resources, ensuring effec�ve water management, conserva�on, and alloca�on.
These organiza�ons play a crucial role in developing and implemen�ng policies, strategies, and
projects related to water resources. Here are some key water management organiza�ons in Cyprus:

1. Department of Water Development (DWD): The Department of Water Development

operates under the Ministry of Agriculture, Rural Development, and Environment. It is
responsible for the overall management of water resources in Cyprus. The DWD is involved
in water planning, policy formula�on, and implementa�on of water-related projects. They
monitor water availability, manage water alloca�ons, and coordinate efforts to ensure the
sustainable use of water resources. The DWD also plays a key role in promo�ng water
conserva�on prac�ces, raising public awareness, and implemen�ng water-related
regula�ons and laws.

2. Water Boards: Cyprus has several Water Boards opera�ng at the regional level. These boards
are responsible for the management and alloca�on of water resources within their
respec�ve regions. The Water Boards collaborate with various stakeholders, including
municipali�es, agricultural organiza�ons, and other water users, to coordinate water
distribu�on, resolve water-related conflicts, and ensure the fair and equitable alloca�on of
water resources. They also oversee the maintenance and opera�on of water infrastructure,
such as dams, reservoirs, and water treatment plants, within their regions.

3. Water Development Advisory Council (WDAC): The Water Development Advisory Council
acts as an advisory body, providing guidance and recommenda�ons to the Department of
Water Development. The council consists of representa�ves from government agencies,
municipali�es, agricultural organiza�ons, environmental organiza�ons, and other relevant
stakeholders. The WDAC facilitates dialogue, promotes coopera�on, and advises on water-
related issues, policies, and strategies. It plays a crucial role in fostering collabora�on among

Water Profile and Challenges in Cyprus – TU Darmstadt 2023 – Ahmed Mostafa Abuzeid
 different sectors and ensuring a holis�c and integrated approach to water management in
Cyprus.

5.2 Water Policy and Legisla�on

Water policy and legisla�on in Cyprus play a crucial role in managing the country's water resources,
promo�ng water conserva�on, and ensuring sustainable water use. The government has
implemented various policies and laws to address water scarcity, protect water quality, and regulate
water-related ac�vi�es. Here are some key aspects of water policy and legisla�on in Cyprus:

1. Water Management Plans: Cyprus has developed Water Management Plans that provide a
framework for sustainable water management. These plans outline strategies and measures
to op�mize water alloca�on, enhance water efficiency, and promote water conserva�on.
They also address issues such as water pricing, water quality monitoring, and the protec�on
of water ecosystems. Water Management Plans are periodically reviewed and updated to
adapt to changing condi�ons and emerging water challenges.

2. Water Resources Protec�on: Cyprus has legisla�on in place to protect water resources and
ensure their sustainable use. The Water Law of 2002 is a comprehensive legal framework
that regulates water rights, abstrac�on permits, and water-related ac�vi�es. It establishes
the principles of integrated water resources management and delineates the responsibili�es
of water management organiza�ons. The law also s�pulates penal�es for unauthorized
water abstrac�on and pollu�on of water bodies, emphasizing the importance of preserving
water quality and ecosystems.

3. Water Demand Management: To address water scarcity and promote efficient water use,
Cyprus has implemented policies and measures for water demand management. These
include ini�a�ves to encourage water conserva�on prac�ces, promote water-saving
technologies, and incen�vize water reuse and recycling. The government also provides
guidance and support to industries, municipali�es, and households in implemen�ng water-
efficient prac�ces and technologies.

4. Water Pricing and Economic Instruments: Water pricing is an important aspect of water
policy in Cyprus. The government has introduced a tariff system that aims to reflect the true
cost of water supply, including infrastructure development, opera�on, and maintenance. The
pricing structure encourages efficient water use by providing incen�ves for conserva�on.
Addi�onally, economic instruments such as subsidies and grants are available to support
water-saving projects and technologies.

5. Interna�onal Coopera�on: Given the transboundary nature of water resources in Cyprus, the
country ac�vely engages in interna�onal coopera�on and collabora�on. Cyprus par�cipates
in regional water management ini�a�ves, such as the Eastern Mediterranean Regional Water
Forum, to exchange knowledge, experiences, and best prac�ces. Interna�onal coopera�on
plays a crucial role in addressing shared water challenges, promo�ng dialogue, and fostering
sustainable water management in the region.

