DEFINING SOCIOLOGY

First Slide:

According to Anthony Giddens

• Sociology is the scientific study of human social life, groups, and
societies. It is a dazzling and compelling enterprise, as its subject
matter is our own behavior as social beings. The scope of
sociological study is extremely wide, ranging from the analysis of
passing encounters between individuals on the street to the
investigation of global social processes.

sociological imagination:

In attempting to understand social behavior, sociologists rely

on a particular type of critical thinking. A leading sociologist,
C. Wright Mills, described such thinking as the sociological
imagination — an awareness of the relationship between an
individual and the wider society.
Third slide:

Founders of sociology:

Sociology is a social science that studies human society and

social behavior. There are several key figures who are
considered the founders of sociology as a discipline. Here is a
brief description of some of the most prominent ones:

1. (lagbe na)Auguste Comte (1798-1857) - Comte is

widely considered the father of sociology. He coined the
term "sociology" and developed the positivist philosophy
of sociology, which asserts that knowledge of society can
be scientifically studied using empirical methods.

2. Émile Durkheim (1858-1917) - Durkheim was a French

sociologist who is considered one of the founding figures
of ki sociology as a scientific discipline. He is best known
for his work on social integration and the role of religion
in society. He Turned philosophical questions into
sociological. Example: Industrialization -> division of labor
->anomie->suicide

3. Max Weber (1864-1920) - Weber was a German

 sociologist who is considered one of the founding figures
of modern sociology. He is best known for his ideas
about social action and the concept of "verstehen," which
refers to the ability to understand the subjective meaning
behind social action. Weber is perhaps best known for
his work on the relationship between religion and
economic behavior. In this work, he argues that the
Protestant ethic of hard work and self-discipline was a
major factor in the development of capitalism.

4. Karl Marx (1818-1883) - Marx was a German

philosopher and economist who is best known for his
contributions to the field of communism. While he is not
typically considered a sociologist, his ideas about social
class and the relationship between the proletariat and the
bourgeoisie have had a major impact on the
development of sociological thought.

These figures and their work have played a significant role in

shaping the field of sociology and continue to influence
sociological thinking today.
Fourth Slide: (3 Theoretical perspectives of sociology)

Functionalist perspective:

The functionalist perspective, as developed by Emile

Durkheim, is a sociological theory that views society as a
complex system whose parts work together to promote
stability and solidarity. According to Durkheim, society is
made up of social institutions, such as the family, education,
and the economy, which perform specific functions and are
interdependent.

Durkheim argued that these institutions help to meet the basic

needs of individuals, such as the need for security,
socialization, and the fulfillment of physical and psychological
needs. He believed that when these institutions function
properly, they contribute to social order and stability, and that
when they malfunction, they lead to deviance and social
problems.

Durkheim's functionalist perspective has been influential in

shaping the way sociologists think about the role of social
institutions in society and has been applied to various areas of
study, including crime, education, and religion.
Latent and manifest function:

A manifest function is the intended and obvious purpose of

a social institution or practice. For example, the manifest
function of education is to provide individuals with the
knowledge and skills they need to succeed in life .

A latent function, on the other hand, is an unintended and

often hidden purpose of a social institution or practice. For
example, the latent function of education might include the
socialization of students into dominant values and norms, as
well as the creation of social hierarchies based on academic
achievement

Dysfunction:

Dysfunctions are disruptions in society and its parts that

threaten social stability. Dysfunctions can be found
throughout society in large and small-scale ways. Crime can
bring dysfunction to communities. Divorce and abuse can
bring dysfunction to families. Littering can bring dysfunction to
our environment.
Conflict Perspective:

The conflict perspective, as developed by Karl Marx, is a

sociological theory that views society as being characterized
by conflicts and struggles between social classes. Marx
argued that society is divided into two main classes: the
bourgeoisie (the owners of the means of production) and the
proletariat (the working class).

According to Marx, the bourgeoisie exploits the proletariat by

controlling the means of production and paying them only
enough to survive. The proletariat, in turn, is forced to sell
their labor to the bourgeoisie in order to survive. This
relationship creates a fundamental conflict between the two
classes that drives social change and leads to the eventual
overthrow of the bourgeoisie by the proletariat.

Marx saw the economic, political, and legal systems as being

tools used by the ruling class to maintain their power and
control over society. He argued that these systems are used
to oppress and exploit the working class and that they must
be changed in order to create a more just and equitable
society.

Feminism can be considered a conflict theory in sociology

because it views society as being characterized by conflicts
and struggles between different groups, particularly between
men and women. Feminism argues that gender is a
fundamental organizing principle in society, and that women
have historically been oppressed and discriminated against by
men.

