BHIC-107

HISTORY OF INDIA-IV
(c. 1206-1550)

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

INDIRA GANDHI NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY
EXPERT COMMITTEE
Prof. Swaraj Basu Dr. Ranjeeta Dutta
Director Centre for Historical Studies
School of Social Sciences School of Social Sciences
IGNOU, New Delhi Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
Dr. Meenakshi Khanna Prof. Abha Singh
Department of History Faculty of History
Indraprastha College for Women School of Social Sciences
University of Delhi, Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Dr. Tasneem Suhrawardy Prof. A.R. Khan (Convenor)
Department of History Faculty of History
St. Stephen College School of Social Sciences
University of Delhi, Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi

COURSE COORDINATOR : Prof. Abha Singh

COURSE TEAM
Prof. Abha Singh Dr. Divya Sethi

COURSE PREPARATION TEAM

Unit No. Course Writer Unit No. Course Writer
1 Prof. Abha Singh 2 Mr. Iftikhar Ahmad Khan
School of Social Sciences Department of History
Indira Gandhi National Open University M S University, Baroda; and
New Delhi; and Dr. Ravindra Kumar
Prof. Rameshwar Bahuguna School of Social Sciences
Department of History & Culture Indira Gandhi National Open University
Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi New Delhi
3 Dr. Kiran Dattar 4 Dr. Kiran Dattar
Janki Devi Mahavidyalaya, Janaki Devi Mahavidyalaya
University of Delhi, Delhi; University of Delhi, Delhi
Prof. A. Jan Qaisar, Prof. Shireen Moosvi
Centre of Advance Study in History, Centre of Advanced Study in History
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh; Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh; and
Prof. Jigar Mohammed, Prof. Abha Singh
Jammu University, Jammu; and School of Social Sciences
Prof. Abha Singh, Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Social Sciences New Delhi
Indira Gandhi National Open University
New Delhi
5 Prof. Ahmad Raza Khan; and 6 Dr. Sangeeta Pandey
Prof. Abha Singh School of Social Sciences
School of Social Sciences Indira Gandhi National Open University
Indira Gandhi National Open University New Delhi
New Delhi
7 Dr. Sangeeta Pandey 8 Dr. Firdaus Anwar
School of Social Sciences Kirorimal College, University of Delhi, Delhi
Indira Gandhi National Open University Prof. Sunita Zaidi
New Delhi Department of History and Culture,
9 Prof. Shireen Moosvi Jamia Milia Islamia, New Delhi; and
Centre of Advanced Study in History, Prof. Abha Singh,
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh; and School of Social Sciences
Dr. Kiran Dattar Indira Gandhi National Open University,
Janaki Devi Mahavidyalaya New Delhi
University of Delhi, Delhi
11 Prof. A.Jan Qaisar, 10 Prof. Shireen Moosvi
Centre of Advance Study in History Centre of Advanced Study in History,
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh
13 Dr. Divya Sethi 12 Prof. Shireen Moosvi
Centre for Historical Studies Centre of Advanced Studies in History
Jawaharlal Nehru University New Delhi; and Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh; and
Dr. Sohinee Basak Prof. Abha Singh
Centre for Historical Studies School of Social Sciences
Jawaharlal Nehru University Indira Gandhi National Open University,
New Delhi New Delhi
15 Prof. Rameshwar Bahuguna 14 Prof. Rameshwar Bahuguna
Department of History & Culture Department of History & Culture
Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi
17 Prof. Ravindra Kumar 16 Prof. Abha Singh
School of Social Sciences School of Social Sciences
Indira Gandhi National Open University, Indira Gandhi National Open University,
New Delhi New Delhi
19 Prof. Ravindra Kumar 18 Prof. Ravindra Kumar
School of Social Sciences School of Social Sciences
Indira Gandhi National Open University, Indira Gandhi National Open University
New Delhi New Delhi