Water Profile and Challenges in Cyprus – TU Darmstadt 2023 – Ahmed Mostafa Abuzeid
6. Challenges in Water Management

6.1 Climate Change and Drought

The history of climate change and drought in Cyprus dates back several decades and has had a
significant impact on the island's water resources and ecosystem. Here is an overview of the
historical context of climate change and drought in Cyprus:

1. Climate Change: like many other regions around the world, Cyprus has been affected by the
broader phenomenon of climate change. Over the past century, the global average
temperature has been steadily increasing due to the release of greenhouse gases into the
atmosphere. This has resulted in changes to weather paterns, including increased
temperatures and altered precipita�on paterns in many parts of the world.

2. Droughts in Cyprus: Cyprus has a Mediterranean climate, characterized by hot, dry summers
and mild, wet winters. Historically, the island has experienced periodic droughts due to the
variability of rainfall. However, climate change has amplified the severity and frequency of
drought events in recent years. Droughts in Cyprus can have severe consequences, impac�ng
agriculture, water supply, and ecosystems.

The most significant drought in recent memory occurred from 2004 to 2008, with 2008 being
the driest year on record. This prolonged drought had severe implica�ons for water
availability, leading to water ra�oning measures, agricultural losses, and environmental
stress. It highlighted the vulnerability of Cyprus to climate change and the urgent need for
effec�ve water management strategies and adapta�on measures.

3. Impacts on Water Resources: Climate change and drought have had profound impacts on
Cyprus' water resources. Reduced rainfall and increased evapora�on rates have led to
decreased water availability in rivers, reservoirs, and underground aquifers. Groundwater
levels have declined, causing saltwater intrusion in coastal areas, further threatening water
quality and availability. These changes have significant implica�ons for domes�c water
supply, agriculture, and ecosystems dependent on freshwater resources.

6.2 Limited Natural Water Sources

1. Rainfall Variability:
Cyprus receives limited rainfall, which is unevenly distributed throughout the year. Most of
the precipita�on occurs during the winter months, while the summer months experience
litle to no rainfall. This variability in rainfall, coupled with the island's arid condi�ons, results
in limited surface water availability.

Water Profile and Challenges in Cyprus – TU Darmstadt 2023 – Ahmed Mostafa Abuzeid
 Figure 2 Daily Updated Map of the usage capacity of dam reservoirs around the island as a percentage as of 10th of July
2023. ( Source: @QGIS_Cyprus and the Cyprus Government Data)

2. Evapora�on Rates:
Cyprus has high evapora�on rates due to its hot and dry climate. The intense heat and
prolonged periods of sunlight cause water to evaporate quickly from surface water bodies,
such as rivers, lakes, and reservoirs. This rapid evapora�on further reduces the amount of
available freshwater resources.

3. Limited Surface Water Bodies:

The island of Cyprus has a limited number of natural surface water bodies. The rivers on the
island are rela�vely short and o�en seasonal, with their flow significantly influenced by
rainfall paterns. Addi�onally, the construc�on of dams and reservoirs to capture and store
water has been necessary to meet the growing demand for freshwater.

4. Groundwater Overexploita�on:
Groundwater has tradi�onally been an essen�al water source in Cyprus. However,
overexploita�on of groundwater resources has led to declining water tables and saltwater
intrusion in coastal areas, making the water unsuitable for consump�on. This overreliance on
groundwater has contributed to the overall scarcity of freshwater on the island.

6.3 Water Pricing and Affordability

Water pricing in Cyprus is typically based on a �ered structure, where the price per unit of water
increases as consump�on levels rise. This approach aims to incen�vize water conserva�on and
discourage wasteful water prac�ces. It encourages individuals and businesses to be more mindful of
their water consump�on and promotes the efficient use of this limited resource.

Water Profile and Challenges in Cyprus – TU Darmstadt 2023 – Ahmed Mostafa Abuzeid
Addi�onally, water pricing in Cyprus may vary depending on the sector. For example, residen�al
users, agricultural users, and industrial users may have different pricing structures and tariff rates.
This differen�a�on is designed to reflect the varying demands and economic considera�ons of
different sectors while ensuring that water remains affordable for domes�c users.

Table 1 Residential tariffs as supplied by Water Board

To address affordability concerns, par�cularly for low-income households, Cyprus has implemented
measures such as lifeline tariffs and social assistance programs. Lifeline tariffs provide a basic
alloca�on of water at a subsidized rate, ensuring that essen�al water needs are met at an affordable
cost. Social assistance programs are available to support vulnerable households in covering their
water expenses, ensuring access to clean and affordable water for all residents.

