Chemistry: The molecular nature of matter and change

Ch. 3

Stoichiometry of Formulas and Equations

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub

CHAPTER 3: STOICHIOMETRY OF FORMULAS AND
EQUATIONS

3.1 The Mole

3.2 Determining the Formula of an Unknown Compound

3.3 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations

3.4 Calculating Quantities of Reactant and Product

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub

3.1 THE MOLE

• The word "mole" has nothing to do with the

animal that burrows under the ground.

• Mole is the English version of the German

word "Mol" which is short for
Molekulargewicht, the "molecular weight."

• First coined by Wilhelm

Ostwald of Germany in 1902.

Wilhelm Ostwald

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 3

The Mole

• The mole (mol) is the amount of a substance

that contains the same number of entities as
there are atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12.

‫ﻛﻣﯾﺔ اﻟﻣﺎدة اﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺣﺗوي ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻔس ﻋدد اﻟﺟﺳﯾﻣﺎت اﻟﺗﻲ ﯾﺣﺗوﯾﮭﺎ‬ •
‫ ﺟرام ﻣن اﻟﻛرﺑون‬12

• The term “entities” refers to atoms, ions,

molecules, formula units, or electrons – in fact,
any type of particle

• One mole (1 mol) contains 6.022x1023 entities

(to four significant figures).

• This number is called Avogadro’s number and is

abbreviated as N.

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 4

Molar Mass

• The molar mass (M) of a substance is q The molar mass of O2 = 2 x M of O

the mass per mole of its entites = 2 x 16.00
(atoms, molecules or formula units). = 32.00 g/mol

• For monatomic elements, the molar q The molar mass of SO2 = 1 x M of S +

mass is the same as the atomic mass in 2 x M of O = 32.00 + 2(16.00)
grams per mole. = 64.00 g/mol

• The atomic mass is simply read from

the Periodic Table.

• The molar mass of Ne = 20.18 g/mol.

• For molecular elements and for

compounds, the formula is needed to
determine the molar mass

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 5

 Table 3.1 Information Contained in the Chemical Formula
of Glucose C6H12O6 ( M = 180.16 g/mol)

Carbon (C) Hydrogen (H) Oxygen (O)

Atoms/molecule of 6 atoms 12 atoms 6 atoms

compound

Moles of atoms/mole 6 mol of atoms 12 mol of atoms 6 mol of atoms

of compound

Atoms/mole of 6(6.022x1023) atoms 12(6.022x1023) atoms 6(6.022x1023) atoms

compound

Mass/molecule of 6(12.01 amu) 12(1.008 amu) 6(16.00 amu) =

compound = 72.06 amu = 12.10 amu 96.00 amu

Mass/mole of 72.06 g 12.10 g 96.00 g

compound

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub

Interconverting Moles, Mass, and Number of Chemical Entities

𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑔 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 ×
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑔) ×
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠

6.02×10!" 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 ×
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠 ×
6.02×10!" 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠

Figure 3.2 Mass-mole-number

relationships for elements
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Sample Problem 3.3 Calculating the Mass of a Given Amount of an
Element

Problem: Silver (Ag) is used in jewelry and tableware but no longer in U.S. coins. How many
grams of Ag are in 0.0342 mol of Ag?

Ag
from the Latin Argentum

Solution

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 8

 SG: 5.91
Melting Pt: 30 °C

Gallium spoon melts in water

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 9

 Sample Problem 3.4 Calculating the Number of Entities in a Given
Amount of an Element

Problem: Gallium (Ga) is a key element in solar panels, calculators and other light-sensitive
electronic devices. How many Ga atoms are in 2.85 x 10-3 mol of gallium?

Solution

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 10

Ferrofluid (a fluid containing a magnetic suspension) in jar
Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 11
Sample Problem 3.5 Calculating the Number of Entities in a Given
Mass of an Element

Problem: Iron (Fe) is the main component of steel and is therefore the most important metal in
society; it is also essential in the body. How many Fe atoms are in 95.8 g of Fe?

Solution

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 12

Sample Problem 3.5 Calculating the Number of Chemical Entities in a
Given Mass of a Compound I

Problem: Nitrogen dioxide is a component of urban smog that forms from the gases in car
exhausts. How many molecules are in 8.92 g of nitrogen dioxide?

