HUMAN

RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT

PROJECT

 Submitted to: Ma’am Ashi Noor.

 Submitted on: March 30, 2023.
 3rd year, Section “A”.
 Submitted by:
 LAIBA ASHRAF.
 HARAM ABDULLAH SIDDIQUI.
Effects of mindfulness on occupational stress and job
satisfaction of hospitality and service workers
Sophie Luisa Bolm*, Wichard Zwaal & Macmillion Braz Fernandes
NHL Stenden University of Applied Sciences, Leeuwarden, The Netherlands
*Correspondence: [email protected]

ABSTRACT: Hospitality and service workers commonly work under psychological and
physical pressure with long working hours, resulting in high levels of occupational stress
that affect their overall well-being and job satisfaction. This study investigates the
effects of a mindfulness intervention on occupational stress and job satisfaction of
hospitality and service workers. A total of 14 professionals participated in the study. They
integrated a 15 to 30-minute audio mindfulness session into their daily work routine for
fifteen days. A quasi-experimental pretest-intervention-posttest design was used. To
measure the effects over the intervention period, a paired samples t-test was conducted.
When data were not normally distributed, the Wilcoxon rank-sum test was performed to
assess changes. After the intervention, participants showed significantly higher values in
general mindfulness and job satisfaction and significantly lower scores in occupational
stress. The present study shows that even low-cost, self-directed mindfulness training has
a beneficial impact with significant work- and health-related relevance. Based on these
findings, managers in the hospitality industry are recommended to invest in mindfulness
training and integrate it into their human resources strategy.
KEYWORDS: mindfulness, occupational stress, job satisfaction, human resource
management {Use terms NOT in the title}
Introduction
In Western countries, the desire for a healthy lifestyle is influenced by social and
cultural factors. Meditation, yoga and healthy eating are trends that have gained
prominence and, in a post-COVID hybrid work environment, further necessitates the
need for renewed balance. According to the International Food Information Council
(2020), 54% of US consumers surveyed in the Food and Health Survey are paying more
attention to the healthfulness of their food and beverage choices in 2020 than in 2010. In
addition, Clarke et al. (2018), who surveyed US adults aged 18 years and older, found an
increase in the use of complementary health approaches from 2012 to 2017. Yoga
use increased from 9.5% to 14.3%, while meditation use more than tripled from 4.1% in
2012 to 14.2% in 2017. The new lifestyle in demand is characterised by the desire for
quality of life and self-realisation to achieve balance and satisfaction. This shift toward a
more post-material set of values is also carrying over into the business world, where
increasing emphasis is being placed on health promotion and a better work-life balance.
The performance culture of today is characterised by speed and an efficient flow of
information, which puts employees under increased pressure to perform (Xu et al.,
2021). Several researchers have identified occupational stress as a critical issue in many
organisations, as there is a growing body of literature showing that workplace stress can
contribute to work-related illnesses that affect both physical and psychological well-being
(Bohle & Quinlan, 2000). Lazarus and Folkman (1984, p. 19) state that “psychological
stress is a particular relationship between the person and the environment that is
appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and endangering his
or her well-being”. Occupational stress can also be observed in the particularly fast-paced
and highly competitive hospitality industry, where employees are exposed to a very
high level of emotional demands. Many hospitality workers are at risk of compromising
their mental and physical well-being due to poor working conditions, such as shift work
and long working hours (Lo & Lamm, 2005). According to Hurley (2015), the burnout
rate of hospitality workers is among the highest of all industries. This also has
implications for job satisfaction, which is defined as the emotional state that results
from evaluating one’s work and work experiences (Locke, 1976). In recent years,
organisations in Western societies have also increasingly used spiritual practices to train
employees and managers (Bell & Taylor, 2003; Purser & Loy, 2013). In particular, the
concept of mindfulness has gained increasing attention in academic literature, and its
implementation in the corporate world is gaining popularity. Mindfulness originated in
Buddhist meditation practice and is a particular way of directing attention by observing
the present moment and taking in all experiential content consciously, nonjudgmentally
and with acceptance and kindness (Heidenreich & Michalak, 2003; Kabat-Zinn, 2003).
It is believed that participation in mindfulness-based practices leads to a reduction in
discomfort, increased productivity and minimised stress (Heidenreich & Michalak, 2003).
While large companies such as Google already offer mindfulness-based programmes for
their employees, many businesses, managers and human resource professionals,
including those in the hospitality industry, may not be aware of this (Reb & Atkins,
2015).
Employees in the hospitality industry are exposed to a high level of emotional demands
and stressful situations, as one of the most important requirements is to be empathetic,
positive and friendly at all times when dealing with customers to achieve adequate
customer satisfaction (Grandey, 2003; Hochschild, 1983; Sardiwalla, 2003). Dealing with
angry or impatient customers and a hectic pace of work is common among hospitality
and service workers (Pizam, 2004). This requires employees to maintain a high level of
self-control and can lead to emotional exhaustion, job dissatisfaction and even burnout
(Pizam, 2004). With the ever-increasing demands to work faster and more efficiently,
many employees become overwhelmed, causing them to look for another employer that
promises better working conditions.
Human resources are the most valuable asset in the hospitality industry, as the talents,
skills and knowledge of employees are the only sustainable source for any organisation
(Nel et al., 2014). While many employers outwardly claim to genuinely care about the
well-being of their employees, the reality can be quite different. A key indicator of
employee dissatisfaction in the hospitality industry is that employee retention rates are
among the lowest of any industry, which in turn leads to poor customer satisfaction and
lower profitability due to high annual additional costs (Pranoto, 2011). Low job
satisfaction is cited as a contributor to these high staff turnover rates, which are
primarily caused by occupational stress and work overload (Lo & Lamm, 2005; O’Neill &
Davis, 2011). Companies should therefore acknowledge the pressures on hospitality
employees and provide behavioural interventions to address and alleviate these issues.
Purpose and relevance of the study
There is little to limited existing research related to the use and implementation of
mindfulness for hospitality and service employees. Therefore, the rationale of this study
is to investigate whether the utilisation of mindfulness can help employees better
manage occupational stress and simultaneously increase their job satisfaction.
The findings of this study are particularly relevant to managers and human resource
professionals to consider whether mindfulness-based training should be invested in and
thus integrated into employee development and well-being to reduce high staff
turnover rates. Furthermore, if the intervention proves successful, each employee can
benefit by routinely integrating mindfulness training into their daily work routine and
thus using it specifically as a prevention and coping strategy against occupational stress
and for greater job satisfaction. In addition, the results of this research may also
be relevant to education and training institutions, as they may offer mindfulness-based
interventions as preventive measures for students who are the future employees in the
industry.
Literature review
The literature review summarises the theory about mindfulness, including the
definition of key concepts. In addition, research is reviewed that addresses the
association between mindfulness, occupational stress and job satisfaction. Studies are
included that applied a similar intervention approach as implemented in the current
study, thus allowing for a valuable comparison between the results. Given the setting of
the study and the fact that there are very few studies on similar interventions in the
hospitality industry, the selection of literature was based on comparable service
industries, operating in a Western European context.
Mindfulness
Kabat-Zinn (1994) defines mindfulness as a specific kind of attention given purposefully in
the present moment with a non-judgmental gaze. This non-judgmental attitude allows
one to perceive and observe present circumstances and events as they are, without
distorting them emotionally or intellectually through any form of evaluation (Buchheld &
Walach, 2004). It further requires a conscious focus on the present experience in which
the individual is not entangled in worries and reflections about the past or the future
(Brown et al., 2007). Thus, it is a process of gaining insight into the nature of the mind
and adopting a decentred perspective on one’s thoughts and feelings (Bishop et al.,
2004). The basis for mindful behaviour is an open and accessible mindset that allows
the individual to become aware of their own inner experience, including emotions,
thoughts and behavioural intentions, as well as engaging with external events (Brown et
al., 2007). The practice of mindfulness is associated with increased resilience, as well as
greater vitality and a reduction in perceived stress (Aikens et al., 2014). According to
Zeidan et al. (2010), it is further thought to help improve performance by increasing
cognitive flexibility and alertness and protecting against distractions and performance
errors.
Mindfulness and occupational stress
The best-known documented benefits of mindfulness activities are psychological, and
perhaps the most cited psychological benefit is stress reduction. According to Allen et al.
(2015), there is sufficient evidence that mindfulness-based training can be effective in
reducing employee stress and strain. This finding is consistent across the literature
reviewed, regardless of the type of work, the existing stress level of the employee, or
the mindfulness programme offered (Martín-Asuero & García-Banda, 2010; Roeser et
al., 2013; Bostock et al., 2018). Mindfulness training such as the Mindfulness-Based
Stress Reduction (MBSR) programme systematically reduces both psychological and
physical stress symptoms (Chiesa & Serretti, 2009) and thus increases overall well-
being (McCraty, 2003; Chu, 2010). According to Hyland et al. (2015), companies can
increase employee engagement and retention by implementing mindfulness
programmes, especially in jobs that involve high levels of stress. Weinstein et al.
(2009) argue that the perception of stress is not only the result of an event itself, but
more importantly the individual evaluation of the event as negative and exceeding
their coping capacity. According to Hülsheger et al. (2013), mindful individuals encounter
the present moment in a receptive, non-judgmental way and thus perceive stressful
events more objectively and refrain from attaching any particular meaning or
evaluation to them. Thus, the individual is prevented from being influenced by negative
thought patterns that can lead to an overdramatic evaluation of the situation.
Mindfulness facilitates the adaptive evaluation of stressful events, resulting in the
employee having fewer negative and more positive affective reactions, which in turn
leads to a positive attitude toward the work situation (Hülsheger et al., 2013). This finding
is also corroborated by Shapiro et al. (2006), who argue that mindful individuals are
better able to self-regulate and adapt effectively to stressful situations in the workplace.
This is further evidenced by Wolever et al. (2012), who conducted a study on mind-body
stress reduction in the workplace. During the study, 239 volunteers were randomly
assigned to a therapeutic yoga programme for stress reduction at work, one of two
mindfulness-based programmes, or a control-only group. It was found that participants of
the mindfulness-based interventions showed significantly greater improvements in stress
management, sleep quality and heart-rate variability ratio in direct comparison with the
control group. Furthermore, Nadler et al. (2020) conducted a randomised, waitlist-
controlled trial to examine the efficacy of an eight-week online mindfulness training
programme in a sample of adults employed full-time at a company in the United States.
In this study, the intervention group showed a statistically significant increase in
resilience and positive mood and a significant decrease in stress and negative mood
compared to the control group.
Mindfulness and job satisfaction
Given the non-judgmental component of mindfulness, researchers have identified that
mindful individuals experience higher levels of job satisfaction (Hülsheger et al., 2013).
This is because a mindful attitude promotes higher levels of self-directed behaviour,
which in turn positively impacts employee satisfaction (Glomb et al., 2012). Furthermore,
Shapiro et al. (2006) explain that it helps to focus attention and awareness entirely on
the present experience, with automated routines becoming less frequent, thus helping
individuals to stay more in touch with their basic values and needs. This is beneficial as
job satisfaction and value fulfilment are closely related (Judge et al., 2005). Reb et al.
(2017) also argue that employees’ mindfulness competence is positively correlated
with task performance, with this relationship mediated in part by the lower emotional
exhaustion experienced by more mindful employees. Hülsheger et al. (2013)
implemented a two-stage research design by first surveying 219 employees recruited
from various organisations and measuring components such as job satisfaction and
emotional exhaustion. The study further included a two-week mindfulness self-training
programme with participants. It was found that particularly for employees engaged in
emotionally demanding jobs, the utilisation of mindfulness is beneficial, as it can
help reduce emotional exhaustion, prevent burnout and increase overall job
satisfaction (Hülsheger et al., 2013). The results indicate that mindfulness can contribute
significantly to better cope with the challenges in stressful and emotionally demanding
occupations. Job satisfaction, in turn, is a strong indicator of staff turnover (Chen et al.,
2011). According to Dane and Brummel (2013), mindful individuals are less likely to
show turnover intentions because they are able to first cope with and then effectively
manage stressful workplace demands. Chaskalson (2011) describes that the integration of
mindfulness in the workplace leads to lower absenteeism and reduced employee
turnover intentions. This is confirmed by Andrews et al. (2014) who argue that
mindfulness is negatively associated with employee turnover. According to Hyland et
al. (2015), companies can increase employee engagement and retention by implementing
mindfulness programmes, especially in occupations that involve elevated levels of stress.
As shown in Figure 1, the independent variable in the current study is mindfulness,
while the dependent variables are occupational stress and job satisfaction.
Problem statement and research questions
The problem statement is formulated as follows: What is the effect of a mindfulness self-
training intervention on occupational stress and job satisfaction of hospitality and service
workers? More specific research questions are: 1. Does completing a three-week
mindfulness self-training intervention increase the perceived level of mindfulness values
among hospitality and service employees?; 2. Does a three-week mindfulness self-
training intervention reduce the perceived occupational stress among hospitality and
service employees?; and 3. Does attending a three-week mindfulness self-training
intervention increase job satisfaction among hospitality and service employees?
Method
Research design
The current study was conducted according to a quasi-experimental pretest-intervention-
posttest design. The same variables were collected before and after the intervention to
test its effectiveness. Next to testing the impact of the mindfulness training, some
descriptive data were collected and some correlational analyses on relevant variables
were also performed.
Instrumentation
Quantitative data was collected from the sample using a questionnaire that
contained three main sections, namely the introduction, demographic information such
as age, gender and weekly working hours, and a series of items related to
mindfulness, job satisfaction and occupational stress. The independent variable
mindfulness was measured using nine modified items from two of the most popular
psychometric measures, the Mindfulness Attention and Awareness Scale (MAAS;
Brown & Ryan, 2003) and the Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory (FMI; Buchheld et al.,
2001). An example item is “When my attention is briefly diverted, I can easily refocus
afterward”. Job satisfaction was assessed using a seven-item scale in which items are
partially modified from the Overall Job Satisfaction Scale (OJS) (Brayfield & Rothe,
1951). A sample item is “My job fulfils me”. For measuring occupational stress, eight
items were adopted and revised from the Occupational Stress Indicator (OSI)
(Cooper et al., 1988). A sample item is “I often feel tense or stressed during the
workday”. All items were answered using a five-point Likert scale, with 1  =  never true; 2
 =  rarely true; 3  =  sometimes true; 4  =  often true; and 5  =  always true. The survey
was pilot tested on a number of volunteers, which led to some minor changes in
the formulation of a few items. For example, the items related to the variable of
mindfulness were adapted from a general to a more work-related context based on the
feedback received. The reliability and validity values for all scales were satisfactory and
similar to the values reported in earlier studies.
Sampling
The target group and population of this study are in theory all employees in the service
industry, broadly defined, including hospitality, tourism, leisure and retail business.
Hospitality and service employees from different companies and departments in
Germany and the Netherlands were included in the sample. To ensure comparability and
reliability, the literature investigation predominantly included research studies that were
also conducted in Western countries, such as Germany and the Netherlands. To
participate in the study, participants were required to be in paid employment for at least
30 hours per week and be willing and motivated to do the mindfulness training. The final
sample consisted of nine female and five male individuals, including hotel employees
from different departments, hospitality students currently working in the hospitality
industry and service staff.
Data collection procedure
For this study, potential participants were recruited personally by the researchers.
Recruitment methods included phone calls, email invitations, by word of mouth and
direct personal contact. Upon initial contact, information about the study was provided
by the researchers and participation was subsequently requested. To participate in the
study, employees had to be willing to practise 15 to 30-minute mindfulness meditations
daily for 15 working days and agree to complete a 15 to 20-minute online survey twice.
Participation in the study was on a voluntary basis with no financial compensation. After
initial contact and giving consent to participate in the study, participants received
detailed instructions of the mindfulness training with access to audio meditations.
Participants received two different questionnaires at two separate times, which they
could submit via Google Forms or complete in hard copy. Thus, the pretest was
administered at the beginning of the three-week intervention and the posttest
immediately after the treatment period. All data were stored in a database and then
statistically analysed.
The intervention
The mindfulness intervention used for the sample was based on a pure self-training
approach, without any group intervention. Each participant needed to be in
possession of a working electronic device with Spotify installed to access the
designated audio files on mindfulness. The planned intervention period was three
weeks with a total of 15 working days. The mindfulness programme contained 15
mindfulness meditations of 15 to 30 minutes each. Due to its brevity, each meditation
was easy to integrate into the participants’ daily work routines. The audio files were
available and accessible to the subjects at all times. Participants were free to conduct
mindfulness sessions before starting work, during a break, or after work. In the
posttest, participants were asked to indicate at what moment they had completed the
mindfulness sessions. To check the regularity of implementation, participants were
also asked how many sessions they had skipped. This served to filter out participants who
did not regularly participate in the training and thus ensure the validity of the study.
All audio sessions were offered through the Mindful Movement Podcast programme by
Sara and Les Raymond, who are experienced trainers in the field of mindfulness
meditation. Over the three-week period, participants were guided by the trainers through
mindfulness meditations designed to cultivate an accepting, non-judgmental attitude
toward what one is experiencing at that very moment. During the first week, participants
received beginner’s level meditations which focused on becoming more aware of their
surroundings and the sensations happening in their bodies. Participants were also
guided to focus their attention on specific anchor points, such as their breathing, to gain a
calmness they could always return to when experiencing stressful moments. In the
following two weeks, participants were introduced to various meditation topics, revolving
around acceptance, letting go, decentring and loving-kindness. The goal was to remain
mindful of inner and outer experiences in order to respond more consciously and to
reduce stress.
Data analysis
Data analysis was performed using the statistical software package IBM/SPSS25. First of
all, appropriate descriptive statistics was calculated for all variables in the survey. As
this study was conducted according to a pretest-interventionposttest design, we
assessed whether the relevant variables had changed between two time points. A
paired samples t-test was applied to detect and reveal changes over time. Each
subject was measured twice, resulting in pairs of observations. When the data were not
normally distributed, the Wilcoxon rank-sum test was performed to determine changes
over time. To test the relationships between the designated variables, correlation and
regression analyses were conducted.
Ethical considerations
According to Zegwaard (2015), in addition to the importance of selecting an
appropriate research methodology, ethical considerations are critical to take into account
when conducting this kind of research. Since this is a study of human subjects, it was
imperative to obtain informed consent from all participants. Research participants were
fully informed from the outset on what was required of them and how the research data
would be collected and processed (Denzin et al., 2006). The collected data was
safely stored, only used for research purposes and not disclosed to third parties.
Informed consent also ensured that all subjects participated in this study of their own
free will. Participants were further fully informed about the procedure of the intervention
and possible risks and benefits. Furthermore, subjects were asked for their consent for
possible publication of the study results. Informed consent was considered as a contract
between the researchers and the participant, ensuring absolute anonymity, discretion
and confidentiality to subjects throughout the research project.
Results
Descriptive statistics
Initially, 21 subjects participated in the study, of whom 13 were female and eight were
male. Four subjects did not return the post-intervention survey and were excluded from
the study. Another subject had to discontinue the study after the first week due to illness.
A sixth subject dropped out after two weeks due to time constraints and a seventh
participant was excluded from the study as she indicated in the post-questionnaire that
she had skipped the mindfulness intervention four times. In total, seven participants were
therefore not included in the study further. Finally, as indicated in Table 1, 14 subjects
participated in the study, nine of whom were female and five males, ranging in age from
21 to 45 years old (M = 28.36, SD = 6.51). On average, subjects worked 38 hours per week
(M = 38.29; SD = 3.58). Two of the participants reported that they performed the
mindfulness intervention before work, ten participants indicated that they completed the
mindfulness intervention during their break from work (as recommended by the
researchers before the study) and two participants completed the mindfulness
intervention after their daily work. Of the fourteen participants, three participants
(21.4%) had prior experience with mindfulness, while the other eleven participants
(78.6%) indicated that they had no experience. An independent samples t-test indicated
that there were no significant differences in mindfulness scores between participants
with previous mindfulness experience (M = 2.67, SD = 0.19) and those without (M = 2.67,
SD = 0.47) in this sample (t(12) = 0.00, p = 1.00 [two-tailed]). An independent samples t-
test revealed that there were also no significant differences in occupational stress scores
between participants with previous experience of mindfulness (M = 4.08, SD = 1.05) and
those without (M = 3.88, SD = 0.55) in this sample (t(12) = -0.486, p = 0.636 [two-tailed]).
As shown in Table 2, before the intervention, respondents most strongly agreed with the
statement “I often rush through my work activities without really being aware of what I
am doing”. The lowest score before the intervention was given to the statement “I pay
attention to sensations, such as the wind in my hair or sun on my face”. The item “I am
patient with myself and with others” was the highest rated after completion of the
mindfulness intervention. In regard to occupational stress, respondents most strongly
agreed with the statement “I have trouble relaxing at work” before the mindfulness
intervention. After participating in the mindfulness intervention, the highest score was
measured on the statement “When I have stressful thoughts, I usually ‘take a step back’
and am aware of the thoughts without being consumed by it” as indicated in Table 3. As
indicated in Table 4, the highest pre-intervention rating regarding job satisfaction was
given to the statement “I feel valued and affirmed at work”, while after the mindfulness
intervention, respondents most strongly agreed with the statement “I have the tools and
resources to do my job well”.
Testing for change between pre-and post-intervention scores
To determine the effects of the mindfulness intervention on occupational stress and job
satisfaction, paired-samples t-tests were conducted with pre- and post-intervention
outcomes as variables as shown in Table 5.
Mindfulness
Table 5 shows that mindfulness significantly increased from M = 2.67 to M = 3.58
between the measurement before and the one after the intervention (t(13) = −11.93; p <
0.001; d = −2.267)
Occupational stress
As indicated in Table 3, occupational stress significantly decreased from pre-intervention
to post-intervention (t(13) = 11.38; p < 0.001; d = 2.058).
Job satisfaction
Job satisfaction significantly increased from pre-intervention to post-intervention
(t(13) = −5.32; p < 0.001; d = −1.044).
Conclusion
The affirmative results of this study imply that it has been an effective intervention to
reduce occupational stress and increase job satisfaction in hospitality and service
employees. The findings of this study confirm previously published scientific causal and
correlational studies on the effectiveness of mindfulness in an organisational setting.
Discussion
Interpretation of the findings
Both organisational scholars and hospitality professionals have paid too little attention to
individual-level mindfulness and its consequences for employees in the highly dynamic
work environment of the hospitality industry. To rectify this omission, this study tested
the effects of 15 days of mindfulness training integrated into the daily work routines of
subjects who worked in different hospitality and service companies. Results suggest that
the intervention was successful and significant changes occurred in all variables analysed.
Hospitality and service employees who participated in this study demonstrated increased
mindfulness, decreased occupational stress and increased job satisfaction. As all
hypothesised relationships were confirmed, this encourages further research on the
potential impact of mindfulness on work and healthrelated benefits among hospitality
and service workers.
Mindfulness
The majority of participants showed an increase in their ability to stay focused after the
intervention, and they reported being able to let go of stressful thoughts. This is
consistent with Karlin’s (2018) findings that employees had higher levels of energy and
increased levels of concentration after a mindfulness intervention. Furthermore, this
result is also in line with the findings of Buchheld and Walach (2004), who describe that
mindfulness is characterised by a non-judgmental attitude towards perceived thoughts
without being emotionally or intellectually distorted by them, making it easier to let go of
negative thought patterns. The post-intervention evaluation statistics of this study further
showed an increase in improved refocusing when general distractions occurred,
supporting the claim that mindfulness increases cognitive flexibility and thus protects
against distractions (Zeidan et al., 2010). Furthermore, participants exhibited a higher
form of general self-regulation by being more intensely aware of themselves and their
surroundings, for instance becoming more aware of their emotions when interacting with
colleagues and feeling less rushed through work activities. This finding is supported by
Shapiro et al. (2006), who identified that mindful individuals are capable of higher self-
regulation.
Occupational stress
From previous literature, the most reported psychological benefit of mindfulness was
stress reduction. And indeed, occupational stress showed the highest downward effect
from pre- to post-intervention. A reduction in the experience of stress during employees’
daily activities was noted, supporting the finding that mindfulness-based practices are
effective in reducing employee stress and strain (Martín-Asuero & GarcíaBanda, 2010;
Roeser et al., 2013; Allen et al., 2015; Bostock et al., 2018). In addition, higher self-
regulation was observed post intervention, as employees indicated calming down more
quickly when confronted with stressful thoughts and impulses. The study participants
also indicated that they perceived the pressure of deadlines and the general workload to
be lower. This supports the claim of Hülsheger et al. (2013) that the application of
mindfulness can prevent and reduce emotional exhaustion, especially among workers in
emotionally demanding jobs. In line with the hypothesis of Shapiro et al. (2006), this
finding also suggests that individuals who exhibit higher levels of mindfulness can adapt
more effectively to stressful situations at work and thus experience less pressure. In
addition to an increase in self-awareness and self-regulation, results also showed that
participants displayed higher resilience than before the intervention, for instance by
experiencing more frequent periods of inner calm, even in hectic and stressful situations.
This is in line with the findings of the waitlistcontrolled study by Nadler et al. (2020) in
which participants in an eight-week mindfulness intervention noted a statistically
significant increase in resilience compared to the control group.
Job satisfaction
The mindfulness intervention increased job satisfaction among hospitality and service
employees. Employees reported feeling more positive and enthusiastic in their day-to-
day work, confirming Hülsheger et al.’s (2013) finding that mindful individuals experience
higher job satisfaction. Furthermore, an increase was found in the perception of having
the necessary resources to perform well at work, indicating a higher level of
satisfaction with their work environment, even if nothing objectively changed
externally. This could also indicate that the employees’ resources changed as a result
of the mindfulness intervention, and they transferred this to their external circumstances.
Shapiro et al. (2006) previously described that increased job satisfaction is achieved
because the practice of mindfulness leads to automated routines becoming less frequent
and individuals getting back in touch with their basic values and needs. Another
important finding of the study is that employees reported thinking less about changing
jobs after the intervention. Thus, it appears that increased job satisfaction is a strong
indicator of intentions to change (Chaskalson, 2011; Chen et al., 2011). Mindfulness has
therefore been shown to be negatively associated with turnover intentions, as reported
by Andrews et al. (2014).
Limitations
Given some limitations in the study design presented, which are important to consider for
an overall evaluation, the results should be interpreted with caution. These limitations to
a sufficient interpretation of the results arise from the weaknesses of the study.
Self-report data collection method
It should be noted that the results are subject to methodological limitations. The one
potentially problematic aspect is the chosen method of data collection, which in turn may
have affected the reliability of the study. The only data collected in this research study
was based on self-assessment. Although self-assessment is primarily used to measure
acquisition cognition, it can lead to systematic judgment bias in response behaviour.
Homogeneity of sample
Another consideration that invites cautious interpretation is the characteristics of the
sample. It is critical to note that this study is based on an extremely small sample.
Furthermore, especially about the generalisability of the results, it should be emphasised
that women are overrepresented in the study, and possible self-selection influences
cannot be excluded. The sample has a young average age of 28 years, which indicates a
high proportion of young professionals and students. Respondents in the age groups
above 35 years old are almost not represented at all. This could be due to the format of
the survey. Participation in the survey required internet access and a certain level of
technical knowledge to get access to the mindfulness programme, which may ultimately
have been an obstacle to reaching an older target group.
No control group
Due to the small sample size, no control group was included in the project. As this was an
experimental research design, this is a limitation of the study as the inclusion of a control
group, as a basis for comparison, would have enabled a demonstration of a more credible
cause and effect relationship.
Non-randomised sample
Another limitation to the internal validity of this study is that the subjects were self-
selected by the researchers. Therefore, it should be noted that without a control group,
there is a possibility that the individual motivation of each subject may have an
impact on the results.
Participant bias
At the beginning of the study, all participants were informed in detail about the
procedure and background of the study. Participants may have anticipated that a
positive cause-andeffect relationship on the dependent variables was sought through the
mindfulness intervention. This assumption may have manipulated their results in the
post-assessment.
No longitudinal study design
As this was a short-term intervention of 15 working days and only two data collection
points, potential long-term effects were not assessed. However, the results indicate that
positive changes can be achieved even within a short time.
Non-validated questionnaire
A self-constructed questionnaire by the researchers was used to measure effectiveness,
and all items examined were based on previously published and reviewed
questionnaires on mindfulness, occupational stress and job satisfaction, and were
replicated almost identically. However, the questionnaire as used in the present study
has never been used in this form in scientific research and is therefore not validated. No
reference values exist.
Recommendations for further research
The study included a relatively small sample and data collection was based only on self-
reported survey data. In future studies, we recommend extending the research design in
the following ways: include a larger and more heterogeneous sample; apply a
randomised control group design to enable more valid conclusions about experimental
effects; consider using a longitudinal design to compare short-term and long-term
effects of the intervention; use a more diverse set of outcome measurements, including
physiological indicators; and implement a combination of qualitative and quantitative
research methods to collect a comprehensive data set that will enrich the overall analysis.
As a qualitative research method, interviews should be applied to better assess the
experiences and behaviour of the subjects over time, in addition to quantitative
research such as a self-assessment questionnaire. In addition, more background
information on participants would enable a more differentiated analysis of the impact of
the mindfulness intervention for people with different personality profiles or in distinct
positions.
Implications for business practice
This project has shown that a mindfulness intervention, in a relatively short time, with
little effort and flexibly integrated into the daily work routine, can benefit hospitality
and service workers. Hospitality companies should therefore consider incorporating the
concept of mindfulness into their human resources policies, in attempting to minimise
stress, increase job satisfaction and consequently decrease employee turnover. As
hospitality managers have a pivotal role in managing and promoting the mental and
physical health of their workforce, they are strongly recommended to implement
mindfulness programmes as part of their employee development strategy. It is suggested
that an individualised one- to two-month, sponsored mindfulness training session for
all employees be introduced, regardless of which department or position they work
in. Each manager should be responsible for promoting the mindfulness programme in
their department. Such top-down initiatives foster employees’ interpersonal skills to
open up and be more attentive so that overwork and the accompanying stress and job
dissatisfaction have fewer chances of occurring in the first place. Depending on the
financial resources of the company, the mindfulness intervention can either be
implemented at low cost, for instance via certain online streaming platforms such as
Spotify, or more cost-intensive measures can be initiated, such as in cooperation with
mindfulness trainers who can conduct the training on site with the employees.
Further, it would be reasonable to offer employees an online tool on the respective
communication channels or intranet of the company that contains all relevant
information on the topic of mindfulness and how to carry out certain exercises.
Employees can thus proactively inform themselves and have access to specific
mindfulness exercises. It is further recommended to implement measures by asking
employees to complete a self-assessment questionnaire on mindfulness, occupational
stress and job satisfaction, in addition to regular feedback or appraisal meetings with
their respective managers. Regular changes in the above factors could thus be
monitored. In conjunction with regular feedback meetings, the manager could identify
negative developments early on and take appropriate actions. Hospitality workers are
recommended to use mindfulness as a toolbox to enhance their well-being and find ways
to become more satisfied in their daily work. Incorporating a 15 to 30-minute
mindfulness training session into the daily work routine in a noise-free environment
should be done consistently and daily on their own initiative. Mindfulness training should
be part of hospitality management education programmes. This would provide early
orientation for students and young professionals and draw general attention to the
importance of the topic. Through the awareness created, young professionals would
have access to this resource to combat stress and dissatisfaction at an early stage in their
careers.
Conclusion
The results of this study indicate that mindfulness activities are effective in reducing
occupational stress and increasing job satisfaction of hospitality and service employees.
The findings of this study confirm previously published scientific studies on the
effectiveness of mindfulness in an organisational setting. Occupational stress in the
workplace harms the health and well-being of many employees, their productivity, and
their overall job satisfaction. Therefore, a mindfulness programme can be an effective
intervention to equip employees with the tools and knowledge to strengthen their
psychological well-being while reducing employee turnover in the workplace.
ORCID iDs
Wichard Zwaal — https://orcid.org/0000–0001–9303–6800 Macmillion Braz Fernandes —
https://orcid.org/0000–0002–2498–9680
References
Aikens, K. A., Astin, J., Pelletier, K. r., Levanovich, K., Baase, C. M., Yeo, Y. & Bodnar, C. M.
(2014). Mindfulness goes to Work. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine,
56(7), 721–773. https://doi.org/10.1097/ JOM.0000000000000209 Allen, T. D., ebb, L.
T., Conley, K. M., Williamson, r. L., Mancini, V. S., & Mitchell, M. e. (2015). What do we
really know about the effects of mindfulness-based training in the workplace? Industrial
and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice, 8(4), 652–661.
https://doi.org/10.1017/iop.2015.95 Andrews, C. M., Kacmar, K., & Kacmar, C. (2014).
The mediational effect of regulatory focus on the relationships between mindfulness
and job satisfaction and turnover intentions. Career Development International, 19(5),
494–507. https://doi.org/10.1108/CDi-02–2014–0018 Bell, e., & Taylor, S. (2003). The
elevation of work: Pastoral power and the New Age work ethic. Organization, 10(2), 329–
349. https://doi.org/10.1 177/1350508403010002009 Bishop, S. r., Lau, M., Shapiro, S.,
Carlson, L., Anderson, N. D., Carmody, J., Segal, Z. V., Abbey, S., Speca, M., Velting, D., &
Devins, g. (2004). Mindfulness: A proposed operational definition. Clinical Psychology:
Science and Practice, 11(13), 230–241. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy. bph077 Bohle, P.,
& Quinlan, M. (2000). Managing Occupational Health and Safety: a Multidisciplinary
Approach (2nd edn). Macmillan education. Bostock, S., Crosswell, A. D., Prather, A. A., &
Steptoe, A. (2018). Mindfulness on-the-go: effects of a mindfulness meditation app on
work stress and well-being. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 24(1), 127–138.
https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000118 Brayfield, A. H., & rothe, H. F. (1951). An index of
job satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 35(5), 307–311.
https://doi.org/10.1037/h0055617 Brown, K. W., & ryan, r. M. (2003). The benefits of
being present: mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 84(4), 822–848. https://doi. org/10.1037/0022–3514.84.4.822
Brown, K. W., ryan, r. M., & Creswell, J. D. (2007). Mindfulness: Theoretical
foundations and evidence for its salutary effects. Psychological Inquiry, 18(4), 211–237.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840070159829 Buchheld, N., grossman, P., & Walach, H.
(2001). Measuring mindfulness in insight meditation (Vipassana) and meditation-based
psychotherapy: The development of the Freiburg Mindfulness inventory (FMi). Journal
of Meditation and Meditation Research, 1, 5–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
paid.2005.11.025 Buchheld, N., & Walach, H. (2004). Die historischen Wurzeln der
Achtsamkeitsmeditation — ein exkurs in Buddhismus und christliche Mystik [The
historical roots of mindfulness meditation – An excursion into Buddhism and Christian
mysticism]. in: T. Heidenreich, & J. Michalack, (eds), Achtsamkeit und Akzeptanz in der
Psychotherapie. Ein Handbuch [Mindfulness and Acceptance in Psychotherapy. A
handbook]. (pp. 68–102). dgvt-Verlag. Chaskalson, M. (2011). The mindful workplace:
Developing resilient individuals and resonant organizations with MBSR. Wiley-Blackwell.
https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119976974 Chen, g., Ployhart, r. e., Thomas, H. C.,
Anderson, N., & Bliese, P. D. (2011). The power of momentum: A new model of
dynamic relationships between job satisfaction change and turnover intentions.
Academy of Management Journal, 54(1), 159–181. https://doi.org/10.5465/
amj.2011.59215089 Chiesa, A., & Serretti, A. (2009). Mindfulness-based stress reduction
for stress management in healthy people: A review and meta-analysis. The Journal of
Complementary Medicine, 15(5), 593–600. https://doi. org/10.1089/acm.2008.0495 Chu,
L. C. (2010). The benefits of meditation vis-à-vis emotional intelligence, perceived stress
and negative mental health. Stress and Health, 26, 169–180.
https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.1289 Clarke, T. C., Barnes, P. M., Black, L. i., Stussman,
B. J., & Nahin, r. L. (2018). use of yoga, meditation, and chiropractors among uS adults
aged 18 and over. The National Center for Health Statistics Data Brief, 325, 1–11.
Cooper, C. L., Sloan, S. L., & Williams, S. L. (1988). Occupational Stress Indicator
Management Guide. Nfer-Nelson. Dane, e., & Brummel, B. J. (2013). examining
workplace mindfulness and its relation to job performance and turnover intention.
Human Relations, 67(1), 105–128. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726713487753 Denzin,
N. K., Lincoln, Y. S., & giardina, M. D. (2006). Disciplining qualitative research.
International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 19(6), 769–782.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09518390600975990 glomb, T. M., Duy, M. K., Bono, J. e., &
Yang, T. (2012). Mindfulness at work. Research in Personnel and Human Resource
Management, 30, 115–157. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0742–7301(2011)0000030005
grandey, A. A. (2003). When “the show must go on”: Surface acting and deep acting as
determinants of emotional exhaustion and peer-rated service delivery. Academy of
Management Journal, 46(1), 86–96. https:// doi.org/10.2307/30040678 Heidenreich, T.
& Michalak J. (2003). Achtsamkeit als Therapieprinzip in Verhaltenstherapie und
Verhaltensmedizin [Mindfulness as a therapeutic principle in behaviour therapy and
behavioural medicine]. Karger, 13, 264–274. https://doi.org/10.1159/000075842
Hochschild, A. r. (1983). The managed heart. Commercialization of Human Feelings.
university of California Press. Hülsheger, u. r., Alberts, H. J. e. M., Feinholdt, A., & Lang,
J. W. B. (2013). Benefits of mindfulness at work: The role of mindfulness in emotion
regulation, emotional exhaustion, and job satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology,
98(2), 310–325. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031313 Hurley, r. F. (2015). An exploratory
study of the effect of employee turnover on customer satisfaction. in: e. Wilson, & J.
Hair, Jr. (eds), Proceedings of the 1997 Academy of Marketing Science (AMS) Annual
Conference (pp. 186–199. Springer. Hyland, P. K., Lee, r. A., & Mills, M. J. (2015).
Mindfulness at work: A new approach to improving individual and organizational
performance. Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and
Practice, 8(4), 576–602. https://doi.org/10.1017/iop.2015.41 international Food
information Council. (2020). Food & Health Survey.
https://foodinsight.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/iFiC-Food-andHealth-Survey-
2020.pdf Judge, T. A., Bono, J. e., erez, A., & Locke, e. A. (2005). Core self-evaluations
and job and life satisfaction: The role of self-concordance and goal attainment. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 90(2), 257–268. https://doi. org/10.1037/0021–9010.90.2.257 Kabat-
Zinn, J. (1994). Wherever you go, there you are: Mindfulness meditation in everyday life.
Hyperion. Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: Past,
present, and future. Clinical Psychology-Science and Practice, 10(2), 144–156.
https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.bpg016 Karlin, D. S. (2018). Mindfulness in the workplace.
Strategic HR Review, 17(2), 76–80. https://doi.org/10.1108/SHr-11–2017–0077 Lazarus,
r. S. & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer. Lo, K., & Lamm, F.
(2005). Occupational stress in the hospitality industry — an employment relations
perspective. New Zealand Journal of Employment Relations, 30, 22–48. Locke, e. A.
(1976). The nature and causes of job satisfaction. in: M. D. Dunnette (ed.), Handbook of
industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 1297–1349). McgrawHill. Martín-Asuero, A.,
& garcía-Banda, g. (2010). The mindfulness-based stress reduction program (MBSr)
reduces stress-related psychological distress in healthcare professionals. The Spanish
Journal of Psychology, 13(2), 897–905. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1138741600002547
McCraty, r. M. (2003). impact of a workplace stress reduction program on blood
pressure and emotional health in hypertensive employees. Journal of Alternative and
Complementary Medicine, 9, 355–369. https://doi. org/10.1089/107555303765551589
Nadler, r., Carswell, J. J., & Minda, J. P. (2020). Online mindfulness training increases
well-being, trait emotional intelligence, and workplace competency ratings: A randomized
waitlist-controlled trial. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 255.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00255 Nel, P., Werner, A., Botha, C., Du Plessis, A.
Mey, M., Ngalo, O., Poisat, P., & Van Hoek, L. (2014). Human Resource Management
(10th edn). Oxford university Press South Africa. O’Neill, J. W., & Davis, K. (2011). Work
stress and well-being in the hotel industry. International Journal of Hospitality
Management, 30(2), 385–390. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2010.07.007 Pizam, A.
(2004). Are hospitality employees equipped to hide their feelings? International Journal
of Hospitality Management, 23(4), 315–316. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2004.08.001 Pranoto, e. S. (2011). Labour turnover in the
hospitality industry. Binus Business Review, 2(1), 597–601.
https://doi.org/10.21512/BBr.V2i1.1167 Purser, r. e., & Loy, D. r. (2013, July 1). Beyond
McMindfulness. The Huffington Post. https://www.huffpost.com/entry/ beyond-
mcmindfulness_b_3519289 reb, J., & Atkins, P. W. B. (2015). Mindfulness in
Organizations: Foundations, Research, and Applications. Cambridge university Press.
reb, J., Narayanan, J., Chaturvedi, S., & ekkirala, S. (2017). The mediating role of
emotional exhaustion in the relationship of mindfulness with turnover intentions and job
performance. Mindfulness 8, 707–716. https://doi. org/10.1007/s12671–016–0648-z
roeser, r. W., Schonert-reichl, K. A., Jha, A., Cullen, M., Wallace, L., Wilensky, r.,
Oberle, e., Thomson, K., Taylor, C., & Harrison, J. (2013). Mindfulness training and
reductions in teacher stress and burnout: results from two randomized, waitlist-control
field trials. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(3), 787–804.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032093
Sardiwalla, N. (2003). Balanced lifestyle and work-related stress among shift workers.
Unisa Psychologia, 29, 81–88. Shapiro, S. L., Carlson, L. e., Astin, J. A., & Freedman, B.
(2006). Mechanisms of mindfulness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62(3), 373–386.
https:// doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20237 Weinstein, N., Brown, K. W., & ryan, r. M.
(2009). A multi-method examination of the effects of mindfulness on stress attribution,
coping, and emotional well-being. Journal of Research in Personality, 43(3), 374–385.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2008.12.008 Wolever, r. Q., Bobinet, K. J., McCabe, K.,
Mackenzie, e. r., Fekete, e., & Kusnick, C. A. (2012). effective and viable mind-body
stress reduction in the workplace: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Occupational
Health Psychology, 17(2), 246–258. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027278 Xu, X., Wang Y., Li,
M., & Kwan H. K. (2021). Paradoxical effects of performance pressure on employees’ in-
role behaviors: An approach/ avoidance model. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 744404.
https://doi. org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.744404 Zegwaard, K. e. (2015). Building an excellent
foundation for research: Challenges and current research needs. Asia-Pacific Journal of
Cooperative Education, 16(2), 89–99. Zeidan, F., Johnson, S. K., Diamond, B. J., David, Z.,
& goolkasian, P. (2010). Mindfulness meditation improves cognition: evidence of brief
mental training. Consciousness and Cognition, 19, 597–605. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.concog.2010.03.014
 ARTICLE INFO:
Article history: Received 24 January 2019 Accepted 28 March 2019 Available
online 21 June 2019
Keywords: Life satisfaction Positive emotions Subjective well-being Job
performance Suppressor effect
Palabras clave: Satisfacción con la vida Emociones positivas Bienestar subjetivo
Desempeño laboral Efecto supresor