Table 2 Commercial and Industrial tariff as supplied by Water Board

It is worth no�ng that while water pricing aims to reflect the true cost of water supply, affordability
remains a challenge for some households, especially those facing financial constraints. The
government recognizes the importance of balancing water pricing with social equity and con�nues to
explore mechanisms to support those who may struggle with the financial burden of water bills.

Water Profile and Challenges in Cyprus – TU Darmstadt 2023 – Ahmed Mostafa Abuzeid
7. Technological Advancements

7.1 Desalina�on Technologies

Desalina�on technologies play a cri�cal role in addressing water scarcity and ensuring a sustainable
water supply in Cyprus. The country heavily relies on desalina�on to meet its freshwater needs due
to limited natural water resources and the increasing demand for water. Several desalina�on
technologies are u�lized in Cyprus to convert seawater into freshwater. Here are some key
desalina�on technologies employed in the country:

1. Reverse Osmosis (RO): Reverse osmosis is the most used desalina�on technology in Cyprus.
It involves forcing seawater through a semi-permeable membrane under high pressure,
separa�ng the salt and impuri�es from the water. The purified freshwater is collected, while
the concentrated brine is discharged back into the sea. Reverse osmosis desalina�on plants
in Cyprus have high efficiency and produce freshwater of excellent quality, mee�ng stringent
drinking water standards.

2. Mul�-Stage Flash (MSF) Dis�lla�on: Mul�-stage flash dis�lla�on is an older desalina�on

technology that is s�ll u�lized in some desalina�on plants in Cyprus. It involves hea�ng
seawater to a high temperature and then passing it through a series of stages where it
undergoes rapid evapora�on. The evaporated water is condensed and collected as
freshwater, while the remaining brine is discharged. MSF dis�lla�on plants require significant
energy inputs, and their usage has decreased over �me as more energy-efficient
technologies like reverse osmosis have become prevalent.

3. Mul�-Effect Dis�lla�on (MED): Mul�-effect dis�lla�on is another desalina�on technology

employed in Cyprus. It operates on a similar principle to MSF dis�lla�on but u�lizes mul�ple
chambers or effects. Seawater is heated and circulated through a series of evaporators, with
each subsequent effect u�lizing the steam generated from the previous effect to further heat
the seawater. Freshwater is collected from the condensa�on of the steam, while the brine is
discharged. MED desalina�on plants are energy-intensive but can be more efficient than MSF
dis�lla�on.

4. Hybrid Systems: Hybrid desalina�on systems, combining mul�ple desalina�on technologies,

are also u�lized in Cyprus. These systems integrate different processes such as reverse
osmosis, electrodialysis, or ion exchange to op�mize efficiency and water quality. By
combining the strengths of different technologies, hybrid systems can improve overall
desalina�on performance and reduce energy consump�on.

7.2 Smart Water Grids and Metering

Smart water grids and metering systems are emerging as key components of water management in
Cyprus. These technologies leverage advanced sensors, data analy�cs, and real-�me monitoring to
improve water efficiency, enable effec�ve leak detec�on, and enhance overall water resource
management. Here are some key aspects of smart water grids and metering in Cyprus:

Water Profile and Challenges in Cyprus – TU Darmstadt 2023 – Ahmed Mostafa Abuzeid
 1. Smart Water Meters: Smart water meters are an integral part of a smart water grid. These
devices use advanced metering technology to measure water consump�on and provide real-
�me data on water usage. Smart meters enable accurate billing, help detect leaks or
abnormal water usage paterns, and provide consumers with insights into their water
consump�on, fostering water conserva�on prac�ces. In Cyprus, the deployment of smart
water meters allows for more precise monitoring of water usage and enhances the efficiency
of water supply systems.

2. Real-Time Monitoring and Data Analy�cs: Smart water grids incorporate real-�me
monitoring and data analy�cs capabili�es to monitor water infrastructure, detect leaks, and
op�mize water distribu�on. Sensors installed in the water supply network collect data on
water flow rates, pressure levels, and quality parameters. This data is analyzed using
advanced algorithms to iden�fy anomalies, poten�al leaks, or areas of inefficiency. The
insights gained from real-�me monitoring and data analy�cs help water u�li�es in Cyprus
make informed decisions, op�mize water distribu�on networks, and proac�vely address
water loss and infrastructure issues.

