Multi-cultural Concepts in Women’s Studies

Religion of Gender

Learning Objectives:
1. Discuss the development of Women’s Studies.
2. Discuss World religions and Gender Related Issues

Definitions of WOMEN'S STUDIES

Women's studies is the study of women and gender in every field. Its basic premise is that
traditional education is based on a study of men—usually upper-class, Caucasian, educated
men—while other groups of men and all different groups of women are erroneously subsumed
under the category "mankind."
Early on courses drew especially on history, literature, and sociology, but they quickly
expanded to the other humanities (philosophy, religious studies, comparative literature, art,
music) and the social sciences (anthropology, political science, economics, psychology,
geography). Science and technology have been slower to embrace women's studies, but
biology, math, technology, computer science, chemistry, physics, and medicine have all begun
to examine their assumptions for sexist bias, and courses in "gender and physics," "women
geologists," or "sexism and science" are de rigueur in most programs.
Origins
In its short history (from the late 1960s in the United States) women's studies has moved
around the world as an idea, a concept, a practice, and finally a field or Fach (German for
specialty or field). As late as 1982 in Germany women’s studies was not considered a Fach and
therefore could not be studied in the university but only in special or summer courses. By the
early twentieth century women's studies was recognized in higher education from India to
Indonesia, from the United States to Uganda, China to Canada, Austria to Australia, England to
Egypt, South Africa to South Korea.
Over the years the term itself and the naming of the enterprise have been contested and
changing. The first name was "female studies," but "women's studies" quickly found more
adherents. The name "women's studies" has been criticized for its ambiguous apostrophe (the
study of or by women?), for its (supposed) assumption that all women can be studied together,
and for its "hegemonic narrowness" that does not take into account transgendered or lesbian
identities. Some programs have changed their names to "gender studies," "women and gender
studies," or "feminist studies." And of course, in the exporting of "women's studies" around the
world, various languages are unable to translate "gender" or "women's studies" in satisfactory
ways. It is safe to say, however, that all permutations share some commonalities—that women
matter and that their own assessment of their experiences is the starting point for description
and analysis; that the history of women's subordination is differently experienced but
commonly shared; that the elimination of that subordination is a common goal. The concept of
gender as a social construction that reflects and determines differences in power and
opportunity is employed as the primary analytic category.

Growth and Institutionalization

Because American educational institutions, especially newer, less-traditional ones, are very
flexible in curricular change, women's studies grew and expanded in the United States more
quickly than anywhere else. But very soon there were women's studies programs in Japan,
Australia, New Zealand, Finland, Sweden, India, South Korea, Taiwan, and the Philippines. By
the 1980s there were programs in all countries in Western Europe, plus Thailand, South Africa,
China, the Caribbean, and Uganda. Finally, after the change from communism in Eastern
Europe, programs were instituted in Slovakia, the Czech Republic, Russia, Ukraine, and others,
in addition to Malaysia, Vietnam, and other African nations. Two series of international
conferences gave impetus to the growth of women's studies, both within universities and in
community-based organizations worldwide.
The International Interdisciplinary Congress on Women began in Haifa, Israel, in 1981 and
has met every three years since—in the Netherlands (1984), in Ireland (1987), in New York
(1990), in Costa Rica (1993), in Australia (1996), in Norway (1999), in Uganda (2002), and in
South Korea (2005). Two to three thousand delegates, mostly women, both academics and
community organizers, attend to present their work. Each conference draws especially on that
continent's practitioners. Thus, the Costa Rica conference brought together many indigenous
women from Central America as well as Latin American delegates. Languages that year were
Spanish, English, and a variety of Indio languages. That this congress continues to meet, without
governmental or formal organizational support, is testimony to the personal importance to
women all over the world of global scholarship on women.
The United Nations has sponsored four international conferences as a part of its "Decade
for Women," in Mexico City (1975), Copenhagen (1980), Nairobi (1985), and Beijing (1995).
The nongovernmental organizations (NGO) forums held in conjunction with each conference
brought together thousands of activists and women's studies groups from all over the world,
thus reminding those from the developed world of the connections between education and
broader social justice issues.

Theoretical traditions and research methods

Early women's studies courses and curricula were often driven by the question "why are
women not included? where are the women?". That is, as more women became more present
in higher education as both students and faculty, questions arose about the male-centric nature
of most courses and curricula. Women faculty in traditional departments such as history,
English, and philosophy began to offer courses with a focus on women. Drawing from the
women's movement's notion that "the personal is political", courses also began to develop
around sexual politics, women's roles in society, and the ways in which women's personal lives
reflect larger power structures.

Since the 1970s, scholars of women's studies have taken post-modern approaches to
understand gender and its intersections with race, class, ethnicity, sexuality, religion, age, and
(dis)ability to produce and maintain power structures within society. With this turn, there has
been a focus on language, subjectivity, and social hegemony, and how the lives of subjects,
however they identify, are constituted. At the core of these theories is the notion that however
one identifies, gender, sex, and sexuality are not intrinsic, but are socially constructed.

Major theories employed in women's studies courses include feminist theory,

intersectionality, standpoint theory, transnational feminism, and social justice. Research
practices associated with women's studies place women and the experiences of women at the
center of inquiry through the use of quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods. Feminist
researchers acknowledge their role in the production of knowledge and make explicit the
relationship between the researcher and the research subject.

