Unit -1

Sources of
Medieval India

Learning Objectives

To acquaint ourselves with

™™Sources of the study of medieval India
™™Temples, mosques, tombs, palaces and forts as important sources
™™Literary and inscriptional texts
™™Accounts of Arab and Turkish travellers

Introduction:
Do you know the famous words of Khafi
The periods from A.D. (CE) 700 to 1200 Khan, a courtier of Emperor Aurangzeb?
and from A.D. (CE) 1200 to 1700 are classified He says, ‘It is the duty of an historian to
as Early Medieval and Later Medieval periods, be faithful, to have no hope of profit, no
respectively, in Indian history. Numerous and fear of injury, to show no partiality on one
varied sources are fortunately available to the side, or animosity on the other, to know no
historians engaging in the study of Medieval difference between friend and stranger, and
India. Added to the information that can be to write nothing but with sincerity.’
gleaned from inscriptions, monuments and
coins are the accounts left by Arab, Persian and Sources
Turkish chroniclers. These accounts are rich in Sources are the supporting materials,
detail and have given first-hand information on documents or records in the form of evidence
the life of kings, though they provide very little that help to reconstruct the past.
information on the life of the common people.
The opinions of the courtiers and chroniclers Classification of Sources
are often one-sided, written in a hyperbolic
language, exaggerating the king’s achievements.
Let us now explore the various sources available Primary Sources Secondary Sources
for the study of the history of Medieval India.
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 We examine the details of political,
economic and socio-cultural developments
with the aid of sources.
Primary Sources: Inscriptions, monuments
and coins, and the information available in
them.
Copper plate Inscription
Secondary Sources: Literary works, chronicles,
In stone inscriptions, the beneficence of a
travelogues, biographies and autobiographies.
donor is recorded. The major focus is upon the
Inscriptions giver. Tiruvalangadu plates of Rajendra Chola
Inscriptions are writings engraved on I and the Anbil plates of Sundara Chola are
solid surfaces such as rocks, stones, temple notable examples. Uttiramerur inscriptions
walls and metals. The king’s royal decrees, in Kanchipuram district provide details of the
dedications and donations, monuments raised way in which the village administration was
in commemoration of victories in wars, those conducted.
built in memory of deceased warriors, contain Various types of lands gifted by the Chola
rich information about the concerned era. kings are known from the inscriptions and
Copper-plate grants, which were treated as copper plates. They are:
legal documents, have significant source value. land of non-brahmin
Vellanvagai
The Islamic-Persian practices and the relatively proprietors
high cost of copper plates made palm leaf and Brahmadeya land gifted to Brahmins
paper cheaper alternatives from 13th century land for the maintenance of
Shalabhoga
onwards. a school
Devadana land gifted to temples
land donated to Jaina
Pallichchandam
institutions
Monuments
Temples, palaces,
mosques, tombs, forts, minars
and minarets are called by the
collective name monuments.
Rock Inscription
Several copper-plate grants issued during
the later Chola period (10th to 13th century)
record gifts to individual priests or teachers who
were Hindu, Buddhist, or Jaina, or to persons
of eminence. Both the giver and the receiver
are very elaborately described. By contrast,
most stone inscriptions differ in their content. Dilwara Temple Mt. Abu
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 The Sultans of Delhi introduced a new type The forts of historical importance are Agra
of architecture. The monuments they built had Fort, Chittor Fort, Gwalior Fort and Delhi
arches, domes and minarets as the main features. Red Fort as well as the forts of Daulatabad
The inscriptions in these monuments contain (Aurangabad) and Firoz Shah Kotla (Delhi).
rich information, which can be used to construct Palaces in Jaipur, Jaisalmer and Jodhpur signify
history. The medieval Khajuraho monuments the greatness of the Rajput dynasty that wielded
(Madhya Pradesh) and temples in Konark enormous power from these places. Qutb Minar
(Odisha) and Dilwara (Mt.Abu, Rajastan) and Alai-Darwaza, the tombs of Iltutmish,
constitute valuable sources to understand the Balban and all the Mughal rulers are the other
religion-centered cultural evolution in northern prominent structures recognised as valuable
India. Temples in Thanjavur (Brihadeshwara), sources of information. Cities in ruin such as
Gangaikonda Cholapuram and Darasuram Firozabad and Tughlaqabad in north India and
symbolise the magnificent structures the Hampi in south India remain rich repositories
Later Cholas built in Tamil Nadu. Vitala and of the history of medieval India.
Virupaksha temples at Hampi similarly speak
Coins
of the contribution of Vijayanagara rulers (15th
century). The portrait and the legend on the coins
convey the names of kings with their titles,
events, places, dates, dynasties and Royal
emblems. The composition of metals in the coins
gives us information on the economic condition
of the empire. Mention of king’s achievements
like military conquests, territorial expansion,
trade links and religious faith can also be found
in the coins.
Hampi - Vijayanagar
Quwwat-ul Islam Masjid, Moth-ki-Masjid, Muhammad Ghori had stamped the figure
Jama Masjid, Fatehpur Sikri Dargah (all in and of Goddess Lakshmi on his gold coins and had
around Delhi) and Charminar (Hyderabad) his name inscribed on it. This coin tells us that
are the important mosques belonging to the this early Turkish invader was in all likelihood
medieval times. liberal in religious outlook.
Copper Jitals are available for the
study of the period of the Delhi Sultans.

