Unit:5 Cement

Introduction
Cement
Cement is extremely ground particle having adhesive and cohesive properties. It is popular due
to the high plasticity, work ability, and moisture resisting property. It has good bonding
between two materials and poses good strength.
Uses of cement

1. It is used in mortar for plastering, masonry work, pointing, etc.

2. It is used for making joints for drains and pipes.
3. It is used for water tightness of structure.
4. It is used in concrete for laying floors, roofs and constructing lintels, beams, stairs, pillars
etc.
5. It is used where a hard surface is required for the protection of exposed surfaces of
structures against the destructive agents of the weather and certain organic or inorganic
chemicals.
6. It is used for precast pipes manufacturing, piles, fencing posts etc.
7. It is used in the construction of important engineering structures such as bridges,
culverts, dams, tunnels, lighthouses etc.
8. It is used in the preparation of foundations, watertight floors, footpaths etc.
9. It is employed for the construction of wells, water tanks, tennis courts, lamp posts,
roads etc.

Ingredients of cement (Raw materials)

1. Lime: Lime is calcium oxide (CaO) or calcium hydroxide.

o The presence of lime in a sufficient quantity is required to form silicates and
aluminates of calcium.
o Deficiency in lime reduces the strength of property to the cement.
o Deficiency in lime causes the cement to set quickly.
o The excessive presence of lime causes cement to expand and disintegrate and
hence causes unsound. 
2. Silica: Silicon dioxide is known as silica, chemical formula SiO2.
o Facilitates the formation of di-calcium silicate or tri-calcium silicate which are both
responsible for strength of cement. Thus, Silica imparts strength to cement. 
3. Alumina: Alumina is Aluminium Oxide. The chemical formula is Al2O3.
o Alumina imparts quick setting property to the cement.
o Clinkering temperature is lowered by the presence of the requisite quantity of
alumina.
o Excess of alumina reduces the strength of cement. 
4. Magnesia: Magnesia is Magnesium Oxide. The chemical formula is MgO.
o Magnesia should not be present more than 2% in cement.

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 o Excess of magnesia makes cement unsound.
o It impacts hardness and colour to cement. 
5. Iron oxide: Chemical formula is Fe2O3.
o It increases hardness of colour.
o It acts as a flux to fuse raw materials.
o At a very high temperature, it imparts into the chemical reaction with calcium and
aluminum to form tricalcium alumino-ferrite.
o Tricalcium alumino-ferrite imparts hardness and strength to cement. 
6. Calcium Sulphate: Chemical formula is CaSO4
o This is present in cement in the form of gypsum(CaSO4.2H2O)
o It retards the setting action of cement. 
7. Sulphur Trioxide: Chemical formula is SO3
o It should not be present for more than 2%.
o It makes cement sound.
o Excess of it causes unsoundness in cement. 
8. Alkaline:
o It should not be present more than 1%.
o Excess of alkali causes efflorescence.
9. Clinker
During manufacturing of cement, all ingredients except gypsum is heated in a kiln upto 1400
to 1500°C, this produces a fuse mass in the form of ball known as clinker.
This clinker is grinded with gypsum to obtain cement.

The general percentage of these ingredients in cement is given below :

 Ingredient Percentage in cement

Lime (Calcium Oxide) 60-65
Silica 17-25
Alumina 3-8
Magnesia 1-2
Iron oxide 0.5-6
Calcium Sulphate 1-3
Sulphur Trioxide 1-3
Alkaline 0-1

Composition of cement clinker (Bogues Compound)

1. Tricalcium Silicate (Alite):

 Chemical formula is C3S.
 About 40% of C3S.
 It is responsible for hardening.
 It imparts initial setting to cement.

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  Higher % leads to achieve strength earlier so that formwork can be removed.
2. Dicalcium Silicate (Belite)
 Chemical formula is C2S.
 About 32% of C2S.
 It imparts ultimate strength.
 It hardens slowly and heat production is also low and slow.
 It offers maximum resistance to chemical attack.
3. Tricalcium Aluminate (Celite)
 Chemical formula is C3A.
 About 10 to 12% of C3A.
 It is also responsible for initial setting of cement.
 It is the first compound to hydrate.
4. Tetra Calcium Aluminium Ferite (Felite)
 Chemical formula is C4AF.
 About 8 to 9% of C4AF.
 It reacts slowly and generate low heat.
 It is used to increase volume and reduce cost.

