Introduction to Internal Combustion Engine

a temperature of about 80°C, while creating a fair amount of excess heat. This requires
a very large radiator to transfer the excess heat to the surroundings, low temperature
heat transfer needing a large surface area. The large air supply openings for these radi-
ators make it difficult to keep vehicle drag coefficients low. In northern climates, freez-
ing is a problem when the vehicle is turned off. Water is generated in the fuel cell and
cannot be left to freeze in cold temperatures. When cold, there is a startup time delay
problem before the fuel cell reaches operating temperature, usually on the order of
seconds. Some experimental automobiles are equipped with a battery for startup.
Weight, cost, and safety problems will be improved upon by evolution, additional de-
velopment, and large quantity manufacturing.
There are no mechanical components in a reformer–fuel cell system so there are
no mechanical breakdowns. However, there is chemical cycling and thermal cycling
wear. Sulfur and other impurities in fuel and air contaminate cell membranes, reform-
ers, and other components. Evidence and predictions are that, with cleaner fuel and ad-
equate filtration, fuel cells will last the lifetime of an automobile.

9 ENGINE EMISSIONS AND AIR POLLUTION

The exhaust of automobiles is one of the major contributors to the world’s air pollution
problem. Recent research and development has made major reductions in engine
emissions, but a growing population and a greater number of automobiles means that
the problem will exist for many years to come.
During the first half of the 1900s, automobile emissions were not recognized as a
problem, mainly due to the lower number of vehicles. As the number of automobiles
grew along with more power plants, home furnaces, and the population in general, air
pollution became an ever-increasing problem. During the 1940s, the problem was first
seen in the Los Angeles area due to the high density of people and automobiles, as well
as unique weather conditions. By the 1970s, air pollution was recognized as a major
problem in most cities of the United States as well as in many large urban areas around
the world.
Laws were passed in the United States and in other industrialized countries
which limit the amount of various exhaust emissions that are allowed. This put a major
restriction on automobile engine development during the 1980s and 1990s. Although
harmful emissions produced by engines have been reduced by over 90% since the
1940s, they are still a major environmental problem.
Four major emissions produced by internal combustion engines are hydrocarbons
(HC), carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), and solid particulates (part).
Hydrocarbons are fuel and lubrication particles that did not get burned and smaller non-
equilibrium particles of partially burned fuel. Carbon monoxide occurs when insufficient
oxygen is present to fully convert all carbon to CO2 or when incomplete air–fuel mixing
occurs due to the very short engine cycle time. Oxides of nitrogen are created in an en-
gine when high combustion temperatures cause some normally stable N2 to dissociate
into monatomic nitrogen N, which then combines with reacting oxygen. Particulates are
solid carbon particles formed in compression ignition engines and are seen as black
smoke in the exhaust of these engines. Other emissions found in the exhaust of engines
include aldehydes, sulfur, lead, phosphorus, etc.

35
 Introduction to Internal Combustion Engine

Two methods are used to reduce harmful engine emissions. One is to improve the
technology of engines and fuels so that better combustion occurs and fewer emissions
are generated. The second method is aftertreatment of the exhaust gases. This is done
by using thermal converters or catalytic converters that promote chemical reactions in
the exhaust flow. These chemical reactions convert the harmful emissions to acceptable
CO2, H2O, and N2.

PROBLEMS
1 List five differences between SI engines and CI engines.
2 A four-stroke cycle engine may or may not have a pressure boost (supercharger, tur-
bocharger) in the intake system. Why must a two-stroke cycle engine always have an in-
take pressure boost?
3 List two advantages of a two-stroke cycle engine over a four-stroke cycle engine. List two
advantages of a four-stroke cycle engine over a two-stroke cycle engine.
4 (a) Why do most very small engines operate on a two-stroke cycle?
(b) Why do most very large engines operate on a two-stroke cycle?
(c) Why do most automobile engines operate on a four-stroke cycle?
(d) Why would it be desirable to operate automobile engines on a two-stroke cycle?
5 A single-cylinder vertical atmospheric engine with a 1.2 m bore and a piston of 2700 kg
mass is used to lift a weight. Pressure in the cylinder after combustion and cooling is 22
kPa, while ambient pressure is 98 kPa. Assume piston motion is frictionless.
Calculate:
(a) Mass that can be lifted if the vacuum is at the top of the cylinder and the piston moves
up. [kg]
(b) Mass that can be lifted if the vacuum is at the bottom of the cylinder and the piston
moves down. [kg]
6 An early atmospheric engine has a single horizontal cylinder with a 3.2-ft bore, a 9.0-ft
stroke, and no clearance volume. After a charge of gunpowder is set off in the open cylin-
der, the conditions in the cylinder are ambient pressure and a temperature of 540°F. The
piston is now locked in position and the end of the cylinder is closed. After cooling to am-
bient temperature, the piston is unlocked and allowed to move. The power stroke is at con-
stant temperature and lasts until pressure equilibrium is obtained. Assume the gas in the
cylinder is air and piston motion is frictionless. Ambient conditions are 70°F and 14.7 psia.
Calculate:
(a) Possible lifting force at start of power stroke. [lbf]
(b) Length of effective power stroke. [ft]
(c) Cylinder volume at end of power stroke. [ft3]
7 Two automobile engines have the same total displacement volume and the same total
power produced within the cylinders.
List the possible advantages of:
(a) A V6 over a straight six.

36
 Introduction to Internal Combustion Engine

(b) A V8 over a V6.

(c) A V6 over a V8.
(d) An opposed cylinder four over a straight four.
(e) An in-line six over an in-line four.
8 A nine cylinder, four-stroke cycle, radial SI engine operates at 900 RPM.
Calculate:
(a) How often ignition occurs, in degrees of engine rotation.
(b) How many power strokes per revolution.
(c) How many power strokes per second.
9 A family wishes to buy a new midsize automobile. The two options they consider are (a) a
standard automobile with an SI engine that gets 31 miles per gallon fuel economy (mpg)
and costs $18,000; and (b) a hybrid automobile that gets 82 mpg and costs $32,000. On av-
erage, the family drives 16,000 miles each year, and gasoline costs $1.65 per gallon.
Calculate:
(a) Amount of gasoline each vehicle would use each year. [gal]
(b) Gasoline cost savings of hybrid over standard. [$/year]
(c) Time it would take to make up the difference in vehicle cost, with fuel savings. Disre-
gard any interest on car loans and time-worth of money. [months]

DESIGN PROBLEMS
1D Design a single-cylinder atmospheric engine capable of lifting a mass of 1000 kg to a
height of three meters. Assume reasonable values of cylinder temperature and pressure
after combustion. Decide which direction the cylinder will move, and give the bore, piston
travel distance, mass of piston, piston material, and clearance volume. Give a sketch of the
mechanical linkage to lift the mass.
2D Design an alternate fuel engine to be used in a large truck by designating all engine classi-
fications used in Section 3.
3D Design a four-stroke cycle for an SI engine using crankcase compression. Draw schematics
of the six basic processes: intake, compression, combustion, expansion, blowdown, and ex-
haust. Describe fully the intake of air, fuel, and oil.

Answers to Selected Review Problems

5. (a) 6062, (b) 11,462
6. (a) 7991, (b) 4.22, (c) 38.41
8. (a) 80, (b) 4.5, (c) 67.5

37
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 Operating Characteristics

From Chapter 2 of Engineering Fundamentals of the Internal Combustion Engine, Second Edition.
Willard W. Pulkrabek. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

39
 Operating Characteristics

“Electric, hydrocarbon, and steam power are already successfully

established in use. But their specialization is only beginning. Each
has highways and byways to be explored, theories to test and sift,
and principles to be demonstrated. This important work falls not
only to the professional designer and builder, but to all whose
interest prompts either suggestion or co-operative effort.”

The Place of the Automobile

by Robert Bruce (1900)

This chapter examines the operating characteristics of reciprocating internal combus-

tion engines. These include the mechanical output parameters of work, torque, and
power; the input requirements of air, fuel, and combustion; efficiencies; and emission
measurements of engine exhaust.

1 ENGINE PARAMETERS
For an engine with bore B (see Fig. 1), crank offset a, stroke length S, turning at an en-
gine speed of N,
S = 2a (1)
The average piston speed is
Up = 2SN (2)
N is generally given in RPM (revolutions per minute), Up in m/sec (ft/sec), and B,
a, and S in m or cm (ft or in.).
The maximum average piston speed for all engines will normally be in the range
of 5 to 20 m/sec (15 to 65 ft/sec), with large diesel engines on the low end and high-
performance automobile engines on the high end. There are two reasons why engines

40
 Operating Characteristics

Vc
TDC
B
Vd
S

BDC

r
s

␪ FIGURE 1

a Piston and cylinder geometry of reciprocating

engine. B = bore; S = stroke; r = connecting
rod length; a = crank offset; s = piston
position; u = crank angle; Vc = clearance
volume; Vd = displacement volume.

operate in this range. First, this is about the safe limit that can be tolerated by materi-
al strength of the engine components. For each revolution of the engine, each piston is
accelerated twice from stop to maximum speed and back to stop. At a typical engine
speed of 3000 RPM, each revolution lasts 0.02 sec (0.005 sec at 12,000 RPM). If en-
gines operated at higher speeds, there would be a danger of material failure in the pis-
tons and connecting rods as the pistons are accelerated and decelerated during each
stroke. From Eq. (2), it can be seen that this range of acceptable piston speeds also de-
fines a range of acceptable engine speeds, depending on engine size. There is a strong
inverse correlation between engine size and operating speed. Very large engines with
bore sizes on the order of 0.5 m (1.6 ft) typically operate in the 200 to 400 RPM range,
while the very smallest engines (model airplane) with bores on the order of 1 cm (0.4
in.) operate at speeds of 12,000 RPM and higher. Race cars give us an example of en-
gines being run at speeds above this safe range (e.g., Indianapolis 500 Race). These
engines are generally operated at piston speeds up to 35 m/sec and engine speeds up-
wards of 14,000 RPM. Even though these engines receive far better care than the av-
erage automobile engine, a percentage of them experience failure within a few
hundred miles. Table 1 gives representative values of engine speeds and operating
variables for engines of various sizes. Automobile engines usually operate in a speed
range of 500 to 5000 RPM, with a cruising speed of about 2500 RPM.
The second reason why maximum average piston speed is limited is because of
the gas flow into and out of the cylinders. Piston speed determines the instantaneous
flow rate of air–fuel into the cylinder during intake and exhaust flow out of the cylin-
der during the exhaust stroke. Higher piston speeds would require larger valves to
allow for higher flow rates. In most engines, valves are at a maximum size with no room
for enlargement.

41
 Operating Characteristics

TABLE 1 Typical Engine Operating Parameters

Model Airplane Automobile Large Stationary

Two-Stroke Cycle Four-Stroke Cycle Two-Stroke Cycle
Bore (cm) 2.00 9.42 50.0
Stroke (cm) 2.04 9.89 161
Displacement/cyl (L) 0.0066 0.69 316
Speed (RPM) 13,000 5200 125
Power/cyl (kW) 0.72 35 311
Average Piston Speed (m/sec) 8.84 17.1 6.71
Power/Displacement (kW/L) 109 50.7 0.98
bmep (kPa) 503 1170 472

Bore sizes of engines range from 0.5 m down to 0.5 cm (20 in. to 0.2 in.). The ratio
of bore to stroke, B/S, for small engines is usually from 0.8 to 1.2. An engine with
B = S is often called a square engine. If stroke length is longer than bore diameter the
engine is under square, and if stroke length is less than bore diameter the engine is over
square. Very large engines are always under square, with stroke lengths up to four
times bore diameter.
The distance between the crank axis and wrist pin axis is given by
s = a cos u + 2r2 - a2sin2 u (3)
where
a = crankshaft offset
r = connecting rod length
u = crank angle, which is measured from the cylinder centerline and is zero
when the piston is at TDC
When s is differentiated with respect to time, the instantaneous piston speed Up is
obtained:
Up = ds>dt (4)
The ratio of instantaneous piston speed divided by the average piston speed can
then be written as
Up>Up = 1p>22 sin u[1 + 1cos u> 2R2 - sin2 u2] (5)
where
R = r>a (6)
R is the ratio of connecting rod length to crank offset and usually has values of 3
to 4 for small engines, increasing to 5 to 10 for the largest engines. Figure 2 shows the
effect of R on piston speed.
Displacement, or displacement volume, Vd, is the volume displaced by the piston
as it travels from BDC to TDC:

Vd = VBDC - VTDC (7)

42
 Operating Characteristics

1.8

1.6

1.4
R⫽3
1.2
R⫽5
1
Up/Up

R ⫽ 10
0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
CRANK ANGLE ␪ (degrees)

FIGURE 2
Instantaneous piston speed relative to average piston speed as a function of crank angle
for various R values, where R = r>a, r = connecting rod length, a = crankshaft offset.

Some books call this swept volume. Displacement can be given for one cylinder
or for the entire engine. For one cylinder,

Vd = 1p>42B2S (8)

For an engine with Nc cylinders,

Vd = Nc1p>42B2S (9)

where
B = cylinder bore
S = stroke
Nc = number of engine cylinders

Engine displacements can be given in m3, cm3, in.3, and, most commonly, in
liters (L).

1 L = 10 -3 m3 = 103 cm3 = 61.2 in.3

Typical values for engine displacement range from 0.1 cm3 10.0061 in.32 for small
model airplanes, to about 8 L 1490 in.32 for large automobiles, to much larger numbers

43
 Operating Characteristics

for large ship engines. The displacement of a modern average automobile engine is
about 1.5 to 2.5 liters.

HISTORIC—CHRISTIE RACE CAR

A 1908 Christie race car had a V4 engine of 2799 in.3 (46 L) displacement [45].

For a given displacement volume, a longer stroke allows for a smaller bore
(under square), resulting in less surface area in the combustion chamber and corre-
spondingly less heat loss. This increases thermal efficiency within the combustion
chamber. However, the longer stroke results in higher piston speed and higher friction
losses that reduce the output power which can be obtained off the crankshaft. If the
stroke is shortened, the bore must be increased and the engine will be over square. This
decreases friction losses but increases heat transfer losses. Most modern automobile
engines are near square, with some slightly over square and some slightly under square.
This decision is dictated by design compromises and the technical philosophy of the
manufacturer. Very large engines have long strokes with stroke-to-bore ratios as high
as 4:1.
Minimum cylinder volume occurs when the piston is at TDC and is called the
clearance volume Vc. We have

Vc = VTDC (10)
VBDC = Vc + Vd (11)

HISTORIC—SMALL HIGH-SPEED ENGINES

Engines for model airplanes and boats have been built with total displacement volumes as
low as 0.075 cm3 (0.0046 in.3). Some of these engines, which are commercially available,
can operate at speeds up to 38,000 RPM and have power output on the order of 0.15 to 1.5
kW (0.2 to 2.0 hp). It is interesting that the average piston speeds of these engines at high
speed still fall within the general range of 5 to 20 m/sec.

The compression ratio of an engine is defined as

rc = VBDC>VTDC = 1Vc + Vd2>Vc = vBDC>vTDC (12)

Modern spark ignition (SI) engines have compression ratios of 8 to 11, while
compression ignition (CI) engines have compression ratios in the range 12 to 24.
Engines with superchargers or turbochargers usually have lower compression ratios
than naturally aspirated engines. Because of limitations in engine materials, technology,
and fuel quality, very early engines had low compression ratios, on the order of 2 to 3.

44
 Operating Characteristics

FIGURE 3
Fairbanks Morse 10 cylinder PC4.2 diesel ship engine, capable of producing over 8000 brake
horsepower (5970 kW). Printed with permission, Fairbanks Morse Engine Division, Coltec Industries.