ABSTRACT:
ABSTRACT Article history: Received 24 January 2019 Accepted 28 March 2019
Available online 21 June 2019 Keywords: Life satisfaction Positive emotions
Subjective well-being Job performance Suppressor effect Palabras clave:
Satisfacción con la vida Emociones positivas Bienestar subjetivo Desempeño
laboral Efecto supresor This is a four-year follow-up study on the relationship
between the cognitive and emotional components of subjective wellbeing (SWB)
and job performance. We hypothesized a positive relationship between these
variables and job performance. The sample consisted of 170 managers of a
Spanish company in the Information Technology and Communication (ITC)
industry. The cognitive component of SWB was assessed with the Satisfaction
with Life (SWL) scale and the emotional component with the SPANE scale. Two
independent ratings, one from the direct supervisor and another from the HR
manager, served as evaluations of job performance during four years in a row.
Results showed that the two components of SWB predicted job performance over
the four years. Additionally, when the two components are entered in a
regression equation the validity increases over time as a consequence of a
suppressor effect on the cognitive component of SWB. Finally, we discuss the
implications for the theory and the practice of SWB at work.

El bienestar subjetivo y el desempeño en el trabajo: análisis de un efecto

supresor

RESUMEN
Este es un estudio de seguimiento a cuatro años sobre la relación entre los componentes
cognitivos y emocionales del bienestar subjetivo (SWB) y el desempeño laboral. Nuestra
hipótesis se refiere a la relación positiva entre estas variables y el desempeño laboral. La
muestra estuvo formada por 170 managers de una empresa española de tecnologías de
la información y la comunicación (TIC). El componente cognitivo de SWB se evaluó con la
Escala de Satisfacción con la Vida (SWL) y el componente emocional con la escala SPANE.
Dos calificaciones independientes, una del supervisor directo y otra del manager de
recursos humanos, sirvieron para evaluar el desempeño laboral durante cuatro años
consecutivos. Los resultados mostraron que los dos componentes de SWB predijeron el
desempeño laboral durante los cuatro años. Además, cuando los dos componentes se
incluyen en una ecuación de regresión, la validez aumenta con el tiempo como
consecuencia de un efecto supresor sobre el componente cognitivo del SWB. Finalmente,
se discuten las implicaciones para la teoría y la práctica de SWB en el trabajo.
The Human Relations Movement of the 1930s popularized the belief that happy workers
were on average more productive than less happy or unhappy workers (Cropanzano &
Wright, 2001; Wright, Cropanzano, & Bonnett, 2007). This view is usually known as the
happy-productive worker hypothesis (HPWH), and both researchers and practitioners
have become persuaded that it is essentially correct. Happy workers have been
frequently conceptualized as the individuals scoring higher in job satisfaction scales and
several metaanalytic studies examined the prediction that there was a positive
correlation between job satisfaction and job performance. The first meta-analysis, by
Iaffaldano and Muchinsky (1985), found an average observed correlation of .17 between
job satisfaction and individual performance. A second meta-analysis, by Judge,
Thorensen, Bono, and Patton (2001), found an average observed correlation of .18 (ρ
= .30 when corrected for measurement error in both variables), although the magnitude
of the relationship between job satisfaction and job performance was moderated by
the study design (cross-sectional vs. longitudinal). In the case of longitudinal designs,
the observed correlation was .14 (ρ = .23), and it was .18 (ρ = .31) for the crosssectional
designs. Other studies have used measures of job burnout, job involvement,
engagement, positive affect, neuroticism, and climate to characterize happy workers
(Chernyak-Hai & Tziner, 2016; Fisher, 2010; Haider, Jabeen, & Ahmad, 2018; Johnson,
Machowski, Holdsworth, Kern, & Zapf, 2017; Mañas, Alcaraz, Pecino, & Limbert,
Cite this article as: Salgado, J. F., Blanco, S., & Moscoso, S. (2019). Subjective well-being and job
performance: Testing of a suppressor effect. Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 35,
93-102. https://doi.org/10.5093/jwop2019a9 [Antonio García-Izquierdo and David Aguado were
the guest editors for this article]. Funding: The research reported in this manuscript was partially
supported by Grant PSI2017-87603-P from the Spanish Ministry of Economics and
Competitiveness. Correspondence: [email protected] (S. Moscoso). ISSN:1576-5962/©
2019 Colegio Oficial de Psicólogos de Madrid. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-
ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