Solution:

NO2

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 13

Pouring liquid nitrogen on floor
Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 14
Sample Problem 3.5 Calculating the Number of Chemical Entities in a
Given Mass of a Compound II

Problem: Ammonium carbonate, a white solid that decomposes on warming, is a component of

baking powder.
a) How many formula units are in 41.6 g of ammonium carbonate?
b) How many O atoms are in this sample?
Solution
(NH4)2CO3 is the formula for ammonium carbonate
M = (2 x M of N) + (8 x M of H) + (1 x M of C) + (3 x M of O)
= (2 x 14.01 g/mol) + (8 x 1.008 g/mol) + (12.01 g/mol) + (3 x 16.00 g/mol) = 96.09 g/mol

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 15

 Mass Percent from the Chemical Formula

atoms of X in formula x atomic mass of X (amu)

Mass % of element X = x 100
molecular (or formula) mass of compound (amu)

moles of X in formula x molar mass of X (g/mol)

Mass % of element X = x 100
mass (g) of 1 mol of compound

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 16

Sample Problem 3.6 Calculating the Mass Percent of Each Element in a
Compound from the Formula

Problem: Glucose (C6H12O6) is a key nutrient for generating chemical potential energy in
biological systems. What is the mass percent of each element in glucose?

Solution:
In 1 mole of glucose there are 6 moles of C, 12 moles H, and 6 moles O.
12.01 𝑔 𝐶
6 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶 & = 72.06 𝑔 𝐶
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶
1.008 𝑔 𝐶
12 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻 & = 12.096 𝑔 𝐻
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻
16.00 𝑔 𝑂
6 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂 & = 96.00 𝑔 O
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂
𝑀 = 180.16 𝑔⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙

72.06 𝑔 𝐶
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 % 𝐶 = = 0.3999×100% = 39.99 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 % 𝐶
180.16 𝑔 𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒
12.096 𝑔 𝐻
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 % 𝐻 = = 0.06714×100% = 6.174 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 % 𝐻
180.16 𝑔 𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒
96.00 𝑔 𝑂
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 % 𝑂 = = 0.5329×100% = 53,29 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 % 𝑂
180.16 𝑔 𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 18

Mass Percent and the Mass of an Element

Mass percent can also be used to calculate the mass of a particular element in any mass of a
compound.

Mass of element X mass of element in 1 mol of compound

present in sample = mass of compound X
mass of 1 mol of compound

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 19

Sample Problem 3.7 Calculating the Mass of an Element in a
Compound

Problem: Use the information from Sample Problem 3.6 to determine the mass (g) of carbon in
16.55 g of glucose.

Solution

Each mol of glucose contains 6 mol of C, or 72.06 g of C.

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 20

Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide catalyzed by potassium iodide -elephant’s toothpaste
Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 21
3.2 DETERMINING THE FORMULA OF AN UNKNOWN
COMPOUND
Empirical and Molecular Formulas

Empirical Formula Molecular Formula

• the simplest formula for a compound that • The molecular formula shows the actual
agrees with the elemental analysis. number of atoms of each element in a
molecule of the compound.
• It shows the lowest whole number of
moles and gives the relative number of • The molecular formula for hydrogen
atoms of each element present. peroxide is H2O2.

q The empirical formula for hydrogen

peroxide is HO (‫)ﻓوق أﻛﺳﯾد اﻟﮭﯾدروﺟﯾن‬

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 22

Sample Problem 3.8 Determining an Empirical Formula from Amounts
of Elements

Problem: A sample of an unknown compound contains 0.21 mol of zinc, 0.14 mol of phosphorus,
and 0.56 mol of oxygen. What is its empirical formula?

Solution
Using the numbers of moles of each element given, we write the preliminary formula
Zn0.21P0.14O0.56
Next we divide each fraction by the smallest one; in this case 0.14:

This gives Zn1.5P1.0O4.0

We convert to whole numbers by multiplying by the smallest integer that gives whole numbers;
in this case 2

This gives us the empirical formula Zn3P2O8

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 23

 Sample Problem 3.9 Determining an Empirical Formula from Masses
of Elements

Problem: Analysis of a sample of an ionic compound yields 2.82 g of Na, 4.35 g of Cl, and 7.83 g
of O. What is the empirical formula and the name of the compound?