Feminist theory
Feminist theory refers to the body of writing that works to address gender discrimination
and disparities, while acknowledging, describing, and analyzing the experiences and conditions
of women's lives. Theorists and writers such as bell hooks, Simone de Beauvoir, Patricia Hill
Collins, and Alice Walker added to the field of feminist theory with respect to the ways in which
race and gender mutually inform the experiences of women of color with works such as
Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center, In Search of Our Mothers' Gardens, and Black Feminist
Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment. Alice Walker coined the
term womanism to situate black women's experiences as they struggle for social change and
liberation, while simultaneously celebrating the strength of black women, their culture, and
their beauty. Patricia Hill Collin's contributed the concept of the "matrix of domination" to
feminist theory, which reconceptualizes race, class, and gender as interlocking systems of
oppression that shape experiences of privilege and oppression.

Intersectionality
Intersectionality is a way of understanding and analyzing the complexity in people, human
experiences, and society. Associated with the third wave of feminism, Kimberlé Williams
Crenshaw's theory of intersectionality has become the key theoretical framework through
which various feminist scholars discuss the relationship of between one's social and political
identities such as gender, race, age, and sexual orientation, and received societal
discrimination. Intersectionality posits that these relationships must be considered in order to
understand hierarchies of power and privilege, as well as the effects in which they manifest in
an individual's life. Though events and conditions of social and political life are often thought to
be shaped by one factor, intersectionality theorizes that oppression and social inequality are a
result of how powerful individuals view the combination of various factors; emphasizing that
discrimination is accounted for by power, not personal identity.

Standpoint theory
Standpoint theory, also classified as feminist standpoint theory, developed in the 1980s as a
way of critically examining the production of knowledge and its resulting effects on practices of
power. Standpoint theory operates from the idea that knowledge is socially situated and
underrepresented groups and minorities have historically been ignored or marginalized when it
comes to the production of knowledge. Emerging from Marxist thought, standpoint theory
argues for analysis that challenges the authority of political and social "truths". Standpoint
theory, assumes that power lies solely within the hands of the male gender as the process of
decision making in society is constructed exclusively for, and by men. An example of where
standpoint theory presents itself in society is through the processes of political analysis, as this
field of study is almost entirely controlled by men. Furthermore, from a Marxist viewpoint, Karl
Marx had expressed a notion in which believed that those in power have the inability to
understand the perspectives of those whom they hold power. Providing that standpoint theory
acknowledges the male incapability of understanding the oppression in which women face in
society.
Transnational feminist theory
Transnational feminism is concerned with the flow of social, political, and economic equality
of women and men across borders; directly in response to globalization, neoliberalism, and
imperialism. Women's studies began incorporating transnational feminist theory into its
curricula as a way to disrupt and challenge the ways in which knowledge regarding gender is
prioritized, transmitted, and circulated in the field and academy. Transnational feminist theory
is continually challenging the traditional divides of society, in which are crucial to ongoing
politics and cultural beliefs. A key recognition advanced from the transnational feminist
perspective is that gender is, has been, and will continue to be, a global effort. Furthermore, a
transnational feminist perspective perpetuates that a lack of attention to the cultural and
economic injustices of gender, as a result of globalization, may aid in the reinforcing of global
gender inequalities; though, this can only come about when one occupies globally privileged
subject positions.

Social justice
Since its inception and connection with the women's movement, activism has been a
foundation of women's studies. Increasingly social justice has become a key component of
women's studies courses, programs, and departments. Social justice theory is concerned with
the fight for just communities, not on the individual level, but for the whole of society.
Women's studies students engage in social justice projects, although some scholars and critics
are concerned about requiring students to engage in both mandated activism and/or social
justice work. Women's studies not only focus on concepts such as domestic violence,
discrimination in the workplace, and gender differences in the division of labor at home, but
gives a foundation for understanding the root cause of these concepts, which is the first step to
making for a better life for women.

Agency
Agency may be defined as the capability to make choices individually and freely. An
individual's agency may be restricted due to various social factors, such as gender, race, religion
and social class. From a feminist standpoint, agency may be viewed as an attempt to equalize
the one-sided oppression that has characterized first wave feminism. Feminists use agency in
attempt to create new forms of autonomy and dependence from the reshaping of gender
relations that is taking place in global society. Women's studies acknowledges the lack of
agency in which women historically possessed, due to hierarchical positions in society.
Feminists are actively making an effort to increase gender equality, as it may result in
expanding social agency for all women.

Materialism
Materialist theory derives from 1960's and 1970's social work in feminism. Materialism
possesses significant ties to the Marxist theories of history, agency, and ideology; though, may
be distinguished through the incorporation of language and culture to its philosophy.
Materialism poses questions to both social analytics and social relations, in which may be found
in the material conditions of any given society. In addition, from examining from a gender
standpoint, material conditions are studied in relation to realistic aspects of women's lives. A
key aspect in which materialist feminists have revealed these relations is from the feminist
perspective, claiming that social conditions of gender are historically situated, as well as
subjected to intervention and change. Materialist feminism specifically focuses on social
arrangements that accentuate the role of women—notably the aspects of family, domesticity,
and motherhood. Materialism analyzes gendering discourses in which promote women's
marginalization; Thus, one of the most influential aspects of materialist feminism is its
attentiveness with questions of ideology and how they relate to history and agency.