45
 Operating Characteristics

FIGURE 4
Cox air-cooled, single cylinder, two-stroke cycle model airplane engine. Engine has displacement of 0.01
cubic inches 10.164 cm32. Photo by Tuescher Photography, Platteville, Wisconsin.

Figure 5 shows how values of rc increased over time to the 8–11 range used on modern
spark ignition automobile engines. This limit of 8 to 11 is imposed mainly by gasoline
fuel properties and force limitations allowable in smaller high-speed engines.
Various attempts have been made to develop engines with a variable compres-
sion ratio. One unsuccessful early attempt used a split piston that expanded due to
changing hydraulic pressure caused by engine speed and load. Three recent engine sys-
tems with a capability of changing compression ratio as the engine is running have
been introduced. One system rotates the top of the engine block slightly to change the
size of the clearance volume and compression ratio. Another system does this by using
a pivot lever arm connected between the connecting rod and crankshaft. A third sys-
tem uses secondary pistons in divided combustion chambers and operates on an Alvar
cycle.

HISTORIC—CRANKSHAFTS
One interesting four-cylinder engine made by Austin of England had only two main bear-
ings, one on each end of the crankshaft. To counteract the effect of crankshaft bending
during operation, the two center cylinders were given a slightly higher static compression
ratio than the two end cylinders [11].

46
 Operating Characteristics

11 11

10 10

9 9

8 8
Compression Ratio, rc
7 7

6 6

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000

FIGURE 5
Average compression ratio of American spark ignition automobile engines as a
function of year. During the first 40 years, compression ratios slowly increased
from 2.5 to 4.5, limited mainly by low octane numbers of the available fuels. In
1923 TEL was introduced as a fuel additive and this was followed by a rapid
increase in compression ratios. No automobiles were manufactured during
1942–1945 when production was converted to war vehicles during World War II.
A rapid rise in compression ratios occurred during the 1950s when muscle cars
became popular. During the 1970s TEL was phased out as a fuel additive,
pollution laws were enacted, and gasoline became expensive due to an oil
embargo imposed by some oil producing countries. These factors resulted in
lower compression ratios during this time. In the 1980s and 1990s better fuels
and combustion chamber technology allowed for higher compression ratios.
Adapted from [5].

The cylinder volume at any crank angle is

V = Vc + 1pB2>421r + a - s2 (13)
where
Vc = clearance volume
B = bore
r = connecting rod length
a = crank offset
s = piston position shown in Fig. 1

47
 Operating Characteristics

This can also be written in a nondimensional form by dividing by Vc, substituting

for r, a, and s, and employing the definition of R.
V>Vc = 1 + 12 1rc - 12[R + 1 - cos u - 2R2 - sin2 u] (14)
where
rc = compression ratio
R = r>a
The cross-sectional area of a cylinder and the surface area of a flat-topped piston
are each given by
A p = 1p>42B2 (15)
The combustion chamber surface area is
A = A ch + A p + pB1r + a - s2 (16)
where A ch is the cylinder head surface area, which will be somewhat larger than A p.
Then if the definitions for r, a, s, and R are used, Eq. (16) can be rewritten as

A = A ch + A p + 1pBS>22[R + 1 - cos u - 2R2 - sin2 u] (17)

Example Problem 1
John’s automobile has a three-liter SI V6 engine that operates on a four-stroke cycle at 3600 RPM.
The compression ratio is 9.5, the length of the connecting rods is 16.6 cm, and the engine is square
1B = S2. At this speed, combustion ends at 20° aTDC.
Calculate:
1. cylinder bore and stroke length
2. average piston speed
3. clearance volume of one cylinder
4. piston speed at the end of combustion
5. distance the piston has traveled from TDC at the end of combustion
6. volume in the combustion chamber at the end of combustion
(1) For one cylinder, using Eq. (8) with S = B yields

Vd = Vtotal>6 = 3L>6 = 0.5 L = 0.0005 m3 = 1p>42B2S = 1p>42B3

B = 0.0860 m = 8.60 cm = S

(2) Use Eq. (2) to find the average piston speed:

Up = 2SN = 12 strokes>rev210.0860 m>stroke213600>60 rev>sec2

= 10.32 m>sec

(3) Use Eq. (12) to find the clearance volume of one cylinder:

rc = 9.5 = 1Vd + Vc2>Vc = 10.0005 + Vc2>Vc

48
 Operating Characteristics

Vc = 0.000059 m3 = 59 cm3

(4) Crank offset, a = S>2 = 0.0430 m = 4.30 cm

R = r>a = 16.6 cm>4.30 cm = 3.86

Use Eq. (5) to find the instantaneous piston speed:

Up>Up = 1p>22 sin u[1 + 1cos u> 2R2 - sin2 u2]

= 1p>22 sin 120°251 + [cos 120°2> 213.8622 - sin2120°2]6
= 0.668
Up = 0.668 Up = 10.6682110.32 m>sec2 = 6.89 m>sec

(5) Use Eq. (3) to find the piston position:

s = a cos u + 2r2 - a2 sin2 u

= 10.0430 m2 cos 120°2 + 210.166 m22 - 10.0430 m22 sin2120°2
= 0.206 m

The distance from TDC is

x = r + a - s = 10.166 m2 + 10.043 m2 - 10.206 m2

= 0.003 m = 0.3 cm

(6) Use Eq. (14) to find the instantaneous volume:

V>Vc = 1 + 12 1rc - 12[R + 1 - cos u - 2R2 - sin2 u]

= 1 + 12 19.5 - 12[3.86 + 1 - cos 120°2 - 213.8622 - sin2120°2]
= 1.32
V = 1.32 Vc = 11.322159 cm32 = 77.9 cm3 = 0.0000779 m3

These results indicate that, during combustion, the volume in the combustion chamber has in-
creased by only a very small amount and shows that combustion in an SI engine occurs at almost
constant volume at TDC.

2 WORK
Work is the output of any heat engine, and in a reciprocating IC engine this work is
generated by the gases in the combustion chamber of the cylinder. Work is the result of
a force acting through a distance. That is, the force due to gas pressure on the moving
piston generates the work in an IC engine cycle.

W = Fdx = PA p dx (18)
L L
where

P = pressure in combustion chamber

49
 Operating Characteristics

A p = area against which the pressure acts 1i.e., the piston face2
x = distance the piston moves

and

A p dx = dV (19)

dV is the differential volume displaced by the piston as it travels a distance d/x, so the
work done can be written

W = P dV (20)
L

Figure 6, which plots the engine cycle on P–V coordinates, is often called an indi-
cator diagram. Early indicator diagrams were generated by mechanical plotters linked
directly to the engine. Modern P–V indicator diagrams are generated on an oscillo-
scope using a pressure transducer mounted in the combustion chamber and an elec-
tronic position sensor mounted on the piston or crankshaft.
Because engines are often multicylinder, it is convenient to analyze engine cycles
per unit mass of gas m within the cylinder. To do so, volume V is replaced with specific
volume v and work is replaced with specific work:
w = W>m v = V>m (21)
Pressure, P

Volume, V

FIGURE 6
Indicator diagram for a typical four stroke cycle SI engine at WOT. An
indicator diagram plots cylinder pressure as a function of combustion chamber
volume over a 720° cycle. The diagram is generated on an oscilloscope using a
pressure transducer mounted in the combustion chamber and a position sensor
mounted on the piston or crankshaft.

50
 Operating Characteristics

FIGURE 7
2002 General Motors L47 Oldsmobile engine. The spark ignition 90° V8
engine has a displacement of 4.0 L 1245 in.32 and produces 250 hp (186 kW)
of brake power. Copyright General Motors Corporation, used with
permission.

w = P dv (22)
L
The specific work w is equal to the area under the process lines on the P–v coor-
dinates of Fig. 9.
If P represents the pressure inside the cylinder combustion chamber, then Eq. (22)
and the areas shown in Fig. 9 give the work inside the combustion chamber. This is
called indicated work. Work delivered by the crankshaft is less than indicated work,
due to mechanical friction and parasitic loads of the engine. Parasitic loads include the
oil pump, supercharger, air conditioner compressor, alternator, etc. Actual work avail-
able at the crankshaft is called brake work,
wb = wi - wf (23)
where
wi = indicated specific work generated inside combustion chamber
wf = specific work lost due to friction and parasitic loads

Units of specific work will be kJ/kg or BTU/lbm.

The upper loop of the engine cycle in Fig. 9 consists of the compression and
power strokes where output work is generated and is called the gross indicated work
(areas A and C in Fig. 9). The lower loop, which includes the intake and exhaust

51
 Operating Characteristics

4.0L V8 (L47) "Aurora"

350 700

300 600

250 HP @ 5600 rpm

250 500

Torque (lb-ft)
200 400
Horsepower

150 300
260 lb-ft @ 4400 rpm

100 200

50 100

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Engine Speed (⫻ 100)

FIGURE 8
Power and torque curves of General Motors L47 Aurora engine shown in
Fig. 7. In stock form the engine produces a maximum brake power of 250 hp at
5600 RPM (186 kW), and maximum torque of 260 lbf-ft at 4400 RPM
(352 N-m). In modified racing form this engine produced 675 hp (503 kW), and
generated a phenomenal record in the Indy Racing League (IRL) during the
years 1997–2001. Race cars with this engine had the pole position in 51 out of 51
races and it won 49 of these races including 5 out of 5 of the Indianapolis 500
races. It had the fastest lap in 31 consecutive IRL races [159]. Copyright General
Motors Corporation, used with permission.

strokes, is called pump work and absorbs work from the engine (areas B and C). Net
indicated work is
wnet = wgross + wpump (24)
Pump work wpump is negative for engines without superchargers, so
wnet = 1Area A2 - 1Area B2 (25)

52
 Operating Characteristics

Wide Open
Throttle
Pressure, P

A Exhaust
Ignition Opens

C
P0

B
TDC BDC
Specific Volume, v
(a)

Part
Throttle
Pressure, P

A Exhaust
Ignition Opens

P0 FIGURE 9
C Four-stroke cycle of typical SI engine plotted
B on P-v coordinates at (a) wide open throttle,
and (b) part throttle. The upper loop consists
of the compression stroke and power stroke
TDC BDC and the area represents gross indicated
work. The lower loop represents negative
Specific Volume, v
work of the intake stroke and exhaust stroke.
(b) This is called indicated pump work.

Engines with superchargers or turbochargers can have intake pressure greater

than exhaust pressure, giving a positive pump work (Fig. 10). When this occurs,
wnet = 1Area A2 + 1Area B2 (26)
Superchargers increase net indicated work but add to the friction work of the en-
gine since they are driven by the crankshaft.

53
 Operating Characteristics

Pressure, P
A

FIGURE 10
Po
Four-stroke cycle of an SI engine
equipped with a supercharger or B
turbocharger, plotted on P-v coordinates.
For this cycle, intake pressure is greater
than exhaust pressure and the pump work TDC BDC
loop represents positive work. Specific Volume, v

The ratio of brake work at the crankshaft to indicated work in the combustion
chamber defines the mechanical efficiency of an engine:

hm = wb>wi = Wb>Wi (27)

Excluding parasitic loads, the mechanical efficiency of an engine is on the order of
55% to 60% at high engine operating speed. It then slowly increases as engine speed is
decreased to the order of 85–95% (see Fig. 11). When the engine is at idle the mechani-
cal efficiency falls to zero or near zero because only a small amount of brake work is

100

90
Mechanical Efficiency, ␩m(%)

80

70

60

50
COMPRESSION RATIO
40 rc ⫽ 10
FIGURE 11 rc ⫽ 12
30
Mechanical efficiency of
reciprocating internal combustion
engines as a function of average 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
piston speed. Data points and curve
Average Piston Speed, Up (m/sec)
adapted from references [93, 197].

54
 Operating Characteristics

being absorbed in the drive system (transmission, transaxle). If all other parameters are
kept constant, neither the compression ratio of the engine nor the bore diameter affect
mechanical efficiency to any great extent. Mechanical and fluid friction are the greatest
energy losses at high speed, while heat loss is the greatest loss at low speed.
Care should be taken when using the terms “gross work” and “net work”. In
some older literature and textbooks, net work (or net power) meant the output of an
engine with all components, while gross work (or gross power) meant the output of the
engine with fan and exhaust system removed.

3 MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE

From Fig. 9 it can be seen that pressure in the cylinder of an engine is continuously
changing during the cycle. An average or mean effective pressure (mep) is defined by
w = 1mep2¢v (28)
or
mep = w>¢v = W>Vd (29)
¢v = vBDC - vTDC (30)
where
W = work of one cycle
w = specific work of one cycle
Vd = displacement volume

Mean effective pressure is a good parameter for comparing engines with regard
to design or output because it is independent of both engine size and speed. If torque is
used for engine comparison, a larger engine will always look better. If power is used as
the comparison, speed becomes very important.
Various mean effective pressures can be defined by using different work terms in
Eq. (29). If brake work is used, brake mean effective pressure is obtained:
bmep = wb>¢v (31)
Indicated work gives indicated mean effective pressure.
imep = wi>¢v (32)
The imep can further be divided into gross indicated mean effective pressure and
net indicated mean effective pressure:
1imep2gross = 1wi2gross>¢v (33)
1imep2net = 1wi2net>¢v (34)
Pump mean effective pressure (which can have negative values) is given by
pmep = wpump>¢v (35)
and friction mean effective pressure is given by
fmep = wf>¢v (36)

55
 Operating Characteristics

The following equations relate some of the previous definitions:

nmep = gmep + pmep 1a2

bmep = nmep - fmep 1b2
bmep = hm imep 1c2
bmep = imep - fmep 1d2 (37)
where
nmep = net mean effective pressure
hm = mechanical efficiency of engine
Typical maximum values of bmep for naturally aspirated SI engines are in the range
of 850 to 1050 kPa (120 to 150 psi). For CI engines, typical maximum values are 700 to
900 kPa (100 to 130 psi) for naturally aspirated engines and 1000 to 1200 kPa (145 to
175 psi) for turbocharged engines [58].

4 TORQUE AND POWER

Torque is a good indicator of an engine’s ability to do work. It is defined as force acting
at a moment distance and has units of N-m or lbf-ft. Torque t is related to work by
2pt = Wb = 1bmep2 Vd>n (38)
where
Wb = brake work of one revolution
Vd = displacement volume
n = number of revolutions per cycle
For a two-stroke cycle engine with one cycle for each revolution,
2pt = Wb = 1bmep2Vd (39)
t = 1bmep2Vd>2p two-stroke cycle (40)
For a four-stroke cycle engine that takes two revolutions per cycle,
t = 1bmep2Vd>4p four-stroke cycle (41)
In these equations, bmep and brake work Wb are used because torque is mea-
sured off the output crankshaft.
Most modern automobile engines have maximum torque per displacement in the
range of 80 to 110 N-m/L (1 to 1.3 lbf-ft>in.3), with some as high as 140 N-m/L. This
gives maximum torques of 200 to 400 N-m (150 to 300 lbf-ft), usually at engine speeds
around 4000 to 6000 RPM. The point of maximum torque is called maximum brake
torque speed (MBT). A major goal in the design of a modern automobile engine is to
flatten the torque-versus-speed curve as shown in Fig. 12, and to have high torque at
both high and low speed. CI engines generally have higher torque than SI engines.
Large engines often have very high torque values with MBT at relatively low speed.
Power is defined as the rate of work of the engine. If n = number of revolutions
per cycle and N = engine speed, then

56
 Operating Characteristics

200

Vd ⫽ 3.2 liter
175
Power, W (kW)

Vd ⫽ 2.5 liter
•

150

125

100

FIGURE 12
Brake power and torque of a typical
300
Torque, ␶ (N-m)

automobile reciprocating engine as a function

of engine speed and displacement. Speed at
200 which peak torque occurs is called maximum
brake torque (MBT) (or maximum best
torque). Indicated power increases with speed
100 while brake power increases to a maximum
and then decreases. This is because friction
increases with engine speed to a higher power
and becomes dominant at higher speeds.
Figs. 8, 14, 16, 20, and 24 show power and
3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 torque curves for specific engines.
Engine speed, N (RPM)

#
W = WN>n (42)
#
W = 2pNt (43)
= 11>2n21mep2A pUp
#
W (44)
= 1mep2A pUp>4
#
W four-stroke cycle (45)
= 1mep2A pUp>2
#
W two-stroke cycle (46)
where
W = work per cycle
A p = piston face area of all pistons
Up = average piston speed

Depending upon which definition of work or mep is used in Eqs. (42)–(46),

power can be defined as brake power, net indicated power, gross indicated power,
pumping power, and even friction power. Also,
# #
Wb = hmWi (47)

57
 Operating Characteristics

1Wi2net = 1Wi2gross - 1Wi2pump

# # #
(48)
# # #
Wb = Wi - Wf (49)

where hm is the mechanical efficiency of the engine.