2016; Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001; Medrano & Trógolo, 2018; Mehmet, Orhan,
Rijsman, van Dijk, 2016; Olaniyan, & Hystad, 2016; Perilla-Toro & Gómez-Ortiz, 2017;
Raman, Sambasivan, & Kumar, 2016). With regard to the burnout components, the meta-
analysis of Taris (2006) found a negative correlation of -.22 between emotional
exhaustion (a component of burnout syndrome) and performance. As a whole, the meta-
analytic evidence mentioned above provides some support for the HPWH. An alternative
approach to examining the predictions of the HPWH has been typically associated with
the study of subjective well-being (SWB), defined as the cognitive and affective
evaluations that the individuals make of their lives, i.e., how individuals think and feel
about their own lives and work (Diener, 2000; Diener, Oishi, & Lucas, 2003; Elfering,
Odoni, & Meier, 2016; Veenhoven, 1997). This second line of research has been focused
on broad, global measures of satisfaction (e.g., life satisfaction) rather than on specific-
job related measures of satisfaction (e.g., job satisfaction). SWB has been conceptualized
as a construct consisting of two main components: a cognitive component (CSWB)
referring to the judgments of the satisfaction with life, and an emotional component
(ESWB) referring to the balance between the levels of positive and negative feelings and
affects experienced by an individual (Diener & Biswas-Diener, 2008; Diener et al., 2009;
Veenhoven, 1997; Warr, 2013; Wright & Bonnett, 2007). The two components are highly
correlated but they can be distinguished both conceptually and theoretically. For this
reason, Diener et al. (2003) suggested that they should be measured and studied
independently. Both components of SWB fluctuate over time, but the ESWB
fluctuates more than the CSWB (Cropanzano & Wright, 1999; Diener et al., 2003). The
CSWB is a judgment or evaluation about different aspects of an individual’s life as a
whole, including work, family, health, and leisure domains, among others (Diener, 2000;
Diener & Biswas-Diener, 2008; Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985; Diener et al.,
2003; Fisher, 2010; Larsen, 2009). The CSWB has received, for instance, labels such
as life satisfaction (Diener, 2006; Diener et al., 1985) and happiness (Lyubomirsky &
Lepper, 1999). In the SWB research tradition, happiness refers to the judgments made
about satisfaction with life as a whole and, therefore, happiness and life satisfaction have
been considered as equivalent constructs (Wright & Bonnett, 2007). The CSWB is typically
assessed with scales which include items like “In most ways, my life is close to my
ideal” and “I am satisfied with my life”, “In general, I consider myself a very happy
person”. Examples of these scales are the 5-item Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS;
Diener et al., 1985), the 1-item Global Happiness scale (GHS; Fordyce, 1988), the 4-
item Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS; Lyubomirsky & Lepper, 1999); the 18-item Well-
Being Scale (WBS; Tellegen, 1982), and the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire (OHQ; Hills
& Argyle, 2002). On the other hand, the ESWB has been conceived as the frequency and
intensity of positive affective states and the absence of negative feelings the individuals
experience as a reaction to situational conditions (Diener & Biswas-Diener, 2008). The
ESWB is frequently assessed with items reflecting mood and feelings. For instance,
“Report how much you have felt of the following feelings during the past four weeks:
positive, negative, good, bad, stressed....” Typically, the ESWB is measured as a single
dimension, with the positive pole anchored with items like “happy” and “positive” and
the negative pole anchored with items like “unhappy” and “negative”. Therefore, as
Wright and Bonnet (2007, p. 144) pointed out, to be high in the ESWB means “to be
simultaneously low on negative emotion and high on positive emotion.” Examples of the
scales used to assess ESWB are the 12-item Positive and Negative Experience scale
(SPANE; Diener & Biswas-Diener, 2008; Diener, et al., 2009), the Index of Psychological
Wellbeing (IPWB; Berkman, 1971), and the Profile of Mood States (POMS; Heuchert &
McNair, 2012; McNair, Lorr, & Dopleman, 1971; Shacham, 1983). A relevant
characteristic of the studies included in the metaanalyses cited above (e.g., Iaffaldano &
Muchinsky, 1985; Judge et al., 2001; Taris, 2006) is that the happy worker was mainly
identified as a job-satisfied, job-involved, engaged, and burnout-free worker. All these
constructs correlated moderately with SWB, but they did not capture the whole variance
of the two components of SWB. For example, the meta-analysis of Tait, Padgett, and
Baldwin (1989) found an average observed correlation of .35 (ρ = .44 when corrected for
measurement error in both variables) between job satisfaction and life satisfaction.
Moreover, Judge and Watanabe (1993) found that the correlation between job
satisfaction and life satisfaction was smaller for the longitudinal correlations in
comparison with the cross-sectional correlations (.30 vs. .42, respectively). Additional
evidence of the moderate correlation between job satisfaction and life satisfaction was
provided by Bowling and Burns (2010). They found that job satisfaction correlated .50
with the SWLS (Diener et al., 1985), showing that the two constructs are related but
independent. Three additional findings on the relationship between job satisfaction and
life satisfaction are relevant for the present study. First, in a longitudinal study Judge and
Watanabe (1993) found that the relationship between life satisfaction and job
satisfaction was stronger over time than the relationship between job satisfaction and life
satisfaction (betas .26 and .07, respectively). This result suggests that life satisfaction is
a more powerful antecedent of job satisfaction than the other way round. The second
finding was that the relationship between life satisfaction and job satisfaction was
partially explained by personality factors, suggesting that, when controlled for
personality, the relationship between life satisfaction and job satisfaction can be smaller.
In fact, the correlation between these two variables dropped by 50% in longitudinal
studies and 40% in cross-sectional studies (Heller, Judge, & Watson, 2002). A third
important finding was that what distinguishes life satisfaction from job satisfaction is that
the former seems to be more stable over time than the latter. Heller et al. (2002) found
that the correlation between the same measures of life satisfaction taken six-months
apart was .82, while the correlation for two measures of job satisfaction was .66. From a
theoretical point of view, there are at least four good reasons to expect a positive
relationship between SWB and job performance. First, SWB measures, such as life
satisfaction scales, can capture variance of the job performance domain which is not
captured by job satisfaction because there are behaviors at work which are not related to
job satisfaction but to the satisfaction with other important aspects of life, such as health
and family relations. Second, as SWB is a broader construct than job satisfaction (Wright
& Bonnett, 2007), SWB may be more related to broad measures of job performance (e.g.,
overall job performance) than to specificcontextualized performance facets (e.g.,
citizenship behaviors, contextual performance), which might be more related to
specificcontextualized measures of satisfaction (e.g., job satisfaction). Two lines of
evidence give some support to this rationale. The metaanalysis by Griffeth, Hom, and
Gaertner (2000) showed that the broader factor of job satisfaction explained more
variance of job turnover than the narrower job satisfaction subdimensions (e.g.,
satisfaction with task, salary, coworkers, surpervisor, etc). Likewise, research on the
personality at work has found that global factors of personality (e.g., the Big Five and
integrity compounds) showed larger validity than the facets of personality when these
last variables are residualized (Salgado, Moscoso, & Berges, 2013; Salgado et al., 2015).
Due to the connections between life satisfaction and personality (Heller et al., 2002), the
same can be expected to apply to the relationship between life satisfaction and job
performance. Third, due to the fact that life satisfaction is more stable than job
satisfaction (Heller et al., 2002), the relationship of life satisfaction with job performance
may be more stable over time. Fourth, as some studies have suggested that the
effect of life satisfaction on job satisfaction is stronger than the effects of job satisfaction
on life satisfaction, the relationship between job satisfaction and job performance can be
partially due to the effects of life satisfaction. In summary, there are theoretical reasons
for expecting a positive relationship between job performance and SWB and its
components. Compared with other SWB research areas (e.g., the SWB-health
relationship), the relationships between the SWB and its components with job
performance have received less attention from researchers. Nevertheless, there are
several cross-sectional and longitudinal studies (see Table 1). With regard to the cross-
sectional research, Wright and Cropanzano (2000) conducted two independent studies
(n = 47 and n = 37) in which they found that ESWB and job performance correlated (r
= .32 and r = .34). In the same study, job satisfaction correlated -.08 and .08 with job
performance. In a second study, Wright and Bonnett (2007) found that ESWB was
positively correlated with job performance (r = .48, p < .01) but that job satisfaction was
not related (r = .08, p > .05) in a sample of 112 management personnel. In another
study, Wright et al. (2007) found that ESWB and job satisfaction correlated with job
performance (r = .43 and r =.36, respectively) in a sample of 109 managers .They also
found that ESWB moderated the relationship between job performance and job
satisfaction. With regard to the relationship between CSWB and job performance, it has
scarcely been researched. Law, Chin-Sum, Guohua, and Xiaoxuan (2008) found that
the CSWB component did not correlate significantly with job performance in a sample of
R&D scientists (r = .13, n = 102). Finally, Jones (2006) found that a generalized SWB
compound (GSWB), which included both the cognitive and emotional components,
showed significant correlations of .27, .24, and .28 with task, contextual, and overall job
performance, respectively. Jones also found that job satisfaction did not significantly
correlate with any of the three measures of job performance. Unfortunately, Jones did
not report separately the correlation of job performance with the cognitive and the
emotional components of SWB. There is also a small number of longitudinal studies. For
example, Wright, Bonnett, & Sweeney (1993) found that ESWB predicted job
performance significantly for a 1-year interval, but it was a nonsignificant predictor
for a 2-year interval (r = .48 and r =.23, respectively) in a small sample of supervisors
(n = 33). In another study, Wright and Staw (1999) reported two independent
smallsample studies in which they found that the ESWB correlated significantly with job
performance. In the first study, they found that the ESWB correlated significantly with job
performance rated one, two, and three years after the assessment of affect (n = 44). In
the second study, Wright and Staw (1999) found that the ESWB correlated with
performance rated one year later (n = 63). In another 5-year longitudinal study,
Cropanzano and Wright (1999) found that the correlation between the ESWB component
and job performance diminished when the ESWB had been assessed 4.5 or 5 years
before job performance, but that the correlation was significant when the interval was
two or three years. In a 2-year predictive study, Wright, Cropanzano, Denney, and
Moline (2002) found that ESWB predicted job performance at time 1 and time 2 (r = .37
and r = .45, respectively) in a small sample of public sector management employees (n
= 49). In the same study, job satisfaction did not correlate with job performance (r = -.10
and r = .06, respectively). Table 1 summarizes the extant empirical evidence on the
relationships between SWB and its two components with job performance. This evidence
shows that: (1) the number of studies is small and they generally include small sample
sizes; (2) the ESWB was a significant predictor of job performance in the majority of
studies; (3) the relationship between GSWB and job performance was examined in only
one cross-sectional (concurrent) study; (4) the relationship between the CSWB and job
performance was examined in two cross-sectional (concurrent) studies only; (5) in all
cases, the SWB measures showed a larger correlation with job performance than job
satisfaction when the two variables were assessed in the study; (6) the design type
(predictive vs. cross-sectional) moderated correlations between SWB and job
performance, the correlation size for the predictive designs being smaller; (6) no
predictive studies have examined the relationship between CSWB and job performance;
and (7) the correlation between ESWB and job performance seems to decay over time
(after 4.5-5 years). For this last reason, some researchers have suggested that more
longitudinal and predictive research about the association between individual SWB and
job performance was needed (e.g., Cropanzano & Wright, 1999; Spector, Chen, &
O’Connell, 2000; Taris & Scheurs, 2009; Warr, 2013). Based on this research review, it
becomes apparent that most of the studies on the SWB-job performance relationship
evaluated ESWB and no study has examined the relationship of ESWB and CSWB with job
performance separately (the study of Jones, 2006 measured ESWB and CSWB but the
measures were combined in a compound and the correlations were not reported
separately). Therefore it remains unexplored whether or not one of the two SWB
components shows incremental validity over the other component for predicting job
performance. In other words, previous research has not tested the joint relationship
of the two elements of SWB to job performance and whether this joint relationship is
maintained or decreases over the years. In summary, the purpose of this study is to shed
further light on the relationship between SWB and job performance over time by
including measures of the two components of SWB and independent measures of job
performance. More specifically, the objective of this research is to examine the
correlation between CSWB and ESWB and job performance using a predictive design in
which job performance was appraised in four-time points over four consecutive years.
Additionally, we aim to establish whether the two components of SWB contribute
independently to the prediction of job performance, and whether the effect remains
relatively stable over the four years. With these goals in mind, we posit the following two
hypotheses: Hypothesis 1: The two components of SWB (i.e., CSWB and ESWB) predict
job performance concurrently and over time. Hypothesis 2: The joint effect of ESWB plus
CSWB is larger than the effect of either of them considered separately. In the present
study, we are interested in the relationship between SWB and job performance from
both operational (e.g., personnel selection) and theoretical (e.g., modelling the
SWBperformance relations) point of views. Therefore, we will report the corrected
correlations among the study variables as well as the observed correlations.
 Method
Participants
The sample consisted of 170 managers working for a Spanish information technology
and communication (ITC) company. There were 119 men and 51 women. The participants
had been working at the company for an average of 8.6 years. All of them held a high
school diploma or a university degree.
Measures
Subjective well-being measures
Cognitive component of SWB. This component was assessed with the Satisfaction with
Life Scale (SWLS; Diener et al., 1985). It consists of 5 items that evaluate the
perception of one’s life satisfaction. Examples of items are “In most ways, my life is close
to my ideal” and “The conditions of my life are excellent”. The SWLS uses a seven-point
Likert format. The SWLS is probably one of the most-used scales for measuring
happiness, and a large number of studies have examined its psychometric properties.
Pavot and Diener (1993) revised the evidence on its internal consistency and temporal
stability and reported alpha coefficients ranging from .79 to .89, and test-retest
coefficients ranging from .84 to .54 for intervals from 1 month to 4 years. This scale has
been validated with Spanish samples and normative data are available (Vazquez, Duque,
& Hervás, 2013). The mean and the SD of the normative Spanish sample of currently
employed adults (n = 1,807) were 24.33 and 5.63, respectively. The reliability (Cronbach’s
alpha) of the SWLS in the current sample was .89. The comparison between the SD of
the current sample and the SD of the Spanish normative of the SWLS showed some
degree of range restriction (u). It is well known that range restriction produces an
underestimation of the correlation size, and can be corrected using statistical formulas
(Hunter, Schmidt, & Le, 2006; Schmidt & Hunter, 2015). In the present sample, we
found a u value of .78 and used this estimate for correcting the observed correlations
for range restriction.
Emotional component of SWB. To measure this component we used three positive
descriptors and three negative descriptors of the Scale of Positive and Negative
Experience (SPANE; Diener & Biswas-Diener, 2008; Diener et al., 2009; Li, Bai, &
Wang, 2013; Silva & Caetano, 2013). The positive descriptors were contented,
happy, and joyful. The negative descriptors were afraid, angry, and sad. We reversed the
score of the negative descriptors to obtain a global measure of positive emotions. This
decision was based on previous research findings which show that the correlation
between positive and negative emotions approaches -1 when the observed
correlations are corrected for measurement error. For example Diener et al. (2009)
reported a correlation of -.62 between the two scales, and testretest reliabilities of .62
and .63 for positive and negative emotions, respectively. The corrected correlation
is .62/(.62 + .63)1/2 = .97. Similar correlations between positive and negative emotions
were reported in literature (e.g., Li et al., 2013; Rahm, Heise, & Schuldt, 2017; Silva &
Caetano, 2013; Telef, 2015) and identical or larger test-retest reliabilities (Rahm et al.,
2017; Telef, 2015) depending on the interval width. Additionally, large correlations
between SWLS and SPANE have been found (e.g., Li et al., 2013; Silva & Caetano,
2013; Rahm et al., 2017; Telef, 2015). The respondents indicated how much they had
experienced these feelings during the four weeks previous to the testing session. In the
SPANE the items are responded by using a fivepoint Likert scale (1 = very rarely or
never, 5 = very often or always). The alpha coefficient was .82 in this sample.
Job performance. In organizations, individual job performance is typically assessed using
ratings (Viswesvaran, Ones, & Schmidt, 1996) and this is the case in the current company.
The measurement instrument of job performance was a one-item overall performance
rating scale. The question rated was “Overall, the performance of this employee over the
past year was…” Employees were rated using a 5-point scale, ranging from 1 (poor
performance) to 5 (excellent performance). Two independent supervisors rated each
employee, and the two scores were added to create an overall performance composite.
We collected the performance ratings for four years (2009, 2010, 2011, and 2012). The
organization uses the performance ratings for administrative purposes, and they serve as
a basis for additional compensation. The organization conducts a performance appraisal
once a year during the spring following the end of the previous year. Therefore, the
performance appraisals were done in the springs of 2010, 2011, 2012, and 2013.
According to Schmidt and Hunter (1996), the reliability estimate of interest in the
present case is the inter-rater coefficient. The inter-rater reliabilities of the four
composite measures were .77, .76, .73, and .71 for 2010, 2011, 2012, and 2013,
respectively. These coefficients are larger than the typically observed interrater reliability
coefficients of job performance (e.g., Salgado & Moscoso, 1996; Salgado, Moscoso,
& Anderson, 2016; Viswesvaran et al., 1996). We will use these coefficients to correct
the observed correlations for measurement error in the criterion (Schmidt & Hunter,
1996).
Procedure
We collected the performance data used in this study at four time periods: T1
(performance from January 1, 2009 to December, 31, 2009; the first year of the survey),
T2 (performance from January 1, 2010 to December, 31, 2010, second year), T3
(performance from January 1, 2011 to December, 31, 2011, third year), and T4
(performance from January 1, 2012 to December, 31, 2012, fourth year). Therefore, the
interval between two consecutive performance appraisals was a year. We assessed SWB
components in May 2010 concurrently with the first performance appraisal. Job
performance ratings were available for all time points and the SWB measures at T1
only. The correlations between the SWB measures and job performance at T1 are
concurrent and the correlations at T2, T3, and T4 are predictive ones.

Results
In Table 2, we report the descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) and
observed correlations (Pearson’s r), among all the study variables. As can be seen, the
cognitive and emotional components of SWB correlated highly (r = .87). These results
agree with previous findings, which showed that the cognitive and emotional
components of SWB are highly correlated. Based on this correlation and for theoretical
reasons, a GSWB compound was created on the basis of a principal component analysis.
ESWB correlated significantly with job performance across the four years, giving full
support to Hypothesis 1 and agreeing with the finding by Cropanzano and Wright (1999)
that the emotional component predicted job performance over a period of four years.
With regard to the relationship between CSWB and job performance, the measure
taken in 2010 predicted job performance significantly in 2010, 2011, and 2012, but the
correlation was not significant in 2013. This result partially supports Hypothesis 1. Finally,
the GSWB correlated significantly with job performance during the first three years but
not in the fourth year. As a whole, these findings indicate that GSWB, CSWB, and ESWB
maintained their predictive capacity for at least the first three years. As is well-known,
the observed correlations underestimate the true correlation between the variables.
Particularly, two artifacts influence the real size of the correlations. The first one is that
the predictors and job performance were not perfectly reliable measures (Hoyle & Kenny,
1999; MacKinnon, 2008; Schmidt & Hunter, 2015). The second artifact is the effect of
range restriction (RR) on the predictors. As the coefficients reported in Table 2 are
uncorrected estimates of the true correlation between each pair of variables, all these
coefficients underestimate the “true” relationships among CSWB, ESWB, GSWB, and job
performance. To correct for measurement error in X and Y, we used the formula to
correct observed correlation for attenuation (e.g., Guilford & Fruchter, 1978; Kline,
2011; MacKinnon, 2008; Schmidt & Hunter, 2015). This formula requires knowing the
reliability coefficient of ESWB and CSWB and the reliability coefficient of job
performance. We calculated the internal consistency of the ESWB and CWSB scales for
the current sample, that are reported in Table 2. With regard to job performance, the
relevant coefficient is the interrater one (Schmidt & Hunter, 1996). Several meta-analyses
(e.g., Salgado & Moscoso, 1996; Salgado et al., 2016; Viswesvaran et al., 1996) have
shown that the observed inter-rater reliability of job performance ratings was .52 on
average. The inter-rater reliability coefficients found in this study are remarkably larger
(from .71 to .77), but show that the performance ratings contained a measurement error.
With regard to RR, we used the method to correct for indirect RR developed by Schmidt
and his colleagues (Hunter et al., 2006; Schmidt & Hunter, 2015; Schmidt, Shaffer, &
Oh, 2007). The formulas of RR correction required knowing the degree of homogeneity
presented in the sample, indicated by the u value. As was mentioned previously, u
was .78 for CSWB in this study, and we assume the same value for ESWB (as we do not
have normative data for calculating its specific u value). In summary, the artifacts
considered here were criterion reliability, predictor reliability, and RR in the predictors.
The three artifacts reduce the real size of the correlations and their effects are
cumulative (Schmidt & Hunter, 2015). In this study, we corrected the observed
correlations for criterion reliability and RR in the SWB measures in order to obtain
their operational validity, and also we corrected the operational validity for predictor
reliability to obtain the true correlation. The operational validity is the coefficient to be
used for predicting the various criteria in applied settings (e.g., for hiring employees or
recruiting students). True validity represents the theoretical correlation between
predictor and criterion in the absence of artifactual errors. Consequently, true validity is
used for modeling the theoretical relationships between predictors and criteria (Salgado
et al., 2003). Although both estimates of validity are of interest, we will concentrate on
the true validity in the following comments. In Table 3, we report the corrected
correlations between the two components of SWB and the four measures of job
performance.
As can be seen in Table 3, true correlations of ESWB are about 70% larger on average
than observed correlations (.28 vs. .17 on average) and the correlations of CSWB are
75% larger on average (.18 vs. .12 on average). In other words, observed
correlations underestimate true correlations of ESWB and CSWB with job performance
by 70% and 75%, respectively. These results show the importance of taking into account
the effects of these three statistical artifacts when the SWBjob performance
relationships are to be modelled. The true correlation between ESWB and job
performance was statistically significant in the four years, ranging from .31 to .23. As
found by Cropanzano and Wright (1999), the size of the correlations decline from T1 to
T4. In the case of CSWB, the correlations were significant for three years (T1-T3) and
nonsignificant for the last year, ranging from .26 to .11. As in the case of ESWB, there
was also a decline in the size of the correlations from T1 to T4. Interestingly, the
correlations of ESWB and CSWB with job performance remained totally stable for the
first two years, which suggests that the prediction of job performance by SWB is stable at
least for two years. GSWB correlated significantly in the four years and no decline in the
correlation size was observed (it was .31 for T1 and T4). In order to test the second
hypothesis, we carried out a series of multiple regression analyses. More and more
methodologists advise researchers that measurement error and range restriction (when
appropriate) should be controlled (corrected) when multiple regression, structural
equation modelling, and other multivariate techniques are used to analyze the
relationships among dependent (criterion) and independent (predictors) variables (e.g.,
Fritz, Kenny, & MacKinnon, 2016; Hoyle & Kenny, 1999; MacKinnon, 2008; Schmidt &
Hunter, 2015). The basis for the recommendation is that the imperfect measurement of
X and Y, and range restriction produce a violation of some fundamental assumptions of
multiple regressions and, consequently, the parameters estimated are biased, for
instance, reducing the squared multiple correlation and the size of the standardized
regression weights (betas). In other words, the researcher must be sure that the variables
are perfectly reliably, and, therefore, the observed correlations must be corrected
for measurement error in both variables, X and Y (Fritz et al., 2016; Hoyle & Kenny, 1999;
Schmidt & Hunter, 2015). Together with the measurement error and range restriction,
another important issue in multiple regression analysis is that R, R2, and adjusted R2
are biased due to the fact that the multiple regression analysis capitalizes on chance. A
consequence of this capitalization on change is that if the regression coefficients
obtained in a sample are applied to another sample, the R2 size in the second sample
will be typically lower than that estimated in the first sample. A more efficient estimate
of the effect size is the squared population cross-validity coefficient (R2 cv ), which
can be obtained by empirical methods (e.g., cross-validation, bootstrapping) and by
formulae, although there is agreement that formulae provide the best estimates of R2 cv
(e.g., Kromrey & Hines, 1996). Monte Carlo examinations of the effectiveness of various
R2 cv formulas agreed that the one proposed by Browne (1975) outperformed other
formulae (Cattin, 1980a, 1980b; Cotter & Raju, 1982; Kromrey & Hines, 1996;
Lautenschlager, 1990; Yin & Fan, 2001). Therefore, we used Browne’s formula for
estimating the squared population cross-validity in this study. Table 4 presents the
multiple regression analyses conducted to examine the joint effect of the two
components of SWB, and the incremental validity of CSWB over ESWB for predicting job
performance across the four years. The table presents the multiple correlation (R), the
explained variance (R2), the adjusted R2, the statistical estimate of the cross-validated
square multiple correlation (R2 cv ), the betas for ESWB and CSWB, and the incremental
variance of CSWB. As can be seen, in all cases, the multiple correlation is larger than the
bivariate correlation of the two SWB components considered separately. A second
relevant finding is that the size of the multiple correlation increases as the interval
between the measure of SWB and job performance increase, so that the larger the
interval, the higher the multiple correlation. In other words, in the present case, the joint
predictive capacity of the two SWB components increases over time. This is an important
finding if we take into account that the zero-order correlation of the two SWB
components declines with time. In fact, the multiple correlation for T4 is noticeably large.
A relevant result is that the statistical estimate of the cross-validated square multiple
correlation (the square root of R2 cv ) is larger than the correlation of GSWB with job
performance and it is especially larger at T3 and T4. This finding suggests that the
prediction based on the regression equation is more valid than the prediction based
on a single measure of GSWB. Examining beta weights, it can be seen that the beta
weights for ESWB are positive as are their correlation signs in all cases. However, the
betas for CSWB showed a negative value when its zero-order correlation with job
performance is positive. In addition, it can be seen that the sizes of CSWB and ESWB
betas increase as the interval between the measure of CSWB and ESWB and job
performance appraisal increase. These facts indicate that CSWB is acting as a suppressor
variable for the prediction of job performance in the presence of ESWB. As described
initially by Horst (1941), a predictor was considered a suppressor variable if it has zero or
very small correlation with the dependent variable, but simultaneously shows a large
correlation with another predictor variable included in a regression equation (Collins &
Schmidt, 1997; Guilford & Fruchter, 1978; MacKinnon, Lockwood, Hoffman, West, &
Sheets, 2002; McNemar, 1962; Paulhus, Robins, Trzesmewski, & Tracy, 2004; Watson,
Clark, Cmielewski, & Kotov, 2013). Now, this situation is termed classical suppression
(Cohen & Cohen, 1975; Conger, 1974; Paulhus et al., 2004; Watson et al., 2013).
However, the concept of suppressor variables has been extended to include other two
configuration patterns (Cohen & Cohen, 1975; Conger, 1974). The second pattern is
reciprocal or cooperative suppression, which involves cases in which two predictors
either (a) correlate oppositely with the criterion, but are positively related to one another
or (b) both are correlated positively with the criterion but negatively with one another; in
these cases, including both predictors in the regression equation increases both of their
beta weights. The third pattern is the net or cross-over suppression which refers to
situations where three variables (i.e., X, S, and Y) are correlated positively with one
another. In this last situation, the inclusion of both predictors (i.e., X and S) in the
regression equation increases the weight for the stronger predictor and changes the sign
of the weaker predictor (i.e., a positive zero-order correlation becomes a negative beta
weight). MacKinnon, Lockwood, and Williams (2007) pointed out that a suppressor effect
is a kind of indirect effect and as such often indicates an implicit, and sometimes an
explicit, causal hypothesis. The suppressor effect suggests that the presence of this
variable in a regression equation increases the predictive power of an independent
variable over the dependent variable. Consequently, the statistical tests for suppressor
effects are part of a family of tests for intervening variables (MacKinnon et al., 2002;
Paulhus et al., 2004). Specifically, the test for a significant suppressor effect (i.e., a
significant increase in a regression weight) is equivalent to tests for a number of other
statistical hypotheses, including confounds, spuriousness, and mediating variables (Baron
& Kenny, 1986; MacKinnon, 2008; MacKinnon et al., 2002; Sobel, 1982; Watson et al.,
2013). Mackinnon et al. (2002) carried out an empirical comparison of a comprehensive
set of statistical tests based on normality assumptions. Overall, they recommended: (a)
testing significance by evaluating the product of the two indirect path weights (e.g., the
Sobel test and the z’ test). More recently, the estimation of confidence intervals has
been recommended for a number of reasons, for instance, that it obliges researchers to
consider the effect size together with making a binary decision on the statistical
significance of the relationship between X and Y, and because the amplitude of the
interval provides valuable information about the variability of the effect size (Harlow,
Mulaik, & Steiger, 1997; MacKinnon, Lockwood et al., 2007; Schmidt & Hunter, 2015).
Moreover, MacKinnon and his colleagues (MacKinnon et al., 2002; MacKinnon,
Lockwood et al., 2007) have shown that the most frequently used methods for testing the
statistical significance of indirect effects (e.g., the Sobel test and its relatives), based on
the z distribution have low statistical power, low Type I error rates, and imbalanced
confidence limits. We computed the Sobel test and the z’ test in order to test the
statistical significance of the suppression effects. For the Sobel test, we used a calculator
developed by Preacher and Leonardelli which is available online at
http://www.quantpsy.org/sobel/sobel.htm. We also computed the 95% confidence
interval for the suppressor effect using the distribution of the product of two regression
coefficients (z’ test). In this case, we used the program PRODCLIN developed by
MacKinnon, Fritz, Williams, and Lockwood (2007). In Table 4 it can be seen that the
Sobel test and the z’ test are statistically significant for the four years and also the 95%
confidence intervals did not include a zero value. In other words, in the four cases the
positive effect of ESWB on job performance was significantly stronger when CSWB
was included in the regression equation. Simultaneously, the negative effect of CSWB
was significantly stronger when ESWB was in the equation. The finding that CSWB
suppresses some ESWB variance has been an unexpected result that has both relevant
theoretical and applied consequences. For instance, these results support Diener’s
suggestion that both components of SWB should be assessed and measured
independently. Later we discuss some potential explanations for this suppressing
effect.