Charminar Lakshmi Coin of Ghori Coins of Khalji

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 Silver Tanka introduced by Iltutmish, Ala- Rajput king’s valour. For pre-Islamic periods,
ud-din Khalji’s gold coins, Muhammad-bin- the only exception was Kalhana’s Rajtarangini
Tughluq’s copper token currency are indicative (11th century).
of coinage as well as the economic prosperity or Books, Biographies and Autobiographies
otherwise of the country of the time.
Minhaj-us-Siraj, patronised by Sultan
Nazir-ud-din Mahmud of Slave Dynasty, wrote
A jital contained 3.6 grains of
Tabakat-i-Nasiri. The compendium deals with
silver. Forty-eight jitals were
the period from the conquest of Muhammad
equal to 1 silver tanka.
Ghori to A.D. (CE) 1260. The compendium
was named after his patron. In the 13th century,
Hasan Nizami, a migrant from Ghazni wrote.
Taj-ul-Ma’asir towards the end of Iltutmish’s
rule. It provides information about Qutb-ud-
din Aibak and is considered the first official
Religious Literature history of the Delhi Sultanate. Zia-ud-din
Barani, a courtier of Muhammad Tughluq,
Devotional movement in South India and
wrote Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi, in which he dealt
later in North resulted in the development
with the history of Delhi Sultanate from Ghiyas-
of bhakti or devotional literature. The
ud-din Balban to the early years of the reign of
Chola period was known as the period of
Firoz Shah Tughluq. Ferishta’s Tarikh-i-Frishta
devotional literature and works such as
(16th century) deals with the history of the rise
Kamba Ramayanam, Sekkizhar’s Periyapuranam,
of the Mughal power in India.
Nalayira Divyaprabhandham, composed by
12 Azhwars and compiled by Nathamuni, Tabakat is an Arabic word meaning
Devaram composed by Appar, Sambandar 'generations or centuries'.
and Sundarar and compiled by Nambiyandar Tuzk is a Persian word meaning
Nambi, Manikkavasakar’s Thiruvasagam, all 'autobiography'.
were scripted during the Chola times. Jayadeva’s Tarikh or Tahquiq are Arabic words
Gita Govindam (12th century) was a follow-up meaning 'history'.
of the Bhakti Movement in South India. Kabir
Das, a 15th century mystic poet, also had an In the 16th century, emperor Babur’s
influence on the Bhakti Movement in India. Babur Nama and Abul Fazal’s Ain-i-Akbari and
Secular Literature Akbar Nama provided detailed information
about these two emperors. In the 17th century,
Madura Vijayam and Amuktamalyatha
Jahangir wrote his memoir, Tuzk-i-Jahangiri,
were poems composed by Gangadevi and
throwing a lot of light on the period. Apart from
Krishnadevaraya respectively that help us
autobiographies of emperors, Tabakat-i-Akbari,
gain insight into the events and individuals
authored by Nizam-ud-din Ahmad, is
associated with the Vijayanagara Empire.
considered reliable than the exaggerated account
Chand Bardai’s Prithiviraj Raso portrays the
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 of Abul Fazal. Similarly, Badauni’s outstanding people and the countries he visited. According
work, Tarikh-i-Badauni (Badauni's History), to him, Egypt was rich then, because of the
was published in 1595. This work spans three whole of the Indian trade with the West passed
volumes. The volume on Akbar’s reign is a frank through it. Ibn Battuta tells us of caste in India
and critical account of Akbar's administration, and the practice of sati. We learn from him
particularly of his religious policy. that Indian merchants were carrying on a brisk
Travellers and Travelogues trade in foreign ports and Indian ships in the
seas. He describes the city of Delhi a vast and
Marco Polo, a Venetian traveller, visited
magnificent city. Those were the days when
when the Pandya kingdom was becoming
Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq transferred his
the leading Tamil power in the 13th century.
capital from Delhi to Devagiri (Daulatabad) in
Marco Polo was twice in Kayal, which was a
the south, converting this city into a desert.
port city (presently in Thoothukudi district of
Tamilnadu). It was full of ships from Arabia
and China. Marco Polo tells us that he himself
came by a ship from China. According to Marco
Polo, thousands of horses were imported into
southern India by sea from Arabia and Persia.
Al-Beruni (11th century) accompanied
Mahmud of Ghazni in one of his campaigns, and
stayed in India for 10 years. The most accurate
account of Mahmud’s Somnath expedition is
that of Alberuni. As learned man and a scholar,
he travelled all over India trying to understand
India and her people. He learnt Sanskrit and Ibn Battuta
studied the philosophy of India. In his book In the South, Vijayanagar had many foreign
Tahquiq-i-Hind, Alberuni discussed the Indian visitors who left behind their detailed accounts of
conditions, systems of knowledge, social norms the state. An Italian named Nicolo Conti came in
and religion. 1420. Abdur-Razzaq came from Heart (the court
Ibn Battuta (14th century), an Arab-born of Great Khan in Central Asia) in 1443. Domingo
Morocco scholar, travelled from Morocco Paes, a Portuguese traveller, visited the city in
right across North Africa to Egypt and then to 1522. All of them recorded their observations,
Central Asia and India. His travelogue (Rihla which are very useful for us today to know the
[The Travels]) contains rich details about the glory of the Vijayanagar Empire.