Power is normally measured in kW, but horsepower (hp) is still common:

1 hp = 0.7457 kW = 2545 BTU>hr = 550 ft-lbf>sec

1kW = 1.341 hp (50)

Engine power can range from a few watts in small model airplane engines to thou-
sands of kW per cylinder in large multiple-cylinder stationary and ship engines. There is
a large commercial market for engines in the 1.5- to 5-kW (2–7 hp) range for lawn mow-
ers, chain saws, snowblowers, etc. Power for outboard motors (engines) for small boats
typically ranges from 2 to 40 kW (3–50 hp), with much larger ones available. Modern au-
tomobile engines range mostly from 40 to 220 kW (50–300 hp). It is interesting to note
that a modern midsize aerodynamic automobile requires only about 5 to 6 kW (7–8 hp)
to cruise at 55 mph on level roadway.
Many large ship and stationary engines, with 4 to 20 cylinders, have brake power
output in the range of 500 to 3000 kW/cylinder (670 to 4000 hp/cylinder) at speeds of
500 to 1000 RPM [228]. The largest engines, with up to 20 cylinders, can have brake
power up to 60,000 kW, operating at speeds of 70 to 140 RPM. In the year 2002 the
largest, most powerful, two-stroke cycle engine was claimed to be the MAN B & W 12-
cylinder K98MC-C, which produced 68,640 kW (92,046 hp) [212].
Both torque and power are functions of engine speed. At low speed, torque in-
creases as engine speed increases. As engine speed increases further, torque reaches a
maximum and then decreases as shown in Figs. 8 and 12. Torque decreases because the
engine is unable to ingest a full charge of air at higher speeds. Indicated power increas-
es with speed, while brake power increases to a maximum and then decreases at high-
er speeds. This is because friction losses increase with speed and become the dominant
factor at very high speeds. For many automobile engines, maximum brake power oc-
curs at about 6000 to 7000 RPM, about one and a half times the speed of maximum
torque.

HISTORIC—DRAG COEFFICIENTS OF AUTOMOBILES

Only about 5 or 6 kW (7 or 8 hp) of power is needed to overcome air resistance on mod-

ern midsize automobiles traveling at 55 mph on level roadway. This is largely due to mod-
ern aerodynamic design which has reduced the drag coefficient of many automobiles to
the 0.25 to 0.30 range. Wind tunnels large enough to test drag on full-size automobiles
were first used in the 1930s. For some reason one automobile was tested with the vehicle
facing backwards, and it was found that there was less air drag in reverse. This prompted
additional testing of more vehicles, and it was found that many car models of that period
had a lower drag coefficient in reverse than that facing forward.

58
 Operating Characteristics

Other ways which are sometimes used to classify engines are as follows:

SP = Wb>A p
#
specific power (51)
output per displacement OPD = Wb>Vd
#
(52)
SV = Vd>Wb
#
specific volume (53)
SW = 1engine weight2>Wb
#
specific weight (54)
where
#
Wb = brake power
A p = piston face area of all pistons
Vd = displacement volume
These parameters are important for engines used in transportation vehicles such
as boats, automobiles, and especially airplanes, where keeping weight to a minimum is
necessary. For large stationary engines, weight is not as important.
Modern automobile engines usually have brake power output per displacement
in the range of 40 to 80 kW/L. The Honda eight-valve-per-cylinder V4 motorcycle en-
gine generates about 130 kW/L, an extreme example of a high-performance racing en-
gine [22]. One main reason for continued development to return to two-stroke cycle
automobile engines is that they have up to 40% greater power output per unit weight.

HISTORIC—EIGHT-VALVES-PER-CYLINDER MOTORCYCLE ENGINE

In the early 1990s, Honda produced a racing motorcycle with a V4 engine of which each
cylinder had four intake valves and four exhaust valves. The engine was developed by
modifying a V8 engine so that the motorcycle could be raced under rules restricting
engines to four cylinders. A four-valve-per-cylinder V8 engine block was modified by
removing the metal between each set of two cylinders. Special pistons were built to fit into
the resulting nonround, oblong cylinders. This resulted in each cylinder having eight
valves and a piston with two connecting rods using a common piston pin.
The final product was a very fast, very expensive motorcycle with an aluminum block,
90° V4 engine having a displacement of 748 cm3. It produced 96 kW at 14,000 RPM and
maximum torque of 71 N-m at 11,600 RPM [22, 143].

5 DYNAMOMETERS
Dynamometers are used to measure torque and power over the engine operating
ranges of speed and load. They do this by using various methods to absorb the energy
output of the engine, all of which eventually ends up as heat.
Some dynamometers absorb energy in a mechanical friction brake (prony
brake). These are the simplest dynamometers but are not as flexible and accurate as
others at higher energy levels.
Fluid or hydraulic dynamometers absorb engine energy in water or oil pumped
through orifices or dissipated with viscous losses in a rotor–stator combination. Large

59
60

15.78
(401.6)

11.41
(290)

8.94

Operating Characteristics
(227.3)

19.76
(502)
0 953L

6.37
(162)
4-M8 ⫻ 1.25
DEPTH 14 (0.55)

7.40
15.59
(188) 17.43 (396)
(442.9)

FIGURE 13
Vanguard 700D three-cylinder, in-line, four-stroke cycle, CI engine made by Briggs & Stratton Corporation. The engine has a bore of 6.8 cm (2.68 in.),
stroke of 6.4 cm (2.52 in.), and a total displacement of 697 cm3 142.5 in.32. Dimensions are in inches and (mm). Printed with permission of Briggs &
Stratton Corporation.
 Operating Characteristics

20
HORSEPOWER
SAE J 1349
GROSS

NET INT.
15

10

NET CONT.
HP 10 KW

35
30 40
ft-lb 25 Nm FIGURE 14
20 30
Power and torque curves of Briggs &
15
Stratton Vanguard 700D CI engine shown
1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600 in Fig. 13. Printed with permission of
RPM Briggs & Stratton Corporation.

amounts of energy can be absorbed in this manner, making this an attractive type of
dynamometer for the largest of engines.
Eddy current dynamometers use a disk, driven by the engine being tested, rotat-
ing in a magnetic field of controlled strength. The rotating disk acts as an electrical con-
ductor cutting the lines of magnetic flux and producing eddy currents in the disk. With
no external circuit, the energy from the induced currents is absorbed in the disk.
One of the best types of dynamometer is the electric dynamometer, which ab-
sorbs energy with electrical output from a connected generator. In addition to having
an accurate way of measuring the energy absorbed, the load is easily varied by chang-
ing the amount of resistance in the circuit connected to the generator output. Many
electric dynamometers can also be operated in reverse, with the generator used as a
motor to drive (or motor) an unfired engine. This allows the engine to be tested for me-
chanical friction losses and air pumping losses, quantities that are hard to measure on a
running fired engine.

Example Problem 2
The engine in Example Problem 1 is connected to a dynamometer which gives a brake output
torque reading of 205 N-m at 3600 RPM. At this speed air enters the cylinders at 85 kPa and
60°C, and the mechanical efficiency of the engine is 85%.

61
 Operating Characteristics

Calculate:
1. brake power
2. indicated power
3. brake mean effective pressure
4. indicated mean effective pressure
5. friction mean effective pressure
6. power lost to friction
7. brake work per unit mass of gas in the cylinder
8. brake specific power
9. brake output per displacement
10. engine specific volume
(1) Use Eq. (43) to find brake power:

Wb = 2pNt = 12p radians>rev213600>60 rev>sec21205 N-m2

#

= 77,300 N-m>sec = 77.3 kW = 104 hp

(2) Use Eq. (47) to find indicated power:

Wi = Wb>hm = 177.3 kW2>10.852 = 90.9 kW = 122 hp

# #

(3) Use Eq. (41) to find the brake mean effective pressure:

bmep = 4pt>Vd = 14p radians>cycle21205 N-m2>10.003 m3>cycle2

= 859,000 N>m2 = 859 kPa = 125 psia
(4) Equation (37c) gives indicated mean effective pressure:

imep = bmep>hm = 1859 kPa2>10.852 = 1010 kPa = 146 psia

(5) Equation (37d) is used to calculate friction mean effective pressure:

fmep = imep - bmep = 1010 - 859 = 151 kPa = 22 psia

(6) Equations (15) and (44) are used to find friction power lost:

A p = 1p>42B2 = 1p>4210.086 m22 = 0.00581 m2 for one cylinder

Wf = 11>2n21fmep2A pUp
#

= 11>421151 kPa210.00581 m2>cyl2110.32 m>sec216 cyl2

= 13.6 kW = 18 hp
Alternatively, the friction power lost can be obtained from Eq. (49):
# # #
Wf = Wi - Wb = 90.9 - 77.3 = 13.6 kW
(7) First, brake work is found for one cylinder for one cycle, using Eq. (29):

Wb = 1bmep2Vd = 1859 kPa210.0005 m32 = 0.43 kJ

It can be assumed that the gas entering the cylinders at BDC is air:
ma = PVBDC>RT = P1Vd + Vc2>RT
= 185 kPa210.0005 + 0.0000592m3>10.287 kJ>kg-K21333 K2
= 0.00050 kg

62
 Operating Characteristics

Brake specific work per unit mass is

wb = Wb>ma = 10.43 kJ2>10.00050 kg2 = 860 kJ>kg = 370 BTU>lbm

(8) Equation (51) gives brake specific power:

BSP = Wb>A p = 177.3 kW2>[1p>4210.086 m2216 cylinders2]

#

= 2220 kW>m2 = 0.2220 kW>cm2 = 1.92 hp>in.2

(9) Equation (52) gives brake output per displacement:

BOPD = Wb>Vd = 177.3 kW2>13 L2

#

= 25.8 kW>L = 35 hp>L = 0.567 hp>in.3

(10) Equation (53) gives engine specific volume:

BSV = Vd>Wb = 1>BOPD = 1>25.8

#

= 0.0388 L>kW = 0.0286 L>hp = 1.76 in.3>hp

Example Problem 3
When a three-cylinder, four-stroke cycle, SI engine, operating at 4000 RPM is connected to an
eddy current dynamometer, 70.4 kW of power is dissipated by the dynamometer. The engine
has a total displacement volume of 2.4 liters and a mechanical efficiency of 82% at 4000 RPM.
Because of heat and mechanical losses, the dynamometer has an efficiency of 93%. hdyno =
1power recorded by dynamometer2>1actual power from engine2.
Calculate:
1. power lost to friction in engine
2. brake mean effective pressure
3. engine torque at 4000 RPM
4. engine specific volume
(1) Brake power:

Wb = 170.4 kW2>10.932 = 75.7 kW = 101.5 hp

#

Indicated power is obtained using Eq. (47):

Wi = Wb>hn = 175.7 kW2>10.822 = 92.3 kW = 123.8 hp
# #

Eq. (49) gives power lost to engine friction:

Wf = Wi - Wb = 192.3 kW2 - 175.7 kW2 = 16.6 kW = 22.3 hp
# # #

(2) The brake mean effective pressure is obtained by combining Eqs. (29) & (42):

bmep = Wb>Vd = [Wb>1N>n2]>Vd

#

= 5175.7 kW2>[14000>60 rev>sec2>12 rev>cycle2]6>10.0024 m3>cycle2

= 946 kPa = 137 psia
or using Eq. (88):
bmep = [110002175.72122]>[12.4214000>602] = 946 kPa

63
 Operating Characteristics

(3) The engine torque using Eq. (43):

t = Wb>2pN = 175.7 kJ>sec2>[12p radians>rev214000>60 rev>sec2]

#

= 181 N-m = 134 lbf-ft

or using Eq. (76):
t = [1159.22175.72]>14000>602 = 181 N-m
(4) Eq. (53) gives engine specific volume:

SV = Vd>Wb = 12.4 L2>175.7 kW2 = 0.0317 L>kW

#

6 AIR–FUEL RATIO AND FUEL–AIR RATIO

Energy input to an engine Qin comes from the combustion of a hydrocarbon fuel. Air is
used to supply the oxygen needed for this chemical reaction. For combustion reaction
to occur, the proper relative amounts of air (oxygen) and fuel must be present.
Air–fuel ratio (AF) and fuel–air ratio (FA) are parameters used to describe the
mixture ratio. We have
AF = ma>mf = ma>mf
# #
(55)
FA = mf>ma = mf>ma = 1>AF
# #
(56)

where
ma = mass of air
#
ma = mass flow rate of air

FIGURE 15
Cummins QSK60-2700 sixteen-cylinder, four-stroke
cycle, CI, V16 engine of 60.2 liter displacement
13,672 in.32. Engine has bore of 15.9 cm (6.26 in.),
stroke of 19.0 cm (7.48 in.), oil system capacity of
281 L (74.2 gal), coolant capacity of 170 L (45 gal),
and wet mass of 9,305 kg (20,514 lbm). Using No. 2
diesel fuel, it is advertized as having fuel economy of
243 gm/kW-hr at 1900 RPM (0.339 lbm/bhp-hr). The
oil management system “converts used engine oil
into fuel, eliminating oil changes for up to 4,000
hours of operation.” Printed with permission,
Cummins, Inc.