CONTENT, FORMAT AND LANGUAGE EDITING

Prof. Abha Singh

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 Course Contents
Page No

Course Introduction 7

THEME I : INTERPRETING THE DELHI SULTANATE 11

UNIT 1 : Survey of Sources 13

THEME II : POLITICAL FORMATIONS 51

UNIT 2 : Delhi Sultanate Consolidation and Expansion 53

UNIT 3 : Evolution of Institutions: Sultan, Nobility and Ulama 72

UNIT 4 : Administrative Structure 92

UNIT 5 : Deccan Kingdoms 110

UNIT 6 : Vijayanagara : Expansion and Consolidation 103

UNIT 7 : Evolution of Institutions: Kingship and the Nayaka System 140

UNIT 8 : Emergence of New Kingdoms in the 15th Century 150

THEME III : SOCIETY AND ECONOMY 179

UNIT 9 : Land Administration 181

UNIT 10 : Agrarian Classes 194

UNIT 11 : Technology and Society 201

UNIT 12 : Urban Economy and Monetization 222

UNIT 13 : Inland and Oceanic Trade 237

THEME IV : RELIGIOUS IDEAS AND VISUAL CULTURE 259

UNIT 14 : Bhakti Tradition 261

UNIT 15 : Sufi Tradition 279

UNIT 16 : Vedantic and Sramanic Traditions 296

UNIT 17 : Temples, Mosques, and Dargahs: Forms, Contexts and Meanings 310

UNIT 18 : Palaces, Forts, Mausoleums and Public Works: Forms, 335

Contexts and Meanings

UNIT 19 : Painting 355

Interpreting
The Delhi Sultanate

Guidelines for Study of the Course

In this Course we have followed a uniform pattern for presenting the learning
material. This starts with an introduction to the Course underlining the significant
developments in chronological order and covers 4 major themes with coverage of
19 sub-themes or Units. For the convenience of study, all the Units have been
presented with a uniform structure. Objectives as the first section of the Unit have
been included to help you find what are you expected to learn from the study of
the Unit. Please go through these objectives carefully and keep reflecting and
checking them after studying a few sections of the Unit. Introduction of the Unit
introduces you to the subject area covered and guides you to the way subject
matter is presented. These are followed by the main subject area discussed through
sections and sub-sections for ease of comprehension. In between the text, some
self-check exercises have been provided. We advise you to attempt these as and
when you reach them. These will help you assess your study and test your
comprehension of the subject studied. Compare your answers with the answer
guidelines provided after the summary. The keywords and unfamiliar terms have
been provided at the end of each Unit, which have been marked in bold in the text.
At the end of each Unit under Suggested Readings we have also provided a list of
books and references. These include sources and books which are useful or have
been consulted for developing the material for the concerned Unit. You should try
to study them. We have also included instructional videos for an enhanced
understanding by the students. Please try to watch these videos, they will help you
in understanding and learning the subject matter in an all-inclusive manner.