Solution

The empirical formula is Na1Cl1O3.98 or NaClO4; this compound is named sodium perchlorate.

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 24

Determining the Molecular Formula

• The molecular formula gives the actual numbers of moles of each element present in 1 mol
of compound.
• The molecular formula is a whole-number multiple of the empirical formula.

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑔⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙)

= 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 − 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒
𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑔⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙)

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Sample Problem 3.10 Determining a Molecular Formula from
Elemental Analysis and Molar Mass

Problem: During excessive physical activity, lactic acid forms in muscle tissue
and is responsible for muscle soreness. Elemental analysis of lactic acid (M =
90.08 g/mol) shows it contains 40.0 mass % C, 6.71 mass % H, and 53.3 mass
% O. Determine the empirical formula and the molecular formula for lactic
acid.

Solution
Assuming there are 100. g of lactic acid;

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 26

Figure 3.4 Combustion apparatus for determining formulas
of organic compounds

m m
CnHm + (n+ ) O2 = n CO2(g) + H O(g)
2 2 2

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 27

Sample Problem 3.11 Determining a Molecular Formula from
Combustion Analysis

Problem: When a 1.000 g sample of vitamin C

(M = 176.12 g/mol) is placed in a combustion CxHyOz
chamber and burned, the following data are
obtained:
mass of CO2 absorber after combustion = 85.35 g
mass of CO2 absorber before combustion = 83.85 g
mass of H2O absorber after combustion = 37.96 g
mass of H2O absorber before combustion = 37.55 g

What is the molecular formula of vitamin C?

Plan: The masses of CO2 and H2O produced will give us the masses of C and H present in the
original sample. From this we can determine the mass of O.
Always the mass of oxygen is calculated by difference

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 28

Solution:

Convert mass to moles:

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 29

Table 3.2 Some Compounds with Empirical Formula CH2O
(Composition by Mass: 40.0% C, 6.71% H, 53.3% O)

Molecular Whole-Number M
Name Formula Multiple (g/mol) Use or Function

formaldehyde CH2O 1 30.03 disinfectant; biological preservative

acetic acid C2H4O2 2 60.05 acetate polymers; vinegar (5% soln)

lactic acid C3H6O3 3 90.09 sour milk; forms in exercising muscle

erythrose C4H8O4 4 120.10 part of sugar metabolism

ribose C5H10O5 5 150.13 component of nucleic acids and B2

glucose C6H12O6 6 180.16 major energy source of the cell

CH2O C2H4O2 C3H6O3 C4H8O4 C5H10O5 C6H12O6

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub

‫‪Isomers‬‬

‫•‬ ‫;‪isomers (/ˈaɪsəmərz/; from Greek ἰσομερής, isomerès‬‬

‫)"‪isos = "equal", méros = "part‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪molecules with the same molecular formula but different‬‬
‫‪chemical structures.‬‬
‫اﻻﯾزﻣرات‪:‬‬
‫• ھﻲ ﺟزﯾﺋﺎت ﻟﮭﺎ ﻧﻔس اﻟﺻﯾﻐﺔ اﻟﻛﯾﻣﯾﺎﺋﯾﺔ وﻏﺎﻟﺑﺎ ﺑﻧﻔس ﻧوع اﻟرواﺑط ﺑﯾن‬
‫اﻟذرات ﻟﻛﻧﮭﺎ ﺗﺧﺗﻠف ﻓﻲ ﺗرﺗﯾب اﻟﻣﺟﻣوﻋﺎت اﻟوظﯾﻔﯾﺔ اﻟﻣﺧﺗﻠﻔﺔ اﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺷﻛل‬
‫ھذه اﻟﻣرﻛﺑﺎت‪.‬‬
‫ﻋدﯾد ﻣن اﻟﻣﺗﻧﺎظرات ﺗﺗﺷﺎرك ﻓﻲ ﺧواص ﻣﺗﺷﺎﺑﮭﺔ إن ﻟم ﺗﻛن ﻣﺗطﺎﺑﻘﺔ ﻓﻲ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻣﻌظم اﻟﺗﻔﺎﻋﻼت اﻟﻛﯾﻣﯾﺎﺋﯾﺔ‪.‬‬

‫‪Dr. Ziad Abuelrub‬‬ ‫‪31‬‬

Table 3.3 Two Pairs of Constitutional Isomers

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub

3.3 WRITING AND BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

A chemical equation uses formulas to express the identities and quantities of substances
involved in a physical or chemical change

Figure 3.6 The formation of HF gas on the macroscopic and molecular levels.