64
 Operating Characteristics

9000

8000

7000

TORQUE
6000
(LB-FT)

5000

4000

3000

2800

2200

POWER OUTPUT
1600
(BHP)

1000

400
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
RPM

FIGURE 16
Power and torque curves for Cummins QSK60-2700 engine shown in Fig. 15. Engine
has maximum power of 2013 kW at 1900 RPM (2700 hp), and maximum torque of
10,623 N-m at 1500 RPM (7840 lbf-ft). Printed with permission, Cummins, Inc.

mf = mass of fuel
#
mf = mass flow rate of fuel

The ideal or stoichiometric AF for many gasoline-type hydrocarbon fuels is very

close to 15:1, with combustion possible for values in the range of 6 to 25. AF less than 6
is too rich to sustain combustion and AF greater than 25 is too lean. A vehicle will often
be operated with a rich mixture when accelerating or starting cold, rich mixtures hav-
ing better ignition. When cruising at light load, vehicles are often operated lean to save
fuel. When this is done, it is often necessary to have a small fuel rich zone around the
sparkplug to assure good ignition. The fuel input system of an engine, fuel injectors or

65
 Operating Characteristics

carburetor, must be able to regulate the proper amount of fuel for any operating con-
dition and given air flow rate. Normal gasoline-fueled engines usually have AF input in
the range of 12 to 18 depending on operating conditions at the time (e.g., accelerating,
cruising, starting, etc.). SI lean-burn engines can have AF as high as 25 to 40, but need
special intake and mixing for proper ignition.
CI engines typically have AF input in the range of 18 to 70, which appears to be
outside the limits within which combustion is possible. Combustion occurs because the
cylinder of a CI engine, unlike an SI engine, has a very nonhomogeneous air–fuel mix-
ture, with reaction occurring only in those regions in which a combustible mixture ex-
ists, other regions being too rich or too lean.
Equivalence ratio f is defined as the actual ratio of fuel–air to ideal or stoichio-
metric fuel–air:

f = 1FA2act>1FA2stoich = 1AF2stoich>1AF2act (57)

In some cases, AF and FA are given as molar ratios. This is much less common
and AF and FA should always be considered mass ratios unless otherwise noted. Some
literature uses lambda value instead of equivalence ratio, lambda value being the reci-
procal of the equivalence ratio:

l = 1>f = 1FA2stoich>1FA2act = 1AF2act>1AF2stoich (58)

7 SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION

Specific fuel consumption is defined as

sfc = mf>W
# #
(59)

where
#
mf = rate of fuel flow into engine
#
W = engine power

Brake power gives the brake specific fuel consumption:

bsfc = mf>Wb
# #
(60)

Indicated power gives indicated specific fuel consumption:

isfc = mf>Wi
# #
(61)

Other examples of specific fuel consumption parameters can be defined as follows:

fsfc = friction specific fuel consumption

igsfc = indicated gross specific fuel consumption
insfc = indicated net specific fuel consumption
psfc = pumping specific fuel consumption

66
 Operating Characteristics

It also follows that

hm = Wb>Wi = 1mf>Wi2>1mf>Wb2 = 1isfc2>1bsfc2
# # # # # #
(62)
where
hm = mechanical efficiency of the engine
Brake specific fuel consumption decreases as engine speed increases, reaches a
minimum, and then increases at high speeds (Fig. 17). Fuel consumption increases at
high speed because of greater friction losses. At low engine speed, the longer time per
cycle allows more heat loss and fuel consumption goes up. Figure 18 shows how bsfc
also depends on compression ratio and fuel equivalence ratio. It decreases with higher
compression ratio due to higher thermal efficiency. It is lowest when combustion oc-
curs in a mixture with a fuel equivalence ratio near one, 1f = 12. The further from sto-
ichiometric combustion, either rich or lean, the higher will be the fuel consumption.
Brake specific fuel consumption generally decreases with engine size, being best
(lowest) for very large engines (see Fig. 19).
Specific fuel consumption is generally given in units of gm/kW-hr or lbm/hp-hr.
For transportation vehicles it is common to use fuel economy in terms of distance trav-
eled per unit of fuel, such as miles per gallon (mpg). In SI units it is common to use the
inverse of this, with (L/100 km) being a common unit. To decrease air pollution and de-
pletion of fossil fuels, laws have been enacted requiring better vehicle fuel economy.
Since the early 1970s, when most automobiles got less than 15 mpg (15.7 L/100 km)

rc ⫽ 10
460
rc ⫽ 8

440
bsfc (gm/kW-hr)

420

400

380

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

Engine speed, N (RPM)

FIGURE 17
Brake specific fuel consumption as a function of engine speed. Fuel consumption decreases as engine
speed increases due to the shorter time for heat loss during each cycle. At higher engine speeds fuel
consumption again increases because of high friction losses. As compression ratio is increased fuel
consumption decreases due to greater thermal efficiency.

67
 Operating Characteristics

rc ⫽ 10
460
rc ⫽ 8

440
bsfc (gm/kW-hr)

420

400

380
Lean Rich

0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2

Equivalence Ratio, ␾

FIGURE 18
Brake specific fuel consumption as a function of fuel equivalence ratio. Consumption is minimum
at a slightly lean condition, increasing with both richer and leaner mixtures.

400
bsfc (gm/kW-hr)

300

200

100

5 10 15 20 25
Displacement, Vd (L)

FIGURE 19
Brake specific fuel consumption as a function of engine displacement.
Generally, average fuel consumption is less with larger engines. One reason for
this is less heat loss due to the higher volume-to-surface-area ratio of the
combustion chamber in a large engine. Also, larger engines operate at lower
speeds which reduces friction losses. Adapted from [123].

68
 Operating Characteristics

using gasoline, great strides have been made in improving fuel economy. Many modern
automobiles now get between 30 and 40 mpg (7.8 and 5.9 L/100 km), with some small
vehicles as high as 60 mpg (3.9 L/100 km). In recent years, there has been an unwritten
international goal for low-emission and hybrid vehicles of obtaining fuel economy of
3L/100 km.

HISTORIC—1322-MPG VEHICLE

The 2000 SAE College Supermileage Challenge was won by a team of students from a
physics class representing Saint Thomas Academy High School of Mandota Heights,
Minnesota, whose winning vehicle averaged 1131 mpg of gasoline. The light-weight, sin-
gle-passenger, aerodynamic vehicle was powered by a 3.5 hp, single-cylinder, Briggs &
Stratton, L-head, carbureted engine of 90 cm3 displacement. High mileage was obtained
by operating the engine in an on–off mode. The engine would accelerate the vehicle up to
25 mph, and would then be turned off. The vehicle was then allowed to coast until speed
fell to 10 mph when the engine was again started. This method of operation satisfied the
requirement of a 10 mph average over the closed course. The same vehicle was then used
in the Minnesota Technology Education Association (MTEA) Supermileage Challenge,
where it obtained a mileage of 1322 mpg using a fuel of 90% gasoline and 10% ethanol.
In 1999, the average vehicle fuel consumption worldwide was 27.5 mpg (8.6 L/100 km).

30

HORSEPOWER
25

20
5
TORQUE (kg-m)

TORQUE
4
FUEL CONSUMPTION (gr/ps-hr)

15
3
2
10 1

FIGURE 20
500
5 Power, brake specific fuel consumption, and
400 FUEL CONSUMPTION
torque as functions of engine speed for Suzuki
300 three-cylinder, two-stroke cycle, minicar
engine of 0.45 L displacement. Maximum
0 200
brake power is 25 hp at 4500 RPM, with
maximum torque of 46 N-m at 3500 RPM.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Reprinted with permission from SAE Paper
ENGINE SPEED (⫻ 103 r.p.m.) No. 770766 © 1977, SAE International, [231].

69
 Operating Characteristics

FIGURE 21
Cutaway view of Ford spark-ignition, four-stroke cycle, V8 engine showing main components.
The engine has a displacement of 4.6 liters, four valves per cylinder, and two camshafts for
each bank of cylinders. Courtesy of Ford Motor Company.

8 ENGINE EFFICIENCIES

The time available for the combustion process of an engine cycle is very brief, and not
all fuel molecules may find an oxygen molecule with which to combine, or the local
temperature may not favor a reaction. Consequently, a small fraction of fuel does not
react and exits with the exhaust flow. A combustion efficiency hc is defined to account
for the fraction of fuel that burns. Typically, hc has values in the range 0.95 to 0.98 when
an engine is operating properly. For one engine cycle in one cylinder, the heat added is
Qin = mfQHVhc (63)

For steady state,

# #
Qin = mfQHVhc (64)
and thermal efficiency is

ht = W>Qin = W>Qin = W>mfQHV hc = hf>hc

# # # #
(65)

where
W = work of one cycle
#
W = power
mf = mass of fuel for one cycle

70
 Operating Characteristics

#
mf = mass flow rate of fuel
QHV = heating value of fuel
hf = fuel conversion efficiency 1see Eq. 672

Thermal efficiency can be given as indicated or brake, depending on whether in-

dicated power or brake power is used in Eq. (65). It follows that engine mechanical ef-
ficiency is given by
hm = 1ht2b>1ht2i (66)
Engines can have indicated thermal efficiencies in the range of 40% to 50%, with
brake thermal efficiency usually about 30%. Some large, slow CI engines can have
brake thermal efficiencies greater than 50%.
Fuel conversion efficiency is defined as
hf = W>mfQHV = W>mfQHV
# #
(67)
hf = 1>1sfc2QHV (68)
For a single cycle of one cylinder the thermal efficiency can be written
ht = W>mfQHVhc (69)
This is the thermal efficiency introduced in basic thermodynamic textbooks,
sometimes called enthalpy efficiency.

9 VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY
One of the most important processes that governs how much power and performance
can be obtained from an engine is getting the maximum amount of air into the cylinder
during each cycle. More air means more fuel can be burned and more energy can be
converted to output power. Getting the relatively small volume of liquid fuel into the
cylinder is much easier than getting the large volume of gaseous air needed to react
with the fuel. Ideally, a mass of air equal to the density of atmospheric air times the dis-
placement volume of the cylinder should be ingested for each cycle. However, because
of the short cycle time available and the flow restrictions presented by the air cleaner,
carburetor (if any), intake manifold, and intake valve(s), less than this ideal amount of
air enters the cylinder. Volumetric efficiency is defined as
hv = ma>raVd (70)
hv = nma>raVdN
#
(71)
where
ma = mass of air into the engine 1or cylinder2 for one cycle
#
ma = steady-state flow of air into the engine
ra = air density evaluated at atmospheric conditions outside the engine
Vd = displacement volume
N = engine speed
n = number of revolutions per cycle

71
 Operating Characteristics

FIGURE 22
Cutaway view of Mazda four-rotor, R26B rotary
engine, used in the race car which won the 1991
24-hour endurance race at Le Mans, France. The
2.62 liter, liquid cooled engine had a compression
ratio of 10:1, three-spark-plug ignition, and
variable length telescopic intake manifold.
Operating parameters controlled by the engine
management system (EMS) included injection
timing, injection volume, ignition timing, and
intake length of manifold runner. Reprinted with
permission from SAE Paper No. 920309 © 1992,
SAE International, [222].

72
 Operating Characteristics

Side surface

Apex seal Trochoid surface

Corner seal

Side seal

Oil seal FIGURE 23

Cutaway view of rotor and combustion
chamber of Mazda R26B rotary engine
Rotor housing shown in Fig. 22. Reprinted with permission
from SAE Paper No. 920309 © 1992, SAE
Side housing
International, [222].

515 kW/9000 rpm

500

400
Output (kw)

Power-oriented
setting
300 Efficiency-oriented
setting
700
608 N.m/6500 rpm
Torque (N.m)

200
600

500 FIGURE 24
Power, torque, and brake specific fuel
BSFC (g/kw • h)

340
400 consumption curves of Mazda R26B rotary engine
320 shown in Fig. 22. The engine produced maximum
286 g/kW.h/6000 rpm
300 brake power of 515 kW at 9000 RPM (691 hp),
*

maximum torque of 608 N-m at 6500 RPM (449

280 lbf-ft), and had a minimum bsfc of 286 gm/kW-hr
at 6000 RPM. Reprinted with permission from
4 5 6 7 8 9
SAE Paper No. 920309 © 1992, SAE
Engine speed (⫻103 rpm)
International, [222].

73
 Operating Characteristics

Unless better values are known, standard values of surrounding air pressure and
temperature can be used to find density.
Po 1standard2 = 101 kPa = 14.7 psia
To 1standard2 = 298 K = 25°C = 537°R = 77°F
ra = Po>RTo (72)

where
Po = pressure of surrounding air
To = temperature of surrounding air
R = gas constant for air = 0.287 kJ>kg-K = 53.33 ft-lbf>lbm-°R

At standard conditions, the density of air ra = 1.181 kg>m3 = 0.0739 lbm>ft3.

When volumetric efficiency is measured experimentally, corrections can be made
for temperature and humidity when other than standard conditions are experienced.
Sometimes (less common) the air density in Eqs. (70) and (71) is evaluated at
conditions in the intake manifold immediately before it enters the cylinder. The condi-
tions at this point will usually be hotter and at a lower pressure than surrounding at-
mospheric conditions.
Typical values of volumetric efficiency for an engine at wide-open throttle
(WOT) are in the range 75% to 90%, going down to much lower values as the throttle
is closed. Restricting air flow into an engine (closing the throttle) is the primary means
of power control for a spark ignition engine.

Example Problem 4
The engine in Example Problem 2 is running with an air–fuel ratio AF = 15, a fuel heating value
of 44,000 kJ/kg, and a combustion efficiency of 97%.
Calculate:

1. rate of fuel flow into engine

2. brake thermal efficiency
3. indicated thermal efficiency
4. volumetric efficiency
5. brake specific fuel consumption

(1) From Example Problem 2, the mass of air in one cylinder for one cycle is ma =
0.00050 kg. Then

mf = ma>AF = 0.00050>15 = 0.000033 kg of fuel per cylinder per cycle

Therefore, the rate of fuel flow into the engine is

mf = 10.000033 kg>cyl-cycle216 cyl2 13600>60 rev>sec2 11 cycle>2 rev2

#

= 0.0060 kg>sec = 0.0132 lbm>sec

74
 Operating Characteristics

(2) Use Eq. (64) to find brake thermal efficiency:

1ht2b = Wb>mfQHVhc = 177.3 kW2>10.0060 kg>sec2144,000 kJ>kg210.972

# #

= 0.302 = 30.2%
Or, using Eq. (68) for one cycle of one cylinder:
1ht2b = Wb>mfQHVhc = 10.43 kJ2>10.000033 kg2144,000 kJ>kg210.972
= 0.302
(3) Indicated thermal efficiency using Eq. (65):

1ht2i = 1ht2b>hm = 0.302>0.85 = 0.355 = 35.5%

(4) Use Eq. (69) with standard air density to calculate volumetric efficiency:

hv = ma>raVd = 10.00050 kg2>11.181 kg>m3210.0005 m32

= 0.847 = 84.7%
(5) Use Eq. (59) for brake specific fuel consumption:

bsfc = mf>Wb = 10.0060 kg>sec2>177.3 kW2

# #

= 7.76 * 10-5 kg>kW-sec = 279 gm>kW-hr = 0.459 lbm>hp-hr

10 EMISSIONS
The four main engine exhaust emissions that must be controlled are oxides of nitrogen
(NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), and solid particulates (part). Two
common methods of measuring the amounts of these pollutants are specific emissions
(SE) and the emissions index (EI). Specific emissions typically have units of gm/kW-hr,
while the emissions index has units of emissions flow per fuel flow.
Specific Emissions:
1SE2NOx = mNOx>Wb
# #

1SE2CO = mCO>Wb
# #

1SE2HC = mHC>Wb
# #
(73)
1SE2part = mpart>Wb
# #

where
#
m = flow rate of emissions in gm>hr
#
Wb = brake power

Emissions Index:
1EI2NOx
# #
= mNOx[gm>sec]>mf[kg>sec]
1EI2CO
# #
= mCO[gm>sec]>mf[kg>sec]
1EI2HC
# #
= mHC[gm>sec]>mf[kg>sec] (74)
1EI2part
# #
= mpart[gm>sec]>mf[kg>sec]

75
 Operating Characteristics

Example Problem 5
A 12-cylinder, two-stroke cycle CI engine produces 2440 kW of brake power at 550 RPM using
stoichiometric light diesel fuel. The engine has bore of 24 cm, stroke of 32 cm, volumetric effi-
ciency of 97%, mechanical efficiency of 88%, and combustion efficiency of 98%. Calculate:
1. mass flow rate of fuel into engine
2. brake specific fuel consumption
3. indicated specific fuel consumption
4. specific emissions of hydrocarbons due to unburned fuel
5. emissions index of hydrocarbons due to unburned fuel

(1) Equation (8) gives total displacement of the engine:

Vd = Nc1p>42B2S = 112 cylinders21p>4210.24 m2210.32 m2 = 0.1737 m3 = 173.7 L

Equation (71) gives the air flow rate into the engine:
#
ma = hvraVdN>n
= 10.97211.181 kg>m3210.1737 m3>cycle21550>60 rev>sec2>12 rev>cycle2
= 0.9120 kg>sec.