Pedagogies
In most institutions, women's studies courses employ feminist pedagogy in a triad model of
equal parts research, theory, and praxis. The decentralization of the professor as the source of
knowledge is often fundamental to women's studies classroom culture. Students are
encouraged to take an active role in "claiming" their education, taking responsibility for
themselves and the learning process. Women's studies programs and courses are designed to
explore the intersectionality of gender, race, sexuality, class and other topics that are involved
in identity politics and societal norms through a feminist lens. Women's studies courses focus
on a variety of topics such as media literacy, sexuality, race and ethnicity, history involving
women, queer theory, multiculturalism and other courses closely related. Faculty incorporate
these components into classes across a variety of topics, including popular culture, women in
the economy, reproductive and environmental justice, and women's health across the lifespan.

Women's studies programs are involved in social justice work and often design curricula that
are embedded with theory and activism outside of the classroom setting. Some women's
studies programs offer internships that are community-based allowing students the
opportunity to experience how institutional structures of privilege and oppression directly
affects women's lives. Women's studies curricula often encourage students to participate in
service-learning activities in addition to discussion and reflection upon course materials.
However, Daphne Patai, from the University of Massachusetts Amherst, has criticized this
aspect of women's studies programs, arguing that they place politics over education, stating
"the strategies of faculty members in these programs have included policing insensitive
language, championing research methods deemed congenial to women (such as qualitative
over quantitative methods), and conducting classes as if they were therapy sessions." Since
women's studies students analyze identity markers including gender, race, class, and sexuality,
this often results in dissecting institutionalized structures of power. As a result of these
pedagogies, women's studies students leave university with a tool set to make social change
and do something about power inequalities in society.
Religions
Define Religion
1. A set of beliefs concerning the cause, nature, and purpose of the universe, especially
when considered as the creation of a superhuman agency or agencies, usually involving
devotional and ritual observances, and often containing a moral code governing the conduct of
human affairs.
2. A specific fundamental set of beliefs and practices generally agreed upon by a number of
persons or sects: the Christian religion; the Buddhist religion.
3. The body of persons adhering to a particular set of beliefs and practices:

World Religions and its members

1. Hinduism and its beliefs
Hindus worship one Being of ultimate oneness (Brahman) through infinite representations of
gods and goddesses. These various deities become incarnate within idols, temples, gurus,
rivers, animals, etc.
Hindus believe their position in this present life was determined by their actions in a
previous life. Hinduism therefore provides a possible explanation for suffering and evil in this
life. If a person’s behavior before was evil, they might justifiably experience tremendous
hardships in this life. Pain, disease, poverty or a disaster like a flood is deserved by that person
because of their own evil actions, usually from a previous lifetime. A Hindu's goal is to become
free from the law of karma...to be free from continuous reincarnations. Only the soul matters
which will one day be free of the cycle of rebirths and be at rest.
2. Buddhism and its beliefs
 Buddhists do not believe in any God. They do not worship any gods or God. People outside of
Buddhism often think that Buddhists worship the Buddha. However, the Buddha (Siddhartha
Gautama) never claimed to be divine, but rather he is viewed by Buddhists as having attained
what they are also striving to attain, which is spiritual enlightenment and, with it, freedom from
the continuous cycle of life and death.
3. New Age Spirituality and its beliefs
New Age Spirituality promotes the development of the person's own power or divinity.
When referring to deity, a follower of this type of spirituality is not talking about a
transcendent, personal God who created the universe, but is referring to a higher
consciousness within themselves. A person pursuing spiritual development would see
themselves as deity, the cosmos, and the universe. In fact, everything that the person sees,
hears, feels or imagines is to be considered divine.
4. Islam and its beliefs
Muslims believe there is the one almighty God, named Allah, who is infinitely superior to and
transcendent from humankind. Allah is viewed as the creator of the universe and the source of
all good and all evil. Everything that happens is Allah's will. He is a powerful and strict judge,
who will be merciful toward followers depending on the sufficiency of their life's good works
and religious devotion.
5. Christianity and its beliefs
Christians believe in one eternal God who is creator of all that is. He is viewed as a loving
God who offers everyone a personal relationship with himself now in this life. In his life on
Earth, Jesus Christ did not identify himself as a prophet pointing to God or as a teacher of
enlightenment. Rather, Jesus claimed to be God in human form. He performed miracles,
forgave people of their sin and said that anyone who believed in him would have eternal life.

World religions and gender Related issues

The status of women in society is very diverse worldwide. Among many important traits
associated with the differentiation of gender inequality is religion, which itself must be
regarded as a fluid concept with interpretations and practices 'embedded' and thus varying
with respect to cultural and historical relations. Admitting the complexity of the issues, some
religious norms and traditions can contribute to the formation of gender inequalities and to
subordinate the role of women in society. Using an exploratory quantitative analysis, the
influence of religiosity on gender inequality in social, economic and political spheres is
examined.
Three categories of states have emerged from the analysis:
(a) states where the majority of inhabitants are without religious affiliation, which display
the lowest levels of gender inequality;
(b) Christian and Buddhist societies, with average levels of gender inequality; and
(c) states with the highest levels of gender inequality across the observed variables, whose
inhabitants adhere to Islam and Hinduism. 1 Gender inequalities can be defined as culturally
and socially created differences between men and women when both sexes do not have the
same share in the decision making and wealth of a society (Ridgeway, 2004). 2 We understand
religion as an ideology which affects the socio-political practices of a society and as a complex
cultural system of meanings, symbols and behaviors in communities (Stump, 2008).

Faith Forum: Is religion a barrier to gender equality?