Feminist theorists argue that gender inequality is not a natural

or inevitable aspect of society, but rather a result of power
imbalances between men and women. They view the
patriarchy (the social, economic, and political system that
gives men power and privilege over women) as a source of
conflict and oppression.

Like other conflict theories, feminism highlights the ways in

which the dominant group (in this case, men) maintains their
power and control over society through the use of institutions
and practices that reinforce gender inequality. This can
include laws, policies, and cultural norms that reinforce
traditional gender roles and restrict women's opportunities and
freedoms.
Symbolic Interactionism:

Symbolic interactionism is a theoretical perspective in

sociology that emphasizes the role of symbols and meaning in
social interaction.

According to symbolic interactionism, individuals create and

interpret their social reality through the use of symbols, which
can be words, gestures, objects, or other things that represent
or stand for something else. These symbols are not fixed or
universal, but are instead shaped by the social context and
the meanings that individuals give them.

Such as Workers interacting on the job, encounters in

public places like bus stops and parks, and behavior in
small groups—all these aspects of micro-sociology catch
the attention of interactionists.

Symbolic interactionism also emphasizes the importance

of face-to-face interaction and the role of the individual in
shaping their own identity and behavior. Individuals are
seen as active agents who construct their social reality
through ongoing social interaction, rather than simply
responding to external forces or following pre-existing
social norms.
There are two types of symbols: 1) verbal and 2)
non-verbal

Verbal: Verbal symbols refer to any form of

communication that uses language, whether spoken or
written. This includes words, phrases, sentences, and any
other linguistic expressions that convey [Link]
symbols are typically used to convey explicit or direct
messages and can be interpreted in different ways
depending on the context in which they are used.

Non-verbal:

Nonverbal symbols, on the other hand, refer to any form of

communication that does not use language. This includes
gestures, facial expressions, body language, clothing, and
other forms of nonverbal cues. Nonverbal symbols are
typically used to convey implicit or indirect messages, and
can be interpreted in different ways depending on the
cultural or social context in which they are used.
 Culture and Society

Definition of culture

Compare and contrast

Society: A society is a system of interrelationships

that connects individuals. A group of people who live
in a particular territory, are subject to a common
system of political authority and are aware of having
a distinct identity from other groups.

Culture:
According to Giddens, culture can be understood as
the shared beliefs, values, norms, practices, and
symbols that define a group or society.
Giddens emphasizes that culture is not simply a set
of fixed or static traditions, but is constantly being
produced and reproduced through social interaction.
Culture is both a product of social structures and a
force that helps to shape those structures over time.
Culture is universal:
Sometimes some common features of human
behavior are found in virtually all societies.
For example, marriage is a cultural universal.
Marriage is considered a cultural universal because
it is a social institution that exists in some form in
nearly all cultures and societies throughout human
history. Although the specific details and customs of
marriage may vary widely from one culture to
another, the basic idea of a socially recognized
union between two individuals is present in most
societies.
Again, Incest prohibition is also a cultural universal.

How Society is changing every Day !!!!

Innovation:
Sociologists have long recognized the role of
innovation and technological change in shaping and
transforming societies. Innovation can be defined as
the process of developing and implementing new
ideas, technologies, or practices that have the
potential to disrupt existing social structures and
ways of life.

Diffusion:
In sociology, diffusion refers to the process by which
cultural traits, ideas, or practices are spread from
one society to another through migration, trade,
communication, or other forms of interaction.
Diffusion is one of the key mechanisms by which
social change occurs, as the spread of new ideas
and practices can lead to the adoption of new social
norms, institutions, and ways of life.

Forms of Culture :
Material Culture : Material culture refers to the
physical objects, artifacts, and technology that are
created and used by a society. This includes things
like tools, buildings, clothing, furniture, and other
tangible objects that reflect the values, beliefs, and
practices of a society. Material culture can be seen,
touched, and often purchased or exchanged, and it
is a tangible expression of a society's culture.

Non material culture :

Non-material culture, on the other hand, refers to the
abstract or intangible aspects of a society's culture.
This includes things like language, beliefs, values,
norms, and customs, as well as the symbolic
representations and expressions of culture, such as
art, music, literature, and religion. Non-material
culture is not a physical object, and cannot be seen
or touched, but it is an important aspect of a
society's cultural identity and provides the framework
for social interaction and communication.

Cultural Lag: when a non-material culture

try to adopt a material culture.