Equation (55) gives the mass flow rate of fuel into the engine:

mf = ma>AF = 10.9120 kg>sec2>114.52 = 0.0629 kg>sec = 0.1387 lbm>sec

# #

(2) Equation (60) gives brake specific fuel consumption:

bsfc = mf>Wb
= [10.0629 kg>sec213600 sec>hr211000 gm>kg2]>12440 kW2 = 92.8 gm>kW-hr

(3) Equation (62) gives indicated specific fuel consumption:

isfc = hm1bsfc2 = 10.882192.8 gm>kW-hr2 = 81.7 gm>kW-hr

(4) Mass flow rate of unburned fuel is

munburned = 11 - hc2mf
# #

= 11 - 0.98210.0629 kg>sec2 = 0.001258 kg>sec = 1.258 gm>sec

Equation (73) gives specific emissions of hydrocarbons from unburned fuel:

1SE2HC = munburned>Wb = [11.258 gm>sec213600 sec>hr2]>12440 kW2

#

= 1.86 gm>kW-hr

(5) Equation (74) gives the emissions index of hydrocarbons from unburned fuel:

1EI2HC = munburned>mf = 11.258 gm>sec2>10.0629 kg>sec2 = 20.0 gm HC>km f

# #

76
 Operating Characteristics

11 NOISE ABATEMENT
In recent years a lot of research and development has been directed towards reducing
engine and exhaust noise. Although excessive noise is considered a pollution, total
elimination of all noises is not always the goal of vehicle manufacturers. Some people
consider some “sporty rumble” noise from an engine as desirable. The sound abate-
ment systems on some models of European ultrasmall “city cars” are designed so that
the vehicle sounds like an expensive luxury car. Several modern vehicles with nostalgic
body designs reminiscent of the 1950s also have exhaust systems that are “tweaked” to
sound like their 1950s counterparts (e.g., the rumbling of a Hollywood muffler). Mo-
torcycle enthusiasts will sometimes reject new models because “they don’t sound like a
motorcycle.” You could not sell a new Harley–Davidson cycle if it did not sound like a
Harley–Davidson. A great effort was expended to make the new liquid-cooled Porsche
engines sound like old air-cooled Porsche engines.
On the other hand, on many vehicles noise reduction has been so successful that
some automobiles are now equipped with a safety switch on the starter. At idle speed,
the engine is so quiet that the safety switch is required to keep drivers from trying to
start the engine when it is already running.

12 42-VOLT ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

In the early years of the 21st century, a revolutionary change will occur in the electrical
systems of automobiles, a switch from 12 volts to 42 volts [221, 234]. This change is in
response to the ever-increasing electrical power needs of the modern car, increased
lighting, larger computer for controls, greater starter power for higher compression en-
gines, air-conditioning, electrical accessaries, etc. To address this rising power need, au-
tomobile and component manufacturers spent billions of dollars in research and
development during the 1990s and into the 2000s. The end result is a several-year
changeover from 12 volts standard to 42 volts, starting in 2002. In the first years, proto-
type vehicles and a limited number of automobile models available to the public will
have the higher voltage. Each year, more standard automobile models will have the
new system, and in 10 years or so, it will be the industry standard.
Many factors were considered before international consensus agreed on 42 volts
as the new standard, safety being a major consideration. The electrical industry consid-
ered anything over 60 volts potentially dangerous, with added requirements for wire
insulation, connectors, etc. Years of electrical industry development had created great
knowledge and a large line of products and standards in the 42 volt range; wires, relays,
connectors, etc. In the old lower voltage systems, batteries were standard at 12 volts
while alternators/generators operated at 14 volts. The new system will have 36-volt bat-
teries and 42-volt generators. Wire sizes will be decreased, all mechanical relays will be
replaced by solid-state switching, and many components will be of smaller size. The
overall mass of the electrical system on a standard automobile is expected to be re-
duced by about 25%.
The first automobiles using the higher voltage will have two electrical systems,
one of 42 volts and one of 12 volts. This is because some components, mainly the lights,
operate better at the lower potential. The main electrical system will be 42 volts, with a

77
 Operating Characteristics

transformer conversion down to 12 volts for that system. Most vehicles will have two
batteries, one 36 volt and one 12 volt. It is uncertain whether the 12/14-volt systems will
be phased out in the future.
The additional power available with a high voltage system opens up many possi-
ble uses of electrical components for engines and vehicles. Two main changes in engine
operation which will quickly occur are the elimination of the camshaft, and the com-
bining of the starter and generator with the flywheel. Other possibilities include belt-
less engines, better fuel injectors, electric water pumps, electric fuel pumps, electric oil
pumps, quick defrost glass, windshield heaters, electric steering, heated catalysts, vehi-
cle suspension control, electric particular filters for diesels, heated seats, greater enter-
tainment systems, navigation systems, cellular equipment, high-tech security, electric
brakes, climate control, power doors, etc.
One of the greater benefits of the higher voltage and power will be engine valve
control using electromechanical actuators instead of a camshaft. Not only will this im-
prove the mechanical efficiency of an engine, but it will provide variable valve control
in both timing and lift. With more powerful computers of the EMS, complete control of
valve timing and lift will allow the engine to operate much more efficiently over all
speed and load conditions. Opening and closing of the valves can be much faster, and a
soft closing is possible, which will allow the use of ceramic valves.
In most vehicles using the higher voltage system, the starter and generator will be
built into a single unit along with the engine flywheel. This multipurpose flywheel will be
mounted between the engine and transmission, much the same as standard flywheels.
This will eliminate the need for a separate starter motor, and for a belt-driven generator.
A flywheel-mounted starter will allow for very quick starting of a warmed engine—as
quick as 0.3 seconds [234]. This will allow automobile engines to be turned off when
stopped (e.g., at stop lights), saving fuel and reducing emissions. When the accelerator
pedal is depressed the engine will then smoothly restart very quickly with the aid of the
electric starter motor acting as a minihybrid. This type of unit will also save energy by re-
covering some of the vehicle kinetic energy when the vehicle slows or stops, energy that
would normally be lost as heat in the break system. The flywheel-generator can recover
some of this energy electrically and return it to the vehicle’s battery. Creating a single
unit that includes a starter and a generator was a major technological achievement,
starters generally operating at low speed and generators only efficient at high speed.
An electric pump and controls in the engine cooling system will allow flow rates
to be adjusted as needed, saving energy and eliminating the need for a thermostat. En-
gines will heat up quicker and passenger compartment heating can continue after the
engine stops. Electric fuel pumps and oil pumps, along with sensors and controls, will
allow more efficient use of these units. Better lubrication control (e.g., at cold startup)
will reduce engine wear.
Electric braking and steering will eventually replace the systems now used. Elec-
tric brakes will be made safer by eliminating hydraulic systems. Eventually, electric
steer-by-wire will probably eliminate the need for a steering column, giving greater
space and flexibility for engine compartment design. The steering wheel could some-
day be replaced with a joystick. Eliminating all engine belts and using electricity for
driving components only when needed (e.g., air conditioner pump, fan, etc.) will reduce
noise and increase mechanical efficiency.

78
 Operating Characteristics

Both hybrid vehicles and all-electric fuel cell vehicles will operate more efficient-
ly using 42 volts. Potential problems with the higher voltage include electrochemical
corrosion, arcing, and jump-starting of automobiles.

13 VARIABLE DISPLACEMENT - CYLINDER CUTOUT

A large displacement SI engine becomes very inefficient when low output power is re-
quired. The throttle valve is partially closed, creating low inlet pressure and the result-
ing large pumping loss. Low inlet pressure reduces the pressure for the entire following
cycle, resulting in poor combustion and a low imep. This, along with low engine speed,
results in a very inefficient cycle. To compensate for this, several automobile manufac-
turers have developed engines that disconnect (cutout) half of the cylinders at low
load, and run with only the remaining cylinders firing. This is usually done with large
displacement V8s, which then run as four-cylinder engines at low load producing the
same brake power output. Instead of a large engine running inefficiently at low speed,
the unit runs efficiently as a smaller engine at higher speed.
When cylinder cutout is used, the valves are disconnected and fuel input and ig-
nition to those cylinders are stopped. Typically, on a V8 engine, the two outer cylinders
on one bank and the two inner cylinders on the other bank are disconnected. The EMS
decides when cutout occurs, and then adjusts throttle, ignition timing, etc. for the new
operating conditions. Early attempts to use cylinder cutout in the 1980s and 1990s gen-
erally gave less-than-satisfactory results due to inability of the system controls. Modern
EMS systems now have the power and sophistication needed and some top-of-the-line
automobiles (Mercedes) use cylinder cutout [190].
When the large engine is operated as a smaller four-cylinder engine, the throttle
is opened, resulting in less pumping loss and higher engine speeds. The higher speed of
a small engine operates closer to steady-state, and the higher cycle pressure allows for
a leaner air–fuel ratio and a greater amount of exhaust gas recycling. All of this makes
for greater efficiency, and fuel savings of 5% to 15% have been realized.
Mitsubishi has even developed a four-cylinder engine that cuts out cylinders 1
and 4, and runs as a two-cylinder when full power is not needed [206].
This experimental engine has divided combustion chambers with small pistons
reciprocating in the secondary chambers. Engine displacement and compression ratio
can be changed by operating the secondary pistons in phase or out of phase with the
primary pistons, or anywhere in between [238].
Yet another way of operating a large engine when only a light power output is
needed is to convert from a four-stroke cycle to a six-stroke cycle. At present, no en-
gine is known to operate in this manner, but it has been suggested for possible future
development. With a 42-volt electrical system and complete variable valve control it
would be possible to consider such an engine. After the exhaust stroke of a four-
stroke cycle, two additional strokes could be added, with no fuel input and possibly
all valves open. The engine could then run at a higher, more efficient speed, but still
produce less brake output with a power stroke in each cylinder only on every third
revolution.

79
 Operating Characteristics

Example Problem 6
A hybrid automobile with mass of 3200 lbm, traveling at 60 mph, slows to a stop. The automobile
is equipped with a combined starter–generator–flywheel, and when slowing down, 58% of the ki-
netic energy of the vehicle is recovered as electrical energy in the battery. When the battery is
being recharged with the vehicle’s IC engine, there is a 28% efficiency of converting chemical en-
ergy in the fuel to electrical energy stored in the battery.The engine burns stoichiometric gasoline.
Calculate:
1. electrical energy recovered in the battery by one slowdown of the automobile
2. mass of gasoline saved by recovering kinetic energy of one slowdown
(1) Kinetic energy of vehicle at 60 mph is

KE = mV2>2gc
13200 lbm2[160 miles>hr215280 ft>mile2>13600 sec>hr2]2
[122132.2 lbm-ft>lbf-sec22]
=

= 384,800 ft-lbf = 495 BTU

Of this amount, 58% is recovered as stored electrical energy:

E = 10.5821495 BTU2 = 287 BTU = 303 kJ
(2) The mass of gasoline needed to supply the same amount of electrical energy to the
battery is

E = mgasolineQLHVhconversion = 287 BTU

= mgasoline143,000 kJ>kg2[0.4299 1BTU>lbm2>1kJ>kg2]

* 10.28 conversion efficiency2
mgasoline = 0.0554 lbm = 0.025 kg

14 CONCLUSIONS—WORKING EQUATIONS
In this chapter, equations relating the working parameters of engine operation have
been developed, giving tools by which these parameters can be used for engine design
and characterization. By combining earlier equations from the chapter, the following
additional working equations are obtained. These are given as general equations and
as specific equations to be used either with SI units or with English units. In the specif-
ic equations, units that must be used to satisfy the equality are given in brackets.
Torque:
t = hfhvVdQHVra1FA2>2pn (75)
For SI units,
#
t[N-m] = 159.2 W[kW]>N[rev>sec] (76)
For English units,
#
t[lbf-ft] = 5252 W[hp]>N[RPM] (77)

80
 Operating Characteristics

Power:

Wb = mf>1bsfc2 = 1FA2ma>1bsfc2
# # #
(78)
Wb = hfhvNVdQHVra1FA2>n
#
(79)
For SI units,
#
Wb[kW] = N[rev>sec]t[N-m]>159.2 (80)
#
Wb[kW] = bmep[kPa]Vd[L]N[rev>sec]>1000 n[rev>cycle] (81)

For English units,

#
Wb[hp] = N[RPM]t[lbf-ft]>5252 (82)
#
Wb[hp] = bmep[psia]Vd[in.3]N[RPM]>396,000 n[rev>cycle] (83)

Mechanical Efficiency:
hm = Wb>Wi = bmep>imep = 1 - Wf>Wi
# # # #
(84)

Mean Effective Pressure:

bmep = 2pnt>Vd (85)
mep = nW>VdN
#
(86)
For SI units,
bmep[kPa] = 6.28 n[rev>cycle]t[N-m]>Vd[L] (87)
#
mep[kPa] = 1000 W[kW]n[rev>cycle]>Vd[L]N[rev>sec] (88)
For English units,
bmep[psia] = 75.4 n[rev>cycle]t[lbf-ft]>Vd[in.3] (89)
#
mep[psia] = 396,000 W[hp]n[rev>cycle]>Vd[in.3]N[RPM] (90)
Specific Power:
W>A p = hfhvNSQHVra1FA2>n
#
(91)
W>A p = hfhvUpQHVra1FA2>2n
#
(92)

PROBLEMS
1 As Becky was driving “Old Betsy,” the family station wagon, the engine finally quit, being
worn out after 171,000 miles. It can be assumed that the average speed over its lifetime
was 40 mph at an engine speed of 1700 RPM. The engine is a five-liter V8 operating on a
four-stroke cycle.
Calculate:
(a) How many revolutions has the engine experienced?
(b) How many spark plug firings have occurred in the entire engine?
(c) How many intake strokes have occurred in one cylinder?

81
 Operating Characteristics

2 A four-cylinder, two-stroke cycle diesel engine with 10.9-cm bore and 12.6-cm stroke pro-
duces 88 kW of brake power at 2000 RPM. Compression ratio rc = 18:1.
Calculate:

(a) Engine displacement. [cm3, L]

(b) Brake mean effective pressure. [kPa]
(c) Torque. [N-m]
(d) Clearance volume of one cylinder. [cm3]

3 A four-cylinder, 2.4-liter engine operates on a four-stroke cycle at 3200 RPM. The com-
pression ratio is 9.4:1, the connecting rod length r = 18 cm, and the bore and stroke are
related as S = 1.06B.
Calculate:

(a) Clearance volume of one cylinder in cm3, L, and in.3.

(b) Bore and stroke in cm and in.
(c) Average piston speed in m/sec and ft/sec.

4 What are the advantages of an over square engine? What are the advantages of an under
square engine?
5 In Problem 3, what is the average piston speed and what is the piston speed when the
crank angle u = 90° aTDC? [m/sec]
6 A five-cylinder, 3.5-liter SI engine operates on a four-stroke cycle at 2500 RPM. At this
condition, the mechanical efficiency of the engine is 62% and 1000 J of indicated work are
produced each cycle in each cylinder.
Calculate:

(a) Indicated mean effective pressure. [kPa]

(b) Brake mean effective pressure. [kPa]
(c) Friction mean effective pressure. [kPa]
(d) Brake power in kW and hp.
(e) Torque. [N-m]

7 The engine operating at the conditions in Problem 6 is square, with S = B.

Calculate:

(a) Specific power. [kW>cm2]

(b) Output per displacement. [kW>cm3]
(c) Specific volume. [cm3>kW]
(d) Power lost to friction in kW and hp.

8 The engine operating at the conditions in Example Problem 4 has a combustion efficiency
of 97%.
Calculate:

(a) Rate of unburned hydrocarbon fuel that is expelled into the exhaust system. [kg/hr]
(b) Specific emission of HC. [(gm/kW-hr]
(c) Emission index of HC.