Although religions state that men and women are equal (with each religion and
denomination claiming that they are better than others in terms of gender equality), gender
equality proponents stress that a lot of work needs to be done in this direction by religions.
Gender equality proponents point out that although women are considered generally more
religious than men, many religions and denominations continue to treat each gender
differently, including:

Religions usually are androcentric

Some leadership roles still restricted to males
In many religions, only men are ordinated
Religious traditions, law and cultural factors treat women differently than men
Religion provides the structure on how women should live their day-to-day lives
God is traditionally portrayed as a masculine figure
Sex segregation is still present
Stress on modesty is usually focused on women
Religious texts and practices are patriarchal
Protocols are more strictly applied to women
Women are more regulated than men
Women are not part of the decision-making machinery
Proponents indicate that although women have overcome barriers in various spheres,
religion seems to be the hardest nut to crack.

References:

https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/united-states-and-canada/us-history/womens-studies
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279526649_Religion_and_gender_inequality_The_s
tatus_of_women_in_the_societies_of_world_religions

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s_studies#:~:text=At%20the%20core%20of%20these
,transnational%20feminism%2C%20and%20social%20justice.

https://www.rgj.com/story/life/2016/03/25/faith-forum-religion-barrier-gender-
equality/82235614/
https://www.google.com/search?q=list+of+religion+with+most+number+of+followers+by+201
5&source=hp&ei=ksy0YMexJLSUr7wPt8eF2Ao&iflsig=AINFCbYAAAAAYLTaoiPO2M1MAQ2WBq4
utOc
GENDER: Disability, Sexuality and Parenting

Learning Objectives:
1. Define Disability.
2. Discuss the impact of disability on gender, especially women.
3. Differentiate gender, sex and sexuality.

Define Disability

According to Miriam Webster dictionary, disability is a physical, mental, cognitive, or

developmental condition that impairs, interferes with, or limits a person's ability to engage in
certain tasks or actions or participate in typical daily activities and interactions.

In simple words, disability is a physical or mental problem that makes it difficult or impossible
for a person to walk, see, hear, speak, learn, or do other important things. Some disabilities are
permanent, or last forever. ... A disability can be something a person was born with. Or it can be
the result of an illness or an accident.

Some examples of common disabilities you may find are:

vision Impairment.
deaf or hard of hearing.
mental health conditions.
intellectual disability.
acquired brain injury.
autism spectrum disorder.
physical disability.

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities defines disability
as: long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which in interaction with
various barriers may hinder [a person's] full and effective participation in society on an equal
basis with others.

Impact of disability on gender especially women

Women with disabilities — nearly 1 in 5 women worldwide — experience multiple forms of

discrimination that create additional challenges for their activism and lives. These include
barriers to accessing education and employment opportunities, as well as experiencing high
levels of violence. Due to discriminatory attitudes and institutional barriers to participation, the
voices and lived experiences of women with disabilities have been largely ignored by their
communities, societies, and within human rights movements.
How does disability affect issues of gender?
Women and girls with disabilities experience higher rates of gender-based violence, sexual
abuse, neglect, maltreatment and exploitation than women and girls without disabilities.
Women and girls with disabilities are three times more likely to experience gender-based
violence compared to non-disabled women.

What disabilities are more common in women?

About 36 million women in the U.S. have disabilities – and the number is growing. About
44% of those aged 65 years or older are living with a disability. The most common cause of
disability for women is arthritis or rheumatism.

Discrimination is an enduring issue for all

people with disabilities. Women and girls with
disabilities however, are subjected to double
discrimination: sexism as well as disability bias.
Needless to say, women and girls of color who
are disabled face a third layer of bias in the form
 of racism.
While there are many ways in which this
discrimination manifests itself, one key result
is that women with disabilities are significantly
poorer than men with disabilities and women
without disabilities. A variety of factors contribute to this situation: women with disabilities are
more likely to be unemployed; if employed, they receive considerably
lower wages than men with disabilities; and women with disabilities have not been part of
nondisabled women’s increases—in numbers or salaries—
in the paid labor force.
But employment is not the
only culprit. The educational system—both formal and informal—
must also be held accountable. On the one
hand, education plays a pivotal role in contributing to the lack of equal opportunity for
women and girls with disabilities. On the other,
it is just as clearly the arena that offers the greatest potential for positive change.

Addressing gender equality in the context of disability

(Inputs from UN Women)

Overview

The integration of women with disabilities in the 2015 development framework and beyond
must be reinforced. While all human rights and development norms and standards apply to
women and girls with disabilities, they have not enjoyed the full rights on an equal basis with
others.

For far too long, women and girls with disabilities have been invisible, both to the advocates
of women’s rights and of disability rights, and this has increased their vulnerability. Women and
girls with disabilities (W&GWD) are likely to experience the “double discrimination,” which
includes the gender-based violence, abuse and marginalization. As a result, women with
disabilities often must confront additional disadvantages even in comparison to men with
disabilities and the women without disabilities.

The outcome document of the High-Level Meeting on Disability and Development must
ensure that the gender equality is included as a key challenge. At the same time, gender
equality should be an integral part of each of the other key challenges, including through the
sex and age disaggregated data and statistics.
Statistics related to the intersectionality of gender and disability

1. The 2011 World Report on Disability indicates that female disability prevalence rate is
19.2 per cent whereas it is 12 per cent for men.
2. The global literacy rate is as low as three per cent for all adults with disabilities, and one
per cent for women with disabilities.
3. Although all persons with disabilities face barriers to employment, men with disabilities
have been found to be almost twice as likely to be employed as women with disabilities.
4. Women and girls with disabilities experience higher rates of gender-based violence,
sexual abuse, neglect, maltreatment and exploitation than women and girls without
disabilities. Women and girls with disabilities are three times more likely to experience
gender-based violence compared to non-disabled women.