ASPECTS OF CULTURE:
1. Subculture:
A subculture is a group within a larger culture that
has its own distinctive set of values, norms, beliefs,
and practices. Subcultures may be based on shared
interests, hobbies, lifestyles, or identities, and they
may form in response to social exclusion,
marginalization, or discrimination. Examples of
subcultures include biker gangs, gamers, and
members of various ethnic or religious groups.
2. Counterculture:
A counterculture is a subculture that develops in
opposition to the dominant culture or mainstream
society. Countercultures often reject the values,
norms, and beliefs of mainstream society and seek to
create alternative forms of social organization and
cultural expression. Examples of countercultures
include the hippie movement of the 1960s, the punk
rock movement, and the anti-globalization movement.
3. Culture shock:
Culture shock is the experience of disorientation and
anxiety that can occur when individuals are exposed
to unfamiliar cultural practices, values, and norms.
Culture shock can be caused by a range of factors,
including travel to foreign countries, migration, and
exposure to different subcultures or countercultures.
 Symptoms of culture shock can include homesickness,
anxiety, confusion, frustration, and a sense of
disconnection from one's own cultural identity.

Elements of culture:

1)Language ( foundation of every culture):

Abstract system of word meanings and

symbols for all aspects of culture; includes
written character, numerals, symbols, and
nonverbal gestures and expressions.

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

• Language precedes thought

• Language is not a given
• Language is culturally determined
• Language may color how we see world
Norms:

– Established standards of
behavior maintained by a society
Types of norms:
• Formal norms
– Generally written; specify strict punishments
– In U.S., often formalized into laws
• Informal norms
– Generally understood but not precisely recorded
(dress code)
• Mores
– Norms deemed highly necessary to the welfare
of a society.

Mores are social norms that are widely observed

within a particular society or culture. Mores
determine what is considered morally acceptable or
unacceptable within any given culture
• Folkways
– Norms governing everyday behavior
– common example of a folkway is the practice,
in many societies, of waiting in line.
Ethnocentrism and Cultural relativism :

Ethnocentrism is the belief that one's own culture or group is

superior to others, while cultural relativism is the idea that a
person's beliefs and behaviors should be understood within their
own cultural context, rather than judged by the standards of
another culture. Ethnocentrism can lead to prejudice and
discrimination, while cultural relativism promotes understanding
and acceptance of cultural diversity.
Last Slide: Family and Intimate relationship part1

What is family?
• A family is a group of people directly
linked by kin connections, the adult
members of which take care of the
children.
• Kinship ties: mothers, fathers, children,
grandparents, etc., or adoption.
• Marriage: socially acknowledged and
approved sexual union between two
adult individuals

Basic Concept of family:

 • Types of family: X not important
1. Nuclear family: two adults living
together in a household with their
own or adopted children.
2. Extended family: grandparents,
brothers and their wives, sisters and
their husband.

• Composition of marriage:
1. Monogamy: In sociology, monogamy
refers to a form of marriage in which
one individual is married to only one
other individual at a time. It is the
most common form of marriage in
modern societies and is often
associated with the idea of romantic
love, in which a couple is committed
 to each other exclusively.

2. Polygamy: In sociology, polygamy

refers to a form of marriage in which
an individual has multiple spouses at
the same time. There are different
forms of polygamy, including
polygyny (in which a man has
multiple wives), polyandry (in which
a woman has multiple husbands)

Popenoe VS Stacey
Popenoe: Supportive to modern family
Stacey: In favor of Post-modern family

Lets see the differences between

modern and post modern family :

1. Family Structure: The modern family is typically characterized by the

nuclear family structure, consisting of a married heterosexual couple
and their biological children. This family structure is seen as the
dominant form of family in the mid-20th century. In contrast, the
postmodern family is more diverse and can include various forms, such
as blended families, single-parent families, same-sex parent families,
and cohabiting couples.
2. Gender Roles: The modern family is often characterized by rigid
gender roles, with the father as the primary breadwinner and the
mother as the primary caregiver. In the postmodern family, gender
roles are less rigid, and there is greater flexibility in terms of the roles
that family members can play. This can include women taking on
breadwinner roles and men taking on caregiving roles.
3. Individualism: The postmodern family is associated with greater
individualism and personal choice. Individuals have greater freedom to
choose their family structures and relationships, and family members
may have greater autonomy and independence from each other.
4. Diversity and Fluidity: The postmodern family is characterized by
greater diversity and fluidity in terms of family structures and
relationships. Families are no longer defined solely by traditional
structures or roles, and there is greater acceptance of alternative
 family structures and lifestyles.
5. Relationships: The modern family is often characterized by more
formal and hierarchical relationships, with clear distinctions between
parents and children, and between spouses. In contrast, the
postmodern family is characterized by more fluid and egalitarian
relationships, with greater emphasis on communication and
negotiation between family members.