Discussion
The basis of the present research was the theoretical distinction suggested by
Veenhoven (1997), Diener (2000), and Warr (2013), among others, who defined SWB as
an individual’s affective and cognitive evaluation of their life. From their point of view,
SWB consists of the combination of positive affective states (ESWB) and global life
satisfaction or happiness (CSWB). A large number of empirical studies supported this
theoretical framework (see Diener & Biswas-Diener, 2008; Fisher, 2010, for reviews).
This line of thought on SWB is related to a popular hypothesis in the domain of work
psychology and labor relations known as the Happy-Productive Worker Hypothesis, which
was introduced to psychology by the Human Relations Movement of the 1930s
(Wright & Bonnett, 2007). At least ten studies have examined the relationship between
the ESWB and job performance and two studies have examined the relationship between
CSWB and job performance. Unfortunately, no research has examined the relationships
of ESWB and CSWB with job performance separately and jointly over time in the same
study. Furthermore, the majority of the recent research has primarily been cross-
sectional in nature, although a small number of longitudinal studies have been carried
out (e.g., Cropanzano & Wrigh, 1999; Wright et al., 2007; Wright & Staw, 1999). The
present study, guided by hypotheses, contributes to the literature on the relationship
between SWB and job performance in four ways. Firstly, our study contributes by using
measures which are well-validated and specifically developed for assessing the two
components of SWB, and were used simultaneously. Secondly, our study uses a
predictive design with four-time points over four years, which allows us to estimate the
capacity of the two SWB components for predicting overall job performance over
time. To the best of our knowledge, no other study has examined the relationship
between job performance and the two SWB components simultaneously over time. Third,
our study contributes by examining the joint predictive validity of CSWB and ESWB.
Fourth, using the performance appraisal for four consecutive years we also have been
able to partially examine the stability of the overall job performance. The results fully
supported our hypotheses regarding the capacity of the two SWB components for
predicting job performance independently, although their effect sizes are relatively
modest. ESWB predicted job performance during the four years of our study and CSWB
predicted job performance significantly for the first three years. Consequently, we can
conclude that the effects of the SWB components taken individually are relatively stable
over time. This result partially agrees with the findings of Cropanzano and Wright
(1999), who found that ESWB predicted job performance for four years, although it was
not a significant predictor in the fifth year. We have not been able to collect job
performance ratings for the fifth year, which impedes the comparison with Cropanzano
and Wright’s findings. Another relevant finding was that a factorial compound of SWB
showed larger and more stable validity than ESWB and CSWB over the years. Our
results also confirm that the two components of SWB added specific variance for
predicting job performance, as stated in Hypothesis 2. In all cases, the multiple Rs are
larger than the zeroorder correlations of ESWB, CSWB, and GSWB. The joint effect of
ESWB and CSWB showed a larger predictive capacity than the single components of
SWB and a compound of the two. This last finding is related to an important but
unpredicted finding. The joint effect of EWSB and CWSB shows the pattern of a
suppression situation (Paulhus et al., 2004; Watson et al., 2013). More specifically, the
suppression situation found here is of the type called cross-over suppression by Paulhus
et al. (2004), negative suppression by Conger (1974), and net suppression by Cohen
and Cohen (1975). In the cross-over suppression situation, the independent, suppressor,
and dependent variables are positively correlated, which suggests a redundant situation.
However, as Paulhus et al. (2004, p. 307) pointed out, in this case, “a suppression
situation is not apparent until the regression weights are calculated and the smaller beta
shows an opposite sign to its validity.” The suppressor analysis has uncovered relevant
variance in the cognitive and emotional SWB scales that is hidden at the bivariate level.
Our findings show that the cross-over suppression situation was maintained for the four
years in which job performance was measured and that the size of R2 increased over
time, which is the opposite trend to the zero-order correlations between job
performance and the two components of SWB. In other words, according to our results,
the predictive power of the joint effects of ESWB and CSWB increases over time, while
the predictive power of ESWB and CSWB decreases over time when they are individually
considered. Figure 1 shows these results graphically.
A tentative theoretical explanation for this finding could be as follows. As components of
SWB, both CSWB (i.e., satisfaction with life, happiness) and ESWB (i.e., the balance
between positive and negative feelings and emotions) correlate largely and positively. On
the other hand, ESWB consists of positive and negative feelings and emotions, so two
groups of highly and negatively correlated feelings are included in ESWB. Simultaneously,
CSWB correlates positively with positive emotions and negatively with negative emotions.
Furthermore, the positive emotions included in ESWB correlate positively with job
performance and the negative emotions correlated negatively with job performance. On
the other hand, because ESWB is a balance of positive and negative emotions, the
presence of positive emotions inhibits (impedes) the presence of negative emotions
(Wright & Bonnett, 2007). Consequently, CSWB (e.g., satisfaction with life) would act
“suppressing” (avoiding) negative emotions, which, subsequently, would produce
greater frequency and intensity of positive emotions and, subsequently, ESWB would
have a greater effect on job performance. Moreover, as CSWB is more stable over time
than ESWB, the former would have a second effect on ESWB, which would be to
reinforce or improve its stability, which would make the effect of ESWB on job
performance more robust (as a consequence of smaller variability) over time. In other
words, increasing the stability of ESWB, CSWB also increases the relationship between
ESWB and job performance because of disattenuation of the correlation for
measurement error. This means that CSWB would function as an emotion regulation
mechanism. The importance of suppressor situations for personality and wellbeing
research has been noted in the last few years. For example, Collins and Schmidt (1997)
found several suppressor personality variables in a validity-construct study conducted to
discriminate white collar criminals from other white collar employees. Similarly, Paulhus
et al. (2004) demonstrated that guilt and shame maintain a suppressing relationship for
predicting depression. More recently, Watson et al. (2013) illustrated several cases of
highly robust suppression effects, in which suppressor variables explain the construct
validity of symptoms measures. For example, they found that, despite the fact that
euphoria and well-being were substantially positively correlated, they showed opposite
correlation with depression, generalized anxiety disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder,
and panic. The β values for euphoria ranged from .13 to .22 and the β values for well-
being ranged from -.15 to -.36. When the two predictors were used in the regression
equation, the new β values for euphoria ranged from .42 to .45, whereas the new
β values for well-being ranged from -.38 to -.60. In addition, the joint regression R2
increased to twice the value of the sum of individual R2s for the four dependent
variables. The comparison of GSWB validity with the validity of CSWB plus ESWB
illustrates the importance of taking into account the suppressor effects when the
construct validity of personality measures are examined (Watson et al., 2013). Finally,
examining the correlations among the overall job performance measures, we can
affirm individual job performance is relatively stable over four years. This finding is
especially interesting in light of the fact that the measures of job performance were
done during the most dramatic period of the effects of the world economic crisis in
Spain and while changes in the ownership of the company were occurring. Even in these
critical conditions, the observed correlation between the measures of overall job
performance for 2010 with the measures for 2013 was .62. If this estimate is corrected
for the measurement error, the true correlation is .86, a remarkably large correlation that
suggests high stability in performance. The findings have implications for the theory and
practice of staffing and development in organizations. From the theoretical point of view,
the results provide empirical support for the HPWP as well the conceptualization of SWB
as composed of both emotional and cognitive components. Our results support the idea
that happy workers are comparatively more productive (show better job performance)
than less happy or unhappy workers. From a practical point of view, our findings suggest
that organizations can improve their overall effectiveness (regarding individual job
performance) by increasing worker well-being. Selecting employees on SWB can help to
improve the organizational effectiveness because the joint effect of the two
components of SWB over job performance remains for at least four years.
Additionally, organizations can improve employee performance by creating conditions
that allow them to activate positive emotions. There are two potential ways to increase
the emotional component of SWB. The first one could be by increasing the frequency of
positive feelings (e.g., giving positive feedback), while maintaining the frequency of
negative emotions. The second way of increasing the emotional component of SWB
could be by maintaining the frequency and intensity of positive emotions, while
decreasing the frequency (and intensity) of the negative feelings (e.g., stress-reducing
programs). For example, Rahm and Heise (2015, cited in Rahm et al., 2017)
presented a four-week training program of SWB for future teachers with positive
results. As all studies, the present one has some limitations which should be noted. A first
limitation is that we carried out the study in a Spanish company with specific values and
cultural characteristics, and we did not examine the effects of these variables. Therefore,
the present findings should not be generalized to other organizations and countries
without taking into account potential cross-cultural differences. A second limitation is
that, although as a whole the sample size was large enough (Salgado, 1998), we were not
able to examine the potential effects of gender differences, as the number of women in
the sample was small. Future studies should consider this issue. A third limitation is that
our design does not permit the examination of whether the relationship between SWB
and job performance is mutual, whether SWB causes job performance, or whether job
performance causes SWB. Although we have measured job performance in four
consecutive years, SWB was assessed only in the first year, so the study cannot shed light
on the direction of causality. Finally, the unexpected suppressor effect suggests another
potential limitation. With some frequency, the suppressor effects vanish in a different
sample. Although, the R2 cv estimates suggest evidence for cross-validity, the effect
should be tested in new samples. In summary, this research showed that SWB and its
components jointly and individually are relevant predictors of job performance and that
their effects remained for at least four years. Thus, these findings provided some support
for the popular HPWH. This study also showed that individual job performance was
largely stable over the period examined.
Conflict of Interest
Subjective Well-being, Job Performance, and a Suppressor Effect 101

The authors of this article declare no conflict of interest.

References
Baron, R. M. & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in
social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.117 Berkman, P. L. (1971). Measurement of
mental health in a general population survey. American Journal of Epidemiology, 94,
105-111. https://doi.org/10.1093/0xfordjournals.aje.a.121301 Bowling, N. A., & Burns, G.
N. (2010). A comparison of work-specific and general personality measures as predictors
of work and non-work criteria. Personality and Individual Differences, 49, 95-101.
https://doi. org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.009 Browne, M. W. (1975). Predictive validity of
a linear regression equation. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical
Psychology, 28, 79-87. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8317.1975.tb00550.x Cattin, P.
(1980a). Estimation of the predictive power of a regression model. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 65, 407-414. https://doi. org/10.1037/0021-9010.65.4.407 Cattin, P.
(1980b). Note on the estimation of the squared cross-validated multiple correlation of
the regression model. Psychological Bulletin, 87, 63-65. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-
2909.87.1.63 Chernyak-Hai, L., & Tziner, A. (2016). The “I believe” and the “I invest” of
work-family balance: The indirect influences of personal values and work engagement
via perceived organizational climate and workplace burnout. Journal of Work and
Organizational Psychology, 32, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rpto.2015.11.004 Cohen,
J., & Cohen, P. (1975). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral
sciences. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Collins, J. M., & Schmidt, F. L. (1997). Can
suppressor variables enhance criterionrelated validity in the personality domain?
Educational and Psychological Measurement, 57, 924-936.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164497057006003 Conger, A. J. (1974). A revised definition
of suppressor variables: A guide to their identification and interpretation. Educational
and Psychological Measurement, 34, 35-46.
https://doi.org/10.1177/001316447403400105 Cotter, K. L., & Raju, N. S. (1982). An
evaluation of formula-based population squared cross-validity estimates and factor score
estimates in prediction. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 42, 493-519.
https://doi.org/10.1177/001316448204200213 Cropanzano, R., & Wright, T. A. (1999).
A 5-year study of change in the relationship between well-being and job performance.
Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 51, 252-265. https://doi.
org/10.1037/1061-4087.51.4.252 Cropanzano, R., & Wright, T. A. (2001). When a “happy”
worker is really a “productive” worker: A review and further refinement of the
happyproductive worker thesis. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research,
53, 182-199. https://doi.org/10.1037/1061-4087.53.3.182 Diener, E. (2000). Subjective
well-being: The science of happiness, and a proposal for a national index. American
Psychologist, 55, 34-43. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.34 Diener, E. (2006).
Guidelines for national indicators of subjective wellbeing and ill-being. Journal of
Happiness Studies, 7, 397-404. Diener, E. & Biswas-Diener, R. (2008). Happiness:
Unlocking the mysteries of psychological wealth. Malden, MA: Blackwell. Diener, E.,
Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of
Personality Assessment, 49, 71-75. https:// doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13
Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Lucas, R. (2003). Personality, culture, and subjective well-being:
Emotional and cognitive evaluations of life. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 403-
425. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev. psych.54.101601.145056 Diener, E., Wirtz, D.,
Tov, W., Kim-Prieto, C., Choi. D., Oishi, S., & BiswasDiener, R. (2009). New measures of
well-being: Flourishing and positive and negative feelings. Social Indicators Research, 97,
143-156. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-.009-9493-y Elfering, A., Odoni, M., & Meie, L.
L. (2016). Today’s work experience: Precursors of both how I feel and how I think
about my job? Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 32, 11-16. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.rpto.2015.11.001 Fisher, C. D. (2010). Happiness at work. International
Journal of Management Review, 12, 384-412. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-
2370.2009.00270.x Fordyce, M. W. (1988). A review of research on the happiness
measures: A sixty second index of happiness and mental health. Social Indicators
Research, 20, 355-381. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00302333 Fritz, M. S., Kenny, D. A., &
MacKinnon, D. P. (2016). The combined effects of measurement error and omitting
confounders in the single-mediator model. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 51, 681-
697. https://doi.org/1 0.1080/00273171.2016.1224154 Griffeth, R. W., Hom, P. W., &
Gaertner, S. (2000). A meta-analysis of antecedents and correlates of employee
turnover: Update, moderator tests, and research implications for the millennium.
Journal of Management, 26, 463-488. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920630002600305
Guilford, J. P., & Fruchter, B. (1978). Fundamental statistics in psychology and education.
New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Haider, S., Jabeen, S., & Ahmad, J. (2018). Moderated
mediation between work life balance and employee job performance: The role of
psychological wellbeing and satisfaction with coworkers. Journal of Work and
Organizational Psychology, 34, 29-33. https://doi.org/10.5093/jwop2018a4 Harlow, L. L.,
Mulaik, S. A., & Steiger, J. H. (Eds.) (1997). What if there were no significant tests?
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Heller, D., Judge, T. A., & Watson, D. (2002). The
confounding role of personality and trait affectivity in the relationship between job
and life satisfaction. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23, 815-833.
https://doi.org/10.1002/job.168 Heuchert, J. P., & McNair, D. M. (2012). POMS-2
manual: A Profile of Mood States. North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems, Inc.
Hills, P. & Argyle, M. (2002). The Oxford Happiness Questionnaire: A compact scale for
the measurement of psychological well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 33,
1073-1082. https://doi. org/10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00213-6 Horst P. (1941).The role of
predictor variables which are independent of the criterion. Social Science Research
Council. 48, 431-436. Hoyle, R. H., & Kenny, D. A. (1999). Sample size, reliability, and
tests of statistical mediation. In R.H. Hoyle (Ed.), Statistical strategies for small sample
research (pp. 195-222). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Hunter, J. E., Schmidt, F. L., & Le, H.
(2006). Implications of direct and indirect range restriction for meta-analysis methods
and findings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 594-612.
https://doi.org/10.1037/00219010.91.3.594 Iaffaldano, M. T., & Muchinsky, P. M. (1985).
Job satisfaction and job performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 97, 251-
273. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.97.2.251 Johnson, S. J., Machowski, S.,
Holdsworth, L., Kern, M., & Zapf, D. (2017). Age, emotion regulation strategies, burnout,
and engagement in the service sector: Advantages of older workers. Journal of Work
and Organizational Psychology, 33, 205-216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rpto.2017.09.001
Jones, M. T. (2006). Which is a better predictor of job performance: Job satisfaction or
life satisfaction. Journal of Behavioral and Applied Management, 8, 22-40 Judge, T. A.,
Thoresen, C. J., Bono, J. E., & Patton, G. K. (2001). The job satisfaction-job performance
relationship: A qualitative and quantitative review. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 376-
407. https://doi. org/10.1037/l0033-Z909.l27.3.376 Judge, T. A., & Watanabe, S. (1993).
Another look at the job satisfaction-life satisfaction relationship. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 78, 939-948. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.78.6.939 Kline, R. B. (2011).
Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford
Press. Kromrey, J. D., & Hines, C. V. (1996). Estimating the coefficient of crossvalidity in
multiple regression: A comparison of analytical and empirical methods. Journal of
Experimental Education, 64, 240-266. https://doi.org/10-1080/00220973.1996.9943806
Larsen, R. (2009). The contributions of positive and negative affect to emotional well-
being. Psychological Topics, 2, 247-266. Lautenschlager, G. J. (1990). Sources of
imprecision in formula of crossvalidates multiple correlation. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 75, 460462. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-910.75.4.460 Law, K. S., Chi-Sum
W., Guohua, E., & Xiaoxuan, L. (2008). The effects of emotional intelligence on job
performance and life satisfaction for the research and development scientists in China.
Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 25, 51-69. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-007-
9062-3 Li, F., Bai, X., & Wang, Y. (2013). The scale of positive and negative experience
(SPANE): Psychometric properties and normative data in a large Chinese sample. PLOS
one, 8(4), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1371/ journal.pone.0061137 Lyubomirsky, S. L., &
Lepper, H. S. (1999). A measure of subjective happiness: Preliminary reliability and
construct validation. Social Indicators Research, 46, 137-155.
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006824100041 MacKinnon, D. P. (2008). Introduction to
statistical mediation analysis. New York, NY: Lawrence Erlbaum MacKinnon, D. P., Fritz,
M. S., Williams, J., & Lockwood, C. M. (2007). Distribution of the product confidence
limits for the indirect effect: Program PRODCLIN. Behavior Research Methods, 39, 384-
389. https:// doi.org/10.3758/BF03193007 MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., Hoffman,
J. M., West, S. G., & Sheets, V. (2002). A comparison of methods to test mediation and
other intervening variable effects. Psychological Methods, 7, 83-104. https://
doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.7.1.83 MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., & Williams, J.
(2007). Confidence limits for indirect effect: Distribution of the product and resampling
methods. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39, 99-128. https://doi.
org/10.1207/s15327906mbr3901_4 Mañas, M. A., Alcaraz, L. Pecino, V., & Limbert, C.
(2016). Validation of the Spanish version of Soane’s ISA Engagement Scale. Journal of
Work and Organizational Psychology, 32, 87-93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
rpto.2016.04.002
Maslach, C., Schaufeli, W. B., & Leiter, M. P. (2001). Job burnout. Annual Review of
Psychology, 52, 397-422. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev. psych.52.1.397 McNair. M.,
Lorr, M., & Doppleman, I. F. (1971). Profile of Mood States. San Diego, CA: Educational
and Industrial Testing Service. McNemar, Q. (1962). Psychological statistics (3rd ed).
New York, NY: Wiley. Medrano, L. A., & Trógolo, M. A. (2018). Employee well-being
and life satisfaction in Argentina: The contribution of psychological detachment from
work. Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 34, 69-81.
https://doi.org/10.5093/jwop2018a9 Mehmet A. Orhan, M. A., Rijsman, J. B., & van Dijk,
G. M. (2016). Invisible, therefore isolated: Comparative effects of team virtuality with
task virtuality on workplace isolation and work outcomes. Journal of Work and
Organizational Psychology, 32, 109-122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. rpto.2016.02.002
Olaniyan, O. S., & Hystad, S. W. (2016). Employees’ psychological capital, job satisfaction,
insecurity, and intentions to quit: The direct and indirect effects of authentic leadership.
Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 32, 163-71.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rpto.2016.09.003 Paulhus, D. L., Robins, R. W., Trzesniewski, K.
H., & Tracy, J. L. (2004). Two replicable suppressor effects in personality research.
Multivariate Behavioral Research, s15327906mbr3902_7 39, 303-328.
https://doi.org/10.1207/ Pavot, W., & Diener, E. (1993). Review of the satisfaction with
life scale. Psychological Assessment, 5, 164-172.
https://doi.org/10.1037/10403590.5.2.164 Perilla-Toro, L. E., Gómez-Ortiz, V. (2017).
Relationship of transformational leadership style with employee health and well-being:
The mediating role of trust in the leader. Journal of Work and Organizational
Psychology, 33, 95-108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rpto.2017.02.005 Raman, P.,
Sambasivan, M., & Kumar, N. (2016). Counterproductive work behavior among frontline
government employees: Role of personality, emotional intelligence, affectivity,
emotional labor, and emotional exhaustion. Journal of Work and Organizational
Psychology, 32, 25-37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rpto.2015.11.002 Rahm, T., Heise, E., &
Schuldt, M. (2017). Measuring the frequency of emotions- validation of the scale of
positive and negative experience (SPANE) in Germany. PLOS One, 12(2), e0171288.
https://doi.org/10.1371/ journal.pone.0171288 Salgado, J. F. (1998). Sample size in
validity studies of personnel selection. Journal of Occupational and Organizational
Psychology, 71, 161-164. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8325.1998.tb00669.x Salgado, J.
F., Anderson, N., Moscoso, S., Bertua, C., De Fruyt, F., & Rolland, J. P. (2003). A meta-
analytic study of GMA validity for different occupations in the European Community.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 10681081. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-
9010.88.6.1068 Salgado, J. F., & Moscoso, S. (1996). Meta-analysis of the interrater
reliability of job performance ratings in validity studies of personnel selection.
Perceptual and Motor Skills, 83, 1195-1201. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.83.3f.1195
Salgado, J. F., Moscoso, S., & Anderson, N. (2016). Correction for criterion reliability
in validity generalization: The consistency of Hermes, the utility of Midas. Journal of
Work and Organizational Psychology, 32, 17-23.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rpto.2015.12.001 Salgado, J. F., Moscoso, S., & Berges, A.
(2013). Conscientiousness, its facets, and the prediction of job performance ratings:
Evidence against the narrow measures. International Journal of Selection and
Assessment, 21, 74-84. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijsa12018 Salgado, J. F., Moscoso, S.,
Sanchez, J. I., Alonso, P., Choragwicka, B., & Berges, A. (2015). Validity of the five-factor
model and their facets: The impact of performance measure and facet residualization on
the bandwidthfidelity dilemma. European Journal of Work and Organizational
Psychology, 24, 325-349. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432x.2014.903241 Schmidt, F. L.,
& Hunter, J. E. (1996). Measurement error in psychological research: Lessons from 26
research scenarios. Psychological Methods, 1, 199-223. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-
989X.1.2.199 Schmidt, F. L, & Hunter, J. E. (2015). Methods of meta-analysis (third
edition). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Schmidt, F. L. Shaffer, J. A., & Oh, I.-S. (2008). Increased
accuracy for range restriction corrections: implications for the role of personality and
general mental ability in job and training performance. Personnel Psychology, 61, 827-
868. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.17446570.2008.00132.x Shacham, S. (1983). A
shorthened version of the Profile of Mood states. Journal of Personality Assessment, 47,
305-306. https://doi.org/10.1207/ s15327752jpa4703_14 Silva, A. J., & Caetano, A.
(2013). Validation of the flourishing scale and scale of positive and negative experience
in Portugal. Social Indicators Research, 110, 469-478. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-
011-9938-y Sobel, M. E. (1982). Asymptotic confidence intervals for indirect effects in
structural equation models. Sociological Methodology, 13, 290-312.
https://doi.org/10.2307/270723 Spector, P. E., Chen, P. Y., & O’Connell, B. J. (2000). A
longitudinal study of relations between job stressors and job strains while controlling for
prior negative affectivity and strains. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 211-218.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.85.2.211 Staw, B. M., Sutton, R. I., & Pelled, L. H
(1994). Employee positive emotion and favourable outcomes at the workplace.
Organization Studies, 5, 51-71. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.5.1.51 Tait, M., Padgett, M.
Y., & Baldwin, T. T. (1989). Job satisfaction and life satisfaction: A reevaluation of the
strength of the relationship and gender effects as a function of the date of the study.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 502-507. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-
9010.74.3.502 Taris, T. W. (2006). Is there a relationship between burnout and objectively
recorded performance? A critical review of 16 studies. Work and Stress, 20, 316-334.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02678370601065893 Taris, T. W., & Schreurs, P. J. G. (2009).
Well-being and organizational performance: An organizational-level test of the happy-
productive worker hypothesis. Work and Stress, 23, 120-136. https://doi.
org/10.1080/0267837090307 Telef, B. B. (2015). The positive and negative experience
scale adaptation for Turkish university students. European Scientific Journal, 11, 49-59.
Tellegen, A. (1982). Multidimensional personality questionnaire manual (unpublished
manuscript). Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota. Minneapolis, MN.
Vazquez, C., Duque, A., & Hervás, G. (2013). Satisfaction with life scale in a representative
sample of Spanish adults: Validation and normative data. Spanish Journal of Psychology,
16, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1017/ sjp.2013.9 Veenhoven, R. (1997). Advances in the
understanding of happiness. Revue Québecoise de Psychologie, 18, 29-74. Viswesvaran,
C., Ones, D., & Schmidt, F. L. (1996). Comparative analysis of the reliability of job
performance ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 557-574.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.81.4.557 Wadhawan, K. (2016). Psychological well-
being as a predictor to performance and job satisfaction. International Journal of
Academic Research and Development, 1, 1-3. Warr, P. (2013). Sources of happiness and
unhappiness in the workplace: A combined perspective. Journal of Work and
Organizational Psychology, 29, 99-106. https://doi.org/10.5093/tr2013a15 Watson, D.,
Clark, L. A., Chmielewski, M., & Kotov, R. (2013). The value of suppressor effects in
explicating the construct validity of symptom measures. Psychological Assessment, 25,
929-941. https://doi. org/10.1037/a0032781 Wright, T. A., & Bonnett, D. G. (2007).
Job satisfaction and psychological well-being as nonadditive predictors of workplace
turnover. Journal of Management, 33, 141-160.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206306297582 Wright, T. A., & Bonnett, D. G., & Sweeney,
P. A. (1993). Mental health and work performance: Results of a longitudinal field study.
Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 66, 277-284. https://doi.
org/10.1111/j.2044-8325.1993.tb00539.x Wright, T. A., & Cropanzano, R. (2000).
Psychological well-being and job satisfaction as predictors of job performance. Journal of
Occupational Health Psychology, 5, 84-94. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.5.1.84
Wright, T. A., Cropanzano, R., & Bonnett, D. G. (2007). The moderating role of employee
positive well being on the relation between job satisfaction and job performance. Journal
of Occupational Health Psychology, 12, 93-104. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-
8998.12.2.93 Wright, T. A., Cropanzano, R., Denney, P. J., & Moline, G. L. (2002). When a
happy worker is a productive worker: A preliminary examination of three models.
Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science/Revue Canadienne des Sciences du
Comportement, 34, 146-150. https://doi. org/10.1037/h0087165 Wright, T. A., & Staw,
B. A. (1999). Affect and favourable work outcomes: Two longitudinal tests of the happy-
productive worker thesis. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20, 1-23.
https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)10991379(199901)20:1<1::AID-JOB885>3.0.CO;2-W Yin, P.,
& Fan, X. (2001). Estimating R2 Shrinkage in multiple regression: A comparison of
different analytical methods. Journal of Experimental Education, 69, 203-224.
https://doi.org/10.1080/002200970109600656 Youssef, C., & Luthans, F. (2007). Positive
organizational behavior in the workplace: The impact of hope, optimism, and
resilience. Journal of Management, 33, 774-800.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206307305562