Factors contributing to the existing gender gap in disability

Yet, actions and initiatives to promote the rights of persons with disabilities and disability
inclusive development, often do not give adequate attention to the gender gap in disability.
Some examples of factors contributing to the existing gender gap in disability include:

1. Invisibility of women and girls with disabilities in the work on women, disability rights
and development
2. Double discrimination faced by women and girls with disabilities often compounded by
other factors such as being minorities, indigenous people, refugees, persons living with
HIV and AIDS and older people.
3. Lack of empowerment and capacity development of women and girls with disabilities,
including in leadership and their participation in the decision making in political,
economic and social spheres.

Gender equality as a key challenge for disability inclusive development

It is vital that gender equality should be recognized as a discrete issue and the gender
dimensions of the disability inclusive development should be addressed as well with the
following reasons.

a. As a result of aging and the longer life expectancy of women, the number of women with
disabilities is likely to be higher in many populations than the number of men with
disabilities. Many older women who are disabled may lack access to services/support. As
life expectancy increases, this challenge will become more evident across more
countries.
 b. Gender equality and empowerment of women can reduce the female disability
prevalence rate because many women become disabled because of gender
discriminatory practices, including early and child marriage, early pregnancy and female
genital mutilation.
c. Strategies solely focusing on the disability don’t necessarily result in the enhanced
gender equality among people with disabilities.
d. Women and girls with disabilities are discriminated differently from men: ie: women are
at higher risk of sexual violence, forced sterilization, forced abortion and exposure to
HIV/AIDS, among others. Thus, targeted interventions will result in more effective and
efficient advocacy, including implementation and monitoring of the Convention on the
Rights of Persons with Disabilities.
e. Evidence indicates that the greater gender equality in education and employment make
a marked contribution to development and economic growth. This is why the MDGs and
the QCPR has gender equality as a standalone goal. As stressed in the “Incheon strategy
to “Make the Right Real” for Persons with Disabilities in Asia and the Pacific , promotion
of gender equality and empowerment of women with disabilities is necessary for the
achievement of the disability inclusive development.
f. To advance the rights of women with disabilities in society and development, it is
essential that their perspectives be included in all aspects of work for women’s
empowerment, and that all work on disability incorporate a gender perspective. Without
the meaningful participation of women with disabilities in the disability dialogue, the
goal of “nothing about us without us” cannot be achieved.

g. The new key challenge promotes gender equality and the empowerment of women and
girls as women’s human rights and must address the underlying structural causes of
gender inequality.

Recommended Actions.

In order to incorporate gender mainstreaming and targeted, women-specific policies and

programs, as well as positive legislation in all aspects of disability inclusive development,

1. Use CRPD, CEDAW and other relevant normative instruments to impact the rights of
women with disabilities and achieve gender equality, including measures to end physical
and sexual violence experienced by women with disabilities.
2. Strengthen the collection, compilation and analysis of national disability data and
statistics, disaggregated by sex and age, using existing guidelines on disability
measurement.
 3. Increase the leadership and participation in decision-making of women and girls with
disabilities, identifying key factors, strategies or approaches that can be shared in this
regard.
4. Include the rights and empowerment of women and girls with disabilities, and their
inclusion in development policies, programs, monitoring and evaluation with gender-
based budgeting at all levels, including international cooperation.
• Increase cooperation, partnerships, and synergies between UN entities, organizations of
women and girls with disabilities, women’s, development, and human rights organizations,
among others to provide sustained and sustainable support for the empowerment of women
with disabilities.

GENDER, SEX and SEXUALITY

Sex refers to a set of biological attributes in humans and animals. It is primarily associated
with physical and physiological features including chromosomes, gene expression, hormone
levels and function, and reproductive/sexual anatomy. Sex is usually categorized as female or
male but there is variation in the biological attributes that comprise sex and how those
attributes are expressed.
Sex is used to describe what you are assigned at birth, based on what is in between your legs
(a penis = male, or a vagina = female). However, this is not the full picture. Sex is defined by
genitals, including internal sex organs, chromosomes, and hormones.

There are three sex variations:

1. Male (penis, XY chromosomes, high levels of testosterone)
2. Female (vagina, XX chromosomes, high levels of estrogen)
3. Intersex (a person born with the sexual anatomy or chromosomes that don't fit the
traditional definition of male or female. A combination of reproductive sex organs, including
internal sex organs, chromosomes. and hormones).
 Gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviors, expressions and identities of girls,
women, boys, men, and gender diverse people. It influences how people perceive themselves
and each other, how they act and interact, and the distribution of power and resources in
society. Gender identity is not confined to a binary (girl/woman, boy/man) nor is it static; it
exists along a continuum and can change over time.
Gender sensitivity is all about getting rid of wrong notions and perceptions, as well as learning
to interact with the opposite gender. The sooner this is learnt and practiced, the better.
Gender is used to describe the traditional social roles for males and females. Gender Identity
describes how someone feels on the inside, and Gender Expression describes how someone
chooses to present their gender to the world. You know how society tends to announce a baby
boy with blue or a baby girl with pink? Or how boys are given trucks and girls are given dolls?
And how men are encouraged to play sports and be a tough 'man' and women are encouraged
to paint their nails and do their hair and where makeup? These are societal constructs of
gender.