6
 Survey of Sources
COURSE INTRODUCTION
The of the Delhi Sultanate can not be studied in isolation of Central Asian
developments. The rise of Islam, Turkish irruptions and Mongol inroads not only
shaken the Central Asian polities but also the Indian subcontinent, particularly
northern India.
The rise of Islam was the biggest event of the period and without understanding
its background it would be difficult to comprehend the polity that dominated the
Indian subcontinent from 12th century onwards. The rulers of Delhi were Turks
and were followers of Islam. Here, it would be appropriate to understand the
environment from where the new ruling class was coming and what was their
background? Islam emerged in the eighth century and soon established its sway
over Arabia, Iraq, Syria, Persia and northern Africa and to a limited extent in
Andulasia under the Pious Caliphs (632-661) and their Ummayyad (661-750)
successors. It was under the Abbasid Caliphate (750-900) that Islam saw a phase
of real peace and prosperity. Arabic assumed the language of the entire Islamicate.
However, period from 900-1000 was largely marked by the decline of the Caliphate.
From the tenth century onwards the political and administrative powers of the Caliph
of Baghdad began to decline giving way to the dispersal of the Caliphate at Baghdad,
Spain and Egypt. Nonetheless, Caliph’s nominal authority reigned supreme and no
one could dare to defy that. Even as powerful as Mahmud of Ghazni, when his
demand for the surrender of Samarqand got rejected by the Caliph, had to ‘humbly’
apologise. The waning power of the Caliph paved the way for the emergence of a
several number of ‘minor’ polities in Iraq, Persia (Samanids and Buwaihids) and
Turkestan; while across Jaxartes ruled the Turks, Tartars and the Mongols. Within
Islam also factions emerged among the Sunnis, Shias and the Kharijites.
This was also the period of the Persian renaissance which gradually supplanted
the Arabic as the language of the elite and the literati. The ‘Persian Revolution’
ended the ‘superiority’ of the ‘Arabs’. The period following past 1000 till the
1220s marked by the dominance of the Turco-Persian empires/ideals and the
dynasties that dominated the scene were the Seljuks, Khwarizmians and the
Ghaznavids. Further, with the expansion of Muslim frontiers, one after the other
Turkish tribe was brought into the fold of Islam. That again transformed the map
of Arabia and Persia. Turks, being the excellent commanders almost commanded
the forces of the Muslim world. From the tenth century onwards the overwhelming
majority of the Muslim dynasties were of Turkish stock; though Persians dominated
the administration, art and literature.
In 962 Turks got the opportunity to assume sovereignty. With the death of the
Samanid ruler of Bokhara, Alaptagin, the Turkish governor of Khorasan established
the independent kingdom at Ghazni. It was Subuktigin’s (d. 997) son Mahmud,
the first Muslim emperor, emerged the ‘world’ conqueror, became a legend; out
of his ‘forty’ years’ ceaseless warfare never had to face a ‘single’ defeat; ruled
from Punjab to the Caspian, from Samarqand to Ray. Mahmud crossed Indian
frontiers ‘seventeen’ times (1000-1027) and remained ‘invincible’. Nonetheless,
as pointed out by Mohammed Habib, ‘the greed for money and power, not an
enlightened desire for the spread of Islam was the motive of his Indian campaigns’.
India had ‘no place in his dream’. He wanted to establish ‘Turko-Persian empire’
and his Indian expeditions were mere ‘means to that end’. 7
Interpreting The fall of Mahmud led to the emergence of the Seljuqs under whose patronage
The Delhi Sultanate Persian civilization flourished and reached its peak. However, the mid-twelfth
century saw the extinction of the Ghaznavids and the Seljuqs leaving way to the
emergence of Khorasan and Ghor on the one hand and the rise of the Mongols
who overwhelmed the entire Central Asia and Persia on the other.
Mongols inhabited the steppes and were largely nomads and subsisted on cattle
and horse breeding, hunting and fishing. Agriculture was almost absent there. They
lived in yurts (tent-villages). The written script was almost absent except for the
Arghuns. Chinghiz Khan, though could not read or write, used to speak Mongolian.
Though they lead a nomadic life, the steppes were quite ahead of other civilizations
in the field of military science. Interestingly, they were complete strangers to any
religion/religious rites/rituals except the moral laws; religious tolerance was the
norm. Mongols were divided into uluses that had military character. To the north
of the Gobi desert lived the Dada ulus (the original Mongols) who claimed to be
descendants of Qublai, the first Khaqan; east of the Mongols were the Tatars and
further east of the Tatars were the Manchus. The greatest contribution of Chinghiz
Khan lies in the fact that he united the dispersed steppe social groups into ‘one’
‘single’ ‘unified’ centralised authority.
All these developments had a deep impact on the political developments of the
subcontinent.
In contrast, India of that period, devoid of a single command, was a multitude of
samantas, thakkuras, rais, ranakas, rautas; who were further divided into clans
and sub-clans; striving for local independence. Amidst this any cooperation was
impossible. Internal feuds resisted them to unite against a common enemy (external
threat).