3. Leakage Detec�on and Management: One of the significant benefits of smart water grids is
the ability to detect and manage leaks efficiently. By con�nuously monitoring the water
distribu�on network, these systems can quickly iden�fy leaks or abnormal flow paterns. The
data collected from sensors can be analysed to pinpoint the loca�on of leaks, enabling
prompt repairs, and minimizing water loss. Early leak detec�on through smart water grids
helps conserve water resources, reduce opera�onal costs, and enhance the sustainability of
the water supply system in Cyprus.

4. Demand Response and Water Conserva�on: Smart water grids facilitate demand response
ini�a�ves and water conserva�on programs. By providing real-�me data on water usage to
consumers, smart meters enable them to monitor their consump�on paterns and make
informed decisions about water use. Water u�li�es can also implement dynamic pricing or
incen�ves based on peak demand periods to encourage water conserva�on. Smart water
grids empower consumers to ac�vely par�cipate in water conserva�on efforts and
contribute to more efficient water management prac�ces.

5. Integra�on with other Smart Systems: Smart water grids can be integrated with other smart
systems, such as smart energy grids or smart city pla�orms, to achieve broader sustainability
goals. By leveraging synergies between different smart technologies, Cyprus can op�mize
resource alloca�on, improve overall infrastructure management, and enhance the resilience
and sustainability of the water supply system.

7.3 Wastewater Treatment Innova�ons

The EU provides financial assistance to Cyprus through various funding programs to support
wastewater treatment infrastructure projects. Funds are allocated for the construc�on and
upgrading of wastewater treatment plants, implementa�on of advanced treatment
technologies, and improvement of collec�on and distribu�on systems. These funds help
Cyprus enhance its wastewater treatment capacity and meet EU water quality standards.

In addi�on, the EU establishes a policy framework and direc�ves that guide wastewater
treatment prac�ces in member states, including Cyprus. Direc�ves such as the Urban
Wastewater Treatment Direc�ve (UWWTD) set specific standards for the treatment of urban
wastewater, ensuring the protec�on of water resources and the environment. The EU

Water Profile and Challenges in Cyprus – TU Darmstadt 2023 – Ahmed Mostafa Abuzeid
 provides guidance, technical exper�se, and monitoring mechanisms to ensure Cyprus
complies with these direc�ves and implements effec�ve wastewater treatment prac�ces.

Cyprus has made significant advancements in wastewater treatment to address

environmental concerns and promote sustainable water management. The country has
implemented various innova�ve technologies and approaches to improve the treatment and
reuse of wastewater. Those come as follows:

1. Advanced Biological Treatment Processes: Cyprus has adopted advanced biological

treatment processes in wastewater treatment plants. These processes include ac�vated
sludge systems, sequencing batch reactors (SBRs), and membrane bioreactors (MBRs). These
technologies facilitate the removal of organic pollutants, nutrients, and pathogens from
wastewater through biological processes. MBRs, in par�cular, provide excellent effluent
quality by combining biological treatment with membrane filtra�on, ensuring the removal of
suspended solids and enhancing water reuse poten�al.

Figure 3 Map showing plants distributed around Cyprus Government Controlled Areas. (Source: Water Information System
Europe WISE)

2. Constructed Wetlands: Constructed wetlands have gained recogni�on as an eco-friendly

wastewater treatment method in Cyprus. These systems mimic natural wetland ecosystems
and u�lize plants, microbes, and soil to treat wastewater. As wastewater flows through the
wetland, plants and microorganisms remove pollutants, enhance nutrient uptake, and
promote biological degrada�on. Constructed wetlands offer a cost-effec�ve and sustainable
approach to wastewater treatment, especially for decentralized applica�ons in rural areas or
small communi�es.

3. Water Reuse and Reclama�on: Cyprus has priori�zed water reuse and reclama�on as a
crucial component of its wastewater management strategy. Treated wastewater is
extensively used for various non-potable applica�ons, such as irriga�on of agricultural fields,
green spaces, and golf courses. Advanced treatment processes, including ter�ary treatment
methods such as filtra�on, disinfec�on, and advanced oxida�on, are employed to meet
stringent quality standards for water reuse. This approach helps conserve freshwater

Water Profile and Challenges in Cyprus – TU Darmstadt 2023 – Ahmed Mostafa Abuzeid
 resources, reduce the demand for potable water, and minimize the environmental impact of
wastewater discharges.