82
 Operating Characteristics

9 A construction vehicle has a diesel engine with eight cylinders of 5.375-inch bore and 8.0-inch
stroke, operating on a four-stroke cycle. It delivers 152-shaft horsepower at 1000 RPM, with a
mechanical efficiency of 0.60.
Calculate:
(a) Total engine displacement. [in.3]
(b) Brake mean effective pressure. [psia]
(c) Torque at 1000 RPM. [lbf-ft]
(d) Indicated horsepower.
(e) Friction horsepower.
10 A 1500-cm3, four-stroke cycle, four-cylinder CI engine, operating at 3000 RPM, produces
48 kW of brake power. Volumetric efficiency is 0.92 and air–fuel ratio AF = 21:1.
Calculate:
(a) Rate of air flow into engine. [kg/sec]
(b) Brake specific fuel consumption. [gm/kW-hr]
(c) Mass rate of exhaust flow. [kg/hr]
(d) Brake output per displacement. [kW/L]
11 A pickup truck has a five-liter four-stroke cycle, V6, SI engine operating at 2400 RPM. The
compression ratio rc = 10.2:1, the volumetric efficiency hv = 0.91, and the bore and
stroke are related as stroke S = 0.92B.
Calculate:
(a) Stroke length. [cm]
(b) Average piston speed. [m/sec]
(c) clearance volume of one cylinder. [cm3]
(d) Air flow rate into engine. [kg/sec]
12 It takes a man 12.5 hours to complete a 500-mile trip in his automobile, during which 18
gallons of gasoline are consumed. During this trip the average Emissions Index for carbon
monoxide is 1EI2CO = 28 1gm>sec2>1kg>sec2. Density of liquid gasoline is 0.692 kg/L.
Calculate:
(a) Fuel economy in English units. [mpg]
(b) Fuel consumption rate using standard SI units of L/100 km.
(c) Amount of CO emitted to environment during trip. [kg]
13 A 5.6-liter V10 compression-ignition truck engine operates on a four-stroke cycle at 3600
RPM producing 162 kW of brake power. The bore and stroke of the engine are related as
S = 1.12 B.
Calculate:
(a) Average piston speed. [m/sec]
(b) Torque. [N-m]
(c) Brake mean effective pressure. [kPa]
14 A 4.8-liter, spark-ignition, four-stroke cycle, V8 industrial engine operates 24 hours per
day for five days at 2000 RPM using gasoline with AF = 14.6. The engine has a volumet-
ric efficiency of 92%, with bore and stroke related as B = 1.06 S.

83
 Operating Characteristics

Calculate:
(a) Stroke length. [cm]
(b) Average piston speed. [m/sec]
(c) Number of times each spark plug has fired.
(d) Mass flow rate of air into engine. [kg/sec]
(e) Mass flow rate of fuel into engine. [kg/sec]
15 A small single-cylinder, two-stroke cycle SI engine operates at 8000 RPM with a volumet-
ric efficiency of hv = 0.85. The engine is square 1bore = stroke2 and has a displacement
of 6.28 cm3. The fuel–air ratio FA = 0.067.
Calculate:
(a) Average piston speed. [m/sec]
(b) Flow rate of air into engine. [kg/sec]
(c) Flow rate of fuel into engine. [kg/sec]
(d) Fuel input for one cycle. [kg/cycle]
16 A single-cylinder, four-stroke cycle CI engine with 12.9-cm bore and 18.0-cm stroke, operat-
ing at 800 RPM, uses 0.113 kg of fuel in four minutes while developing a torque of 76 N-m.
Calculate:
(a) Brake specific fuel consumption. [gm/kW-hr]
(b) Brake mean effective pressure. [kPa]
(c) Brake power. [kW]
(d) Specific power. [kW>cm2]
(e) Output per displacement. [kW/L]
(f) Specific volume. [L/kW]
17 A 302-in.3 displacement, V8, four-stroke cycle SI engine mounted on a hydraulic dy-
namometer has an output of 72 hp at 4050 RPM. Water absorbs the energy output of the
engine as it flows through the dynamometer at a rate of 30 gallons per minute. The dy-
namometer has an efficiency of 93% and the water enters at a temperature of 46°F.
Calculate:
(a) Exit temperature of the water. [°F]
(b) Torque output of the engine at this condition. [lbf-ft]
(c) What is the bmep at this condition? [psia]
18 A 3.1-liter, four-cylinder, two-stroke cycle SI engine is mounted on an electrical generator
dynamometer. When the engine is running at 1200 RPM, output from the 200-volt DC
generator is 54.2 amps. The generator has an efficiency of 87%.
Calculate:
(a) Power output of the engine in kW and hp.
(b) Engine torque. [N-m]
(c) Engine bmep. [kPa]
19 An SI, six-liter, V8 race car engine operates at WOT on a four-stroke cycle at 6000 RPM
using stoichiometric nitromethane. Fuel enters the engine at a rate of 0.198 kg/sec and
combustion efficiency is 99%.

84
 Operating Characteristics

Calculate:
(a) Volumetric efficiency of engine. [%]
(b) Flow rate of air into engine. [kg/sec]
(c) Heat added per cycle per cylinder. [kJ]
(d) Chemical energy from unburned fuel in the exhaust. [kW]
20 A large V8 SI four-stroke cycle engine with a displacement of 4.6 liters is equipped with cylin-
der cutout, which converts the engine to a 2.3 liter V4 when less power is needed. At a speed
of 1750 RPM the engine, as a V8, has a volumetric efficiency of 51%, a mechanical efficiency
of 75%, an air–fuel ratio of 14.5, and produces 32.4 kW of brake power using gasoline. With
cylinder cutout and operating at higher speed as a V4, the engine has a volumetric efficiency
of 86%, a mechanical efficiency of 87%, and uses an air–fuel ratio of 18.2. Indicated thermal
efficiency can be considered the same at all speeds, and combustion efficiency is 100%.
Calculate:
(a) Mass flow rate of air into V8 engine at 1750 RPM. [kg/sec]
(b) Mass flow rate of fuel into V8 engine at 1750 RPM. [kg/sec]
(c) The bsfc as V8 at 1750 RPM. [gm/kW-hr]
(d) Engine speed needed as a V4 to produce same brake power output. [RPM]
(e) The bsfc as V4 at higher speed. [gm/kW-hr]
21 A 1900-kg hybrid automobile which operates on ethanol fuel is equipped with a multipur-
pose motor-generator-flywheel. When the vehicle slows or stops, 51% of the kinetic ener-
gy is recovered as electrical energy in the battery. When the IC engine is used to recharge
the battery there is a 24% efficiency of converting chemical energy in the fuel to electrical
energy stored in the battery. The vehicle slows from 70 MPH to 20 MPH.
Calculate:
(a) Electrical energy recovered in battery. [kJ]
(b) Mass of fuel needed to store same amount of energy in battery. [kg]

DESIGN PROBLEMS
1D Design a six-liter race car engine that operates on a four-stroke cycle. Decide what the de-
sign speed will be, and then give the number of cylinders, bore, stroke, piston rod length,
average piston speed, imep, brake torque, fuel used, AF, and brake power all at design
speed. All parameter values should be within typical, reasonable ranges and should be
consistent with the other values. State what assumptions you make (e.g., mechanical effi-
ciency, volumetric efficiency, etc.)
2D Design a six-horsepower engine for a snowblower. Decide on the operating speed, number
of strokes in cycle, carburetor or fuel injectors, and total displacement. Give the number of
cylinders, bore, stroke, connecting rod length, average piston speed, brake torque, and
brake power. What special considerations must be made, knowing that this engine must
start in very cold weather? All parameter values should be within typical, reasonable
ranges and should be consistent with the other values. State all assumptions you make.
3D Design a small four-stroke cycle Diesel engine to produce 50 kW of brake power at de-
sign speed when installed in a small pickup truck. Average piston speed should not ex-
ceed 8 m/sec at design conditions. Give the design speed, displacement, number of cylinders,
bore, stroke, bmep, and torque. All parameter values should be within typical, reasonable
ranges and should be consistent with the other values. State all assumptions you make.

85
 Operating Characteristics

Greater power can be generated by increasing displacement, mep, and/or speed.

Increased displacement increases engine mass and takes up space, both of which are
contrary to automobile design trends. For this reason, most modern engines are
smaller but run at higher speeds, and are often turbocharged or supercharged to in-
crease mep.

Answers to Selected Review Problems

1. (a) 4.36 * 108, (b) 1.74 * 109, (c) 2.18 * 108
2. (a) 4703, 4.703, (b) 561, (c) 420, (d) 69.2
6. (a) 1429, (b) 886, (c) 543, (d) 64.6, 86.6, (e) 247
7. (a) 0.178, (b) 0.0185, (c) 54.1, (d) 39.6, 53.1
10. (a) 0.0407, (b) 145.5, (c) 153.5, (d) 32
12. (a) 27.8, (b) 8.47, (c) 1.32
13. (a) 11.56, (b) 429.8, (c) 964
15. (a) 5.33, (b) 0.00084, (c) 5.63 * 10-5, (d) 4.22 * 10-7
19. (a) 95.0, (b) 0.337, (c) 5.35, (d) 21.6

86
 Engine Cycles

From Chapter 3 of Engineering Fundamentals of the Internal Combustion Engine, Second Edition.
Willard W. Pulkrabek. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

87
 Engine Cycles

“Nature, in providing us with combustibles on all sides, has given

us the power to produce, at all times and in all places, heat and the
propelling power which is the result of it. To develop this power, to
appropriate it to our uses, is the object of heat engines. The study
of these engines is of the greatest interest, their importance is
enormous, their use is continually increasing, and they seem des-
tined to produce a great revolution in the civilized world.”

On Heat Engines

by Sadi Carnot (1824)

This chapter presents the basic cycles used in reciprocating internal combustion en-
gines, both four-stroke and two-stroke. The most common four-stroke SI and CI cycles
are analyzed in detail using air-standard analysis. Lesser used cycles, including some
historic cycles, are analyzed in less detail.

1 AIR-STANDARD CYCLES
The cycle experienced in the cylinder of an internal combustion engine is very com-
plex. First, air (CI engine) or air mixed with fuel (SI engine) is ingested and mixed with
the slight amount of exhaust residual remaining from the previous cycle. This mixture
is then compressed and combusted, changing the composition to exhaust products con-
sisting largely of CO2, H 2O, and N2 with many other lesser components. Then, after an
expansion process, the exhaust valve is opened and this gas mixture is expelled to the
surroundings. Thus, it is an open cycle with changing composition, a difficult system to
analyze. To make the analysis of the engine cycle much more manageable, the real
cycle is approximated with an ideal air-standard cycle, which differs from the actual
cycle in the following ways:

88
 Engine Cycles

1. The gas mixture in the cylinder is treated as air for the entire cycle, and property
values of air are used in the analysis. This is a good approximation during the first
half of the cycle, when most of the gas in the cylinder is air with only up to about
7% fuel vapor. Even in the second half of the cycle, when the gas composition is
mostly CO2, H 2O, and N2, using air properties does not create large errors in the
analysis. Air will be treated as an ideal gas with constant specific heats.
2. The real open cycle is changed into a closed cycle by assuming that the gases
being exhausted are fed back into the intake system. This works with ideal air-
standard cycles, as both intake gases and exhaust gases are air. Closing the cycle
simplifies the analysis.
3. The combustion process is replaced with a heat addition term Qin of equal ener-
gy value. Air alone cannot combust.
4. The open exhaust process, which carries a large amount of enthalpy out of the
system, is replaced with a closed system heat rejection process Qout of equal en-
ergy value.
5. Actual engine processes are approximated with ideal processes.

(a) The almost-constant-pressure intake and exhaust strokes are assumed to be

constant pressure. At WOT, the intake stroke is assumed to be at a pressure
Po of one atmosphere. At partially closed throttle or when supercharged,
inlet pressure will be some constant value other than one atmosphere. The
exhaust stroke pressure is assumed constant at one atmosphere.
(b) Compression strokes and expansion strokes are approximated by isentropic
processes. To be truly isentropic would require these strokes to be reversible
and adiabatic. There is some friction between the piston and the cylinder
walls, but because the surfaces are highly polished and lubricated, this fric-
tion is kept to a minimum and the processes are close to frictionless and re-
versible. If this were not true, automobile engines would wear out long
before the 150–200 thousand mile lifetimes they now have if properly main-
tained. There is also fluid friction because of the gas motion within the cylin-
ders during these strokes. This too is minimal. Heat transfer for any one
stroke will be negligibly small due to the very short time involved for that
single process. Thus, an almost reversible and almost adiabatic process can
quite accurately be approximated with an isentropic process.
(c) The combustion process is idealized by a constant-volume process (SI cycle), a
constant-pressure process (CI cycle), or a combination of both (CI Dual cycle).
(d) Exhaust blowdown is approximated by a constant-volume process.
(e) All processes are considered reversible.

In air-standard cycles, air is considered an ideal gas such that the following ideal
gas relationships can be used:
Pv = RT (a)
PV = mRT (b)
P = rRT (c)
dh = cp dT (d)

89
 Engine Cycles

du = cv dT (e)
Pvk = constant isentropic process (f )
Tvk - 1 = constant isentropic process (g)
TP11 - k2>k = constant isentropic process (h)
w1 - 2 = 1P2v2 - P1v12>11 - k2 isentropic work in closed system
= R1T2 - T12>11 - k2 (i)
c = 2kRT speed of sound (j) (1)
where
P = gas pressure in cylinder
V = volume in cylinder
v = specific volume of gas
R = gas constant of air
T = temperature
m = mass of gas in cylinder
r = density
h = specific enthalpy
u = specific internal energy
cp, cv = specific heats
k = cp>cv
w = specific work
c = speed of sound
In addition to these, the following variables are used in this chapter for cycle analy-
sis:
AF = air–fuel ratio
#
m = mass flow rate
q = heat transfer per unit mass for one cycle
#
q = heat transfer rate per unit mass
Q = heat transfer for one cycle
#
Q = heat transfer rate
QHV = heating value of fuel
rc = compression ratio
W = work for one cycle
#
W = power
hc = combustion efficiency
Subscripts used include the following:
a = air
f = fuel
ex = exhaust
m = mixture of all gases

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 Engine Cycles

For thermodynamic analysis, the specific heats of air can be treated as functions
of temperature, which they are, or they can be treated as constants, which simplifies
calculations at a slight loss of accuracy. In this text, constant specific heat analysis will
be used. Because of the high temperatures and large temperature range experienced
during an engine cycle, the specific heats and ratios of specific heats k do vary by a fair
amount (see Table 1 in the Appendix). At the low-temperature end of a cycle during in-
take and start of compression, a value of k = 1.4 is correct. However, at the end of
combustion the temperature has risen such that k = 1.3 would be more accurate. A
constant average value between these extremes is found to give better results than a
standard condition (25°C) value, as is often used in elementary thermodynamics
textbooks.
An algebraic average gives k = 1k1 + k22>2 = 11.40 + 1.302>2 = 1.35, as does a
geometric average k = 2k1k2 = 211.40211.302 = 1.35.
When analyzing what occurs within engines during the operating cycle and ex-
haust flow, this text uses the following air property values:

cp = 1.108 kJ>kg-K = 0.265 BTU>lbm-°R

cv = 0.821 kJ>kg-K = 0.196 BTU>lbm-°R
k = cp>cv = 1.108>0.821 = 1.35
R = cp - cv = 0.287 kJ>kg-K
= 0.069 BTU>lbm-°R = 53.33 ft-lbf>lbm-°R

Air flow before it enters an engine is usually closer to standard temperature, and
for these conditions a value of k = 1.4 is correct. This would include processes such as
inlet flow in superchargers, turbochargers, and carburetors, and air flow through the
engine radiator. For these conditions, the following air property values are used:

cp = 1.005 kJ>kg-K = 0.240 BTU>lbm-°R

cv = 0.718 kJ>kg-K = 0.172 BTU>lbm-°R
k = cp>cv = 1.005>0.718 = 1.40
R = cp - cv = 0.287 kJ>kg-K

HISTORIC—SIX-STROKE CYCLES

During the second half of the 19th century, when development of the modern reciprocat-
ing internal combustion engine was in its early stages, many types of engines operating on
many different cycles were tried. These included various two-, four-, and even six-stroke
cycles. Six-stroke cycles were similar to four-stroke cycles with two added strokes for addi-
tional exhaust removal (i.e., three revolutions per cycle instead of two). With poor fuel
quality, low compression ratios, and large clearance volumes, early engines had problems
with excessive exhaust residual. After the exhaust stroke, an additional intake stroke was
added which ingested only air. The air mixed with the exhaust residual and was then
expelled with a second exhaust stroke. Compare this with the concept of EGR, which
adds exhaust gas to the incoming air of all modern automobile engines [29].