ARTICLE INFO:
Received: May 26, 2011
Final revision: October 30, 2011
Keywords: Job autonomy, Job Satisfaction, Job performance, Job Stress, Self efficacy
Corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT:
The purpose of this research was to examine the relationship between job autonomy and
work outcomes (job performance, job satisfaction and job stress), self efficacy as a
mediating variable. This research also investigated the impact of job satisfaction on job
performance and job stress on job performance. Variables in this research were
measured via a survey of 190 banking salespersons in D.I. Yogyakarta and Solo.
Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) were used to examine the effects of job autonomy
on work outcomes, job satisfaction on job performance, and job stress on job
performance. Results showed that the estimated model in this research is acceptable
based on its score of the goodness of fit index. The structural relationship showed that
job autonomy significantly related to job satisfaction and performance, but not significant
with job stress. It also showed that self efficacy partially mediated the relationship
between job autonomy and job satisfaction, and job performance. In addition, this
research found that self efficacy not mediated the relationship between job autonomy
and job stress. There was no significant relationship between job autonomy and job
performance but this research showed that job satisfaction significantly related to job
performance. Finally, these results had an important implication to managers in designing
job.
P revious researches have been used job autonomy to predict and test the effects of job
design on work outcomes. These researches describe that job autonomy became the critical
antecedent for many positive work outco© 2011 IRJBS, All rights reserved. mes. Gellatly and
Irving (2001), Langfred and Moye (2004) found the positive effects of job autonomy on job
performance. Job autonomy enhances performance because workers with high job autonomy will
perceive that he/she trusted to perform the researches have been used job autonomy to
predict and test the effects of job design on work outcomes. These researches
describe that job autonomy became the critical antecedent for many positive work
outco© 2011 IRJBS, All rights reserved. mes. Gellatly and Irving (2001), Langfred and
Moye (2004) found the positive effects of job autonomy on job performance. Job
autonomy enhances performance because workers with high job autonomy will perceive
that he/she trusted to perform the task. This perceives positively effects their intrinsic
motivation and the effectiveness in working. Several researches found positive
association between job autonomy and job satisfaction (DeCarlo and Agarwal, 1999; Finn,
2001; Liu et al., 2005; Nguyen et al., 2003; Thompson and Prottas, 2005). Workers that
given high autonomy will fell that the results of their job are determined by their efforts,
actions and decisions so, they will fell more satisfied. Another work outcomes that
related to job autonomy is job stress. Job autonomy allow individuals to limit their
exposure to stressors and able to choose their task or allow individuals to limit the more
stressful tasks, thereby reducing feelings of threat and encouraging positive coping
behaviors (Elsass dan Veiga, 1997). Thompson and Prottas (2005) support this finding.
They found that job autonomy significantly negative to job stress, turnover intention, and
work and family conflict. Furthermore, Kauffeld (2006), Nonaka et al., (2000) in Smith et
al. (2003) also found positive association between job autonomy and worker’s
competency and creativity. Generally speaking, researches in job autonomy have
showed the consistent relationship between job autonomy and work outcomes.
However, research on job autonomy has left several questions unanswered. This
present study focuses on question: what are the processes by which job autonomy
effects work outcomes? To answer that question, this research used self efficacy as
an intervening variable between job autonomy and work outcomes. According to Gist
and Mitchell (1992), self efficacy is an important motivational construct. It influences
individual choices, goals, emotional reactions, efforts, coping and persistence. Self
efficacy also changes as a result of learning, experience, and feedback. To the extent
that autonomy is high, work outcomes will be viewed by employees as depending
substantially on their own efforts, initiatives, and decisions, rather than on the
adequacy of instructions from the boss or in a manual of procedures. This condition
has positive effects on employees’ self efficacy judgment because they perceive
themselves as more capable and more resourceful thereby increasing their self efficacy
(Wang dan Netemeyer, 2002). Employee with high self efficacy will put forth more
effort and is more likely to persist when encountering obstacles or negative experiences
(Kreitner and Kinicki, 2004).On the other hand, employee with low self efficacy is apt to
give up, believing the difficulties merely prove that he or she was unable to do the job.
Self efficacy also has a significant positive correlation with job satisfaction, job
performance and job stress. Employees’ satisfaction increases because the feeling of
competence and confidence that accompany self efficacy make job the more enjoyable
and able to coping the stressor in the workplace. Therefore, job design with high
autonomy will be powerful in influence employees’ performance, satisfaction and reduce
job stress through increased self efficacy. Finally, by setting self efficacy as an intervening
variable between job autonomy and work outcomes (performance, satisfaction and
job stress), this research is going to explain the process of job autonomy effects work
outcomes. This study is important for the following reasons. First, it contributes to the
literature by used self efficacy to explain how job autonomy effects work outcomes.
Second, this study also contributes an empirical evidence in investigated the
relationship within the work outcomes occurred on job autonomy, such as the effects
of job satisfaction on performance and the effects of job stress on performance. Third,
the results of this study may have important implications for human resource managers
in designing job.
Theoretical Framework and Hypotheses Development
Job Autonomy, Self Efficacy and Job Performance
Job autonomy is defined as the degree to which the job provides substantial freedom,
independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling work and in determining the
procedures to be used in carrying it out. Job autonomy is one of several core job design
characteristic (the others are skill variety, task identity, task significance and feedback
from the job) developed by Hackman and Oldham (1975). According to Hackman and
Oldham (1975), autonomy leads to the critical a psychological state of “experienced
responsibility for outcomes of the work”, which in turn leads to outcomes such as
high work effectiveness and high internal work motivation. Researches in job autonomy
have showed a consistent and positive association between job autonomy and
performance. Gellatly and Irving (2001) found positive effect of perceived autonomy on
contextual performance. Managers who report greater autonomy in their work have a
better performance than managers who report lower autonomy. Claessens et al., (2004)
found that perceived autonomy in time was positively related to job performance and job
satisfaction and negatively to work strain. According to Langfred and Moye (2004), job
autonomy enhances job performance because they perceive themselves capable and
more resourceful in performing the task. Psychologically, employee will more motivate to
do the best and leads to higher performance. Therefore, a positive linkage is
hypothesized between job autonomy and job performance.
Hypothesis 1: Job autonomy is positively related to job performance.
A high level of autonomy as perceived by employees has sends a message that
supervisor has confidence in his or her capability therefore allows the employees to carry
out the task the way he or she wish to. This message has a positive effect on employees’
self efficacy. Wang and Netemeyer (2002) test the effects of job autonomy and self
efficacy. The result showed a positive association between job autonomy and self
efficacy. The higher job autonomy leads to higher confidence in performing the task.
According to Bandura (1997), this confidence will affect the effort invested to attain
the best performance. Therefore, a positive linkage is hypothesized between job
autonomy, self efficacy and job performance.
Hypothesis-2: Job autonomy is positively related to job performance, self efficacy as
an intervening variable.
Job autonomy, Self Efficacy and Job Satisfaction Job autonomy is believed could
influence job satisfaction. More autonomy is expected to be associated with greater
job satisfaction because employees have more freedom to determine their own effort
and work schedule. Previous research in this area has been found the significant and
consistent results. Morrison et al. (2005) explain that job autonomy became a critical
factor in enhancing employees’ intrinsic motivation and job satisfaction. Finn (2001)
found that job autonomy became the important component in nurses’ job satisfaction.
Cuyper and Witte (2005) also support this finding; job autonomy is found significantly
effect job satisfaction both permanent and temporaries employment. A cross cultural
study by DeCarlo and Agarwal (1999) examines the effects of job autonomy on
salesperson’s job satisfaction. In general, this study finding suggests perceived job
autonomy is an important antecedent to job satisfactions among salesperson from
Australia, India and U.S. Therefore, it is hypothesized that:
Hypothesis-3: Job autonomy is positively related to job satisfaction
Job autonomy will enhance employees’ self efficacy because they fell they can go
about job basically by themselves without much guidance, resulting in a stronger
autonomy-efficacy linkage. Research indicates that high job autonomy enhances
employee feelings that job outcomes are a result of his/her efforts (Wang and
Netemeyer,2002; DeCarlo and Agarwal, 1999). In addition, the feeling of job personal
responsibility leads employees to develop favorable affective and behavioral reactions to
their job thereby increasing job satisfaction. Cohrs et al. (2006) examined the effects of
self efficacy on job satisfaction and found a positive association. According to Bandura
(1997) individual with high self efficacy will have greater job satisfaction because the
feelings of competence and confidence that accompany self efficacy make the job
more enjoyable (Purwanto, 2002). Therefore, it is hypothesized that:
Hypothesis-4: Job autonomy is positively related to job satisfaction, self efficacy as
an intervening variable.
Some researchers suggest that the need for personal control may be an intrinsic,
ongoing desire (Elsass and Veiga, 1997). Although the need for personal control appears
to vary among individuals, as well as across time and situations in a single individual, it
may be that a desire for personal control is an inherent motivation. Therefore, when
individual loss of control in her/ his work (low job autonomy), it will associated with
increased level of stress.
Previous researches have documented compelling evidence linking how level of job
autonomy with the incidence of negative stress-related outcomes. High job autonomy
will leads to reducing job stress because the presence of control may encourage
individuals to believe positive outcomes are possible, thereby reducing feelings of
threat (Spector, 1986; Elsass and Veiga, 1997). Karasek (1979) examined the effects of
job control and level of depression and the result show that job control has a negative
association with employees’ level of depression. The higher job autonomy, the lower
level of stress he/she have. This condition happens because high autonomy allows
employees to carry out the job the way he/she wishes to and lead to reducing feelings of
threat. Therefore, a negative linkage is hypothesized between job autonomy and job
stress.
Hypothesis 5: Job autonomy is negatively related to job stress.
The literature suggests that people’s perception on job autonomy enhance their self
efficacy because this autonomous job allows people to use their skill, knowledge, and
creativity to choose and formulate sales strategies without others’ interference.
According to Bandura (1997), people with high self efficacy will more likely to persist
when encountering obstacles or negative experiences. Therefore, it is hypothesized that:
Hypothesis-6: Job autonomy is negatively related to job stress, self efficacy as an
intervening variable.
Job Satisfaction and Job Performance
Perhaps the most controversial issues that have evolved from behavior research is the
job satisfaction and job performance relationship. Previous researchers identified the
following viewpoints that have been assumed by theorists with respect to the satisfaction
and performance relationship. First, satisfaction causes performance. Second,
performance causes satisfaction. Third, the satisfaction and performance relationship is
moderated by a number of other variables. Meta analysis conducted by Petty et al. (1984)
found that the first viewpoint (satisfaction causes performance) is stronger and more
consistent than others viewpoints. Engko (2006) also support this finding; job satisfaction
found has a significant and positive effect on job performance with path coefficient
0,252. Therefore, it is hypothesized that:
Hypothesis -7: Job autonomy is positively related to job performance
Job Stress and Job Performance
Understanding job stress is a major concern of organization research because it has
been shown to play a role in a number of key jobrelated attitudes (organizational
commitment, job satisfaction) and behavior, such as turnover (Sager, 1994). Moreover,
stress can lead to physical illness and chronic diseases such as heart disease, mental ill-
health, depression or other problems such as alcoholism (Eckles, 1987 in Moncrief et al.
1997). Narayanan et al. (1999) examined stressful incidents at work for three different
occupations (clerical workers, university professors and sales associates). Lack of control
and work overload were reported as major stressors by clerical group and interpersonal
conflict as a major stressor by the academic and sales group. Gender differences in stress
were also found in this research. Therefore, it can be conclude that stress occurred in all
kind of job and affects the individual, group and organization’s performance. Therefore, it
is hypothesized that:
Hypothesis -8: Job stress is positively related to job performance
METHODS
Sample and Data Collection
Data were obtained from banking salesperson in Yogyakarta and Solo, Indonesia.
Purposive sampling is used as sampling method so several criteria was applied to this
study. The respondents have been working with those companies for more than 3
months. According to Gist and Mitchell (1992), judgments about self efficacy become
more routinized and automatic as experience with a task increases. Therefore, setting 3
months as a criterion is relevant in reducing bias in answer self efficacy, job satisfaction,
job stress and job performance. A total of 230 questionnaires were distributed to the
salesperson directly through coordination with supervisor and area sales manager. A total
190 questionnaires with complete responses were returned directly to the researcher.
Therefore, the response rate in this study is 89, 13 %. The average age of the
respondents was 26-35 years, 56,3 percent of the respondents were male and 67,9
percent received a 4-years college degree or higher education. The respondents have
been affiliated with the companies for an average of 2 years, and their range selling
experience was 2-6 years. This study used Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to
examined proposed model on figure 1. Samples used in this research are 190
salespersons and this amount are not meets the requirement of MLE based on total
amount of estimated parameters (minimal 335 samples). This lackness will effects on
identification model process. Therefore, researcher used two step approach on SEM
which each construct will be composite first so total amount of estimated parameter can
be reduced based on total amount of sample collected.
Analysis
Data analysis was conducted in two stages. First, checking for data entry includes validity
and reliability, identification outliers and normality of the data. Second, testing of the fit
model was conducted by using Structural Equation Modelling (SEM). Two-Step Approach
to Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) was used to test the proposed model presented
in figure 1. AMOS 4.01 computer program was utilized to run data from questionnaires.
Goodness of fit model was based on multiple indices, selected from: the chi-square value
and chi-square over degree of freedoms (normed Chi-Square), the Goodness of Fit Index
(GFI), the Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI), the Root Mean Square Error of
Approximation (RMSEA).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Validity and Reliability of Measures
Confirmatory Factor Analysis was used to asses the validity of each construct. Items with
factor loading 0.4 or greater are considered practically significant (Hair et al. 2006).
Results of Confirmatory Factor Analysis asserted that final items used in this study are 29
items. Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients were used to estimate the reliability of each
indicator in this research. Although, there was a difference criteria in Cronbach’s Alpha
coefficients, this research used 0, 6 as a criteria. According to Hair et al. (2006) this value
is threshold to accept. Table 2 provides the reliability of the measures.
Descriptive Statistic and Correlation between Construct
Descriptive statistic in this research involved mean, standard deviation and correlation
between construct. Table 3 provides the descriptive statistic and correlation between
construct. Result showed that job autonomy, self efficacy, job satisfaction and job
performance correlate and significant in 0. 01 while there is no correlation existed
between job stress and other construct.
Fixing the Error Terms and the Lambdas
This study used two-step approach to test the proposed model in figure 1. Testing
structural model using two-step approach requires value of lambda (λ) and epsilon (υ).
The measurement error (epsilon) terms were fixed at (1-a) X variance and the
corresponding lambdas-the loading from a latent construct to its corresponding indicator
were fixed at (alpha)2 X standard loading deviation. The lambdas and epsilon of the
constructs are presented in table 4.
Test of the Structural Model
Table 4 interpret the test of structural model proposed. Goodness of fit model was
assessed base on multiple indices. The result showed that the model proposed is
acceptable and has a good fit (table 5).
Test of Structural Relationship
After the criteria of goodness of fit have been fulfilled, the test of structural relationship is
conducted. The relationship between constructs in output AMOS 4.01 showed by value of
standardized regression weight. According to Hair et al. (2006) structural relationship is
significant if estimate parameter more than 1, 96 (significance level 0.05) and ≥ 2, 58
(significance level 0, 01). Regression weight model in this research provide in table 6.
Table 6 showed that critical ratio (CR) for relationship between job autonomy and job
performance is 2, 795 (significant at α = 0.01). It indicated that hypothesis 1 is supported;
job autonomy significantly positive related to job performance. Similarly, the test showed
a strong support for H-2. Critical ratio for relationship between job autonomy and self
efficacy is 9. 459 and self efficacy on performance is 2.151. It means that, self efficacy
partially mediated the relationship between job autonomy and job performance. This
study also support hypothesis 3; CR for job autonomy on job satisfaction is 2.097
(significant at α = 0.05). It indicated that the higher level of job autonomy, the higher
level of job satisfaction. Critical ratio for job autonomy on self efficacy, and self efficacy
on job satisfaction also significant at 0,01. Therefore, self efficacy partially mediated the
relationship between job autonomy and job satisfaction (H-4 supported). Furthermore,
critical ratio for job autonomy on job stress is 0, 079 and it lower than criterion required.
Therefore, this research did not support hypothesis 5. It indicated that there is no
significant relationship existed between job autonomy and job stress. Similarly, CR for job
autonomy on self efficacy is 9, 459 (significant at 0, 01) and CR for self efficacy on job
stress 0, 240 (not significant). Based on this, this research did not support hypothesis 6.
Self efficacy did not mediate the relationship between job autonomy and job stress. In
addition, this research supports the hypothesis 7. The results showed that critical ratio for
job satisfaction on job performance is 2, 345 (significant at 0, 05). The higher job
satisfaction, the higher job performance. Table 5 also showed that CR for job stress on
job performance is 0, 043 and lower than 1, 96 (not significant). So, it can be conclude
that there is no significant relationship existed between job autonomy and job
performance. This research’s result showed that job autonomy positively related to
performance. This finding support the study conducted by Gellatly and Gregory (2001).
The higher salesperson perceives job autonomy will lead to increasing job performance.
Job autonomy affects salesperson’s performance because through job autonomy,
salesperson granted responsibility and independence to perform their work.
Psychologically, salesperson will more motivate which in turn leads to outcomes such as
high self efficacy. According to Bandura (1997) individual with high self efficacy will put
forth more effort to attain the best performance. Therefore, similar with the result, self
efficacy partially mediated job autonomy on job performance (H-2 supported). This
research also support that job autonomy positively related to job satisfaction. This results
support the study conducted by Morrison et al. (2005) which found that job autonomy
became an important factor for employee’s job satisfaction. High autonomy affects
salesperson’s perception about their job. They will fell that the results of their job are
determined by their efforts, actions and decisions. This condition changes their
judgement of self efficacy and behavior in performing the job which leads to increasing
self efficacy and job satisfaction. Therefore, we can conclude that job autonomy enhance
job satisfaction through self efficacy (H-4 supported). Job autonomy negatively related to
job stress (Elsass and Veiga, 1997; Karasek, 1979; Spector, 1979). Job autonomy allows
salesperson to carry out the job with the way he/she wishes to which leads to reducing
feeling of threat. This condition creates a comfortable work environment and reducing
job stress. This research did not support this relationship. There is no significant
relationship existed between job autonomy and job stress. Table 2 reported that
salesperson’s job stress is lower than other variables (autonomy, satisfaction,
performance and self efficacy). This research also did not find the role of self efficacy in
mediated job autonomy on job stress. This inconsistency result occurred because of
several factors. First, there are many antecedents of job stress. Salespersons might be
exposed to the same stressors but they experience different stress levels or different
stress symptoms. This happens because of individuals differences. Each of
salespersons perceives the same situation differently. Each salesperson also has different
thresholds of resistance to a stressor and different way to coping stressors (Greenberg
and Baron, 2003). These individual difference may be the causes inconsistency the
relationship between job autonomy and job stress. Second, job experience may be
effects the level of salesperson’s job stress. Based on respondent’s demography in this
research, 34, 21% of salespersons have been working as a salesperson for 2 until 6 years
while 31, 57% have been working less than two years. Job experience enhances
salesperson’s belief that he or she has the ability to complete a task and coping the
stressors successfully. Gist and Mitchell (1992) state that judgments about self efficacy
become more routinized and automatic as experience with a task increases. Third, each
salesperson has a difference perception on stressful circumstance. Stress involves
people’s cognitive appraisal of the potential stressors they face (Greenberg and Baron,
2003). Job autonomy shapes important factor in influencing salesperson’s behavior,
namely self efficacy. Self efficacy changes salesperson’s perception about stressful
circumstance. Salespersons perceive stressors as challenge rather than threat in work.
This condition may be the causes of insignificance the role of self efficacy in mediated the
relationship between job autonomy and job stress. The testing of seventh hypothesis
showed that job satisfaction positively related to job performance. Satisfied salesperson
will put forth more effort and leads to increasing job performance. This result support
Engko’s (2006) study which states that satisfied worker is an effective worker. Finally,
this research did not found significant relationship between job stress and performance
(H-7). A Meta analytic test by Lepine et al. (2005) report that inconsistent relationship
among stress and performance is occurred because of previous researches did not
distinguishes among positive and negative stress. Positive stress (challenge stress) is a
stressful demands viewed by manager/ organization as obstacles to be overcome in order
to learn and achieve. Negative stress (hindrance stress) is a stressful demands viewed by
manager/ organization as unnecessarily thwarting personal growth and goal attainment.
Therefore, Lepine et al. (2005) suggests that in further research stress must be
distinguishes positive and negative stress. In this research stress is treated as negative
stress and it may cause the insignificance of job stress on job performance.
MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS
This research has an important implication to managers in designing job. Specifically, the
implication designed to banking sector due to recent research contects. First, grant high
autonomy will lead to increasing intrinsic motivation thereby increasing self efficacy, job
performance and satisfaction. Consequently, managers must grant salesperson the
freedom in performing the job in two facets; work method autonomy and work schedule
autonomy. Second, the significance of job satisfaction in job performance has been
shown by this study. Consequently, manager must find way to increase salesperson’s job
satisfaction. Job satisfaction can be increase by granting job autonomy, provide a
conducive work environments through reward and punishment system, physical work
environment, facility, social support, and supervisor support.
Limitation and Further Study
There are four limitations worth noting in this study. First, this investigates is limited in
scope of banking salesperson’s which reducing in external validity. So, in further study
should involve other salespersons in different industry. Second, the final sample used in
this study is relatively small which causes in difficulties fitting models with data. As a
consequently, the research conducted two step approach to estimate the model
proposed. Third, a self-report job performance measure was used in this study. This may
be contained bias in capture the phenomena. So, in further study objective performance
measure or multi-rater should be used to assess the job performance. Forth, this
research treats stress as a negative stress and did not distinguish between negative
and positive stress. However, researcher have been interviewed the supervisor, area
sales manager and several salespersons to get the phenomena about stress in their
workplace.
CONCLUSION
The purpose of this research is to examine the relationship between job autonomy and
work outcomes (job performance, job satisfaction and job stress), self efficacy as a
mediating variable. This research also investigates the impact of job satisfaction on job
performance and job stress on job performance. Based on the results, can be concluding
that: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Structural model estimated in this research acceptable fit to the
data. It can be seen in several criterion of goodness of fit, such as: Chi-Square (0,494);
Significance Probability (0,482); RMSEA (0,000); GFI (0,999); CMIN/DF (0,494); TLI
(1,026); CFI (1, 00); NFI (0, 998). Job autonomy positively related to job performance and
satisfaction. The higher autonomy will leads to increasing salesperson’s job performance
and job satisfaction. Self efficacy partially mediated the relationship between job
autonomy and job satisfaction, and relationship between job autonomy performances.
Job autonomy did not relate to job stress. Self efficacy also did not mediate the
relationship between job autonomy and job stress. Individual difference may be the
causes of insignificant this relationship. Job satisfaction positively related to job
performance. Satisfied salespersons will positively effects their intrinsic motivation and
the effectiveness in working. Job stress did not relate to job performance. This condition
happens because this research did not distinguish between negative and positive stress
which lead to bias.