Almost after a gap of one hundred and fifty years, another wave of Turkish
conquerors from Ghor crossed the Indian frontiers and this time they were here to
stay. It was Muizuddin Muhammad bin Sam of the Shansbani dynasty of Ghor
who began the second Turkish inroads. No sooner Multan, Uchh, Peshwar, Lahore,
Tabarhind were captured; while the showdown was the Tarain (1192). In 1206,
Muizuddin made Aibak incharge of his Indian possessions; unfortunately, on his
way back to Ghor, he was assassinated.
Against this backdrop, the present Course focuses on the establishment of the
Turkish Sultanate in India. The Course introduces you to the source material to
understand the historical data available to construct the history of the period. The
period was vibrant for its literary achievements. It not only saw the introduction of
two alien languages - Persian and Arabic but also this is the period of the emergence
of regional languages and a plethora of related literature (Unit 1). You would find
the change in the pattern of historical writings of the period. With the introduction
of paper gradually manuscripts replaced inscriptions and epigraphy as a major
source of information. Further, Sanskrit got gradually replaced by Persian as a
dominant language of the ruling elite.
Theme II covers the establishment of the Turkish Sultanate, their expansion in
the north, south and the Deccan (Unit 2). It also discusses the impact of the
developments of the central Asian polities on Indian polity and Mongol inroads,
Mongol policy of the Delhi Sultans as well as impact and repercussions of the
8
constant Mongol attacks on Indian frontiers. A discussion on the position of the Survey of Sources
Sultan, his relationship with the Caliphate vis-à-vis his nobility and ulama is the
theme of Unit 3. You would find that the new ruling elite brought with them their
systems of governance and institutions. Iqta was one such prominent institution
through which the early Turkish Sultans succeeded in consolidating their position
in the far-flung areas of the empire (Unit 4). It also looks into the role of Turkan-
i Chihilgani (group of ‘forty’) in early Sultanate politics. The Sultanate began to
show cracks from Firuz Shah Tughlaq’s period and its fall hastened by Timur’s
attack in 1398. These cracks led to the disintegration of Sultanate polity into a
number of foci. There emerged a number of regional states in the fifteenth century
that forms the theme of discussion in Unit 8. The political formations in the Deccan
and South India are discussed in Units 5, 6 and 7. The Units discuss how with the
decline of the Chalukyas (in the Deccan) and Cholas (in the South) initially emerged
Kakatiyas and Yadavas (in the north) and Pandyas and Hoysalas (in the south).
The decline of the Kakatiyas and Yadavas gave way to the emergence of the
Bahmani Sultanate in the Deccan; while the downfall of the Pandyas and the
Hoysalas brought to the fore emergence of the mighty Vijayanagara empire in
South India. Under the liberal patronage of the Bahamanis and Vijaynagara rulers,
art and culture flourished in the region.
Theme III centres around the economy of the Turkish Sultans. Early Turkish
Sultans were initially satisfied with ‘tributes’, gradually they penetrated the rural
areas and brought modifications in the existing systems thus instituted their systems
of revenue assessment and collections. The old ruling aristocracy pushed to rural
areas and survived as superior right holders (Units 9 and 10). Radical changes
were also brought into the agricultural sector by Muhammad bin Tughlaq by
emphasising the cultivation of cash crops and grant of liberal agricultural loans
(sondhar). Agriculture got a further fillip with the establishment of a network of
canals by Firuz Shah Tughlaq. Turks also brought with them new technologies
that revolutionised agriculture and crafts. The introduction of the Persian the wheel
revolutionalised agriculture in the arid regions; while the spinning wheel and the
treadle/pit loom facilitated the spinning and weaving process which led to the
‘textile revolution’ (Unit 11). The centralisation in the field of administration,
economy and currency and uniform taxation all this facilitated trade and commerce
and cash nexus and monetisation that in turn led to a spurt in urbanisation. Besides,
as result of new technologies introduced by the Turks also facilitated the emergence
of new crafts and craft groups (Units 12 and 13).
The focus of Theme IV is on religious ideas and visual cultures. With the encounter
of two cultures, Islam and Hinduism, fascinating changes occurred in the field of
religious ideas and visual cultures. India came in the grip of bhakti and sufi ideas
each influenced the other. Similarly, with the fusion of Indian and Islamic
architectural styles, there emerged a new style of architecture came to be known as
Indo-Islamic. Turks also brought with them new building techniques, arch and
dome along with fine cementing material that led to the emergence of arcuate style
of architecture in India. Further, the needs of new Turkish elites were different as
for pattern of worship or burying their dead that facilitated the emergence of
mosques, tombs and sufi khanqahs that completely altered the landscape of the
Indian cities. Calligraphy, geometrical designs and a new style of decoration,
arabesque, were also brought to the fore.
9
 Theme I
Interpreting the Delhi Sultanate