There are three gender variations:

1. Cisgender - a person who identifies with the sex they were assigned at birth. For
example, a person who was assigned as a male at birth, and identifies as male, or vice versa.
2. Transgender - a person whose gender identity does not match the sex they were
assigned at birth. For example, a person who was assigned as a male at birth, but identifies as
female, or vice versa.
3. Gender Fluid - a person whose gender identity is not fixed and / or shifts depending on
the situation. These people do not feel the need to act according to the sex they were assigned
at birth and the associated traditional social roles.
Some transgender people might have surgery, take hormones, or change the way they look
or dress to bring their body into alignment with how they identify, but not all transgender
people can or want to do this. Being transgender is not dependent on your physical appearance
or medical procedures. Hence, the importance of not reducing a person to their genitals
(whether they have a penis or vagina). Anyway, does it really matter? How is this any of my
business?
Pronouns become important when talking about someone’s gender identity. Some may
identify as 'he', 'she', or 'they'. If someone asks you to call them by a particular pronoun, it's
important to respect their wishes. You would not continue to call someone 'Elizabeth' if they
asked you to call them 'Liz' or 'Beth' now, would you?

Sexuality is the part of you expressed through your sexual activities and relationships. It is
represented in your feelings, behaviors, and your sexual identity. Your sexual identity is how
you choose to describe or label your sexuality. There are many different labels that a person
can choose, including not choosing a label at all! Similarly, to pronouns, it is important to refer
to a person’s sexuality by their chosen label (just ask them if you're not sure, so you're not
assuming). A person’s sexuality can be:

1. Heterosexual - A person attracted to people of the opposite sex.

2. Homosexual - A person attracted to people of the same sex.
3. Bisexual - The word 'bi', meaning 'two', refers to a person’s attraction to both genders
(male and female).
4. Asexual - Asexuality is the absence of sexual attraction. For example, some asexual
people are in romantic relationships where they never desire sex, and some are not in romantic
relationships at all.
5. Pansexual - 'Pan', meaning 'all-inclusive', refers to a person's attraction to multiple
genders. Some pansexual people describe their attraction as being based on chemistry rather
than gender, but everyone is different.
6. Questioning - Some people may be unsure about their sexuality and / or are exploring it,
so might identify as 'questioning'.
+ many more variations of sexuality!
Sexuality is not necessarily black or white. Instead, it can be thought about on a continuum or in
shades of grey.

Three of the most common aspects used to describe sexuality are:

1. Feelings and fantasies: who we fall in love with, who we are attracted to, who we think
about when we are aroused, and who we intimately connect with.
2. Behaviors: include any form of sexual contact (kissing, touching, oral sex, vaginal sex,
anal sex etc.), flirting, who we date, and have relationships with.
3. Identity: is the label or description of our sexuality.
Like many good things in life, sexuality can be confusing. Everyone expresses their sexuality
differently with various levels of diversity. Often sexuality and sexual identity changes at
different times of our lives. And this is ok!
“It's not just about being sexy, it's about being confident and me being confident in my
sexuality.”
Megan The Stallion.

Environmental factors and parental influences

The first major exposure to gender roles typically comes from a child's parents. Children are
often dressed in gender specific clothing and given gender specific toys from birth. Parents may
encourage children to participate in gender stereotypical play, such as girls playing with dolls
and boys playing with trucks. Parents may also model gender normative behavior, both
unintentionally and intentionally. Parental disapproval for failing to comply with gender norms
and parental approval for successful compliance with these norms can serve to solidify
children's understanding of gender roles.

The parental affect and level of discipline children receive may be related to their gender. In
2001, Claire Hughes found parents of young girls were more likely to have more positive overall
affect and stronger discipline. Hughes also found parental warmth to be associated with the
development of theory of mind for girls, but not for boys. Hughes suggested this may have to
do with a greater tendency for girls to use understanding of mind to seek emotional support,
empathize, and cooperate.
Children can learn about emotions in a few different ways, by witnessing others’ feelings and
emotions, having their emotional displays responded to, and lastly the ways they are taught
about their feelings and emotions. Parents have been found to talk about emotions differently
to their sons and daughters. Both mothers and fathers use more emotion words and make
more references to sadness and disliking of events, with their daughters than their sons. As a
result of this, girls use more emotion words than boys do. Girls’ emotional socialization has in a
way been more developed because of this. Not only do girls understand emotions better but,
they are also better than boys at applying cultural standards of emotion expression in everyday
life. Girls and boys may also differ in the ways they apply their awareness of mind to their
relationships with others. One example of this is, girls may show a greater tendency than boys
to use their increasing understanding of mind to elicit emotional support, or to develop their
skills of empathy and cooperation.

Children between the ages of 3 to 6 may have difference in their levels of interest in infants
and practicing nurturance behaviors. Judith Blakemore found that when children were given
opportunities to interact with infants, boys were less likely to show interest in the younger
child. In general, children without younger sibling were more likely to show interest, which may
be related to the novelty of an infant. Of children with younger siblings, the gender difference
was strong, and may be related to the child having learned gender roles by viewing the
upbringing of their siblings. No group showed less interest in the infants than the male children
with siblings. Children with egalitarian parents tended to show the least gender differences in
interest in the infants.

