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Structure of Earth
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The Rock’s cycle
Rocks are naturally occurring combinations or coherent aggregates of minerals, fossils or other hard materials.
They are classified by the way in which they form. The three rock types are: igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic.
All rocks on Earth are locked into a system of cycling and re-cycling known as the “ROCK CYCLE.”
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Classification of Rocks
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Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphism is the solid-state transformation of pre-existing rock into
mineralogically distinct new rock.
Metamorphic rocks form when rocks are subjected to high heat, high pressure, hot
mineral-rich fluids or, more commonly, some combination of these factors. Conditions
like these are found deep within the earth or where tectonic plates meet.
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Formation of Metamorphic Rocks
Sedimentary
0 km rock
Metamorphic
rock
Sediment Igneous
rock
10 km
~200ºC Sedimentary
rock
Metamorphism
Increasing depth
and temperature
Metamorphism
occurs between
The rocks don’t melt about 10 and 50
km of depth
50 km
Melting
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Agents of Metamorphism
Metamorphic agents cause rocks to
change, which includes
1. Elevated temperature
2. Increase in pressure – Increase
with depth
3. Chemically active Fluids - mainly
water with other volatile
components
During the metamorphism, rocks
are often subjected to all three
agents at the same time.
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Agents of Metamorphism
Temperature:
Heat provides the energy to drive the chemical reactions that recrystallize minerals.
Rocks are heated by intrusions of molten material raising from below.
Pressure:
Pressure on rocks mainly caused by the following activity:
Weight of the material above which causes compressional forces to act equally in all
directions.
Stress caused by compressional forces as tectonic plates push against one another.
These forces are directional and cause the rock to be squeezed which may result in
folds and a foliated texture.
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Agents of Metamorphism
Chemically active fluids:
Water stored in pore spaces of rocks would significantly involves in the
metamorphism.
Water helps to moves the ions through the solid rock allowing the rock to crystallize
into a more stable structure.
It also helps in ion exchange between minerals responsible for the formation of
various other minerals.
Chemically active fluids has a strong influence on the metamorphism of the rocks.
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Structures in Metamorphic Rocks
Foliation:
When platy, and flaky minerals (eg. sheet silicate minerals the micas: biotite and
muscovite, chlorite, talc, and serpentine), orient themselves parallel to one another (i.e.
perpendicular to the direction of maximum pressure or stress).
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Structures in Metamorphic Rocks
Cleavage:
Describes a type of planar rock that develops as a result of deformation
and metamorphism.
The degree of deformation and metamorphism along with rock type
determines the kind of cleavage feature that develops.
Cleavage is a type of secondary foliation (primary deals with igneous and
sedimentary rocks) associated with fine grained rocks.
For coarser grained rocks, schistosity is used to describe secondary
foliation.
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Types of Cleavage
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Structures in Metamorphic Rocks
Schistosity:
A preferred orientation of mineral grains or grain aggregates produced by
metamorphism.
Schistosity is a type of foliation, characterised by the preferred orientation of
elongated or platy mineral grains (which are abundant in schistose rocks).
The orientation is generally planar.
Schist can form only if the compressed rock contains lots of elongated or platy grains.
Growth of mica crystals during the metamorphism makes the schistosity more
evident.
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Schist
Schist is a strongly foliated metamorphic rock.
It is characterized by an abundance of platy or elongated minerals (micas,
chlorite, talc, graphite, amphiboles) in a preferred orientation.
Varieties of this rock type share similarities in appearance (schistosity)
but may be highly variable in composition.
Individual mineral grains are invisible by the naked eye.
Schist is one of the most widespread rock types in the continental crust.
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Schist
Mica Schist Graphite Schist Chlorite schist
Quartzofeldspathic Schist Staurolite Schist Blue Schist
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Types of Metamorphism
Metamorphic changes of original rocks into new types of rocks in the following ways:
1. Contact or Thermal Metamorphism
2. Hydrothermal Metamorphism
3. Regional Metamorphism
4. Burial Metamorphism
5. Plutonic Metamorphism
6. Impact Metamorphism
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Contact Metamorphism
This type of metamorphism takes place when the very hot magma moves up through
the crystal rocks and brings with it high levels of heat.