Manufacturing process of cement

Cement can be manufactured by two processes. They are:
1. Dry Process
2. Wet Process
1. Dry process
This process provides considerable savings in fuel consumption and water usage. This
process is dustier compared to wet process. The following are the processes involved in
manufacturing of cement by dry process:
I. Materials are crushed and fed in correct proportion into a grinding mill where
they are dried and grinded into fine powder.
II. It is then pumped to blending silo and final adjustment to proportion is made.
III. Raw material is blended by compressed air inducing upward movement of
powder and decreasing its apparent density.
IV. The blended material is now sieved and fed to rotary dish called granulator.
V. Water is added about 12%.
VI. Hard pallets about 1.25cm dia. are formed, the pallets are then passed into the
kiln. The material then fuses to balls of 0.37cm to 2.5cm in dia. Known as
clinkers.
VII. The clinker is dropped to coolers.
VIII. It is then grinded with gypsum (3 to 4%), then blending is done together.
IX. Then the mixture so obtained is stored in storage silos.

2. Wet process
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The wet process of cement manufacturing refers to grinding raw material into slurry
after mixing with water and then feeding them into the wet process kiln for drying and
calcination and finally forming clinker. The slurry’s water content is usually between
32%-36%.
Flowchart of wet process of manufacturing cement.

Various Types of Cement and Their Properties

1. OPC (Ordinary Portland Cement)
 It is the most commonly available and commonly used cement.
 Composition (63% CaO,22% Silica, Gypsum 3 to 4% )
 Its initial setting time is 30 min.
 Its final setting time is 10 hours.
 Compressive strength (3 days: 115kg/cm2).
 It is used in construction works widely.
2. PPC (Portland Pozzolana Cement)
 It consists of cement clinker and pozzolana (volcanic ash).
 It has less heat of hydration and greater resistant to sulphate attack and
corrosion resistance.
 Initial and Final setting time is same as that of OPC.
 It is economical as about 25% of OPC clinker is replaced by pozolonic materials.
 It is used in marine and mass concrete.

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 3. Rapid Hardening Cement
 It gives the strength faster than OPC.
 The strength developed at the age of 1 hour is similar to that of 3 days OPC and
3 days strength is equal to 7 days strength of OPC.
 Initial and final setting time is similar to that of OPC.
 Rapid hardening is due to the presence of C3A of higher fineness.
 It is not suitable for mass construction because of higher rate of heat generation.
 It is used in place where form work is to be removed earlier and in cold weather.
4. Quick Setting Cement
 Its initial setting time is 5 min.
 Its final setting time is 30 min.
 Clinker is ground to extreme fineness.
 It is obtained by adding aluminium sulphate (Al2So4) or calcium chloride (CaCl2)
on OPC.
 It is used in constructing structure in running water.
5. White Cement
 It is manufactured from limestone like chalk that are totally free from oxide.
 Kiln is fired by fuel rather than coal to avoid contamination.
 Strength and setting time is similar to OPC.
 Used in asthetic purpose.
 It is costlier than OPC.
6. Low Heat Cement
 Initial setting time is more than 60 min.
 Final setting time is more than 10 hours.
 Strength of low heat cement in 3 days is 70kg/cm 2.
 It is also used in mass concreting works.
7. High Alumina Cement
 It is manufactured by the fusion of bauxite and limestone.
 It has very high rate of strength development, about 80% of strength is
developed in 24 hours.
 It is used in under water construction and for emergency repairs.

Properties of Cement

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General properties of cement are as follows:
1. Rate of setting
Setting is the phenomena which changes a cement paste mortar to a solid but in weak
state.
2. Rate of hardening
It is the process by which the weak set mortar or concrete attains strength.
3. Heat production
When water is added to cement, the cement hydrates. The increase in temperature
generates considerable quantity of heat and the rate at which it is generated mainly
depends upon the chemical composition of cement. The greater the heat generated, the
more rapid is the rate of hardening. The more rapid rate of hardening, the more
susceptible is a concrete to shrinkage.
4. Fineness of cement
Fineness of cement is a measure of its cementing value. Finer cement react quicker with
water and develops early strength. Though ultimate strength is not affected but finer
cement increases shrinkage and cracking.
5. Consistency
It relates to the ratio of water to the cement. The consistency at which correct amount
of water is added to a given quantity of cement is normal consistency. It is tested with
the help of Vicat’s apparatus.
6. Soundness
It is essential that cement concrete doesn’t undergo large change in volume after
setting. The change in volume is called unsoundness which causes cracks and
disintegration of concrete.
7. Setting time
It is defined as the time taken by a cement paste, mortar to change to a solid but in
weak state. Final setting is that when it has attained sufficient strength hardness.
Storage and Transportation of cement
Storage of cement is predominate for constructional works. For economy and proper flow of
work, it is a very common practice to buy a bulk amount of cement at a time. Hence, it is
essential to ensure correct arrangements to store properly this amount of cements. Properly
maintained storage facilities preserve the quality and fitness of cement to be used.
For storing cement following procedures should be followed:

 Store cement in a building which is dry, leak proof and as moisture proof as possible.
 There should be minimum number of windows in the storage building.
 Stack the cement bags off the floor on wooden planks in such a way, so that it is about 150
mm to 200 mm above the floor.