Time Line
Arabic and Persian Historic Traditions
Political Chronicles: Delhi Sultanate
Hasan Nizami
Minhaj-us Siraj Juzjani
Ziauddin Barani
Amir Khusrau
Thakkar Pheru
Isami
Shams Siraj Afif
Yahya Ahmad bin Sirhindi
Insha
Inscriptions
Sanskrit
Arabic and Persian
Malfuzat
Arab Geographers
Ibn Battuta
Literature in the Regional Languages
Interpreting
The Delhi Sultanate

Photograph: Historic copy of selected parts of the Travel Report by Ibn Battuta, 1836 CE, Cairo.jpg
Courtesy: Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin; July 2019; CC-BY-SA 4.0
Source:https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki File: Historic_copy_of_selected_parts_of_the_
Travel_Report_by_Ibn_Battuta,_1836_CE,_Cairo.jpg
12
 Survey of Sources
UNIT 1 SURVEY OF SOURCES*
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Arabic and Persian Historic Traditions
1.3 Political Chronicles: Delhi Sultanate
1.3.1 Hasan Nizami
1.3.2 Minhaj-us Siraj Juzjani
1.3.3 Amir Khusrau
1.3.4 Ziauddin Barani
1.3.5 Thakkar Pheru
1.3.6 Isami
1.3.7 Shams Siraj Afif
1.3.8 Yahya bin Ahmad Sirhindi
1.4 Insha (Epistolography) Tradition
1.5 Official Documents
1.6 Inscriptions
1.6.1 Arabic and Persian Inscriptions
1.6.2 Sanskrit Inscriptions
1.7 Sufi Writings
1.8 Arab Accounts
1.8.1 Arab Geographers’ Accounts
1.8.2 Ibn Battuta
1.9 Sanskrit Literature
1.10 Literature in the Regional Languages
1. 10.1 Social Background of the Development of Regional Languages
1. 10.2 Literature in the Regional Languages of North India
1. 10.3 Literature in the Regional Languages of South India
1.11 Summary
1.12 Keywords
1.13 Check Your Progress Exercises
1.14 Suggested Readings
1.15 Instructional Video Recommendations

* Prof. Abha Singh, School of Social Sciences, Indira Gandhi National Open University,
New Delhi and Prof. R.P. Bahuguna, Department of History and Culure, Jamia Milia
Islamia, New Delhi. Sections 1.9 and 1.10 are taken from IGNOU Course EHI-03: India:
From 8th to 15th Century, Block 8, Unit 33, Sections 33.5-33.8. 13
Interpreting
The Delhi Sultanate 1.0 OBJECTIVES
The present Unit aims at providing you a sweeping glimpse of the tradition of
historical writings of the Sultanate India. After reading the Unit, you will be able
to know:
• the traditions of Arabic and Persian historiography and differences in their
styles of writing,
• some of the Arabic and Persian historical writings on/in India,
• features of dynastic history writings,
• malfuzat literary traditions,
• insha writings and how the insha tradition developed over the period,
• importance of inscriptions as an important source of history writing,
• how did the availability of official documents and orders enrich our
understanding of the Sultanate period,
• understanding of foreign travellers on India,
• Arab travellers, their perception of India and their influence on the overall
understanding of the Sultanate period,
• the reasons behind the decadence that had crept into the quality of Sanskrit
works produced during the period under review,
• about the origin and growth of Urdu language,
• the factors responsible for the growth of regional languages and literature,
and
• about the nature of cultural and literary synthesis achieved in this period.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The present Unit aims at addressing three basic questions: a) understanding of the
history of medieval historians. For this Barani is of great importance; b) The second
question is why did they write? What was the purpose of their writings? These
writings were either written for a desire of fame; to please their patrons; and at
times for rewards; while a few wrote for leaving records for posterity; and c) Third
dominant aspect was that their writings dominated the religious discourse; ‘God’;
‘Almighty’s will’ was central to all happenings. This does not mean that intrigues,
administration, etc. did not form part of their writings.
How should one write history? Some of the medieval historians/chroniclers,
particularly Zia Barani, were aware of the importance of history writings (we would
be discussing them in separate Sections); if it is not treated honestly they knew
about its dangers.
History is all about changes. Though focus of medieval historians was on dynastic
histories, nonetheless they were aware of changes from one dynasty over the other
and they often discuss and remark about that – change of ideas, institutions, often
relationships (among groups).
14
The Sultanate witnessed the flowering of a rich corpus of literature. This was a Survey of Sources
period when new languages were introduced with a remarkable growth in the
sphere of culture and literature. This cultural and literary synthesis is manifested
in the origin and growth of a synthetic language like Urdu and in the interchange
between Persian and Sanskrit. The regional languages and literature which were
considerably influenced by Sanskrit and Persian mirrored the religious, social and
popular attitudes of the period under study. The Hindi works of Muslim writers
like Amir Khusrau and Jayasi as well as the Bengali Vaishnavite poems composed
by Bengali Muslims also highlight the process of cultural synthesis operative during
this period.