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 Engine Cycles

2 OTTO CYCLE
This is the cycle of many automobile engines and other four-stroke SI engines. For
analysis, this cycle is approximated by the air-standard cycle shown in Fig. 1. This ideal
cycle is called an Otto cycle, named after one of the early developers of this type of en-
gine. The Otto cycle is the air-standard model of most four-stroke SI engines of the last
140 years, including many of today’s automobile engines.
The intake stroke of the Otto cycle starts with the piston at TDC and is a constant-
pressure process at an inlet pressure of one atmosphere (process 6-1 in Fig. 1). This is a
good approximation to the inlet process of a real engine at WOT, which will actually be
at a pressure slightly less than atmospheric due to pressure losses in the inlet air flow.
The temperature of the air during the inlet stroke is increased as the air passes through
the hot intake manifold. The temperature at point 1 will generally be on the order of 25°
to 35°C hotter than the surrounding air temperature.
The second stroke of the cycle is the compression stroke, which in the Otto cycle is
an isentropic compression from BDC to TDC (process 1-2). This is a good approxima-
tion to compression in a real engine, except for the very beginning and the very end of
the stroke. In a real engine, the beginning of the stroke is affected by the intake valve
not being fully closed until slightly after BDC. The end of compression is affected by the

3
Pressure, P

4
1
Po
6 5

FIGURE 1
Ideal air-standard Otto cycle, 6-1-2-3-4-
5-6, which approximates the four-stroke
cycle of an SI engine on P–V TDC BDC
coordinates. Volume, V

92
 Engine Cycles

firing of the spark plug before TDC. Not only is there an increase in pressure during the
compression stroke, but the temperature within the cylinder is increased substantially
due to compressive heating.
The compression stroke is followed by a constant-volume heat input process 2-3
at TDC. This replaces the combustion process of the real engine cycle, which occurs at
close to constant-volume conditions. In a real engine combustion is started slightly
bTDC, reaches its maximum speed near TDC, and is terminated a little aTDC. During
combustion or heat input, a large amount of energy is added to the air within the cylin-
der. This energy raises the temperature of the air to very high values, giving peak cycle
temperature at point 3. This increase in temperature during a closed constant-volume
process results in a large pressure rise also. Thus, peak cycle pressure is also reached at
point 3.
The very high pressure and enthalpy values within the system at TDC generate
the power stroke (or expansion stroke) which follows combustion (process 3–4). High
pressure on the piston face forces the piston back towards BDC and produces the work
and power output of the engine. The power stroke of the real engine cycle is approxi-
mated with an isentropic process in the Otto cycle. This is a good approximation, sub-
ject to the same arguments as the compression stroke on being frictionless and
adiabatic. In a real engine, the beginning of the power stroke is affected by the last part
of the combustion process. The end of the power stroke is affected by the exhaust valve
being opened before BDC. During the power stroke, values of both the temperature
and pressure within the cylinder decrease as volume increases from TDC to BDC.
Near the end of the power stroke of a real engine cycle, the exhaust valve is
opened and the cylinder experiences exhaust blowdown. A large amount of exhaust
gas is expelled from the cylinder, reducing the pressure to that of the exhaust manifold.
The exhaust valve is opened bBDC to allow for the finite time of blowdown to occur.
It is desirable for blowdown to be complete by BDC so that there is no high pressure in
the cylinder to resist the piston in the following exhaust stroke. Blowdown in a real en-
gine is therefore almost, but not quite, constant volume. A large quantity of enthalpy is
carried away with the exhaust gases, limiting the thermal efficiency of the engine. The
Otto cycle replaces the exhaust blowdown open-system process of the real cycle with a
constant-volume pressure reduction, closed-system process 4–5. Enthalpy loss during
this process is replaced with heat rejection in the engine analysis. Pressure within the
cylinder at the end of exhaust blowdown has been reduced to about one atmosphere,
and the temperature has been substantially reduced by expansion cooling.
The last stroke of the four-stroke cycle now occurs as the piston travels from
BDC to TDC. Process 5–6 is the exhaust stroke that occurs at a constant pressure of
one atmosphere due to the open exhaust valve. This is a good approximation of the real
exhaust stroke, which occurs at a pressure slightly higher than the surrounding pres-
sure due to the small pressure drop across the exhaust valve and in the exhaust system.
At the end of the exhaust stroke, the engine has experienced two revolutions, the
piston is again at TDC, the exhaust valve closes, the intake valve opens, and a new cycle
begins.
When analyzing an Otto cycle, it is more convenient to work with specific prop-
erties by dividing by the mass of air within the cylinder. Figure 2 shows the Otto cycle
in P–v and T–s coordinates. It is not uncommon to find the Otto cycle shown with

93
 Engine Cycles

Temperature, T
Pressure, P

2 2
4
6 1
Po
5 1
TDC BDC
Specific Volume, v Entropy, s
(a) (b)

FIGURE 2
Otto cycle, 6-1-2-3-4-5-6, on (a) pressure-specific volume coordinates, and (b) temperature-
entropy coordinates.

processes 6–1 and 5–6 left off the figure. The reasoning to justify this is that these two
processes cancel each other thermodynamically and are not needed in analyzing the
cycle.

Thermodynamic Analysis of Air-Standard Otto Cycle at WOT

Process 6-1—constant-pressure intake of air at Po.
Intake valve open and exhaust valve closed:

P1 = P6 = Po (2)
w6 - 1 = Po1v1 - v62 (3)

Process 1-2—isentropic compression stroke.

All valves closed:

T2 = T11v1>v22k - 1 = T11V1>V22k - 1 = T11rc2k - 1 (4)

P2 = P11v1>v22k = P11V1>V22k = P11rc2k (5)
q1 - 2 = 0 (6)

94
 Engine Cycles

w1 - 2 = 1P2v2 - P1v12>11 - k2 = R1T2 - T12>11 - k2 (7)

= 1u1 - u22 = cv1T1 - T22

Process 2-3—constant-volume heat input (combustion).

All valves closed:

v3 = v2 = vTDC (8)
w2 - 3 = 0 (9)
Q2 - 3 = Qin = mfQHVhc = mmcv1T3 - T22
= 1ma + mf2cv1T3 - T22 (10)
QHVhc = 1AF + 12cv1T3 - T22 (11)
q2 - 3 = qin = cv1T3 - T22 = 1u3 - u22 (12)
T3 = Tmax (13)
P3 = Pmax (14)

Process 3-4—isentropic power or expansion stroke.

All valves closed:

q3 - 4 = 0 (15)
T4 = T31v3>v42k - 1 = T31V3>V42k - 1 = T311>rc2k - 1 (16)
P4 = P31v3>v42k = P31V3>V42k = P311>rc2k (17)
w3 - 4 = 1P4v4 - P3v32>11 - k2 = R1T4 - T32>11 - k2
= 1u3 - u42 = cv1T3 - T42 (18)

Process 4-5—constant-volume heat rejection (exhaust blowdown).

Exhaust valve open and intake valve closed:

v5 = v4 = v1 = vBDC (19)
w4 - 5 = 0 (20)
Q4 - 5 = Qout = mmcv1T5 - T42 = mmcv1T1 - T42 (21)
q4 - 5 = qout = cv1T5 - T42 = 1u5 - u42 = cv1T1 - T42 (22)

Process 5-6—constant-pressure exhaust stroke at Po.

Exhaust valve open and intake valve closed:

P5 = P6 = Po (23)
w5 - 6 = Po1v6 - v52 = Po1v6 - v12 (24)

Thermal efficiency of Otto cycle:

1ht2OTTO = ƒ wnet ƒ > ƒ qin ƒ = 1 - 1 ƒ qout ƒ > ƒ qin ƒ 2

= 1 - [cv1T4 - T12>cv1T3 - T22]
= 1 - [1T4 - T12>1T3 - T22] (25)

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 Engine Cycles

Only cycle temperatures need to be known to determine thermal efficiency. This

can be simplified further by applying ideal gas relationships for the isentropic com-
pression and expansion strokes and recognizing that v1 = v4 and v2 = v3:
1T2>T12 = 1v1>v22k - 1 = 1v4>v32k - 1 = 1T3>T42 (26)

Rearranging the temperature terms gives

T4>T1 = T3>T2 (27)
Equation (25) can be rearranged to
1ht2OTTO = 1 - 1T1>T225[1T4>T12 - 1]>[1T3>T22 - 1]6 (28)
Using Eq. (27) gives
1ht2OTTO = 1 - 1T1>T22 (29)
Combining this with Eq. (4)
1ht2OTTO = 1 - [1>1v1>v22k - 1] (30)

With v1>v2 = rc, the compression ratio is

1ht2OTTO = 1 - 11>rc2k - 1 (31)

Only the compression ratio is needed to determine the thermal efficiency of the
Otto cycle at WOT. As the compression ratio goes up, the thermal efficiency goes up as
seen in Fig. 3. This efficiency is the indicated thermal efficiency, as the heat transfer val-
ues are those to and from the air within the combustion chamber.

70

60
Thermal Efficiency, ␩t (%)

50

40

30

20

10
FIGURE 3
Indicated thermal efficiency as a function of 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
compression ratio for SI engines operating at
WOT on air-standard Otto cycle 1k = 1.352. Compression Ratio, rc

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 Engine Cycles

Example Problem 1
A four-cylinder, 2.5-liter, SI automobile engine operates at WOT on a four-stroke air-standard
Otto cycle at 3000 RPM. The engine has a compression ratio of 8.6:1, a mechanical efficiency of
86%, and a stroke-to-bore ratio S>B = 1.025. Fuel is isooctane with AF = 15, a heating value of
44,300 kJ/kg, and combustion efficiency hc = 100%. At the start of the compression stroke, con-
ditions in the cylinder combustion chamber are 100 kPa and 60°C. It can be assumed that there
is a 4% exhaust residual left over from the previous cycle.
Do a complete thermodynamic analysis of this engine.
For one cylinder, the displacement volume is
Vd = 2.5 liter>4 = 0.625 L = 0.000625 m3
Clearance volume is
rc = V1>V2 = 1Vc + Vd2>Vc = 8.6 = 1Vc + 0.0006252>Vc
Vc = 0.0000822 m3 = 0.0822 L = 82.2 cm3
Bore and stroke is
Vd = 1p>42B2S = 1p>42B211.025B2 = 0.000625 m3
B = 0.0919 m = 9.19 cm
S = 1.025B = 0.0942 m = 9.42 cm
State 1:
T1 = 60°C = 333 K given in problem statement
P1 = 100 kPa given
V1 = Vd + Vc = 0.000625 + 0.0000822 = 0.000707 m3
Mass of gas mixture in the cylinder can be calculated at State 1. The mass within the cylinder will
then remain the same for the entire cycle.
mm = P1V1>RT1 = 1100 kPa210.000707 m32>10.287 kJ>kg-K21333 K2
= 0.000740 kg
State 2: The compression stroke 1-2 is isentropic. Use Eqs. (4) and (5) to find the pressure
and temperature:
P2 = P11rc2k = 1100 kPa218.621.35 = 1826 kPa
T2 = T11rc2k - 1 = 1333 K218.620.35 = 707 K = 434°C
V2 = mRT2>P2 = 10.000740 kg210.287 kJ>kg-K21707 K2>11826 kPa2
= 0.0000822 m3 = Vc
This is the clearance volume of one cylinder, which agrees with the preceding. Another way of
getting this value is:
V2 = V1>rc = 0.000707 m3>8.6 = 0.0000822 m3
The mass of gas mixture mm in the cylinder is made up of air ma, fuel mf, and exhaust residual
mex:
mass of air ma = 115>16210.96210.0007402 = 0.000666 kg
mass of fuel mf = 11>16210.96210.0007402 = 0.000044 kg
mass of exhaust mex = 10.04210.0007402 = 0.000030 kg
Total mm = 0.000740 kg

97
 Engine Cycles

State 3: Use Eq. (10) to calculate the heat added during one cycle:
Qin = mfQHVhc = mmcv1T3 - T22
= 10.000044 kg2144,300 kJ>kg211.002
= 10.000740 kg210.821 kJ>kg-K21T3 - 707 K2
Solving this for T3
T3 = 3915 K = 3642°C = Tmax
V3 = V2 = 0.0000822 m3
For constant volume
P3 = P21T3>T22 = 11826 kPa213915>7072 = 10,111 kPa = Pmax
State 4: Power stroke 4 is isentropic. Use Eq. (16) and (17) to find temperature and
pressure:
T4 = T311>rc2k - 1 = 13915 K211>8.620.35 = 1844 K = 1571°C
P4 = P311>rc2k = 110,111 kPa211>8.621.35 = 554 kPa
V4 = mRT4>P4 = 10.000740 kg210.287 kJ>kg-K211844 K2>1554 kPa2
= 0.000707 m3 = V1
This agrees with the value of V1 found earlier.
Work produced in the isentropic power stroke for one cylinder during one cycle is
W3 - 4 = mR1T4 - T32>11 - k2
= 10.000740 kg210.287 kJ>kg-K211844 - 39152K>11 - 1.352
= 1.257 kJ
Work absorbed during the isentropic compression stroke for one cylinder during one cycle is
W1 - 2 = mR1T2 - T12>11 - k2
= 10.000740 kg210.287 kJ>kg-K21707 - 3332K>11 - 1.352
= -0.227 kJ
Work of the intake stroke is canceled by work of the exhaust stroke.
Net indicated work for one cylinder during one cycle is
Wnet = W1 - 2 + W3 - 4 = 1-0.2272 + 1+1.2572 = +1.030 kJ
Use Eq. (10) to find heat added for one cylinder during one cycle:
Qin = mfQHVhc = 10.000044 kg2144,300 kJ>kg211.002 = 1.949 kJ
Indicated thermal efficiency is
ht = Wnet>Qin = 1.030>1.949 = 0.529 = 52.9%
or, using Eqs. (29) and (31),
ht = 1 - 1T1>T22 = 1 - 11>rc2k - 1
= 1 - 1333>7072 = 1 - 11>8.620.35 = 0.529
Indicated mean effective pressure is
imep = Wnet>1V1 - V22 = 11.030 kJ2>10.000707 - 0.00008222m3 = 1649 kPa

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 Engine Cycles

indicated power at 3000 RPM is

#
Wi = WN>n
= [11.030 kJ>cyl-cycle213000>60 rev>sec2>12 rev>cycle2]14 cyl2
= 103 kW = 138 hp
Mean piston speed is
Up = 2SN = 12 strokes>rev210.0942 m>stroke213000>60 rev>sec2
= 9.42 m>sec
Net brake work for one cylinder during one cycle is
Wb = hmWi = 10.86211.030 kJ2 = 0.886 kJ
Brake power at 3000 RPM is
Wb = 13000>60 rev>sec210.5 cycle>rev210.886 kJ>cyl-cycle214 cyl2
#