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 33

Features of Chemical Equations

A yield arrow points from

reactants to products.

Mg + O2 MgO

Reactants are written on

the left. Products are written
on the right.

The equation must be balanced; the same number and type of each atom must
appear on both sides.

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 35

Problem: Within the cylinders of a car’s engine, the hydrocarbon octane (C8H18), one of many
components of gasoline, mixes with oxygen from the air and burns to form carbon dioxide and
water vapor. Write a balanced equation for this reaction.
Plan Solution

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 37

Sample Problem 3.13 Balancing an Equation from a Molecular Scene

Problem: The following molecular scenes depict an important reaction in nitrogen chemistry. The
blue spheres represent nitrogen while the red spheres represent oxygen. Write a balanced
equation for this reaction.

Solution
The reactant circle shows only one type of molecule, composed of 2 N and 5 O atoms. The formula
is thus N2O5. There are 4 N2O5 molecules depicted.

The product circle shows two types of molecule; one has 1 N and 2 O atoms while the other has 2
O atoms. The products are NO2 and O2. There are 8 NO2 molecules and 2 O2 molecules shown.

The reaction depicted is 4 N2O5 → 8 NO2 + 2 O2.

Writing the equation with the smallest whole-number coefficients and states of matter included;
2 N2O5 (g) → 4 NO2 (g) + O2 (g)

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 38

3.4 CALCULATING QUANTITIES OF REACTANT AND PRODUCT

Stoichiometric Calculations
• The coefficients in a balanced
chemical equation represent:
– the relative number of reactant and
product particles
– the relative number of moles of each.
• Since moles are related to mass
– the equation can be used to calculate
masses of reactants &/or products
for a given reaction.
• The mole ratios from the balanced
equation are used as conversion
factors.

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 39

 Table 3.4 Information Contained in a Balanced Equation

Viewed in Reactants Products

Terms of C3H8(g) + 5 O2(g) 3 CO2(g) + 4 H2O(g)

Molecules 1 molecule C3H8 + 5 molecules O2 3 molecules CO2 + 4 molecules H2O

Amount (mol) 1 mol C3H8 + 5 mol O2 3 mol CO2 + 4 mol H2O

Mass (amu) 44.09 amu C3H8 + 160.00 amu O2 132.03 amu CO2 + 72.06 amu H2O

Mass (g) 44.09 g C3H8 + 160.00 g O2 132.03 g CO2 + 72.06 g H2O

Total Mass (g) 204.09 g 204.09 g

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 40

Chapter 3: Stoichiometry of
Formulas and Equations

LECTURE

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 41

Sample Problem 3.14 Calculating Quantities of Reactants and
Products: Amount (mol) to Amount (mol)

Problem: In a lifetime, the average American uses more than a half ton (> 500 kg) of copper in
coins, plumbing, and wiring. Copper is obtained from copper(I) sulfide by roasting it in the
presence of oxygen gas to form powdered copper(I) oxide and gaseous sulfur dioxide. How many
moles of oxygen are required to roast 10.0 mol of copper(I) sulfide?

Solution

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 42

Sample Problem 3.15 Calculating Quantities of Reactants and
Products: Amount (mol) to Mass (g)

Problem: During the process of roasting copper(I) sulfide, how many grams of sulfur dioxide form
when 10.0 mol of copper(I) sulfide reacts?

Solution:

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 44

Reactions in Sequence

• Reactions often occur in sequence.

• The product of one reaction becomes
a reactant in the next.
• An overall reaction is written by
combining the reactions;
• any substance that forms in one
reaction and reacts in the next can be
eliminated.