REFERENCES
Bandura, Albert. (1997). Self-efficacy: The Exercise of Control. W.H. Freemand and
company. Brought, James A. (1999). Futher Investigation of The Work Autonomy Scales:
Two Studies. Journal of Business and Psychology. Vol. 13, No. 3, Spring. Claessens,
Brigitte; Eerde, Wendelien; Rutte,Christel; Roe, Robert (2004). Planning Behavior and
Perceived control of time at Work. Journal of Organizational Behavior. Vol. 25, pp.937-
950 Cohrs, J. Christopher; Abele, Andrea E. & Dette, Dorothea E. (2006). Integrating
Situational and Dispositional Determinants of Job Satisfaction: Findings From Three
Samples of Professionals. The Journal of Psychology. Vol. 140, No. 4, pg. 363-395.
Cuyper, Nele De & Witte, Hans De (2006). Autonomy and Workload Among Temporary
Workers: Their Effects on Job Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment, Life Satisfaction,
and Self-Rated Performance. International Journal of Stress Management. Vol.13, No.4,
pg. 441-459
Denton, David W. & Lawrence S. Kleiman (2001). Job Tenure as a Moderator of The
Relationship Between Autonomy and Satisfaction. Applied H.R.M. Research. Vol. 21, No.
2, pg. 105-114. DeCarlo, Thomas, E. & Sanjeev Agarwal (1999). Influence of Managerial
Behaviors and Job Autonomy on Job Satisfaction of Industrial Salespersons. Industrial
Marketing Management. Vol. 28, pg. 51-62. Engko, Cecilia (2006). Pengaruh Kepuasan
Kerja Terhadap Kinerja Individual Dengan Self-Esteem dan Self-Efficacy sebagai Variabel
Intervening. Simposium Nasional Akuntansi 9 Padang. K-AMEN 06. Elsass, Priscilla M. &
Veiga, John F. (1997). Job Control and Job Strain: A Test of Three Models. Journal of
Occupational Health Psychology. Vol. 2, No. 3, pg. 195-211 Finn, C.P. (2001) Autonomy:
an important component for nurses’ job satisfaction. International Journal of Nursing
Studies. Vol.38, pg.349-357 Gellatly, Ian R. & Irving P., Gregory (2001). Personality,
Autonomy and Contextual Performance for Managers. Human Performance, Vol.43, No.3,
pg. 231-245 Gist, Marilyn E., & Terence R. Mitchell. (1992). Self-efficacy: A Theoritical
Analysis of Its Determinants and Malleability. Academy of Management Review. Vol. 17,
No. 2, pg. 183-211 Hair, J. F. Jr.; Anderson, R.E.; Tatham, R.L. & Black, W.C. (2006).
Multivariate Data Analysis, 6th edition. Upper Saddle River, Prentice Hall International,
Inc. Karasek, R. A. (1979). Job Demands, Job Decision Latitude and Mental Strain:
Implications for Job Redesign. Administrative Science Quarterly. Vol. 24. pg. 285-310.
Kauffeld, Simone. (2006). Self-directed Work Groups and Team Competence. Journal of
Occupational and Organizational Psychology. Vol. 79, pg. 1-21. Kreitner, Robert and
Angelo Kinicki (2004). Organizational Behavior. 6th edition. McGraw Hill Companies, Inc.
Langfred, Claus W. & Moye Neta, A. (2004). Effects of Task Autonomy on Performance:
An Extended Model Considering Motivational, Informational and Structural Mechanisms.
Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol.89, No.6, 934-945 LePine, Jeffery; Podsakoff, Nathan &
LePine, Marcie. (2005). A Meta Analytic Test of The Challenge Stressor-Hindrance
Stressors Framework: An Explanation For Inconsistent Relationships Among Stressors and
Performance. Academy of Management Journal. Vol. 48, No. 5, pg. 764-775. Liu, Cong;
Spector, Paul E.; Jex, Steve (2005). The relation of job control with job strains: A
comparison of multiple data sources. Journal of Occupational and Organizational
Psychology. Vol. 78 pg. 325-336 Miao, C. Fred; Evans, Kenneth R. & Zou, Shaoming.
(2007). The Role of Salesperson Motivation in Sales Control SysytemIntrinsic and Extrinsic
Motivation Revisted. Journal of Business Research. Vol. 60, pg. 417-425. Moncrief,
William; Babakus, Emin; Craven, David & Johnston, Mark. (1997) Examining the
Antecedents and Consequences of Salespersons Job Stress. European Journal of
Marketing. Vol. 31, No. 11/12, pg. 786-798 Morrison, David; Cordery John; Antonia
Girardi & Roy Payne (2005). Job design, Opportunities For Skill Utilization and Instrinsic
Job Satisfaction. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology. Vol. 14, No.1,
59-79 Narayanan, Lakshmi; Menon, Shanker & Spector, Paul E. (1999). Stress in the
Workplace: A Comparison of Gender and Occupations. Journal of Organizational
Behavior. Vol. 20, No. 1, pg. 63-73 Nguyen, Anh Ngoc., Jim Taylor & Steve Bradley. (2003).
Job Autonomy and Job Satisfaction: A New Evidence. Working Paper. Petty, M.,M., Gail,
W. McGee & Jerry W. Cavender (1984). A Meta Analysis of The Relationship Between
Individual Job Satisfaction and Individual Performance. Academy of Management Review.
Vol. 9, No. 4, pg. 712-721. Sager, J.K. (1994). A Structural Model Depicting Salespeople’s
Job Stress. Journal of The Academy Of Marketing Science. Vol. 22, No. 1. pg. 74-84.
Simmering, Marcia, J.; Noe, Raymond, A; Colquitt, Jason, A.; Porter, Christopher (2003).
Conscientiousness, Autonomy Fit and Development: A Longitudinal Study. Journal of
Applied Psychology, Vol. 88, No. 5. pg. 954-963 Singelmann, Joachim, & Mencken F.
Carson (1992). Job Autonomy and Industrial Sector in Five Advanced Industrial
Coountries. Social Science Quarterly, Vol.73, No. 4. Smith, Eugene Sadler; Ghada El-Kod;
Mike Leat (2003). Differentiating work autonomy facets in a Non-Western Context.
Journal of Organizational Behavior. Vol.24, Iss.6, pg. 709 Spector, P. E. (1986). Perceived
Control by Employee: A Meta-analysis of studies concerning autonomy and participation
at work. Human Relations. Vol. 39. pg. 1005-1016. Thompson, Cynthia A., & David J.
Prottas (2005). Relationship Among Organizational Family Support, Job Autonomy,
Perceived Control, and Employee Well-Being. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology.
Vol. 10, No. 4, pg. 100-118. Wang, Guangping & Netemeyer, Richard (2002). The Effects
of Job Autonomy, Customer Demandingness, and Trait Competitiveness on Salesperson
Learning, Self efficacy and Performance. Journal of The Academy of Marketing Science.
Vol. 30, No.3, pg. 217-228.

Organizational support and perceived environment impact

on quality of care and job satisfaction: a study with
Pakistani nurses
Muhammad Shakil Ahmad
Sohar University, Sohar, Oman

Massimiliano Barattucci
Dipartimento di Scienze Umane e Sociali, Universita degli Studi di Bergamo, Bergamo, Italy

Thurasamy Ramayah
School of Management, Universiti Sains Malaysia, George Town, Malaysia

Tiziana Ramaci
Facolta di Scienze dell’Uomo e della Societa, Universita degli Studi di Enna “Kore”, Enna, Italy, and

Narmeen Khalid
COMSATSUniversity Islamabad -Attock Campus, Attock, Pakistan.

Abstract
Purpose–Referringtothetheoryoforganizational empowerment,
thepurposeofthisstudyistoexaminethe relationship of organizational support and perceived
environment on quality of care and job satisfaction, with organizational commitment as a
mediator for the first variable.

Design/methodology/approach –This study employed a cross-sectional research design and data

was collected from seven private and public sector hospitals in Pakistan, involving 352 nurses on a
voluntary basis through a self-administered survey.

Findings –The results showed that organizational commitment mediates the relationship
between organizational support and job satisfaction with the quality of care. Moreover, the
perceived environment has an impact on job satisfaction and quality of care.

Originality/value –Healthcare service quality seems strictly dependent on the perceived quality of
care and job satisfaction among healthcare workers. Theoretical and practical implications for
policymakers and HR management are discussed. Keywords Organizational support,
Organizational commitment, Quality of care, Job satisfaction, Perceived environment, Nursing
sector Paper type Research paper.

Introduction
The healthcare industry plays a significant role in delivering quality healthcare services (Shabbir et
al., 2016), and more and more contributions indicate that the latter seems highly dependent on
the quality of care and job satisfaction among nursing staff (Hamid et al.,2014). Some literature
indications (e.g. Busse et al., 2019; Mosadeghrad, 2014) highlighted that healthcare consumers
place extreme importance on service quality and care standards, and for that reason, in almost all
healthcare organizations, quality of care is given great importance. AlMailam(2005) and
Tzengetal.(2002) highlightedthree factors considered as key contributors to nursing care quality:
(1) satisfaction of patients, (2) well-being of patients and (3) the healthcare organization’s
performance. Furthermore, it is necessary to consider that healthcare workers well-being and
turnover intention seems directly associated with how they perceive their workplace
environment, both in terms of internal environmental factors and the functioning of the offered
services (Choi et al., 2004; Mulugeta et al., 2019). Furthermore, job satisfaction is also related to
the level of stress experienced by the nurses, while job stress has a direct relationship with the
working environment (Guo et al., 2019; Ramaci et al., 2020). There
reaplethoraofstudiesthatempirically showtherelationship betweenthepractice environment of
nurses and nurses’ quality of care and job satisfaction (e.g. Lopez-Ibort et al., 2021; Pahlevan
Sharif et al., 2018). Despite that, there is still a need to explore the mechanism underlying the
organizational support perception and nurse’s outcome effects, especially as regards the
contribution and role of motivational aspects such as commitment (Dinc et al., 2018; Ridwan et
al., 2020). According to Labrague et al. (2018a), organizational commitment can be determined by
the following three factors: (1) employees’ emotional connection with the organization (Affective
Commitment), (2) the cost that they perceive they will receive in the event of organizational exit
(Continuance) and (3) their moral duty toward organizational stay (Normative Commitment).
Previous studies have elaborated on the relationship between Organizational Commitment and
nurses’ outcomes, and Job Engagement and Work Effectiveness seem to be directly linked with
the Organizational Commitment of nurses (Diana et al.,2022; Labrague et al., 2018b, 2021).
Pakistan, as an emerging economy, has seen tremendous growth in the healthcare sector in
recent years; however, there has been limited work in the area of nurse job satisfaction and
quality of care mechanismsanddeterminants.Withdemandingworkschedulesalwaysattentive to
change, especially in countries with high development and growth, nurse’s satisfaction and
turnover are particularly under pressure, pointing to companies and research that there are some
controllable organizational factors (e.g. organizational support and environmental perceptions)
that needtobeinvestigated tobetterknowhowtheyhaveaneffectonoutcomes,alsothroughthe
possible action of motivational processes (Afsar et al.,2018; Bahalkani et al., 2011). Work
environment, organizational support, commitment and outcomes Social exchange theory argues
thatwhennursesreceiveadequatesupportfromtheir organization, in the
formofgoodandcooperativestaff,andfrommanagers,andiftherearehealthyrelationships between
nurses and physicians, combined with many other contributing factors, they will be internally
motivated to give their best, increasing their level of commitment toward their organization and
therefore, their level of productivity will increase (Atefi et al., 2014; Khomeiran et al., 2006; Javadi
and Jafari, 2013); consequently, it seems clear that a strong employee–employer relationship will
result in the form of greater quality of care and job satisfaction. Recent literature on nursing
shows that the morale and work-related outcomes of nurses are influenced by various work
environment-related factors (Alsufyani et al., 2021; Ho et al., 2021; Huyghebaert et al., 2019). The
significant impact of the work environment on the organizational commitment of nurses was also
studied using the Job Demand Resources (JD-R) model (e.g. Orgambıdez et al., 2019; Van der
Heijden et al., 2019). Moreover, Tanskanen et al. (2019) claimed that although various
mechanisms have been proposed by scholars to study the workplace environment in relation to
different work-related outcomes, the need to study workplace environment in relation to various
individual/group and organizational level outcomes still exists.

Rochefort and Clarke (2010) defined work environment as “a set of concrete or abstract features
of an organization, related to its structures and processes that are perceived by nurses as either
facilitating or constraining their professional practice” (p. 2214); according to Khanetal. (2012),
work environment factors influence the job satisfaction and organizational commitment of
employees, whereas Huyghebaert et al. (2019) claimed career advancement options were the
most significant factor in nurse satisfaction. VanBogaertetal.
(2014)studiedasampleofnursingunitmanagersandfoundthatnurses’ well-being is predicted by role
conflict and role meaningfulness; moreover, staff well-being is positively influenced by supervisor
support, whereas role conflict and role ambiguity negatively affect job satisfaction. At the same
time, the availability of support in an organization decreases the negative impact of work
overload and role conflict (Kang et al., 2011; Rodwell and Ellershaw, 2016). Therefore, perceived
organizational support is considered to be an important predictor of organizational commitment
(Kurtessis et al., 2017; Pattnaik et al., 2020; Rhoades and Eisenberger, 2002; Wang and Sun, 2011;
Wang et al., 2017). Following these indications, we hypothesized as follow: H1. Organizational
support is positively related to organizational commitment. Nurses’ quality of care has been fairly
studied, as well as its relationship with job satisfaction, organizational constraints, unit type,
procedural justice, better nurse–physician relations (Stimpfel et al., 2019), nurse turnover (Antwi
and Bowblis, 2018), positive work environment and burnout (Liu et al., 2019). However, studies
looking at the relationship between quality of care and organizational commitment, while
showing apositive relationship between the two variables, are verylimited (Dianaetal.,
2022;Lopez-Ibortet al.,2021;McNeese-Smith,2001;Naghnehetal.,2017). Basing on these
considerations, the following hypothesis has been formulated: H2. Organizational commitment is
positively related to quality of care. Job satisfaction has been an extensively studied topic for
decades, due to its significant role in employee performance and overall organizational
productivity. It has been studied with work engagement andburnout (Havenset al., 2018), ethical
climate, and organizational commitment (Paliwal and Dhanshetti, 2020; Serafin et al., 2019). Li et
al. (2018) reviewed 1,572 articles on psychological empowerment and job satisfaction and
concluded there was a significant correlation betweenmotivational aspects
andjobsatisfaction.Overall, manystudies confirmed the positive relationship between
organizational commitment and nurses’ job satisfaction (Jehangir et al.,2011; Margharei et al.,
2021; Mulugeta et al.,2019; Moustafa et al.,2019; Vanaki and Vagharseyyedin, 2009).
Consequentially, the following hypothesis has been developed: H3. Organizational commitment is
positively related to job satisfaction. Conducted
astudyinwhichtherespondentswere459nursesfrom22ICUsinChina.Liuetal. (2019) highlighted that
positive work environment results in higher job satisfaction and higher quality of care in 459
Chinese nurses. Another study (Serafin et al., 2019) on Swedish and Polish nurses revealed that
possibilities of achievement, professional skills development and promotion were strong work
environment factors that contributed toward job satisfaction and quality of care. Khowaja et al.
(2005) reported that various work environmental factors, including excessive workload, lack of
respect, lack of recognition and lack of support, are the major contributors to declined job
satisfaction in Pakistani nurses. Escriba-Ag€uir and Tenıas-Burillo (2004) suggested that employee
health and wellbeing are significantly predicted by work environment perception (Lake et al.,
2019; Oshodi et al., 2019; Wei et al., 2018). A fair number of researches have provided indications
for the positive relationship between the practice environment of nurses and nurses’ quality of
care (e.g. Bresan et al., 2021; Martins and Lucas, 2021; Pahlevan Sharif et al., 2018; Weldetsadik
et al., 2019).

Therefore, the following hypotheses have been formulated:

H4. The perceived environment is positively related to the quality of care.

H5. The perceived environment is positively related to job satisfaction.

The concept of organizational commitment was studied by Meyer and Allen (1997) and several
definitions, theories and related themes were formulated and refined. The concept of
organizational commitment has gained the attention of researchers in various fields such as
psychology (Gutierrez et al., 2012), business management (Coyle-Shapiro and Shore, 2007; Goulet
and Frank, 2002) andeducation (Buck andWatson, 2002;Cummingsetal.,2020). This is because
organizations are now trying to improve the commitment of their workers and staff, having
realized how important this is in achieving organizational goals that lead the organization toward
long-term stability (Timalsina et al., 2018). Previously, organizational commitment has been
studied with various predictors, antecedents and other organizational characteristics, or work-
related factors that could have direct or indirect relationships with this variable (Diana et al.,
2022; Klein et al., 2009; Gutierrez et al., 2012; Rodwell and Ellershaw, 2016). Conflicting results
were gathered regarding the relationship between organizational support, commitment and
satisfaction in nurses (Labrague et al., 2018b; Li et al., 2021; Timalsina et al., 2018), calling for
further investigation to explore the underlying mechanisms of the possible effect of one factor on
the other. Li et al. (2018) reviewed 1,572 articles on psychological empowerment and job
satisfaction and concluded that perceived organizational support does not influence job
outcomes such as organizational commitment, work performance, job autonomy and job
satisfaction. However, theoretical support and empirical evidence for organizational commitment
being a mediator between the many aspects of perceived organizational support and nurse
satisfaction are available (Cao et al., 2019; Kim et al., 2017; Li et al., 2021). The organizational
commitment was found to play a mediating role between, for example, authentic leadership and
job outcomes of experienced registered nurses (Guerrero et al., 2017). To the best of the author’s
knowledge, there is no study looking at the mediating role of organizational commitment in
organizational support and job outcomes for nurses (Park, 2020; Sharma and Dhar, 2016).
Therefore, the study tries to fill the existing gap in the literature, and the following hypotheses
have been developed for testing:

H6. Organizational commitment mediates the relationship between organizational support and
quality of care.

H7. Organizational commitment mediates the relationship between organizational support and
job satisfaction.

The research
Based on the above descripted rationale and integrating the contributions of both the
organizational empowerment theory (Kanter, 1993) and the social exchange theory (Cropanzano
and Mitchell, 2005), a theoretical model was developed taking into account both organizational
determinants (organizational support and perceived environment) and outcomes (quality of care
and job satisfaction), and a correlational study was designed to test it and to respond to the
different gaps in the literature: firstly, to pick out the work environment organizational
characteristics and nursing practice support relationship with nurses’ quality of care and job
satisfaction as the outcomes. Secondly, to identify the possible mediating role of organizational
commitment in the above-stated relationship. Thirdly, to investigate the effect of perceived
environment in achieving nurse’s quality of care and job satisfaction. Moreover, the study will
also contribute toward a better understanding of determinants of job outcomes and will provide
policy implications for the healthcare sector. The correlational study was designed with nurses
from the public and private sectors. The proposed relationships between variables (Figure 1) were
tested through structural equation modeling (SEM).

Participants

Datawascollected fromthree districts (Attock, Rawalpindi and Islamabad) ofPakistan, from

September to November 2020. Nurses received a copy of the questionnaire through hospital
administration. The researchers explained the research scope and important terminology in the
questionnaire to nursing staff and requested that they complete and return the questionnaires
within 5 days. Thestudywasapprovedbyanethicalcommitteeandcomplied with ethical standards.
Participation was voluntary and nurses could cease participation at any time. Participants were
provided with information about the questionnaire and the purposes of the survey and were
asked to sign informed consent. We selected three districts (Attock, Rawalpindi and Islamabad) of
Pakistan because patients from resource-poor areas were always referred/transferred to these
districts, which increase the workload of nurses in hospitals. According to the World Bank report
(2019), for one thousand people, the number of nurses’ availability is 0.4832, which indicates the
shortage of nursing staff in-country. Approximately, the number of nurses in our selected districts
is 10,000. Following the literature guidelines (Hayat, 2013), questionnaires were distributed using
convenience sampling among 370 registered nurses in seven private and public hospitals of
selected districts. Responses collected from Civil Hospitals of District Attock constituted 38.1% of
the total percentage. 11.4% of responses were collected from PAC Hospital Kamra, 10.2% from
Khalid Saeed Hospital, 10.2% were from POF Hospital Wah, 8%werefrom CMHandPIMSHospital
Islamabad each, whereas 6.8% were collected from Quaid-e-Azam International Hospital
Rawalpindi. 7.4% of responses were gathered from Maryam Memorial Hospital Rawalpindi. The
total number of useable questionnaires was 352, which were further employed from data
analysis.

Measures

Data was collected using a self-designed questionnaire, including six sections: (1) Demographics,
(2) Quality of Care, (3) Organizational Support, (4) Job Satisfaction, (5) Organizational
Commitment and (6) Perceived Environment. Quality of care: 24 items Caring Behavior Inventory
(CBI-24) was used to measure the quality of care (Pahlevan Sharif et al., 2018; Wu et al., 2006).
The dimensions of this scale are (1) eight items of assurance, (2) five items of knowledge and
skills, (3) six items of respectfulness and (4) five items of connectedness; a five-points Likert scale
was used, rang we testedforconvergentvalidity ing from 1 (“never”)to5(“always”).

Job resources and work engagement: the contributing role

of selection, optimization, and compensation strategies at
work
Abstract
The life-span model of selection, optimization, and compensation (SOC) provides a
valuable theoretical framework for understanding organizational behaviour related to
coping with age-related changes. Although previous research has demonstrated that
SOC strategies at work contribute positively to individual outcomes, the role of
workplace characteristics has been insufficiently addressed. This study investigated
direct and indirect effects of SOC strategies at work and two important job resources
(i.e., learning and developmental opportunities and autonomy at work) in predicting
work engagement. All variables were assessed through employee self-reports based on
standardized survey measures. Data collected from 118 flight attendants showed
that SOC strategies were positively associated with work engagement (r = 0.28, p < 
0.05). Learning and developmental opportunities (r = 0.35, p < 0.01) and job control (r = 
0.31, p < 0.01) were also related to work This research was supported by the Munich
Centre of Health Sciences (MCHealth). All authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest. The study data was obtained as part of the master thesis requirements for
Maximilian Leidenberger, University of Innsbruck, Austria.
Keywords Age · Job control · Learning and developmental opportunities at work ·
Selection · Optimization · Compensation · Work engagement · Flight attendants
Arbeitsressourcen und Arbeitsengagement: Der Einfluss von alternsgünstigen
Handlungsstrategien der Selektion, Optimierung und Kompensation (SOK)

Zusammenfassung Das Handlungsmodell der Selektion, Optimierung und Kompensation

(SOK) hat sich als ein wichtiger Ansatz zum Verständnis der Bewältigung von alters- und
alternsbedingten Veränderungen bei Beschäftigten an ihrem Arbeitsplatz
herausgestellt. Bislang konnte die Forschung zeigen, dass Beschäftigte mit häufigen
SOK-Strategien in der Arbeit erfolgreiches Altern am Arbeitsplatz berichten.
Gleichwohl sind die verantwortlichen Arbeitsbedingungen für eine erfolgreichen SOK-
Anwendung unzureichend beleuchtet. Unsere Studie untersuchte die direkten und
indirekten Effekte für das Engagement in der Arbeit durch die Anwendung von SOK-
Handlungsweisen am Arbeitsplatz sowie durch zwei zentrale Ressourcen der Arbeit:
Lern- und Entwicklungsmöglichkeiten sowie Autonomie im Job. Diese Informationen
wurden mittels eines Fragebogen erfasst, anhand standardisierter Skalen. Die
Untersuchungsgruppe waren N = 118 Flugbegleiter verschiedener deutscher und
österreichischer Airlines. Die vermehrte Anwendung von SOK Strategien ging mit
höherem Arbeitsengagement einher (r = 0.28, p < 0.05). Lern- und
Entwicklungsmöglichkeiten in der Arbeit (r = 0.35, p < 0.01) und Autonomie (r = 0.31, p 
< 0.01) waren gleichfalls mit mehr Arbeitsengagement assoziiert. Anhand von
Mediationsanalysen fanden wir, dass der positive Effekt der Arbeitsressourcen für das
Engagement in der Arbeit durch die Anwendung von SOK Strategien teilweise
vermittelt wurde. Unsere Ergebnisse demonstrieren, dass sowohl die Anwendung von
alternsgünstigen Handlungsstrategien als auch die erweiterte Ressourcen der Arbeit
positiv für das Engagement in der Arbeit sind. Der Beitrag schließt mit
Empfehlungen für eine weitere theoretische Erforschung des Themas wie auch
potentielle praktische Konsequenzen aus den Ergebnissen für eine alternsgünstige
Arbeitsgestaltung.
Schlüsselwörter Alter · Autonomie · Lernen · Entwicklungsmöglichkeiten · Selektion ·
Optimierung · Kompensation · Arbeitsengagement · Flugbegleiter

1 Introduction
The demographic changes of an aging workforce in western industrialized
countries has stimulated increasing research on successful aging at work (Kanfer
and Ackerman 2004; Shultz and Adams 2007; Baltes et al. 2012). Especially
research approaches that stem from a life-span perspective have made
substantial contributions (Schaie and Willis 2010; Lerner and Overton 2010).
One particularly fruitful approach is the life-span model of selection,
optimization, and compensation (SOC) (Baltes and Baltes 1990; Freund and
Baltes 2002). The SOC model posits that the coordinated use of certain
behavioural strategies (a) increases access to resources in the sense of
developmental enhancement, (b) helps to maintain functioning in the face of
challenges, and (c) supports the regulation of impending resource losses (Baltes
and Baltes 1990; Baltes and Lang 1997; Freund and Baltes 2002). It’s core
proposition is that aging individuals can manage their lives successfully
through the synchronized use of three action strategies—selection, optimization,
and compensation—which support the efficient and adaptive use of available
resources (Baltes and Baltes 1990). The SOC model has received broad
empirical support. Specifically, previous f indings show that through the
utilization of SOC strategies individuals maintain functioning, personal
development, and well-being over the life-span, even in spite of dwindling
 personal resources (Riediger et al. 2006; Lang et al. 2011). Our investigation
examines flight attendants, whose work environment comprises many
challenging and age sensitive work conditions like work overload, circadian
rhythm disruption, emotional and customer-related stressors, high information
load, and intense demands for the musculoskeletal system (Griffiths and Powell
2012; Grajewski et al. 2003). To inform occupational health interventions,
further investigations are necessary to address the interplay of the work
environment of flight crew personnel and factors that are beneficial to
maintain well-being, performance, and capabilities (Griffiths and Powell 2012).