4. Nutrient Recovery: Efficient nutrient recovery from wastewater is an area of focus in Cyprus.
Advanced treatment technologies, such as anaerobic diges�on and nutrient removal
processes, are employed to capture and recover valuable nutrients like nitrogen and
phosphorus from wastewater. These nutrients can be recycled and u�lized as fer�lizers or in
other agricultural applica�ons, reducing the reliance on chemical fer�lizers and closing the
nutrient loop.

5. Energy Recovery: Energy recovery from wastewater is another innova�ve aspect of

wastewater treatment in Cyprus. Technologies such as anaerobic diges�on, which breaks
down organic mater in wastewater to produce biogas, are employed to generate renewable
energy. Biogas can be u�lized for electricity genera�on or as a heat source for wastewater
treatment processes, reducing energy consump�on and promo�ng sustainability.

8. Public Awareness and Educa�on

8.1 Water Conserva�on Campaigns

Water conserva�on campaigns in Cyprus play a crucial role in raising public awareness about the
importance of responsible water use, promo�ng behavioural changes, and encouraging the adop�on
of water-saving prac�ces. These campaigns aim to address the challenges of water scarcity and
ensure the sustainable management of water resources. Here are some key aspects of water
conserva�on campaigns in Cyprus:

1. Messaging and Communica�on: Water conserva�on campaigns in Cyprus employ clear and
impac�ul messaging to convey the importance of water conserva�on. The campaigns
emphasize the limited availability of water resources on the island and highlight the need for
individual and collec�ve ac�on. The messaging is designed to resonate with the public and
inspire behavioural changes by highligh�ng the environmental, economic, and social benefits
of water conserva�on.

World Water Day 2022:

The Cyprus Ins�tute, which also manages the scien�fic component of the Eastern
Mediterranean and Middle East Climate Change Ini�a�ve (EMME-CCI) of the Republic of
Cyprus, hosted a regional round table discussion on "Adapta�on for Hydro-diplomacy and
Water Security in the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East" in honour of World Water Day
2022 on March 22nd and as part of the Mediterranean process for the 9th World Water
forum to in Dakar from March 21–26, 2022.

Water Profile and Challenges in Cyprus – TU Darmstadt 2023 – Ahmed Mostafa Abuzeid
 Image 11 the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Mr. Giorgos Ioannides delivering opening speech at the World Water Day 2022
Conference, Cyprus Institute, Nicosia.

2. Water-Saving Tips and Techniques: Water conserva�on campaigns provide prac�cal �ps and
techniques that individuals and households can easily implement to reduce water
consump�on. These include sugges�ons such as fixing leaky faucets, using water-efficient
appliances, taking shorter showers, and watering plants during cooler hours. By offering
simple and ac�onable steps, the campaigns empower individuals to make a difference in
their daily water use habits.

3. Public Service Announcements: Public service announcements (PSAs) are an effec�ve

medium used in water conserva�on campaigns. These short videos, radio spots, and print
adver�sements are broadcasted through various channels to reach a wide audience. PSAs
o�en feature influen�al figures, local celebri�es, or community members who endorse water
conserva�on messages and encourage others to join the effort.

8.2 School Programs and Curriculum Integra�on

In Cyprus, school programs and curriculum integra�on play a crucial role in educa�ng
students about water-related topics and fostering a sense of responsibility towards water
resources. The integra�on of water-related subjects into the curriculum helps raise
awareness, build knowledge, and promote sustainable water management prac�ces among
students. Here are key aspects of school programs and curriculum integra�on about water in
Cyprus:

Water Profile and Challenges in Cyprus – TU Darmstadt 2023 – Ahmed Mostafa Abuzeid
 1. Curriculum Integra�on: Water-related topics are integrated into various subjects across the
curriculum, including science, geography, environmental studies, and ci�zenship educa�on.
This integra�on ensures that students receive a comprehensive understanding of water
resources, water conserva�on, water pollu�on, and sustainable water management
prac�ces. Water-related concepts are incorporated into lesson plans, teaching materials, and
ac�vi�es to engage students and promote ac�ve learning.