Summary
™™The period from A.D. (CE) 700 to 1200 and from A.D. (CE) 1200 to 1700 are classified as Early
Medieval and Later Medieval periods in Indian history.
™™Sources are classified as primary and secondary sources.

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 ™™Inscriptions on stones, rocks and temple walls and copper-plate grants with royal orders and
events in the courts, which have evidentiary value are dealt with.
™™Temples, palaces, mosques, tombs, forts, minars and minarets, collectively known as monuments,
belonging to early Medieval and Mughal periods, are highlighted.
™™The coins of Iltutmish, Ala-ud-din Khalji and copper coins of the later Islamic rulers are
discussed.
™™Devotional literature belonging to the era of Bhakthi Movement is provided.
™™Books, biographies and autobiographies that provide information about the political, social and
economic conditions of the medieval times are detailed.
™™Travallers’ accounts mostly by the visiting Arab and Persian scholars are given in the end.

Glossary
a person who writes accounts of important
chronicler வரலாற்றுப் பதிவாளர்
historical events
animosity hostility, antagonism விர�ோதம், பகைமை
a book or illustrated account of the places visited
travelogue பயணக்குறிப்புகள்
and experiences encountered by a traveller
commemoration in remembrance of நினைவாக
elaborately in detail விரிவாக
minarets a tall tower, typically part of a mosque தூபிகள்
the places, buildings where materials are stored or
repositories களஞ்சியங்கள்
kept
portraits pictures , images in drawing or painting உருவப்படங்கள்
a collection of detailed information about a
compendium த�ொகுப்பு
particular subject , especially in a book
substantiate to prove with evidence சான்றுகளுடன் நிரூபித்தல்