2 Current state of research

In regard to SOC at work, first research findings demonstrated that the SOC
model can be generalized successfully to the workplace (Baltes and Dickson
2001). With regard to managing older workers, it offers a valuable theoretical
framework for explaining organizational behaviour related to coping with age-
related changes (Baltes and Dickson 2001; Baltes et al. 2012). Several studies
provide support for the beneficial effects of the use of SOC strategies in
work settings (Abraham and Hansson 1995; Bajor and Baltes 2003; Baltes and
Heydens-Gahir 2003; Wiese et al. 2002; e.g., Zacher and Frese 2011). Employees
who apply SOC strategies have been shown to report increased competency
maintenance, career success, future opportunities at work, and improved job
performance (Abraham and Hansson 1995; Bajor and Baltes 2003; Yeung and
Fung 2009; Zacher and Frese 2011; Wiese et al. 2002). With regard to aging
workers, various studies suggest that especially older workers may benefit from
the use of SOC strategies (Abraham and Hansson 1995; Yeung and Fung 2009;
Zacher and Frese 2011; Müller et al. 2013b; Müller et al. 2012). Overall,
results support the assumption that SOC strategies enable individuals to
successfully cope with age-related changes and to counteract negative effects
of age (e.g. physical decline, cognitive decrements). However, multiple studies
in various professional contexts show that employees in general (i.e.,
irrespective of their age) benefit from the application of SOC at the job (e.g.,
Demerouti et al. 2014; Müller et al. 2013b; Schmitt et al. 2012; von Bonsdorff
et al. 2014). Although the empirical evidence is inconsistent so far, it seems
that the application of SOC strategies can be effective in dealing with
diminished resources and in maintaining functioning also in comparatively
younger employee cohorts (cf., Müller et al. 2013b). Further, there is growing
evidence that the effectiveness of SOC strategies at work partly depends on the
nature and characteristics of the work environment (Müller et al. 2013b; Bajor
and Baltes 2003). With regard to the nature of different work characteristics,
recent studies revealed that particularly job resources, and, among these,
especially job autonomy, are closely linked to the effectiveness of SOC
strategies in the workplace (Müller et al. 2013b; Müller et al. 2012; Weigl et al.
2013). The surveys in hospital professionals revealed that increased job
autonomy was associated with enhanced use of SOC strategies at the
workplace. These investigations focused particularly on job resources because
the availability of internal and external resources at work is relevant to coping
with age-related changes at work. However, the knowledge-base on contextual
determinants at work and their interplay with SOC strategies is limited and
inconclusive and, therefore, in need of further theoretical and empirical
elaboration (Riediger et al. 2006; Baltes and Dickson 2001; Müller et al. 2013b).
The current evidence base on the interplay of SOC behaviours in the workplace
is inconsistent in determining whether SOC strategies function as a mediator
or moderator in the relationship between characteristics of the job
environment and individual outcomes (Müller et al. 2013b). Some authors
argue that SOC behaviours act as a buffer for the relationship between job
conditions and individual outcomes (moderator hypothesis) (Schmitt et al.
2012; Weigl et al. 2013; Zacher und Frese 2011). Accordingly, SOC is also
supposed to function as a moderating variable, buffering the association
between health and desirable individual outcomes, like good performance or
intentions to remain in the job (Demerouti et al. 2014; Müller et al. 2013a).
Nonetheless, there is empirical evidence which confirms that SOC behaviours
may act as a mediator for the relationship between job conditions and well-
being (mediator hypothesis): In one exemplary study in nursing professionals,
SOC strategies were shown to be a meaningful mediator for the job control—
work ability association (Müller et al. 2012). Recently, von Bonsdorff et al.
confirmed this indirect effect in examining the association between
organizational justice and work ability through SOC in Finnish hospital
employees (von Bonsdorff et al. 2014). Consistent with this stream of research we
argue that the availability, application, and effectiveness of SOC use is closely
intertwined with the nature of the work environment (cf., Müller et al.
2013b). Thus, particularly job resources should stimulate behavioural strategies
and their effective use in the workplace (please refer also to our justification for
Hypothesis 4). Against the background of these inconsistent findings, our study
aims to elucidate the role of two important contextual resources at work—
learning and developmental opportunities at work and job control—for the
effectiveness of SOC strategies in the workplace. We argue that enhanced
contextual resources at work stimulate SOC use and thus act as major source of
work engagement. In that, we hypothesize that SOC strategies serve as an
important regulatory instance, which is influenced by the working
environment and, in turn, determines work engagement (e.g., Schaufeli und
Bakker 2004). Our study contributes to the literature on SOC at work
particularly in two ways. First, investigations on contextual resources at work and
the use of SOC strategies are so far scarce and mainly focus on the role of
limited resources (cf., Riediger et al. 2006; Schmitt et al. 2012). Drawing on
previous research, we seek to elucidate the role of enhanced contextual
resources at work in facilitating the adaption and implementation of SOC
 strategies (Abraham und Hansson 1995; Hobfol and Wells 1998; Kanfer and
Ackerman 2004). Second, the majority of research on SOC strategies has
examined white collar workers in managerial, highly educated professions, or
senior hierarchical positions (Abraham and Hansson 1995; Bajor and Baltes
2003; Wiese et al. 2002; Young et al. 2007). This may cause problems of
external validity since in white collar jobs, age-related losses may not be
predominant enough to make SOC strategies highly relevant (cf., Abraham and
Hansson 1995; Kanfer and Ackerman 2004). Thus, investigating SOC use in
occupations with age-sensitive demands is important because such professions
pose significant physical or psycho-motor demands which pose a substantial
burden for individual capacities (Abraham and Hansson 1995). To this end, we
studied flight attendants, whose in-flight work environment contains many
age-sensitive job demands such as work overload, circadian rhythm disruption,
high information load, and intense demands for the musculoskeletal system
(Griffiths and Powell 2012). Through investigating the joint impact of contextual
job resources and SOC strategies, our research contributes to the growing
evidence base on SOC behaviours and their role in maintaining well-being and
capabilities of the workforce in age-sensitive jobs. The successful application of
SOC strategies in age-sensitive work environments may be one of the potential
contributing factors to promote worker well-being over the course of their
professional careers.
3 Theoretical backgrounds and hypothesis development
3.1 SOC: the model of selection, optimization, and compensation
From a resource perspective (cf., Hobfoll 2001), dwindling personal (e.g.,
physical health) and contextual resources (e.g., access to training and
promotion) of aging employees jointly outweigh potential resource gains
(e.g., based on acquired work experience) (Baltes and Lang 1997). Thus,
one of the core questions with regard to aging at work is how employees can
maintain functioning, personal development, and well-being over the life-
span despite a relative loss of resources (Baltes and Dickson 2001).
According to theory, the synchronized use of SOC strategies supports
successful aging through the focused allocation of available resources (Baltes
and Baltes 1990). Self-directed behaviours of selection, optimization, and
compensation (SOC strategies) should enable individuals to effectively
allocate and focus individual and external resources in the course of
personal development (Baltes and Baltes 1990; Riediger et al. 2006).
Drawing on an action regulation perspective, all three SOC strategies can
be characterized as goal-related behaviours (Freund and Baltes 2002;
Zacher and Frese 2011). First, selection behaviours refer to goal setting and
prioritization based on personal preferences (elective selection) or due to
perceived loss of internal or contextual resources (loss-based selection).
Thus, selection behaviours channel resources and prevent their inefficient
dispersion across multiple goals. In regard to workplaces, workers aim to
 focus on preferred work objectives and abandon goals they are not capable
to attain anymore (cf., Zacher and Frese 2011). Optimization behaviours
involve the obtainment and improved use of means to pursue selected
goals. Specific optimization behaviours may include practicing, modelling
others, and investing more effort or time into goal accomplishment (Freund
and Baltes 2002). Employees use increased effort and persistence, though
the tasks may be considered as difficult. Compensation involves the
acquisition and application of alternative individual means or use of
external or technological support to maintain a desirable level of
performance when previous means of goal attainment are no longer
adequate in the face of actual or anticipated resource losses. Our study is
based on a conceptual framework of job resources, SOC strategy use, and
work engagement (see Fig. 1). In the following we will develop our study
hypotheses.
3.2 Job resources and work-engagement
Job resources are defined as physical, psychological, social, or
organizational aspects of the work setting, which (a) are functional in
achieving work goals; (b) reduce job demands and the associated
physiological and psychological costs; (c) and/or stimulate personal growth,
learning, and development (Bakker and Demerouti 2007; Demerouti et al.
2001; Schaufeli and Bakker 2004). We focus on two important job
resources, namely learning and developmental opportunities at work and
job control. We define learning and developmental opportunities in the
workplace as the possibility to advance skills and knowledge, to develop
competencies, and obtain access to training and education in the
organization. Particularly for aging employees, continuous learning and
education are essential to maintain job-relevant skills and competencies
(Maurer 2001). In managing older workers, organizations need to create
work environments that offer and facilitate skill development and support
employees to engage in learning and training activities (Kanfer and
Ackerman 2004; Maurer 2001). Similarly, job control has been shown to be
a central contextual resource at work. Consistent with Morgeson and
Humphrey (2006), we define job control as the extent to which a job
allows freedom, independence, and discretion in scheduling work, making
work-related decisions, and choosing the methods to perform work tasks
(see also, Wall et al. 1995; Terry and Jimmieson 1999; Hackman and
Oldham 1976). A vast body of research has shown that job control is
conducive to a broad range of desirable individual and organizational
outcomes such as positive work experiences, job satisfaction, intrinsic
motivation, and enhanced performance (e.g., de Lange et al. 2003; Fried
and Ferris 1987; Saavedra and Kwun 2000; Humphrey et al. 2007; van der
Doef and Maes 1999). An individual work outcome that has recently
attracted considerable research interest is psychological engagement. Work
 engagement is defined as a positive affective-cognitive state, characterized
by vigour, dedication, and absorption (e.g., Schaufeli and Bakker 2004). This
tripartite conceptualization is rooted in burnout research, reflecting
positive antipodes to burnout dimensions of exhaustion,
depersonalization, and inefficacy (Schaufeli and Bakker 2004). Engaged
employees display high levels of energy, identify strongly with their jobs,
and experience flow-like states at work. Notably, there is a robust
association between work engagement and job performance (Christian et al.
2011). Concerning the impact of job resources on work engagement, our
assumptions draw on the job-demands resources model (JD-R), which states
that contextual resources on the job are conducive to enhanced individual
motivation or work engagement (Bakker and Demerouti 2007; Schaufeli
and Bakker 2004; Demerouti et al. 2001).
Hypothesis 1: Learning and developmental opportunities as well as job
control at work are positively related to work engagement.
3.3 Job resources, SOC strategies, and work engagement
Previous research has emphasized the positive role and benefits of
employees’ SOC use on favourable individual outcomes like competence
maintenance (Abraham and Hansson 1995), performance (Bajor and Baltes
2003; Yeung and Fung 2009), work ability (Müller et al. 2012; Weigl et al.
2013), focus on opportunities at work (Zacher and Frese 2011), and
emotional well-being (Wiese et al. 2002). In regard to our study, we argue
that employees who apply SOC strategies at work use their individual
resources more efficiently and cope more effective with losses in
individual functioning. SOC use helps employees to adapt to individual or
environmental changes and allocate individual resources effectively,
particularly in the face of dwindling individual resources, e.g., physical
strengths, information processing (Riediger et al. 2006). This dynamic
should result in enhanced well-being in the workplace, indicated by
increased work engagement.
Hypothesis 2: SOC use is positively related to work engagement.
With regard to the association of job resources and SOC strategy use at
work, we argue that enhanced contextual resources at work contribute to
employees’ SOC use. Concerning developmental and learning
opportunities at work we assume that employees acquire skills and
capabilities to cope with age-related demands at work. Particularly for aging
employees, continuous learning and training is fundamental to maintain
job-relevant skills and competencies (Maurer 2001). In regard to job
control, we assume that the use of self-directed behaviour at work like
SOC might benefit from enhanced job control. Greater job control in the
workplace might enable employees to prioritize tasks (i.e., selection) or
develop alternative approaches to carry out tasks (i.e., compensation)
 (Abraham and Hansson 1995). Findings of a recent study in nursing
professionals provide f irst support for this assumption (Müller et al. 2012).
Hypothesis 3: Learning and developmental opportunities as well as job
control at work are positively related to employees’ SOC use.
Lastly, we hypothesize that the use of SOC at work mediates the relationship
between learning and developmental opportunities/job control and work
engagement, such that there will be a significant indirect effect of these
job resources on work engagement through employees SOC use. Drawing
on action theory that describes individual action regulation in the
workplace, we argue that job resources at work affect individuals not
until these conditions are internally represented in the job-incumbents
(Frese and Zapf 1994; Hacker 2003). In regard to the job features under
study, not only the mere presence of job resources should be relevant for
work engagement, but the effective individual use of those job resources in
terms of individual behaviour, i.e., SOC use. In regard to the interplay of job
resources, SOC, and work engagement, SOC strategies are assumed to act as
an intervening variable, mediating indirect effects of job resources on work
engagement. Results from a previous investigation in nursing personnel
provide preliminary support for this mediator hypothesis (Müller et al.
2012).
Hypothesis 4: SOC use at work mediates the relationship between learning
and developmental opportunities at work respectively job control and
work engagement, such as there is an indirect effect of the respective job
resources on work engagement through SOC use.
4 Method
4.1 Sample and procedure Data for this study were collected from May to
June 2012 from flight crew personnel working in several German and
Austrian airline corporations. It was assessed via an internetbased
questionnaire as part of the master thesis of the fourth author, who was
working as a part-time flight attendant with various flight crews.
Participating flight attendants were contacted directly via mail. All
recipients were also asked to promote this survey within their professional
network. For the sake of anonymity, names and specific information of
the employing airlines were not collected. Attendants were informed about
study aims, procedures, and confidentiality measures via e-mail and
through the survey website prior to filling out the questionnaire. Overall, N 
= 127 flight attendants completed the online questionnaire (overall, the
online questionnaire was activated by 210 visitors; however, not all
completed the survey). N = 9 data sets were removed from further analysis
because respondents reported only socio-demographic information on
page1 and did not fill out further sections of the survey, which included
the study variables. Complete information was obtained for n = 100 data
sets. N = 18 data sets were subjected to imputation of missing values using
 the multiple imputation procedure. Finally, data of N = 118 f light attendants
were included in the analysis (56.19 % response rate). In the survey
sample, 77.1 per cent of the flight attendants were women (N = 92).
Average age was 31.62 years SD = 8.17) with a range from 20 to 57 years.
Since we aimed to specifically include airline personnel from all age
groups, we also tested for age variance within the sample. Age was
normally distributed in the sample (Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z = 1.23; p = .08).
The average job tenure of flight attendants in their current employment
was 6.11 years (SD = 6.02, Range 0.1–30 years). Participants’ age was highly
correlated with job tenure (r = .70, p < .01). With regard to education, the
largest proportion reported secondary school graduation (‘Abitur/Matura’,
N = 59, 50.0 %), followed by university degree (‘Diploma’, N = 26, 22.0 %),
and General Certificate of Secondary Education (‘mittlere Reife’, N = 14,
11.9 %). 69 respondents were working full-time (58.5 %), and 7 participants
held a supervisory position (5.9 %).
4.2 Measures
Job resources Learning and developmental opportunities in the
organization was assessed with a four items scale from the learning culture
inventory in organizations (LKI) developed by Sonntag and colleagues
(Sonntag and Stegmaier 2008). Sample items are „The organization
offers a large program for advanced education“, and “Opportunities for
further training and competency development are tailored to the needs of
us employees”. Job control was measured with six items from the Work
Design Questionnaire (WDQ) originally developed by Morgeson and
Humphrey (2006). We used items from the German WDQ (Stegmann et al.
2010). To obtain a score for the overall extent of autonomy and control at
work, we combined the sub-scales for work scheduling autonomy and
decision making authority. Sample items are “the job allows me to make my
own decisions about how to schedule my work”, “the job allows me to plan
how I do my work”, “the job gives me a chance to use my personal initiative
or judgment in carrying out my work”, and “the job allows me to make a lot
of decisions on my own”. Response format for all two scales ranged from 1
“no, not at all” to 5 “yes, very much”.
Use of SOC strategies. Employees’ selection, optimization, and
compensation strategies (SOC) were assessed with the German version of
the 12-item scale by Paul Baltes and colleagues (Baltes et al. 1999; cf.,
Freund and Baltes 2002). The questionnaire operationalizes the processes of
adaptive development proposed in the SOC model, i.e. selection (6 items),
optimization (3 items), and compensation (3 items) behaviours. The SOC
model conceptualizes SOC strategies as an overall orchestrated,
synchronized ensemble of behaviours, rather than focusing on the
application of single SOC components (Baltes and Baltes 1990; Lang et al.
2011). Therefore, to investigate and measure SOC strategies, the use of
 a composite score of all three components is recommended (Freund and
Baltes 2002; Jop and Smith 2006). This also applies to the measurement
of SOC strate gies at work (Zacher and Frese 2011; Baltes and
HeydensGahir 2003). In the original SOC scale each item consists of two
alternative statements, one referring to SOC- and one to a non-SOC
strategy; participants are instructed to decide, which of the alternatives
fit their behaviour better (Baltes et al. 1999; cf., Freund and Baltes 2002).
In the present study, we used the revised response scale developed by
Zacher and colleagues (Zacher and Frese 2011; Zacher et al. 2010). To
reduce cognitive complexity and potential item ambiguity, the revised
version is based on a 5-point Likert format to assess the extent to which
respondents apply SOC strategies at work (1 = “no, not all”, 5 = “yes, very
much”). Sample items for the selection behaviours are “I concentrate all
my energy on few things”, and “I always focus on the one most important
goal at a given time”; “I make every effort to achieve a given goal” and “If
something matters to me, I devote myself fully and completely to it”
indicate optimization behaviours; two sample items of the compensation
dimension are “When things don’t go as well as they used to, I keep trying
other ways until I can achieve the same result I used to” and “When
something in my life isn’t working as well as it used to, I ask others for help or
advice”.
Work Engagement. Work Engagement was measured using the German 9-
item short version of the widely used Utrecht Work Engagement Scale
(UWES-9) developed by Schaufeli and Bakker (2003). The three sub
dimensions of vigour, dedication, and absorption are each represented by
three items (e.g., “At my job, I feel strong and vigorous”; “I am enthusiastic
about my job”; and “I feel happy when I work intensely”). Flight attendants
rated how often they experienced these positive work-related states,
using a 7-point scale from 1 = “never” to 7 = “always/every day”.
Control variables. Information on flight attendants’ gender (1 = female, 2 
= male), age (in years), and leadership or supervisory position (1 = no, 2 =
yes, e.g., chief flight attendant, purser) were based on employee self-
reports. Additionally, attendants’ prior education and qualification as well
as working time (1 = full time, 2 = part time contract) were considered.
4.3 Statistical analyses After double-checking the data for outliers and
incorrect values, confirmatory analyses were carried out to test the pre-
defined structure of our measures and to test our measurement model
(Anderson and Gerbing 1988). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used
to establish the factorial validity of the scales (AMOS 20.0; maximum-
likelihood estimation). We examined accepted goodness-of-fit indices and
applied conventional cut-offs (e.g., Byrne 2001; Brown 2006). Relative chi-
square (χ²/df) should not exceed values of 2.0; incremental fit indices
(incremental fit index, IFI; Tucker Lewis index, TLI; comparative fit index;
 CFI) should be > 0.90; a root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) < 
0.05 indicates good and < 0.07 satisfactory fit. Model comparisons used χ2
statistics. The sub-structure of the SOC scale and the job control scale were
modelled by correlating the measurement errors of items within each of the
sub-dimensions (Brown 2006). Given the strong fit of our measurement
model, we used mean aggregates for each variable in subsequent analyses
(Anderson and Gerbing 1988). To account for missing values we used 10
different simulated data sets for hypothesis testing that were completed with
multiple imputation (Rubin 1987). Multiple imputation has been shown to
produce unbiased parameter estimates for missing data (Schafer and Graham
2002). Mediated regression analyses were conducted for each job resource
separately, i.e., job control and learning and developmental opportunities at
work. To examine the hypothesized mediation effects, the approach
propagated by Preacher and Hayes was applied (Preacher and Hayes 2008).
First, all main effects (Hypotheses 1–3) and subsequently, the indirect
(mediator) effects were computed (Hypothesis 4). Mediation was formally
tested with bootstrapped estimates of the indirect effect of job control
(respectively learning and developmental opportunities) on work
engagement through SOC. This approach was chosen because bootstrapped
estimates are robust against violations of the normal distribution of variables
(Shrout and Bolger 2002). Covariates (i.e., gender, age, and leadership
position) were controlled for in testing the associations between the
independent variable and the mediator and between the mediator and the
dependent variable. All imputations and analyses were performed with SPSS
22.0.
4.4 Scale analyses
Prior to the main analysis, the factorial validity of the scales was established
using CFA. Goodness-of-fit indices are provided in Table 1. First, we tested a
1-factor model of SOC strategy use. The theoretical sub-structure of
selection, optimization and compensation behaviours was modelled by
correlating the measurement errors of items within each of the sub-
dimensions (Brown 2006). Similarly, we tested in the next step a 1-factor
model of work engagement. Both resulting measurement models displayed
close fit to the data (cf., Table 1). Next, we tested a 2-factor model consisting
of learning and developmental opportunities at work and job control scales,
in which the sub-structure of both scales was modelled similarly, i.e.,
correlating the item measurement errors within sub-scales (Weigl et al.
2013). Again, model fit was satisfactory, also in contrast to the 1-factor model
in which we merged both job resources scales (step 3b). Subsequently, in
step 4, we tested the hypothesized 4-factor model of learning and
developmental opportunities, job control, SOC use, and work engagement.
The resulting indices showed satisfactory psychometric properties. To further
test the factorial distinctness of the hypothesized model, we compared the
 complete measurement model to four alternative models: a 3-factor model,
which subsumed the SOC and work engagement scale under a common
factor (step 5); two 2-factor models, which systematically subsumed two of
the four scales under one factor (steps 6 and 7); and one general 1-factor
model (step 8). None of the four alternative models attained comparatively
satisfactory fit and all had a significantly higher χ2 discrepancy than the
theoretical 4-factor model (see Table 1). Accordingly, the hypothesized factor
structure was fully supported.

Results
5.1 Correlational and regression results
Pooled descriptive statistics and inter-correlations of variables under study are shown in
Table 2. With regard to socio-demographic control variables, we found no effect for
gender and age. Employees in leadership position reported enhanced job control (r = 
0.29, p < 0.01). SOC strategy use was positively associated with learning and
developmental opportunities (r = 0.35, p < 0.01) and job control (r = 0.22, p < 0.05).
Reported work engagement was positively related to learning and developmental
opportunities (r = 0.35, p < 0.01), to job control (r = 0.31, p < 0.01), as well as to
employees’ SOC strategy use (r = 0.28, p < 0.05). The results of the individual mediated
regression analyses are summarized in Table 3. All effects were estimated controlling for
gender, age, and leadership position (associations for control variables are not reported).
First, we investigated the direct effects in the interplay of job control, SOC strategy use
(mediator), and work engagement. Job control was positively associated with work
engagement (Hypothesis 1) as well as with SOC use (Hypothesis 2). Also, a positive
association of SOC strategies on work engagement (Hypothesis 3) was observed (cf.,
Table 3). Additionally, in line with Hypothesis 4 we found a significant indirect effect of
job control on work engagement mediated through employees’ SOC strategy use (B = 
0.09, 95 % CI0.02–0.22). The direct effect of job control on work engagement remained
significant under control of the mediator SOC (B = 0.50, SE = 0.16, t = 3.03, p < 0.01),
indicating a partial mediation effect. Thus, there are some effects of job control on work
engagement that cannot be explained by the mediation of SOC strategy use. Secondly,
we investigated the interplay of learning and developmental opportunities, SOC strategy
use, and work engagement. All hypothesized effects were significant (cf., Table 3): there
was a significant association between learning and developmental opportunities and
work engagement (H1) and SOC use (H2), as well as a significant positive relationship of
SOC use and work engagement (H3). To investigate Hypothesis 4, mediation analysis
revealed a significant indirect effect of learning and developmental opportunities on work
engagement mediated via employees’ SOC strategy use (B = 0.09, 95 % CI0.02–0.22).
Since the direct effect of learning and developmental opportunities on work engagement
remained significant (B = 0.41, SE = 0.12, t = 3.32, p < 0.01), this constellation also
indicates partial mediation. To test the robustness of our results, we conducted
additional mediation analyses and added further information on socio-demographic
characteristics, i.e. working time (full- vs. part-time contract) and education. In regard to
education, we aggregated the information into two categories: first, secondary or high
school degree or completion of professional training, N = 92 (78 %); secondly, academic/
university degree N = 26. The results remained consistent after controlling for working
time and education: we observed significant indirect effects of job control (B = 0.09, SE = 
0.05, CI0.01–0.22, R2 = 0.21, p < 0.01) and learning and development opportunities (B = 
0.09, SE = 0.05, CI0.010.23, R2 = 0.23, p < 0.01) through SOC on work engagement. Taking
into account that there is some empirical evidence that especially older workers benefit
from the use of SOC strategies, we ran an additional analysis to test the influence of
employees’ age. We thus checked if the strength of the indirect effect of job resources
through SOC on work engagement depends on the effects of age, i.e. the path of SOC on
work engagement is moderated by age (moderated mediation-model). For this purpose
we ran an analysis approach developed by Preacher and colleagues and changed
employees’ age to a moderating variable (Preacher et al. 2007). Control variables
were gender and supervisor position. We did not find a significant moderating
impact of age for the indirect effect of the two job resources on SOC and work
engagement; neither for job control (B = 0.01, SE = 0.03, t = 0.14, p = 0.89) nor learning
and developmental opportunities (B = 0.01, SE = 0.03, t = 0.22, p = 0.83).