Gender identity
Gender identity typically develops in stages:

Around age two: Children become conscious of the physical differences between boys and
girls.
Before their third birthday: Most children can easily label themselves as either a boy or a girl.
By age four: Most children have a stable sense of their gender identity
During this same time of life, children learn gender role behavior—that is, doing "things that
boys do" or "things that girls do." However, cross-gender preferences and play are a normal
part of gender development and exploration regardless of their future gender identity. The
point is that all children tend to develop a clearer view of themselves and their gender over
time. At any point, research suggests that children who assert a gender-diverse identity know
their gender as clearly and consistently as their developmentally matched peers and benefit
from the same level of support, love, and social acceptance.

How do children typically express their gender identity?

In addition to their choices of toys, games, and sports, children typically express their gender
identity in the following ways:

- Clothing or hairstyle
- Preferred name or nickname
- Social behavior that reflects varying degrees of aggression, dominance, dependency,
and gentleness.
- Manner and style of behavior and physical gestures and other nonverbal actions
identified as masculine or feminine.
- Social relationships, including the gender of friends, and the people he or she decides to
imitate.
-
Gender development is a normal process for all children. Some children will exhibit
variations―similar to all areas of human health and behavior. However, all children need
support, love, and care from family, school, and society, which fosters growth into happy and
healthy adults.

Social impacts
The social impacts of imposing gender roles on children become evident very early in life and
usually follow the child as they continue their development. It is most observable when they
interact with other members of their age group. A child's peers serve as both an archetype and
a sounding board for the proper way to express themselves. Alice Eagly affirms the idea that
gender roles are a direct result of one's social interactions. She calls social behavior "gender-
stereotypic" and says that most of the expectations of gender roles come from the stereotypes
associated with them, such as a woman to be kind and compassionate and a man to be in
control and independent. "This theory implicates conformity to gender-role expectations as a
major source of the sexes' differing behavior."[This quote needs a citation] As a child explores
those things in life that they may enjoy, the acceptance or criticism or their peers is crucial in
whether or not they will continue to perform an activity.

Children are especially apt at noticing when one of their peers violates their established
gender role. As Fagot (1990) found, children had a pronounced response when one of their
peers violated their established gender role. Same-sex peers acted as the distributors of both
rewards for proper gender role behavior and punishments for improper gender role behavior.
Boys who preferred to play with dolls rather than trucks were five to six times more likely to be
harassed by their peers than those who conformed to the norm. Girls who preferred to play
firefighter rather than nurse were ignored rather than criticized. Most importantly, Fagot's
study shows the effect of gender segregation on children; boys tended to respond more readily
to feedback from other boys while girls likewise responded to feedback from other girls. By
surrounding themselves with members of the same sex, children are placing themselves in a
situation where they more readily accept and conform to accepted gender roles.

A study by Carol Martin (1990) shows that cross-sex behavior is generally discouraged in
both sexes, though more so in males. Those that do exhibit cross-sex behavior are branded as
either a sissy (a rather derogatory term used for boys exhibiting feminine characteristics) or a
tomboy (a term for girls exhibiting male characteristics, though not as stigmatized as sissy).
Gender roles place constraints upon what a child is allowed to do, based upon what their peers
deem is acceptable.

As children grow older and are more able to grasp the concept of gender and gender roles,
they begin to spend more time with children of the same sex, further exacerbating the
proliferation of gender roles. Martin and Fabes observed that by the age of two, children were
already beginning to show a preference for interacting with children of the same sex. By the
time a child is three or four, the vast majority of their peer interactions are with members of
the same sex. As Maccoby observed, by the age of four and a half, children spend three times
as much time with same-sex play partners; by six and a half, that amount increases to eleven
times. Martin and Fabes observed that as the children began to segregate themselves by
gender, the activities they performed also aligned with their chosen play partners; boys tended
to choose playmates who were more active and rowdier while girls chose playmates that were
more calm and cooperative.

Children generally fall into these patterns with little guidance from either parents or
teachers; they are encouraged to interact with members of the same sex and begin to adopt
behavior that is considered gender appropriate. This phenomenon is known as self-socialization
and drives the interaction between children throughout their young lives. This instinctive
segregation encourages the gap between males and females and helps to reinforce gender
roles as the child continues to grow.

References:

https://www.google.com/search?q=examples+of+disability&ei=K9y0YJ2zO5XDmAXZpJzQCg&o
q=examples+of+disability&gs_lcp=Cgdnd3Mtd2l6EAEYATICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCAAyAggAMgIIA
DICC

https://disabilityrightsfund.org/our-impact/insights/women-with-disabilities-leading-change/

https://www.google.com/search?source=univ&tbm=isch&q=picture+of+women+with+disabilit
y&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjC4ZyIqPjwAhWRF6YKHYIMAscQ7Al6BAgFEF0&biw=1707&bih=803&dpr
=1.13#im

https://www.google.com/search?q=impact+of+disability+on+gender+especially+women&ei=XC
G3YPavEqummAWqk6_YDQ&oq=impact+of+disability+on+gender+especially+women&gs_lcp=
Cgdnd3M
Common terminologies associated with gender and sexuality(continuation of
Module 5)
Learning Objectives:
1. To familiarize with some terminologies associated with Gender and Sexuality.
2. To identify the differences with the different terminologies related to Gender and
Sexuality.