These surrounding rocks get heated to such an extent, their mineral structure
undergoes changes.
“Hornfels” is the name applied to the
wide variety of hard rocks formed
during the contact metamorphism.
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Hydrothermal Metamorphism
Hydrothermal metamorphism occurs when hot, chemically active, mineral waters
interact with a surrounding pre-existing rock (called the country rock).
These fluids and gases are chemically potent and they react readily with many of the
minerals they encounter.
Hot sea water carrying all its salts
percolates into the rocks where a lot of
chemical reactions take place. Minerals
are leached out of the rock and carried to
the surface.
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Regional Metamorphism
Regional metamorphism includes any metamorphic process that occurs over a large
region. It is therefore the most widespread and common type of metamorphism.
A rock is squeezed under directed pressure during metamorphism it is likely to be
deformed, and this can result in a textural change such that the minerals are elongated
in the direction perpendicular to the main stress.
The collision of two continental plates
produce the extreme compressional
forces required for the metamorphic
changes typical of regional
metamorphism. These orogenic
mountains are later eroded, exposing the
intensely deformed rocks typical of their
cores.
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Burial Metamorphism
Burial metamorphism occurs when
sediments are buried deeply enough
that the heat and pressure cause
minerals to begin to recrystallize and
new minerals to grow.
As metamorphic processes go, burial
metamorphism takes place at
relatively low temperatures (up to
~300 °C) and pressures.
Burial metamorphism does not leave
the rock with a foliated appearance. Metaconglomerate formed through burial
metamorphism. The pebbles in this sample are not
aligned and elongated as in the Figure
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Burial Metamorphism
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Plutonic Metamorphism
Plutonic metamorphism is believed to occur at very great depths within
the conditions of very high pressure and high temperature.
The pressure prevailing is like hydrostatic pressure. i.e. the pressure
intensity is the same in all the directions.
The minerals crystallizing in this metamorphic zone are likely to be
more equidimensional.
An extreme example of plutonic metamorphism is the rock “Migmatite”.
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Impact Metamorphism
Impact or shock metamorphism occurs
when high speed projectiles called
meteorites (Fragments of asteroids)
strike the surface of the earth.
Upon impact the energy of the rapidly
moving meteorite is transformed into
heat energy and shock waves that pass
through surrounding rocks.
In some cases, a very dense form of
quartz (coesite) and diamonds will
form.
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Metamorphic Rock Facies
“Facies” is a body of rock with specified characteristics, which can be any observable
attribute of rocks (such as their overall appearance, composition, or condition of
formation), and the changes that may occur in those attributes over a geographic area.
Ky - Kyanite, And -
Andalusite, Sil – Sillimanite.
• Each has the same chemical
formula, that is Al2SiO5, but
differing in crystal structures.
• These variances in crystal
structure gives an unique
physical properties to each of
the three minerals.
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Change in metamorphic grade with depth
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Progression of Metamorphism
Rock Name Rock Type Grade of
Metamorphism
Shale Sedimentary -----
More
Slate Metamorphic Low
Heat
& Phyllite Metamorphic Low/Intermediate
Pressure
Schist Metamorphic Intermediate/High
Gneiss Metamorphic High
Molten Rock Cools into -----
Igneous Rock
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Index minerals in Metamorphic rocks
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Phyllite and Slate
a) Phyllite: a rock with a schistosity in which very fine
phyllosilicates (sericite and/or chlorite), although rarely
coarse enough to see unaided, cause a reflective foliation
b
surface.
b) Slate: compact, very fine-grained, metamorphic rock a
with a well-developed cleavage. Freshly cleaved surfaces
are dull.
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Foliated metamorphic rocks
• Medium- to coarse-grained
• Banded appearance
• High-grade metamorphism
• Composed of light-coloured feldspar layers with
bands of dark mafic minerals
Gnesis
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Non foliated metamorphic rocks
Granofels Marble
Quartizite
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Transformation of Texture
Decrease in Strength
Granite Granite gneiss Schist
(Igneous) (Metamorphic) (Metamorphic)
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High Strain Rocks
High-strain metamorphism occurs when the strain rate exceeds the ability of the rock to
deform plastically.
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