5 Discussion
SOC strategies for successful aging are critical for the active allocation of
personal resources to work tasks. This investigation aimed to elucidate the
interplay between job resources and individual life management strategies of
‘successful aging’ in terms of selection, optimization, and compensation in
determining work engagement. Drawing on a sample of flight attendants, our
study revealed a meaningful indirect effect of job control, respectively
learning and developmental opportunities, on work engagement mediated
through employees SOC use. Our study findings contribute to the evidence
base on job resources, SOC use, and work engagement in various aspects: First,
the most novel finding of our research is that employees’ SOC strategies act
as a meaningful mediator between contextual resources in the work
environment and individual engagement at work. Observed mediation effects
deliver insights into the processes through which job resources might affect
individual work engagement. Hence, our study contributes to the growing
evidence base on the dynamic interplay of job characteristics, SOC use, and
individual outcomes at work (Müller et al. 2012; Zacher and Frese 2011; Weigl
et al. 2013; von Bonsdorff et al. 2014). Our findings are consistent to another
study among nursing professionals, showing that SOC strategies act as a
meaningful mediator between job control and work ability (Müller et al. 2012).
Further, our results extend the findings of Müller et al. (2012) by
demonstrating that other job resources also contribute indirectly to favourable
individual outcomes through SOC use: In addition to job control, learning and
developmental opportunities determine successful individual functioning at
work through enhanced life-management strategies. Since the findings of
Müller et al. (2012) were based on nursing professionals, our results in flight
attendants provide further validity for the mediating role of SOC behaviours in
another age-sensitive occupational domain. However, the evidence base on SOC
use at work is still inconsistent in establishing the mediating or moderating role
of SOC behaviours in the relationship of job characteristics and individual
outcomes. We hypothesized that SOC act as a mediator and found empirical
confirmation within the surveyed sample (mediation hypothesis, see Fig. 1).
This is consistent to previous research that proposes that SOC behaviours
mediate the relationship between job control and work ability (Müller et al.
2012). Notwithstanding, there is evidence that employees’ SOC use may also act
as meaningful buffer for the relationship between job conditions and individual
outcomes (moderator hypothesis). Empirical support for the moderating role of
SOC was found for the relationship between problem-solving demands and job-
related well-being (Schmitt et al. 2012), job control and work ability (Weigl et
al. 2013), organizational justice and work ability (von Bonsdorff et al. 2014),
as well as between job complexity and employees’ focus on future opportunities
(Zacher and Frese 2011). Recent studies revealed a meaningful buffering
effect of SOC strategy use on the burnout and performance relationship
(Demerouti et al. 2014) as well as for the association between employee health
and intention to remain in the profession (Müller et al. 2013a). Second, our
study contributes to the growing evidence base on the benefits of SOC use at
work. To the best of our knowledge, our study is the first to establish a
direct relationship between SOC behaviours and work engagement. Hence, our
study suggests that employees who apply SOC behaviours in their jobs show
increased engagement at work. This is in line with previous research that
indicates beneficial effects of SOC use at work for a variety of favourable
individual outcomes (Abraham and Hansson 1995; Bajor and Baltes 2003;
Demerouti et al. 2014; Müller et al. 2012; Weigl et al. 2013; Wiese et al. 2002;
Yeung and Fung 2009; Zacher and Frese 2011). Specifically, applying strategies
of ‘successful aging’ like setting priorities at work (selection), continuously
improving job task execution (optimization), and balancing resources losses
(compensation) is conducive to the physical and psychological capability of
flight attendants to perform their work. With regard to the work engagement
literature, our results indicate that individual life management strategies of
successful aging are an important source for maintaining engagement on the
job. This unique contribution of SOC behaviours is noteworthy since work
engagement is an important motivational construct and a critical state for high
psychological investment in performed work tasks (Christian et al. 2011). Thus, in
jobs that impose age-sensitive demands upon employees, the effective
application of SOC strategies supports employees in maintaining a physical,
emotional, and cognitive involvement in their work. Thirdly, our findings also
emphasize the close relationship between contextual resources at work and
SOC. Employees who reported higher job control also used significantly more
SOC strategies in their jobs. This underlines previous investigations that
showed a close association of positive job features, with a particular focus
on job control, and SOC use at work (Müller et al. 2012, 2013b; Weigl et al.
2013). Our study contributes to the knowledge on the interplay between
contextual resources and SOC in a two-fold way: First, we introduce a second job
resource, which is distinct from job control: learning and developmental
opportunities at work. Similar to job control, this vital contextual characteristic of
the job environment was positively related to employees’ SOC behaviours. Our
results suggest that employees will benefit from organizations that establish work
environments with opportunities for skill and knowledge development as well as
for training and further education. Our results are in line with previous attempts
to consider the role of job resources for the development and effectiveness of
SOC use. Earlier investigations assumed that SOC is helpful under demanding or
stressful working conditions, because then SOC may be more effective in using
available resources successfully (Young et al. 2007; Zacher and Frese 2011). The
observed positive association between job control as well as learning and
developmental opportunities and SOC suggests that the use of SOC on the job also
requires favourable working conditions (Müller et al. 2012, 2013b). This finding
supports assumptions that enhanced opportunities for skill acquisition and
learning as well as high job control allow aging workers to better utilize and
transfer their knowledge and work experience (Kanfer and Ackerman 2004).
However, our findings call for further insights into the boundary conditions of the
specific benefits of enhanced contextual resources for SOC use. For example,
individual health problems or stress-related impairments may force employees to
readapt and readjust their behavioural strategies for compensating specific losses
in functioning (Müller et al. 2013a). Overall, our findings corroborate the
importance of favourable job design for successful aging at work, such as
provision of opportunities for learning and skill development and establishing
decision latitudes and time autonomy at work. Lastly, the confirmation of
hypothesis 1 supports the vast evidence on the positive association of job
resources and work engagement (Bakker and Demerouti 2007; Schaufeli and
Bakker 2004). Hence, job control is a critical resource for functioning and well-
being at work (e.g., de Lange et al. 2003; Terry and Jimmieson 1999).
6.1 Limitations of the study Our study has several limitations that need to be
considered. First and foremost, we applied a cross-sectional design, which limits
the validity of causal inferences and increases the risk of circular reasoning. This
refers particularly to our mediator model, which cannot be entirely confirmed
using cross-sectional data. Hence, our findings allow only a preliminary evaluation
of the hypothesized relationships. Although there is a sound theoretical basis for
the suggested directions between the study variables, reciprocal effects cannot be
ruled out. For example, aside from the assumed effect of SOC on work
engagement, it is also possible that flight attendants with increased engagement
at work are more energized and motivated to develop and utilize SOC behaviours;
since the application of SOC strategies demands individual resources, e.g., vigour,
persistence, and motivation (Freund 2006). Similarly, employees with enhanced
contextual resources at work may engage in proactive behaviours and actively
craft and extend their job resources (Weigl et al. 2010). Hence, future studies
should apply longitudinal, cross-lagged panel designs that allow for testing
reciprocal effects between study variables. Our sampling procedure is subject to
various potentially biasing influences. The external validity of our sample
thus is limited. We recruited a comparatively young sample of professionals
and we cannot rule out cohort-specific effects. Due to our recruitment
procedure we were not able to obtain information on non-responders. Thus,
potential bias in key socio-demographic and work characteristic between
participants and non-responders may have occurred. Moreover, selection bias
may be present, such that flight attendants with lower work engagement
and/or insufficient job resources did not take part in the study. Another
potential selection effect that may have been occurred is the healthy worker
effect, such that surveyed employees are more resilient to stress and strain at
work, thus exhibiting increased levels of engagement (Li and Sung 1999). Our
data is based on a convenience sample, which may limit the generalizability of
our results. For instance, online data collection may have ruled out employees
with diminished access to email or intranet. With regard to the transfer of our
results to other professions, we warrant caution since the work environment of
flight attendants encompasses rather specific job demands and resources,
which may limit the external validity of our findings. Second, our study relied
exclusively on self-reports. Hence, common method variance may lead to an
inflation of observed associations (Podsakoff et al. 2003). However, there is
support that common method itself produces limited systematic variance that
may inflate correlational results to a significant degree (Spector 2006).
Nonetheless, multimethod designs are suggested to rule out common method
bias in SOC research, e.g., to include supervisor ratings for outcome variables or
archival information for moderating variables (Weigl et al. 2013). Third, although
our hypothesized four factor measurement model was superior to alternative
CFA models, the overall fit was only satisfactory (see Table 1). This replicates
previous findings that reliabilities and factor distinctiveness of the original SOC
scale as well as in connection with job related measures needs further
psychometric development and revisions (Freund and Baltes 2002; Weigl et al.
2013). Fourth, similar to previous investigations on the use of SOC strategies in
work and organizational settings, we applied an overall measure of SOC
strategies (Zacher and Frese 2011; Young et al. 2007; Bajor and Baltes
2003). Specifically, we used a composite SOC score that characterizes SOC
strategies as a synchronized ensemble of action regulation behaviours (Baltes
and Baltes 1990). This is in line with arguments that the adaptive capacity in
aging individuals is based on a set of control strategies or self-directed behaviours
(Heckhausen et al. 2010; Lang et al. 2011). Nonetheless, we note that other
studies have investigated single SOC strategies and their specific relationships
with contextual factors or individual outcomes (Demerouti et al. 2014; Freund
and Baltes 2002; Jop and Smith 2006). Since our aim was to examine the
general effect of SOC strategies in flight attendants, we did not conduct
analyses for separate SOC dimensions. However, we recommend further
research to also investigate direct and indirect effects of single SOC components
(Lang et al. 2011). Lastly, we did not control for participants’ general health
status. Although work engagement is considered a component of psycho-
physiological health (Christian et al. 2011; Schaufeli and Bakker 2004), the
validity of our findings should also be tested for workers with limited health
resources, i.e., chronic illness or mental disorders. Potentially, flight
attendants with low health status may face problems or hindrances
preventing the effective use of available job resources.
6.2 Implications for research on successful aging at work and work design
practice
Beyond the implications for future research that derive from the limitations
of this study, we see several starting points for future conceptualizations and
investigations: Empirical evidence on the role and function of SOC strategies in
the relationship between work characteristics and individual outcomes is still
inconsistent. As discussed above, some studies postulate SOC strategies as a
mediator while others argue for a moderating role. Future research should
evaluate and combine competing theoretical and conceptual approaches and
strive for empirical integration. Further advances should draw on action theory
(e.g., Frese and Zapf 1994; Hacker 2003), work design and job control theory
(Hackman and Oldham 1976; Karasek 1979), and conservation of resources
theory (Hobfoll 2001; Hobfol and Wells 1998), and also take account of life span
models (Baltes and Dickson 2001; Baltes et al. 2012; Heckhausen et al. 2010).
Secondly, we need more research to address the boundary conditions when
resources at work stimulate SOC use and under what circumstances contextual
resources on the job can hinder SOC utilization. Several studies suggest that SOC-
strategy use is particularly beneficial in complex work situations or when
contextual resources at work are scarce (Schmitt et al. 2012; Yeung and Fung
2009; Zacher and Frese 2011). These results stem from the central assumption
of the SOC model that SOC strategies are especially effective when individual and
contextual resources are limited (Baltes and Baltes 1990). Complementary, our
results show that enhanced job resources are related to increased SOC use.
Hence, employees might be in a better position to use SOC strategies at work
if they have sufficient latitude to make own work-related decisions and
opportunities to obtain necessary skills and knowledge for improved resource
allocation (Bajor and Baltes 2003; Müller et al. 2013b; Weigl et al. 2013). Thus,
future research should investigate more rigorously, to what extent and which
kind of contextual resources on the job limit and/or facilitate the development
 and application of SOC strategies. Concerning practical implications, our study
suggests that employees should be informed about the SOC model and trained
in effective application of successful aging strategies at work (cf., Müller et al.
2013b). Such SOC trainings should address work-related applications of SOC
behaviours to cope with individually relevant job demands. The development
and implementation of such a training program requires active participation of
employees, since the nature of individual resource allocation varies throughout
the course of aging and across several occupational domains. Simultaneously,
respective job design interventions need to supplement SOC effectiveness.
Since learning and developmental opportunities as well as job control are
conducive to SOC use, job re-design efforts should aim to enhance employee
control and increase opportunities for individual learning and skill development.
Our findings suggest that individual (person-oriented) and broad-based
(conditionoriented) work design interventions can result in synergistic effects:
enhanced resources at the job are directly conducive to enhanced engagement,
and simultaneously stimulate enhanced use of life management strategies for
successful aging, which in turn, promote engagement at work. Thus, SOC
trainings could supplement and reinforce the effectiveness of job design
interventions.
7 Executive summary (German)
 Handlungsstrategien der Selektion, Optimierung, und Kompensation (SOK)
sind mitverantwortlich für die erfolgreiche Bewältigung von
altersbedingten Veränderungen
 Arbeitsbedingungen können die Wirksamkeit von SOK Strategien am
Arbeitsplatz beeinflussen
 Anhand einer Stichprobe von Flugbegleitern deutscher und
österreichischer Fluggesellschaften konnten wir zeigen, dass Beschäftigte
mit vermehrten SOK-Strategien auch mehr Arbeitsengagement erleben
 Flugbegleiter mit vermehrten Lern- und Entwicklungsmöglichkeiten
sowie höherer Autonomie in der Arbeit, berichteten mehr SOK-
Strategien sowie mehr Engagement in der Arbeit
 Unsere Ergebnisse zeigen, dass günstige Bedingungen in der Arbeit
(sogenannte Arbeitsressourcen) entscheidend zur erfolgreichen
Anwendung von alternsgünstigen Handlungsstrategien beitragen.

References
Abraham, J.D., Hansson, R.O.: Successful aging at work—an applied study of
selection, optimization, and compensation through impression management. J.
Gerontol. B. Psychol. Sci. Soc. Sci. 50(2), 94–103 (1995) Anderson, J.C., Gerbing,
D.W.: Structural equation modeling in practice—a review and recommended 2-
step approach. Psychol. Bull. 103(3), 411–423 (1988) Bajor, J.K., Baltes, B.B.: The
relationship between selection optimization with compensation,
conscientiousness, motivation, and performance. J. Vocat. Behav. 63, 347–367
(2003) Bakker, A.B., Demerouti, E.: The job demands-resources model: state of
the art. J. Manag. Psychol. 22(3), 309–328 (2007) Baltes, B., Dickson, M.W.: Using
life-span models in industrial-organizational psychology: the theory of selective
optimization with compensation. Appl. Dev. Sci. 5(1), 51–62 (2001) Baltes, B.,
Heydens-Gahir, H.A.: Reduction of work-family conflict through the use of
selection, optimization, and compensation behaviors. J. Appl. Psychol. 88,
1005–1018 (2003) Baltes, B., Rudolph, C.W., Bal, A.C.: A review of aging
theories and modern work perspectives. The Oxford handbook of work and
aging, pp. 117–136. Oxford University Press, Oxford (2012) Baltes, M.M., Lang,
F.R.: Everyday functioning and successful aging: the impact of resources. Psychol.
Aging. 12(3), 433–443 (1997) Baltes, P., Baltes, M.M.: Psychological
perspectives on successful aging: the model of selective optimization with
compensation. In: Baltes, P.B., Baltes, M.M. (eds.) Successful aging: Perspectives
from the behavioral sciences, pp. 1–34. Cambridge University Press, New York
(1990) Baltes, P.B., Baltes, M.M., Freund, A.M., Lang, F.R.; Max Planck Institute
for Human Development: The measure of selection, optimization, and
compensation (SOC) by self-report. Max Planck Institute, Berlin (1999) von
Bonsdorff, M.E., von Bonsdorff, M.B., Zhou, Z.E., Kauppinen, M., Miettinen, M.,
Rantanen, T., Vanhala, S.: Organizational justice, selection, optimization with
compensation, and nurses’ work ability. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 56(3), 326–330
(2014) Brown, T.A.: Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. Guilford
Press, New York (2006) Byrne, B.M.: Structural equation modeling with AMOS.
Lawrence Earlbaum Associates, Mahwah (2001) Christian, M.S., Garza, A.S.,
Slaughter, J.E.: Work engagement: a quantitative review and test of its relations
with task and contextual performance. Pers. Psychol. 64(1), 89–136 (2011)
Demerouti, E., Bakker, A.B., Nachreiner, F., Schaufeli, W.B.: The job demands-
resources model of burnout. J. Appl. Psychol. 86(3), 499–512 (2001) Demerouti,
E., Bakker, A.B., Leiter, M.: Burnout and job performance: the moderating role
of selection, optimization, and compensation strategies. J. Occup. Health Psychol.
19(1), 96–107 (2014) van der Doef, M., Maes, S.: The job demand-control(-
support) model and psychological well-being: a review of 20 years of empirical
research. Work Stress. 13(2), 87–114 (1999) Frese, M., Zapf, D.: Action as the
core of work psychology: a German approach. In: Dunnette, M.D., Hough, L.M.,
Triandis, H.C. (eds.) Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology,
vol. 4, pp. 271–340. Consulting Psychologists Press, Palo Alto (1994)
Freund, A.M.: Age-differential motivational consequences of optimization
versus compensation focus in younger and older adults. Psychol. Aging. 21(2),
240–252 (2006) Freund, A.M., Baltes, P.B.: Life-management strategies of
selection, optimization and compensation: measurement by self-report and
construct validity. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 82, 642–662 (2002) Fried, Y., Ferris, G.R.:
The validity of the job characteristics model: a review and meta-analysis. Pers.
Psychol. 40(2), 287–322 (1987) Grajewski, B., Nguyen, M.M., Whelan, E.A., Cole,
R.J., Hein, M.J.: Measuring and identifying large-study metrics for circadian
rhythm disruption in female flight attendants. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health.
29(5), 337–346 (2003) Griffiths, R.F., Powell, D.M.: The occupational health
and safety of f light attendants. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 83(5), 514–521
(2012) Hacker, W.: Action regulation theory: a practical tool for the design of
modern work processes? Eur. J. Work Organ. Psychol. 12(2), 105–130 (2003)
Hackman, J.R., Oldham, G.R.: Motivation through the design of work: test of a
theory. Organ. Behav. Hum. Perform. 16, 250–279 (1976) Heckhausen, J.,
Wrosch, C., Schulz, R.: A motivational theory of lifespan development. Psychol.
Rev. 117(1), 32–60 (2010) Hobfoll, S.E.: The influence of culture, community,
and the nested-self in the stress process: advancing conservation of resources
theory. Appl. Psychol. 50(3), 337–370 (2001) Hobfoll, S.E., Wells, J.D.:
Conservation of resources, stress, and aging: why do some slide and some
spring? In: Lomranz, J. (ed.) Handbook of Aging and Mental Health: An
Integrative Approach. pp. 121–134. Plenum Press, New York (1998) Humphrey,
S.E., Nahrgang, J.D., Morgeson, F.P.: Integrating motivational, social, and
contextual work design features: a meta-analytic of the summary and theoretical
extension work design literature. J. Appl. Psychol. 92(5), 1332–1356 (2007) Jopp,
D., Smith, J.: Resources and life-management strategies as determinants of
successful aging: on the protective effect of selection, optimization, and
compensation. Psychol. Aging. 21(2), 253–265 (2006) Kanfer, R., Ackerman, P.L.:
Aging, adult development, and work motivation. Acad. Manage. Rev. 29(3), 440–
458 (2004) Karasek, R.A.: Job demands, job decision latitude and mental strain:
implications for job redesign. Adm. Sci. Q. 24, 285–306 (1979) Lang, F.R., Rohr,
M., Williger, B.: Modeling success in life-span psychology: the principles of
selection, optimization, and compensation. In: Fingerman, K.L., Berg, C., Smith,
J., Antonucci, T.C. (eds.) Handbook of Life-Span Development. pp. 57–85.
Springer, New York (2011) de Lange, A.H., Taris, T.W., Kompier, M.A., Houtman,
I.L., Bongers, P.M.: “The very best of the millennium”: longitudinal research
and the demand-control-(support) model. J. Occup. Health Psychol. 8(4), 282–305
(2003) Lerner, R.M., Overton, W.F.: The Handbook of Life-Span Development :
Cognition, Biology, and Methods, (vol. 1). Wiley, Hoboken (2010) Li, C.Y., Sung,
F.C.: A review of the healthy worker effect in occupational epidemiology.
Occup. Med. (Lond) 49(4), 225–229 (1999) Maurer, T.J.: Career-relevant learning
and development, worker age, and beliefs about self-efficacy for development.
J. Manage. 27(2), 123–140 (2001) Morgeson, F.P., Humphrey, S.E.: The work
design questionnaire (WDQ): developing and validating a comprehensive
measure for assessing job design and the nature of work. J. Appl. Psychol. 91(6),
1321–1339 (2006) Müller, A., Weigl, M., Heiden, B., Glaser, J., Angerer, P.:
Promoting work ability and well-being in hospital nursing: the interplay of
age, job control, and successful ageing strategies. Work. 41, 51375144 (2012)
Müller, A., de Lange, A., Weigl, M., Oxfart, C., van der Heijden, B.: Compensating
losses in bridge employment? Examining relations between compensation
strategies, health problems, and intention to remain at work. J. Vocat. Behav.
83(1), 68–77 (2013a) Müller, A., Heiden, B., Weigl, M., Glaser, J., Angerer, P.:
Successful aging strategies in nursing: the example of selective optimization
with compensation. In: Schlick, C.M., Frieling, E., Wegge, J. (eds.) Age-
differentiated work systems. pp. 175–199. Springer, Heidelberg (2013b)
Podsakoff, P.M., MacKenzie, S.B., Lee, J.Y., Podsakoff, N.P.: Common method
biases in behavioral research: a critical review of the literature and
recommended remedies. J. Appl. Psychol. 88(5), 879–903 (2003) Preacher, K.J.,
Hayes, A.F.: Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing
indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behav. Res. Methods. 40(3), 879–
891 (2008) Preacher, K.J., Rucker, D.D., Hayes, A.F.: Addressing moderated
mediation hypotheses: theory, methods, and prescriptions. Multivar. Behav. Res.
42(1), 185–227 (2007) Riediger, M., Li, S.-C., Lindenberger, U.: Selection,
optimization, and compensation as developmental mechanisms of adaptive
resource allocation: review and preview. In: Birren, J.E., Schaie, K.W. (eds.)
Handbook of the Psychology of Aging. 6th edn, pp. 289314. Elsevier,
Amsterdam (2006) Rubin, D.B.: Multiple Imputation for Nonresponse in Surveys.
Wiley, New York (1987) Saavedra, R., Kwun, S.K.: Affective states in job
characteristics theory. J. Organ. Behav. 21, 131–146 (2000) Schafer, J.L., Graham,
J.W.: Missing data: our view of the state of the art. Psychol. Methods. 7(2), 147–
177 (2002) Schaie, K.W., Willis, S.L. (eds.): Handbook of the Psychology of Aging.
Elsevier Academic Press, San Diego (2010) Schaufeli, W.B., Bakker, A.B.: The
Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES): test manual. Utrecht University,
Department of Social and Organizational Psychology, Utrecht, (2003) Schaufeli,
W.B., Bakker, A.B.: Job demands, job resources, and their relationship with
burnout and engagement: a multi-sample study. J. Organ. Behav. 25(3), 293–315
(2004) Schmitt, A., Zacher, H., Frese, M.: The buffering effect of selection,
optimization, and compensation strategy use on the relationship between
problem solving demands and occupational well-being: a daily diary study. J.
Occup. Health Psychol. 17(2), 139–149 (2012) Shrout, P.E., Bolger, N.: Mediation
in experimental and nonexperimental studies: new procedures and
recommendations. Psychol. Methods. 7(4), 422–445 (2002) Shultz, K.S., Adams,
G.A.: Aging and Work in the 21st Century. Lawrence Erlbaum., Mahwah
(2007) Sonntag, K., Stegmaier, R.: Das Lernkulturinventar (LKI)—Ermittlung von
Lernkulturen in Wirtschaft und Verwaltung. In: Fisch, R., Müller, A., Beck, D.
(eds.) Veränderungen in Organisationen, pp. 227–247. VS Verlag für
Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden (2008) Spector, P.E.: Method variance in
organizational research truth or urban legend? Organ. Res. Methods. 9(2), 221–
232 (2006) Stegmann, S., Dick, R.v., Ullrich, J., Charalambous, J., Menzel, B.,
Egold, N., Wu, T.T.-C.: Der Work Design Questionnaire. Zeitschrift für Arbeits-
und Organisationspsychologie AO. 54(1), 1–28 (2010) Terry, D.J., Jimmieson, N.L.:
Work control and employee well-being: a decade review. In: Cooper, C.L.,
Robertson, I.T. (eds.) International Review of Industrial and Organizational
Psychology. Wiley, Chichester (1999) Wall, T.D., Jackson, P.R., Mullarkey, S.:
Further evidence on some new measures of job control, cognitive demand and
production responsibility. J. Organ. Behav. 16(5), 431–455 (1995)
Weigl, M., Hornung, S., Parker, S.K., Petru, R., Glaser, J., Angerer, P.: Work
engagement and accumulation of task, social, personal resources: a three-wave
structural equation model. J. Vocat. Behav. 77(1), 140–153 (2010) Weigl, M.,
Müller, A., Hornung, S., Zacher, H., Angerer, P.: The moderating effects of job
control and selection, optimization, and compensation strategies on the age–
work ability relationship. J. Organ. Behav. 34(5), 607–628 (2013) Wiese, B.S.,
Freund, A.M., Baltes, P.B.: Subjective career success and emotional well-being:
longitudinal predictive power of selection, optimization and compensation. J.
Vocat. Behav. 60, 321–335 (2002) Yeung, D.Y., Fung, H.H.: Aging and work: how
do soc strategies contribute to job performance across adulthood? Psychol.
Aging. 24(4), 927–940 (2009) Young, L.M., Baltes, B.B., Pratt, A.K.: Using selection,
optimization, and compensation to reduce job/family stressors: effective when
it matters. J. Bus. Psychol. 21, 511–539 (2007) Zacher, H., Frese, M.: Maintaining
a focus on opportunities at work: the interplay between age, job complexity,
and the use of selection, optimization, and compensation strategies. J. Organ.
Behav. 32(2), 291–318 (2011) Zacher, H., Heusner, S., Schmitz, M., Zwierzanska,
M.M., Frese, M.: Focus on opportunities as a mediator of the relationships
between age, job complexity, and work performance. J. Vocat. Behav. 76(3),
374–386 (2010)
Matthias Weigl, is a researcher in industrial and organizational psychology at the
Institute and Outpatient Clinic for Occupational, Social, and Environmental
Medicine of Munich University, Germany. His research interests are in the
areas of work design, employee wellbeing, performance, and quality in health
care organizations.
Andreas Müller, is a researcher in industrial and organizational psychology at
the Institute for Occupational and Social Medicine of Düsseldorf University,
Germany. His research interests include work and organizational design in
industrial and health care jobs, successful aging at work, and employee well-
being, and health.
Severin Hornung, is scientific researcher at the Institute for Psychology,
Leopold-Franzens-University, Innsbruck, Austria. His research focuses on
idiosyncratic deals, the psychological employment relationship, flexibility in HR-
practices, and proactive behavior.
Max Leidenberger, graduated in 2013 from the Institute for Psychology, Leopold-
Franzens-University, Innsbruck, Austria. His research includes employee health
and motivation.
Barbara Heiden, is a physician at the Institute and Outpatient Clinic for
Occupational, Social, and Environmental Medicine, Medical Faculty, Ludwig-
Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany. Her research interests are in the
field of psychosocial risk assessment, successful ageing, and employee health.