Evaluation

I. Choose the correct answer 2. _____________ was the land gifted to

1. ____________ are the temples.
writings engraved on a) Vellanvagai b) Shalabhoga
solid surfaces such as c) Brahmadeya d) Devadana
rocks, stones, temple 3. _____________period was known as the
walls and metals. period of devotional literature.
a) Chronicles b) Travelogues a) Chola b) Pandya
c) Coins d) Inscriptions c) Rajput d) Vijayanagara
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 4. _________ provides information about 4. Domingo Paes, a Portuguese traveller,
the first Sultan of Delhi. visited the Chola Empire in 1522.
a) Ain-i-Akbari b) Taj-ul-Ma’asir V 
Match the statement with the
c) Tuzk-i-Jahangiri d) Tarikh-i-Frishta reason
5. _____________ , an Arab-born Morocco Tick ( √ ) the appropriate answer.
scholar, travelled from Morocco to India. 1) Assertion(A): Muhammad Ghori’s gold
a) Marco Polo b) Al Beruni coins carried the figure of Goddess
Lakshmi.
c) Domingo Paes d) Ibn Battuta
Reason(R): The Turkish invader was
II Fill in the Blanks liberal in his religious outlook.
1. ___________ inscriptions provide details a) R is the correct explanation of A.
about administration in a Brahmadeya b) R is not the correct explanation of A.
village.
c) A is wrong and R is correct.
2. ___________ had stamped the figure of
d) A and R are wrong.
Goddess Lakshmi on his gold coins and
had his name inscribed on it. 2) Find out the wrong pair
3. 3.6 grains of silver amounted to a) Madura Vijayam - Gangadevi
a ___________. b) Abul Fazal - Ain-i-Akbari
4. ______________ was patronised by Sultan c) Ibn Battuta - Tahquiq-i-Hind
Nazir-ud-din Mahmud of Slave Dynasty. d) Amuktamalyatha - Krishnadevaraya
5. An Italian traveller _____________ visited 3) Find out the odd one
Vijayanagar Empire in 1420. a) Inscriptions b) Travelogues

III Match the following c) Monuments d) Coins

1.  Khajuraho Odisha

VI Answer the following in one or two
sentences
2.  Konark Hampi
1. Who compiled Nalayira Divyaprabhandham?
3.  Dilwara Madhya Pradesh
2. What does the word Tuzk mean?
4.  Virupaksha Rajasthan
3. Name Jahangir’s memoir.
IV State true or false 4. Name the two different types of sources for
the study of history.
1. Pallichchandam was the land donated to
Jaina institution. 5. List out the important mosques and forts
constructed during the medieval times.
2. The composition of metal coins gives us
information on the political condition of 6. Mention the important foreign travellers who
the empire. visited India during the medieval period.

3. The high cost of copper made palm leaf and VII Answer the following in detail
paper cheaper alternatives for recording 1. Describe the different types of coins
royal orders and events in royal courts. introduced by the rulers of Delhi Sultanate.
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 VIII Answer Grid
1. _____________ was a courtier of Emperor 2. Tiruvalangadu copper plates belong to
Aurangazeb. _________.
Ans: Ans:

3. ______ was the land for the maintenance 4. ______________ compiled Periyapuranam.
of the school.
Ans:
Ans:
5. ______ is an Arabic word meaning history. 6. Muhammed bin Tughluq transferred his capital
from Delhi to ________ in the south.
Ans:
Ans:

IX HOTs
1. The composition of metals in coins is indicative of the economic prosperity of the empire –
Substantiate.
X Student Activity
1. Prepare an album collecting pictures of palaces, tombs, mosques and forts of Medieval India.
XI Life skill
1. Find out from the libraries in your town or village and prepare a report about the primary and
secondary sources available there.
References
1. Abraham Eraly, The Age of Wrath, New Delhi:Penguin Group, 2014.
2. Burton Stein, A History of India, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2004 (Reprint).
3. K.A. Neelankanta Shastri, Cholas. Madras: University of Madras (Reprint).
4. S.K. Singh, History of Medieval India. New Delhi: Axis Books Private Ltd, 2013.

ICT CORNER
Sources of Medieval India
PROCEDURE :
Step 1: Open the Browser and type the given URL (or) Scan the QR Code.
Step 2: Click “India ” Option and then select any period (Ex. Medieval)
Step 3: Select any dynasty and then select any Kingdom (Ex. Sultanate)
Step 4: Explore the coins with pictorial descriptions.

Sources of Medieval India URL:

https://www.mintageworld.com/ (or) scan the QR Code

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