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 The floor may comprise of lean cement concrete or two layers of dry bricks laid on well
consolidated earth.

 Maintain a space of 600 mm all-round between the exterior walls and the stacks.
 Stack the cement bags close to each other to reduce circulation of air.
 The height of stack should not be more than 10 bags to prevent the possibility of lumping
under pressure.
 Stack the cement bags in such a manner so as to facilitate their removal and use in the
order in which they are received.
 Put label showing date of receipt of cement on each stack of cement bags to know the age
of cement.
 When it is required to store cement for a long period of time or during the monsoon;
completely enclose the stack by a water proofing membrane such as polyethylene.
 Different types of cement must be stacked and stored separately.

Fig:Storing of cement
Precautions during Cement Transport 

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1. Remove sharp objects from the cement transport vehicle before loading cement bags so that
the bags are not torn or damaged. Ensure the vehicle is clean and dry before loading the
cement bags. On the off chance that there is dampness in the vehicle, then cement will start
hardening and lose its purpose and ultimately result in damage.
 
2. Load cement bags carefully into the cement transport vehicle, making sure that they are
covered and tied down securely. Always stack the cement bags in the same way, Otherwise, if
any pothole comes up, then cement bags may get toppled down.
 
3. Never drop the cement sack from the vehicle. It can damage/torn the cement sack.
 
4. Try not to over-burden your cement transport vehicle. It may damage the vehicle. It can also
reduce the maneuverability of the vehicle, which may lead to increase in time of transportation
or occurrence of accidents. Load cement bags in limited and permissible quantities.
 
5. If rain or fog is expected during a cement bulker or cement truck shipment, the cement bags
should be stacked on pallets on the bed of the truck. Bags of cement should not rest directly on
a moist truck deck. They should be covered with canvas, so that water splashing upward from
the deck of the truck and will not wet the cement bags.

Admixtures
Admixtures are the compounds which when added to concrete enhance the properties like
strength, hardness, durability, rate of chemical reactions, etc.
Types of admixtures
I. Chemical admixture
 They have formulated chemical composition and are added in very small
proportion to enhance particular property like strength, hardness.
 They are added during mixing of concrete.
 These admixtures work through chemical interaction with cement and physical
interaction with water.
 Excess of these cause adverse effect on concrete.
Types of chemical admixtures
a. Plasticizer
 Used to increase workability or decrease water content of fresh concrete.
 Reduces water by 15%.
b. Super plasticizer
 30% reduction in water.
 Increase flow
 Self levelling

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  Self-compacting
 Reduced shrinkage
c. Accelerator
 It increases the rate of hydration and shortens the setting time and increase the
rate of strength gain.
 It is used for urgent repairs.
d. Retarders
It increases the setting time and slows strength gain by suspending action of C 3S and
C3A.
e. Set-Retarders
 They extend setting time of cement
 When water is added there is rapid initial hydration, after which the action is
suspended for certain time called as dormant time.
 Set retarders extend this dormant time, thereby retarding the setting and
hardening of cement.
II. Mineral admixture
 Mineral admixtures have slightly varying composition and affect, more than one
property.
 They are added during manufacturing of cement.
Types of mineral admixture
a. Cementing admixture
 Increase the bonding property
b. Pozzolana
 Mainly increase the long term strength.
Tests on Cement
A. Test for fineness
 Fineness of cement may be tested by method of sieving or by method of air
permeability.
 In sieve test, 100 grams of sample is sieved through IS Sieve No. 9 (90 micron) and
residue left should be limited for 10% for OPC and 5% For RHC and low heat
cement.
 Fineness test is done to check the proper grinding of cement.

 The fineness of cement is represented by specific surface, i.e. total surface area in

cm2 per gram or m2 per kilogram of cement and is measured by Lea and Nurse
apparatus or by wagner turbidimeter.
 The Lea and Nurse apparatus shown in Fig. below essentially consists of a
permeability test cell-where cement is placed and air pressure is applied,

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 flowmeter-to determine the quantity of air passing per second through its
capillary tube per unit difference of pressure, and manometer-to measure the air
pressure.
 To determine the fineness, a cement sample of 20 mm height is placed on a
perforated plate (40 micron perforations) and air pressure is applied. The
manometer is connected to the top of the permeability cell and the air is turned
on. The lower end of the permeability cell is then slowly connected to the other
end of the manometer. The rate of flow is so adjusted that the flowmeter shows a
pressure difference (h2) of 30-50 cm. The reading (h 1) in the manometer is
recorded. The process is repeated till the ratio h1/h2 is constant. The specific
surface is given by the expression

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 B. Test for soundness
 This test is performed to detect the presence of uncombined lime and magnesia.
 It is tested with Le Chatelier apparatus and consist of small brass cylinder (30mm
high) and length of 165mm.
 Expansion of all type of Portland cement when tested by Le Chatelier method
should not exceed 10mm.