2. Water-focused Projects and Compe��ons: Schools in Cyprus encourage students to

undertake water-focused projects and par�cipate in compe��ons related to water
conserva�on and sustainable water management. These projects may involve designing
water-efficient systems, conduc�ng research on local water issues, developing educa�onal
campaigns, or implemen�ng prac�cal solu�ons to reduce water consump�on in schools.
Compe��ons provide a pla�orm for students to showcase their knowledge, crea�vity, and
innova�ve ideas in addressing water-related challenges.

3. Guest Speakers and Expert Engagements: Schools o�en invite guest speakers, water experts,
and representa�ves from water management organiza�ons to engage with students. These
guest sessions provide valuable insights, real-life examples, and prac�cal knowledge about
water-related issues. Students have the opportunity to interact with professionals in the
field, ask ques�ons, and learn from their experiences, enhancing their understanding of
water management prac�ces.

9. Conclusion:

Cyprus has implemented a comprehensive water management strategy that encompasses both
supply-side and demand-side measures. On the supply side, the country has invested in water
infrastructure projects such as desalina�on plants, which have greatly expanded its water resources
and reduced dependence on rainfall. Addi�onally, the construc�on of dams and reservoirs has
allowed for beter water storage and distribu�on, par�cularly during periods of drought.

On the demand side, Cyprus has implemented effec�ve water conserva�on measures and
educa�onal campaigns to promote responsible water usage. These ini�a�ves have encouraged
individuals, businesses, and farmers to adopt water-efficient prac�ces, including the use of modern
irriga�on techniques, water-saving appliances, and awareness about the importance of water
conserva�on.

Furthermore, Cyprus has emphasized the importance of integrated water resources management,
considering the interconnectedness of water, energy, and agriculture sectors. By adop�ng a holis�c
approach, the country has been able to op�mize water alloca�on, minimize wastage, and maximize
efficiency across various sectors.

Interna�onal collabora�on has also played a significant role in Cyprus' water scarcity management.
The country has ac�vely par�cipated in regional and global ini�a�ves to exchange knowledge,

Water Profile and Challenges in Cyprus – TU Darmstadt 2023 – Ahmed Mostafa Abuzeid
experiences, and best prac�ces with other water-stressed regions. This collabora�on has fostered
innova�on and provided valuable insights into effec�ve water management strategies.

While Cyprus has made remarkable progress in managing water scarcity, con�nuous efforts and
vigilance are required to ensure long-term sustainability. Climate change, popula�on growth, and
changing water demands present ongoing challenges that will require adap�ve and resilient
solu�ons. The government, along with stakeholders and the public, must remain commited to
conserva�on, research, and innova�on to address emerging water scarcity issues effec�vely.

In conclusion, Cyprus serves as an inspiring example of how proac�ve water management,

investment in infrastructure, water conserva�on measures, and interna�onal coopera�on can
mi�gate the impacts of water scarcity and ensure a sustainable future for genera�ons to come.

Water Profile and Challenges in Cyprus – TU Darmstadt 2023 – Ahmed Mostafa Abuzeid
10. References

• Sofroniou, A.; Bishop, S. Water Scarcity in Cyprus: A Review and Call for Integrated
Policy. Water 2014, 6, 2898-2928. htps://doi.org/10.3390/w6102898

• New Nicosia Waste Water Treatment Plant; UNDP extracted as late of last update on 31st
December 2022. htps://open.undp.org/projects/00057938

• Water Development Department (WDD TAY) of Cyprus.

htp://www.moa.gov.cy/moa/wdd/wdd.nsf/index_en/index_en?opendocument

• Cyprus water security experience; Second Technical Workshop on "Water Scarce Ci�es".
Beirut, Lebanon (July 10-11, 2017).
htps://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/276241517527839339-
0090022018/render/WBCyprusWaterSecuritybeirut2017.pdf

• Water scarcity condi�ons in Europe (Water exploita�on index plus) (8th EAP), European
Environment Agency htps://www.eea.europa.eu/ims/use-of-freshwater-resources-in-
europe-1

• Overview: urban wastewater produc�on and its treatment in Cyprus,

htps://water.europa.eu/freshwater/countries/uwwt/cyprus

• Non Conven�onal Water Resources Programme in Cyprus, Global Water Partnership

Mediterranean, htps://www.gwp.org/en/NCWR/ncwr-programme/NCWR-Programme-
Mediterranean/Programme-in-Cyprus/

Water Profile and Challenges in Cyprus – TU Darmstadt 2023 – Ahmed Mostafa Abuzeid