This was written to help give people the words and meanings to help make conversations easier
and more comfortable. LGBTQ people use a variety of terms to identify themselves, not all of
which are included in this list. Always listen for and respect a person’s self-identified
terminology.

Ally | A term used to describe someone who is actively supportive of LGBTQ people. It
encompasses straight and cisgender allies, as well as those within the LGBTQ community who
support each other (e.g., a lesbian who is an ally to the bisexual community).

Asexual | The lack of a sexual attraction or desire for other people.

Biphobia | The fear and hatred of, or discomfort with, people who love and are sexually
attracted to more than one gender.

Bisexual | A person emotionally, romantically or sexually attracted to more than one sex,
gender or gender identity though not necessarily simultaneously, in the same way or to the
same degree. Sometimes used interchangeably with pansexual.

Cisgender | A term used to describe a person whose gender identity aligns with those typically
associated with the sex assigned to them at birth.

Coming Out | The process in which a person first acknowledges, accepts and appreciates their
sexual orientation or gender identity and begins to share that with others.

Gay | A person who is emotionally, romantically or sexually attracted to members of the same
gender. Men, women and non-binary people may use this term to describe themselves.

Gender binary | A system in which gender is constructed into two strict categories of male or
female. Gender identity is expected to align with the sex assigned at birth and gender
expressions and roles fit traditional expectations.

Gender dysphoria | Clinically significant distress caused when a person's assigned birth gender
is not the same as the one with which they identify.
Gender-expansive | A person with a wider, more flexible range of gender identity and/or
expression than typically associated with the binary gender system. Often used as an umbrella
term when referring to young people still exploring the possibilities of their gender expression
and/or gender identity.

Gender expression | External appearance of one's gender identity, usually expressed through
behavior, clothing, body characteristics or voice, and which may or may not conform to socially
defined behaviors and characteristics typically associated with being either masculine or
feminine.

Gender-fluid | A person who does not identify with a single fixed gender or has a fluid or
unfixed gender identity.

Gender identity | One’s innermost concept of self as male, female, a blend of both or neither –
how individuals perceive themselves and what they call themselves. One's gender identity can
be the same or different from their sex assigned at birth.

Gender non-conforming | A broad term referring to people who do not behave in a way that
conforms to the traditional expectations of their gender, or whose gender expression does not
fit neatly into a category. While many also identify as transgender, not all gender non-
conforming people do.

Genderqueer | Genderqueer people typically reject notions of static categories of gender and
embrace a fluidity of gender identity and often, though not always, sexual orientation. People
who identify as "genderqueer" may see themselves as being both male and female, neither
male nor female or as falling completely outside these categories.

Homophobia | The fear and hatred of or discomfort with people who are attracted to members
of the same sex.

Intersex | Intersex people are born with a variety of differences in their sex traits and
reproductive anatomy. There is a wide variety of difference among intersex variations, including
differences in genitalia, chromosomes, gonads, internal sex organs, hormone production,
hormone response, and/or secondary sex traits.

Lesbian | A woman who is emotionally, romantically or sexually attracted to other women.

Women and non-binary people may use this term to describe themselves.

LGBTQ | An acronym for “lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer.”

Non-binary | An adjective describing a person who does not identify exclusively as a man or a
woman. Non-binary people may identify as being both a man and a woman, somewhere in
between, or as falling completely outside these categories. While many also identify as
transgender, not all non-binary people do. Non-binary can also be used as an umbrella term
encompassing identities such as agender, bigender, genderqueer or gender-fluid.

Outing | Exposing someone’s lesbian, gay, bisexual transgender or gender non-binary identity
to others without their permission. Outing someone can have serious repercussions on
employment, economic stability, personal safety or religious or family situations.

Pansexual | Describes someone who has the potential for emotional, romantic or sexual
attraction to people of any gender though not necessarily simultaneously, in the same way or
to the same degree. Sometimes used interchangeably with bisexual.

Queer | A term people often use to express a spectrum of identities and orientations that are
counter to the mainstream. Queer is often used as a catch-all to include many people, including
those who do not identify as exclusively straight and/or folks who have non-binary or gender-
expansive identities. This term was previously used as a slur but has been reclaimed by many
parts of the LGBTQ movement.

Questioning | A term used to describe people who are in the process of exploring their sexual
orientation or gender identity.

Same-gender loving | A term some prefer to use instead of lesbian, gay or bisexual to express
attraction to and love of people of the same gender.

Sex assigned at birth | The sex, male, female or intersex, that a doctor or midwife uses to
describe a child at birth based on their external anatomy.

Sexual orientation | An inherent or immutable enduring emotional, romantic or sexual

attraction to other people. Note: an individual’s sexual orientation is independent of their
gender identity.

Transgender | An umbrella term for people whose gender identity and/or expression is
different from cultural expectations based on the sex they were assigned at birth. Being
transgender does not imply any specific sexual orientation. Therefore, transgender people may
identify as straight, gay, lesbian, bisexual, etc.

Transitioning | A series of processes that some transgender people may undergo in order to
live more fully as their true gender. This typically includes social transition, such as changing
name and pronouns, medical transition, which may include hormone therapy or gender
affirming surgeries, and legal transition, which may include changing legal name and sex on
government identity documents. Transgender people may choose to undergo some, all or none
of these processes.

References:
https://www.hrc.org/resources/glossary-of-terms
https://www.cityofsalem.net/CityDocuments/basic-sexuality-and-gender-terms-report.pdf