Test Procedure
 Before conducting the test lightly oil the apparatus such as Le-Chatelier mould, Glass plates(2)
 Take required amount of cement 200g.
 Prepare a cement paste by adding the water required for standard consistency.
 Mix the cement paste well using the trowel.
 Now place the lightly oiled Le-Chatelier mould on the glass panel.

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 Fill the mould with the prepared cement paste up to the top. While placing the cement hold
the mould edges gently together.
 Now place another glass plate on the top and put weight on it.

 Submerge the whole assembly into the water pot at a room temperature and keep it
undisturbed for 24 hours.
 Now remove the whole assembly from water and measure the distance between the mould
edges. Note that distance as L1.

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 Submerge the mould again into the water and bring it to the boiling point and cool down it to
room temperature.
 Now again measure the mould edges distance as L2.
Calculation
Soundness of Cement = L1 – L2.

Fig: Le Chatelier Apparatus

C. Test for setting time

Test Procedure
Initial Preparation

1. Consistency test to be done before

starting the test procedure to find out
the water required to give the paste
normal consistency (P).
2. Take 400 g of cement and prepare a
neat cement paste with 0.85% of water by weight of cement.
3. Gauge time is kept between 3 to 5 minutes. Start the stop watch at the instant when the
water is added to the cement. Record this time (T1).
4. Fill the Vicat mould, resting on a glass plate, with the cement paste gauged as above. Fill
the mould completely and smooth off the surface of the paste making it level with the
top of the mould. The cement block thus prepared is called test block.

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 Fig 1: Vicat’s Apparatus used for determination of setting time of cement
Test for Initial Setting Time

1. Place the test block confined in the mould and resting on the non-porous plate, under
the rod bearing the needle.
2. Lower the needle gently until it comes in contact with the surface of test block and quick
release, allowing it to penetrate into the test block.
3. In the beginning the needle completely pierces the test block. Repeat this procedure i.e.
quickly releasing the needle after every 2 minutes till the needle fails to pierce the block
for about 5 mm measured from the bottom of the mould. Note this time (T 2).
Test for Final Setting Time

1. For determining the final setting time, replace the needle of the Vicat’s apparatus by the
needle with an annular attachment.
2. The cement is considered finally set when upon applying the final setting needle gently
to the surface of the test block; the needle makes an impression thereon, while the
attachment fails to do so. Record this time (T3).

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Calculations: Initial setting time=T2-T1
D. Consistency Test

Procedure for Standard Consistency of Cement

1. Keep the vicat apparatus on a level base (when using vicat apparatus with dashpot, keep
the bearing movable rod to its highest position and pin it.) Unscrew the top of the
dashpot. Half fill the dashpot with any suitable oil of viscosity and screw the top. Work
the plunger a number of times.
2. Attach the plunger for determining standard consistency to the movable rod. Work the
plunger a number of times.
3. Take 400 gm of cement in a pan and a weighed quantity of water in a beaker.
4. Prepare a paste with the water added to cement. Start a stopwatch at the time of
adding water to cement.
5. Keep the vicat mould on a non porous plate and fill the cement paste in it.
6. After completely filling the mould, shake it slightly to expel the air. Smooth off the
surface of the paste making it level with the top of the moulder. The cement paste thus
prepared is the test block.
7. Place the test block resting on the non porous plate under the movable rod, bearing the
needle.
8. Lower the plunger gently to touch the surface of the cement paste and quickly release;
(when vicat apparatus with dashpot is used, place the mould filled with cement paste
and the non absorbent plate on the base plate of the vicat apparatus. Raise the plunger
of the dash pot, bring it in contact with the top cap of the movable bearing rod.
9. Remove the pin holding the movable bearing rod to the surface of the cement paste and
quickly release by pushing down the plunger to sink in to the paste). This operation shall
be done immediately after filling the mould.
10. Prepare trial test specimens with varying percentages of water until plunger penetrates
to a point 5 to 7mm from the bottom of the vicat mould, which is read on the scale.
Express the water required as percentage by weight of the dry cement.

Observations and Calculations 

1. Weight of cement taken (g) = _________

2. Initial percentage of water added to cement = __________
3. Quantity of water added to cement =_______
Table
SL. NO. QUANTITY OF WATER DEPTH OF PENETRATION

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 ADDED

(ml) (mm)

Standard Consistency of Cement = (Quantity of water for 5-7 mm penetration/Weight of

cement) X 100

Points to be Noted

1. The time of gauging should not be less than 3 minutes and not more than 5 minutes.
Gauging time is the time elapsing from the time of adding water to the dry cement until
commencing to fill the mould.
2. The test should be conducted at room temperature 27oC±2oC
3. There should be no vibration on the working table.
4. The plunger should be cleaned during every repetition.

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