Popenoe and Stacey have different perspectives on the family and their
roles in society. Here are some key differences between the two
sociologists:
1. Family structure: Popenoe argues that the traditional nuclear family,
consisting of a married couple and their biological children, is the ideal
family structure. He believes that this family structure provides the
best environment for raising children and that the decline of this
family structure has negative consequences for children and society.
Stacey, on the other hand, argues that the family is constantly evolving
and that modern and postmodern families are more diverse and
flexible, allowing for greater individual autonomy and choice.
2. Family values: Popenoe emphasizes the importance of family values
such as commitment, stability, and responsibility. He believes that
these values are necessary for creating a strong family structure and
that they have positive effects on children and society. Stacey also
values commitment and stability but sees these values as being
expressed in a wider variety of family structures, rather than just the
traditional nuclear family.
3. Individualism: Stacey emphasizes individualism and personal choice
in family structures, while Popenoe emphasizes the importance of the
family as a social institution. Stacey believes that postmodern families
allow for greater individual autonomy and choice in family structure,
while Popenoe believes that the family should be structured in a way
that benefits society as a whole.
4. Social change: Popenoe sees the decline of the traditional nuclear
family as a negative consequence of social change, such as the rise of
feminism and the decline of religion. He believes that these changes
 have negative consequences for children and society. Stacey sees the
evolution of the family as a positive consequence of social change,
reflecting greater diversity, flexibility, and choice

Theoretical and Historical

perspectives on
families:(Functionalism)
• Functionalism: The functionalist
perspective sees society as a set of
social institutions that perform specific
functions to ensure continuity and
consensus.
• Primary socialization : Primary
socialization through the family
teaches children how to bond, create
relationships, and understand
important concepts including love,
trust, and togetherness
• Personality stabilization: The
stabilization of adult personalities
refers to the emotional security which
is achieved within a marital
relationship between two adults
• Husbands adopt the “instrumental”
role and wife adopts the “affective” or
emotional role.
• Functions of family: reproduction,
protection, socialization, regulations of
sexual behavior, affection and
companionship, provision of social
status.

Theoretical and Historical

perspectives on
families(Symbolic interactionist
perspective/approach)

• Symbolic interactionism is a sociological perspective that

focuses on the importance of symbols and social
interactions in shaping individual behavior and social
reality. In the context of the family, symbolic
interactionism emphasizes the importance of the
contextual, subjective, power relations communication,
shared meanings, and social ephemeral(lasting for short
time)nature of family interactions in shaping family
relationships and dynamics.
• Do not take power differentials for granted.
• Do not necessarily assume that men have more power
than women or that adults have more power than
children

• Feminist perspective/approach:
In sociology, the feminist perspective/approach in family focuses on
analyzing the role of gender in family structures and dynamics.
Feminist scholars argue that traditional family structures are often
based on patriarchal values and reinforce gender inequalities,
particularly in the division of labor and the distribution of power.
Feminist scholars often emphasize the ways in which women are
disproportionately responsible for domestic labor, such as cooking,
cleaning, and childcare, which can limit their opportunities for
education and paid employment. They also point out that women
are often subject to gender-based violence and harassment within
the family, including sexual and physical abuse.

• Many feminist questioned the vision of families as

cooperative units based on common interests and mutual
support.
• Focused on broad range of topics: domestic division of labor,
unequal power relationships within families, caring
activities.

Dark side of family

While families are often seen as a positive and supportive unit, sociology
also acknowledges the existence of a darker side of families. Some of the
aspects of the dark side of family include:

1. Domestic violence and abuse: Family members, particularly women

and children, can be victims of physical, emotional, and sexual
abuse within the family.
2. Incest and sexual abuse: In some families, sexual relationships
between family members can occur, such as between siblings or
between a parent and a child.
3. Child neglect and abandonment: Children can be neglected or
abandoned by their parents, leading to negative impacts on their
physical and emotional well-being.

4. Intergenerational conflict: Differences in values, beliefs, and

lifestyles between generations can lead to conflicts within families.
5. Financial exploitation: Family members can take advantage of each
other financially, such as by stealing money or property from one
another.
6. Substance abuse and addiction: Substance abuse and addiction
within families can create a cycle of dysfunction and can negatively
impact the well-being of family members.

These dark aspects of families can have profound effects on individuals

and can perpetuate social problems and inequalities. Sociology seeks to
understand these dynamics and to develop strategies to address them.
• Sociological Approaches to the
Self

– Self: distinct identity that sets us apart from

others;
– Self emerges as we interact with others.
– Cooley: Looking-Glass Self (3 steps)
• We learn who we are by interacting with others
• Our view of ourselves comes from
contemplation of personal qualities and our
impressions of how others perceive us
• The self is the product of our social interactions
with other people