1.2 ARABIC AND PERSIAN HISTORIC TRADITIONS

Arabic was the language of the Islamic world so the earliest available historical
writings of the period were written in Arabic. K.A. Nizami rightly puts it, that
‘The Arab tradition …cherished democratic ideals and treated history as a biography
of nations.’ Thus their narratives not just revolve around the story of the rulers,
political happenings and camps; instead they speak of the life of the common
man. Arabic historic tradition encompasses the socio-economic, cultural, religious,
along with the political and military events thus was more democratic in approach.
Arabic history tradition can truly be referred to as history of the ‘age’.
The ‘chain of narrators’ (isnad) was another important feature of the Arabic
historiography. To pen down the Holy Quran in its pristine form, the collected oral
traditions required to be critically sifted to arrive at the ‘most pious Truth’. The need
for this validation and a deep desire to present the ‘Truth and the only Truth’ the
tradition of isnad evolved and got invented. In this context Al-Baladuri’s (d. 892)
Futuh-ul Buldan is classical in this context. Baladuri narrates every event ‘with
reference to the chain of narrators and every reliable sources’ (Siddiqui 2014: 3).
With Al-Masudi (d. 956-57) a new dimension of adding history with geography
got introduced. Masudi, himself was a great traveller who even visited India and
Sri Lanka, while penning down his work added his own travel experiences and
geographical knowledge on various regions; thus making geographical environment
a vital component at the backdrop of history, correlating the geographical facts
with human historical developments; applying ‘cause and effect’ thus adding
‘interpretation’ which is an important component of scientific history.
In the eleventh century another dimension got added to Arabic historiography that
officers and scholars associated with the court began writing the histories of their
rulers, events. This drastically changed the tone and form of Arabic history writing;
it added the component of personal biases, jealousies, likes and dislikes of the
ruling aristocracy and centre started tilting towards ‘court’ politics and elites than
on common men which is clearly reflected in the writings of Al-Musabbihi
(d. 1029; on history of Egypt) and Al-Qurtubi (d. 1076-77; history of Andulasia
[Spain]). Gradually with royal patronage, Arabic histories also became more and
more tilted towards dynastic histories, eulogising their patrons’ deeds paving way
to another element, rhetoric. This is especially evident in the writings of Al-Utbi
(d. 1035) in his Tarikh-i Yamini dealing with Subuktigin and Sultan Mahmud of
Ghazna. However, Al-Biruni, who was also associated with the court, nonetheless
followed the old classic Arabic tradition of history writing. In the Arab context Ibn
15
Interpreting Khaldun’s (d. 1404) Muqaddimah conceives dynamism of the human society,
The Delhi Sultanate
human associations (ijtima) with emphasis on causality. He attributes the spirit of
solidarity (asbiya) of the clan as the chief factor behind the strength of the rulers/
dynasties.
Persian historiography narrowed down the scope of history and centered around
political history and life of the rulers and nobility than a socio-religious history of
the age. Thus, Persian histories were dynastic histories; histories of the kings and
‘aristocracy’. Persian historians preferred to dedicate their work to the ruler
considering necessary to ‘enhance the value of their work’. Minhaj-i Siraj Juzjani
dedicated his Tabaqat-i Nasiri to Nasiruddin Mahmud, Ziauddin Barani dedicated
his Tarikh-i Firuzshahi to Firuz Shah Tughlaq. Persian histories largely lack the
discussions on literati, scholars and saints and their mention is made generally in
the context of rulers. Minhaj’s period was vibrant in sufi activities of great Chishti
and Suhrawardi saints (Muinuddin Chishti, Bakhtiyar Kaki, Hamiduddin Nagori);
but, they are largely missing from his narrative. However, though Barani’s history
also fell largely in Persian historiographic tradit