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 45

Sample Problem 3.17 Writing an Overall Equation for a Reaction
Sequence

Problem: Roasting is the first step in extracting copper from chalcocite, the ore used in the
previous problem. In the next step, copper(I) oxide reacts with powdered carbon to yield copper
metal and carbon monoxide gas. Write a balanced overall equation for the two-step process

Solution

Write individual balanced equations for each step:

Adjust the coefficients so that the 2 moles of Cu2O formed in reaction 1 are used up in reaction 2:

Add the equations together:

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 46

Limiting Reactants ‫اﻟﻤﺘﻔﺎﻋﻼت اﻟﻤﺤﺪدة‬

• So far we have assumed that

reactants are present in the correct
amounts to react completely.
• In reality, one reactant may limit the
amount of product that can form.
• The limiting reactant will be
completely used up in the reaction.
When H and O combine, they
• The reactant that is not limiting is in exothermically yield water.
excess – some of this reactant will be
left over.

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 47

Sample Problem 3.18 Using Molecular Depictions in a Limiting-
Reactant Problem

Problem: Nuclear engineers use chlorine trifluoride to prepare uranium fuel

for power plants. Chlorine trifluoride is formed as a gas by the reaction of
elemental chlorine and fluorine. The molecular scene shows a representative
portion of the reaction mixture before the reaction starts. (Chlorine is green,
and fluorine is yellow.)
(a) Find the limiting reactant.
(b) Write a reaction table for the process.
(c) Draw a representative portion of the mixture after the reaction is
complete. (Hint: The ClF3 molecule has 1 Cl atom bonded to 3 individual F
atoms). Reaction
mixture

Solution
The balanced equation is Cl2 (g) + 3F2 (g) → 2ClF3 (g)

Since the given amount of F2 can form less product, it is the limiting reactant.

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 48

Sample Problem 3.18

• We use the amount of F2 to determine the “change” in the reaction table, since F2
is the limiting reactant:

Molecules Cl2 (g) + 3F2 (g) → 2ClF3 (g)

Initial 3 6 0
Change -2 -6 +4

Final 1 0 4

• The final reaction scene shows that all the F2 has reacted and that there is Cl2 left
over. 4 molecules of ClF2 have formed:

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 49

Sample Problem 3.19 Calculating Quantities in a Limiting-Reactant
Problem: Amount to Amount

Problem: In another preparation of ClF3, 0.750 mol of Cl2 reacts with 3.00 mol of F2.
(a) Find the limiting reactant.
(b) Write a reaction table.

Plan: Find the limiting reactant by calculating the amount (mol) of ClF3 that can be formed from
each given amount of reactant. Use this information to construct a reaction table.

Solution
The balanced equation is Cl2 (g) + 3F2 (g) → 2ClF3 (g)

Cl2 is limiting, because it yields less ClF3

All the Cl2 reacts since this is the limiting

reactant. For every 1 Cl2 that reacts, 3 F2 will
react, so 3(0.750) or 2.25 moles of F2 reacts.

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 50

Sample Problem 3.20 Calculating Quantities in a Limiting-Reactant
Problem: Mass to Mass

Problem: A fuel mixture used in the early days of rocketry consisted of two liquids, hydrazine
(N2H4) and dinitrogen tetraoxide (N2O4), which ignite on contact to form nitrogen gas and water
vapor.
a) How many grams of nitrogen gas form when 100 g of N2H4 and 200 g of N2O4 are mixed?
b) Write a reaction table for this process.

Solution

All the N2H4 reacts since it is the limiting reactant.

For every 2 moles of N2H4 that react 1 mol of N2O4
reacts and 3 mol of N2 form:

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 51

Reaction Yields

• The theoretical yield is the amount

of product calculated using the molar
ratios from the balanced equation.
• The actual yield is the amount of
product actually obtained.
• The actual yield is usually less than
the theoretical yield

% yield = actual yield x 100

theoretical yield
Figure 3.11 The effect of side reactions on the
yield of the main product

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 52

Sample Problem 3.21 Calculating Percent Yield

Problem: Silicon carbide (SiC) is made by reacting sand

(silicon dioxide, SiO2) with powdered carbon at high
temperature. Carbon monoxide is also formed.
What is the percent yield if 51.4 kg of SiC is recovered
from processing 100.0 kg of sand?

Solution

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 53

`
End of Chapter 3

Dr. Ziad Abuelrub 55