= 88.6 kW = 119 hp
or
Wb = hmWi = 10.8621103 kW2 = 88.6 kW
# #

Torque is
t = Wb>2pN = 188.6 kJ>sec2>12pradians>rev213000>60 rev>sec2
#

= 0.282 kN-m = 282 N-m

Friction power lost is
# # #
Wf = Wi - Wb = 103 - 88.6 = 14.4 kW = 19.3 hp
Brake mean effective pressure is
bmep = hm1imep2 = 10.86211649 kPa2 = 1418 kPa
This allows another way of finding torque, which gives consistent results:
t = 1bmep2Vd>4p = 11418 kPa210.0025 m32>4p = 0.282 kN-m
Brake specific power is
BSP = Wb>A p = 188.6 kW2>5[1p>4219.19 cm22]14 cyl26 = 0.334 kW>cm2
#

Output per displacement is

OPD = Wb>Vd = 188.6 kW2>12.5 L2 = 35.4 kW>L
#

Brake specific fuel consumption is

bsfc = mf>Wb
# #

= 10.000044 kg>cyl-cycle2 150 rev>sec2 10.5 cycle>rev2 14 cyl2>188.6 kW2

= 0.000050 kg>sec>kW = 180 gm>kW-hr
Volumetric efficiency using one cylinder and standard air density is
hv = ma>raVd = 10.000666 kg2>11.181 kg>m3210.000625 m32
= 0.902 = 90.2%

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 Engine Cycles

3 REAL AIR–FUEL ENGINE CYCLES

The actual cycle experienced by an internal combustion engine is not, in the true sense,
a thermodynamic cycle. An ideal air-standard thermodynamic cycle occurs on a closed
system of constant composition. This is not what actually happens in an IC engine, and
for this reason air-standard analysis gives, at best, only approximations to actual condi-
tions and outputs. Major differences include the following:

1. Real engines operate on an open cycle with changing composition. Not only does
the inlet gas composition differ from that of the gas which exits, but often the
mass flow rate is not the same. Those engines that add fuel into the cylinders after
air induction is complete (CI engines and some SI engines) change the amount of
mass in the gas composition part way through the cycle. The gaseous mass exiting
the engine in the exhaust is greater than the gaseous mass that entered in the in-
duction process. This difference can be on the order of several percent. Other en-
gines carry liquid fuel droplets with the inlet air that are idealized as part of the
gaseous mass in air-standard analysis. During combustion, total mass remains
about the same but molar quantity changes. Finally, there is a loss of mass during
the cycle due to crevice flow and blowby past the pistons. Most of the crevice flow
is a temporary loss of mass from the cylinder, but because it is greatest at the start
of the power stroke, some output work is lost during expansion. Blowby can de-
crease the amount of mass in the cylinders by as much as 1% during compression
and combustion.
2. Air-standard analysis treats the fluid flow through the entire engine as air and ap-
proximates air as an ideal gas. In a real engine inlet flow may be all air, or it may
be air mixed with up to 7% fuel, either gaseous or as liquid droplets, or both. Dur-
ing combustion the composition is then changed to a gas mixture of mostly
CO2, H 2O, and N2, with lesser amounts of CO and hydrocarbon vapor. In CI en-
gines there will also be solid carbon particles in the combustion products gas mix-
ture. Approximating exhaust products as air simplifies analysis but introduces
some error.
Even if all fluid in an engine cycle were air, some error would be introduced
by assuming it to be an ideal gas with constant specific heats in air-standard
analysis. At the low pressures of inlet and exhaust, air can accurately be treated as
an ideal gas, but at the higher pressures during combustion, air will deviate from
ideal gas behavior. A more serious error is introduced by assuming constant spe-
cific heats for the analysis. Specific heats of a gas have a fairly strong dependency
on temperature and can vary as much as 30% in the temperature range of an en-
gine (for air, cp = 1.004 kJ>kg-K at 300 K and cp = 1.292 kJ>kg-K at 3000 K [73];
see Review Problem 5).
3. There are heat losses during the cycle of a real engine that are neglected in air-
standard analysis. Heat loss during combustion lowers the actual peak tempera-
ture and pressure from that predicted. The actual power stroke, therefore, starts
at a lower pressure, and work output during expansion is decreased. Heat trans-
fer continues during expansion, and this lowers the temperature and pressure
below the ideal isentropic process towards the end of the power stroke. The result

100
 Engine Cycles

of heat transfer is a lower indicated thermal efficiency than that predicted by air-
standard analysis. Heat transfer is also present during compression which devi-
ates the process from isentropic. However, this deviation is less than the
deviation during the expansion stroke due to the lower temperatures at this time.
4. Combustion requires a short but finite time to occur, and heat addition is not in-
stantaneous at TDC, as approximated in an Otto cycle. A fast but finite flame
speed is desirable in an engine. This results in a finite rate of pressure rise in the
cylinders, a steady force increase on the piston face, and a smooth engine cycle. A
supersonic detonation would give almost instantaneous heat addition to a cycle,
but would result in a rough cycle and quick engine destruction. Because of the fi-
nite time required, combustion is started before TDC and ends after TDC, not at
constant volume as in air-standard analysis. By starting combustion bTDC, cylin-
der pressure increases late in the compression stroke, requiring greater negative
work in that stroke. Because combustion is not completed until aTDC, some
power is lost at the start of the expansion stroke. Another loss in the combustion
process of an actual engine occurs because combustion efficiency is less than
100%. This happens because of less-than-perfect mixing, local variations in tem-
perature and air–fuel due to turbulence, flame quenching, etc. SI engines will gen-
erally have a combustion efficiency of about 95%, while CI engines are generally
about 98% efficient.
5. The blowdown process requires a finite real time and a finite cycle time, and does
not occur at constant volume as in air-standard analysis. For this reason, the ex-
haust valve must open 40° to 60° bBDC, and some output work at the latter end
of expansion is lost.
6. In an actual engine, the intake valve is not closed until after bottom-dead-center
at the end of the intake stroke. Because of the flow restriction of the valve, air is
still entering the cylinder at BDC, and volumetric efficiency would be lower if the
valve closed here. Because of this, however, actual compression does not start at
BDC but only after the inlet valve closes. With ignition then occurring before
top-dead-center, temperature and pressure rise before combustion is less than
predicted by air-standard analysis.
7. Engine valves require a finite time to actuate. Ideally, valves would open and
close instantaneously, but this is not possible when using a camshaft. Cam profiles
must allow for smooth interaction with the cam follower, and this results in fast
but finite valve actuation. To assure that the intake valve is fully open at the start
of the induction stroke, it must start to open before TDC. Likewise, the exhaust
valve must remain fully open until the end of the exhaust stroke, with final clo-
sure occurring after TDC. The resulting valve overlap period causes a deviation
from the ideal cycle. When electronic valve actuation replaces the use of
camshafts, the time to open or close any valve will be greatly reduced.
8. Some error is introduced when the lower heating value of the fuel QLHV is used
as the energy input to the cycle during combustion in air-standard analysis. Heat-
ing value of any fuel is calculated on conditions of 25°C in and 25°C out. This is
not what happens in an engine cycle. Actual energy input during combustion in a
real engine will be less than that predicted by QLHV.

101
 Engine Cycles

Because of these differences between real air-fuel cycles and ideal cycles, results
from air-standard analysis will have errors and will deviate from actual conditions. In-
terestingly, however, the errors are not great, and property values of temperature and
pressure are very representative of actual engine values, depending on the geometry
and operating conditions of the real engine. By changing operating variables such as
inlet temperature or pressure, compression ratio, peak temperature, etc., in Otto cycle
analysis, good approximations can be obtained for output changes that will occur in a
real engine as these variables are changed. Good approximation of power output, ther-
mal efficiency, and mep can be expected.
Indicated thermal efficiency of a real four-stroke SI engine is always somewhat
less than that predicted by air-standard Otto cycle analysis. This is due to the heat loss-
es, friction, ignition timing, valve timing, finite time of combustion and blow-down, and
deviation from ideal gas behavior of the real engine. Reference [120] shows that, over
a large range of operating variables, the indicated thermal efficiency of an actual SI
four-stroke cycle engine can be approximated by
1ht2actual L 0.851ht2OTTO (32)

This will be correct to within a few percent for large ranges of air–fuel equiva-
lence ratio, ignition timing, engine speed, compression ratio, inlet pressure, exhaust
pressure, and valve timing.

4 SI ENGINE CYCLE AT PART THROTTLE

When a four-stroke cycle SI engine is run at less than WOT conditions, air–fuel input is
reduced by partially closing the throttle (butterfly valve) in the intake system. This cre-
ates a flow restriction and consequent pressure drop in the incoming air. Fuel input is
then also reduced to match the reduction of air. Lower pressure in the intake manifold
during the intake stroke and the resulting lower pressure in the cylinder at the start of
the compression stroke are shown in Fig. 4. Although the air experiences an expansion
cooling because of the pressure drop across the throttle valve, the temperature of the
air entering the cylinders is about the same as at WOT because it first flows through
the hot intake manifold.
Figure 4 shows that the net indicated work for the Otto cycle engine will be less at
part throttle than at WOT. The upper loop of the cycle, made up of the compression and
power strokes, represents positive work output, while the lower loop, consisting of the
exhaust and intake strokes, is negative work absorbed off the rotating crankshaft. The
more closed the throttle position, the lower will be the pressure during the intake stroke
and the greater the negative pump work.Two main factors contribute to the reduced net
work at part-throttle operation. The lower pressure at the start of compression results in
lower pressures throughout the rest of the cycle except for the exhaust stroke. This low-
ers mep and net work. In addition, when less air is ingested into the cylinders during in-
take because of this lower pressure, fuel input by injectors or carburetor is also
proportionally reduced. This results in less thermal energy from combustion in the cylin-
ders and less resulting work out. It should be noted that although Qin is reduced, the
temperature rise in process 2-3 in Fig. 4 is about the same. This is because the mass of
fuel and the mass of air being heated are both reduced by an equal proportion.

102
 Engine Cycles

Pressure, P

4
6
Po 5

1
6a

TDC BDC
Specific Volume, v

FIGURE 4
Four-stroke air-standard Otto cycle, 6-6a-1-2-3-4-5-6, for SI engine operating at
part throttle.

If an engine is equipped with a supercharger or turbocharger the corresponding

air-standard cycle is shown in Fig. 5, with intake pressure higher than atmospheric pres-
sure. This results in more air and fuel in the combustion chamber during the cycle, and
the resulting net indicated work is increased. Higher intake pressure increases all pres-
sures thoughout the cycle, and increased air and fuel give greater Qin in process 2-3.
When air is compressed to a higher pressure by a supercharger or turbocharger, the
temperature is also increased due to compressive heating. This would increase air
temperature at the start of the compression stroke, which in turn raises all tempera-
tures in the remaining cycle. This can cause self-ignition and knocking problems in the
latter part of compression or during combustion. For this reason, engine compressors
can be equipped with an aftercooler to again lower the compressed incoming air tem-
perature. Aftercoolers are heat exchangers, which often use outside air as the cooling
fluid. In principle, aftercoolers are desirable, but cost and space limitations often
make them impractical on automobile engines. Instead, engines equipped with a su-
percharger or turbocharger will usually have a lower compression ratio to reduce

103
 Engine Cycles

Pressure, P

6a
1

Po 5
6

TDC BDC
Specific Volume, v

FIGURE 5
Four-stroke air-standard Otto cycle, 6-6a-1-2-3-4-5-6, for SI engine equipped with
a turbocharger or supercharger.

knocking problems. With a lower compression ratio there will be less compressive
heating in the compression stroke, which will compensate for the higher temperature
at the start of the stroke.
When an engine without a supercharger or turbocharger is operated at WOT, it
can be assumed that the air pressure in the intake manifold is Po = one atmosphere.
At part throttle, the partially closed butterfly valve creates a flow restriction, resulting
in a lower inlet pressure Pi in the intake manifold (point 6a in Fig. 4). Work done dur-
ing the intake stroke is, therefore,
W6 - 1 = Pi1V1 - V62 = PiVd (33)

where Vd is the displacement volume.

104
 Engine Cycles

Work done during the exhaust stroke where the pressure is about constant at one
atmosphere is
W5 - 6 = Pex1V6 - V52 = -PexVd (34)

The net indicated pumping work for the cycle at part throttle is
1Wpump2net = 1Pi - Pex2Vd (35)

The negative value of this pump work means that it lowers the net indicated work
of the cycle.
If the engine is equipped with a supercharger or turbocharger, the inlet pressure
can be greater than one atmosphere, as shown in Fig. 5. Net indicated pump work for
this cycle is still given by Eq. (35), but now Pi 7 Pex, pump work is positive, and net in-
dicated work is increased.
Using Eq. (35) for pump mean effective pressure, we have
pmep = 1Wpump2net>Vd = 1Pi - Pex2 (36)

This can have positive or negative values.

5 EXHAUST PROCESS
The exhaust process consists of two steps: blowdown and exhaust stroke. When the ex-
haust valve opens near the end of the expansion stroke (point 4 in Fig. 6), the high-tem-
perature gases are suddenly subjected to a pressure decrease as the resulting
blowdown occurs. A large percentage of the gases leaves the combustion chamber dur-
ing this blowdown process, driven by the pressure differential across the open exhaust
valve. When the pressure across the exhaust valve is finally equalized, the cylinder is
still filled with exhaust gases at the exhaust manifold pressure of about one atmos-
phere. These gases are then pushed out of the cylinder through the still open exhaust
valve by the piston as it travels from BDC to TDC during the exhaust stroke.
Temperature of the exhaust gases is cooled by expansion cooling when the pres-
sure is suddenly reduced during blowdown. Although this expansion is not reversible,
the ideal gas isentropic relationship between pressure and temperature serves as a
good model to approximate the exhaust temperature T7 in the hypothetical process 4-7
of Fig. 6. According to that model,
T7 = T41P7>P421k - 12>k = T31P7>P321k - 12>k
= T41Pex>P421k - 12>k = T41Po>P421k - 12>k (37)
where
P7 = Pex = Po
Pex = exhaust pressure, which generally can be considered equal to
surrounding pressure
P7 is the pressure in the exhaust system and is almost always very close to one at-
mosphere in value.

105
 Engine Cycles

3
Pressure, P

6 7 7c 7b 7a
Po
5 1

TDC BDC
Specific Volume, v
(a)

3
Temperature, T

2 4

7a
7b
7 7c

Entropy, s
(b)

FIGURE 6
Air-standard Otto cycle for engine at WOT, showing process 4-7 experienced by exhaust during
blowdown.

106
 Engine Cycles

Gas leaving the combustion chamber during the blowdown process will also have
kinetic energy due to high velocity flow through the exhaust valve. This kinetic energy
will very quickly be dissipated in the exhaust manifold, and there will be a subsequent
rise in enthalpy and temperature. The first elements of gas leaving the combustion
chamber will have the highest velocity and will therefore reach the highest tempera-
ture when this velocity is dissipated (point 7a in Fig. 6). Each subsequent element of
gas will have less velocity and will thus experience less temperature rise (points 7b, 7c,
etc.). The last elements of gas leaving the combustion chamber during blowdown and
the gas pushed out during the exhaust stroke will have relatively low kinetic energy
and will have a temperature very close to T7. Choked flow (sonic velocity) will be ex-
perienced across the exhaust valve at the start of blowdown, and this determines the
resulting gas velocity and kinetic energy. If possible, it is desirable to mount the turbine
of a turbocharger very close to the exhaust manifold. This is done so that exhaust ki-
netic energy can be utilized in the turbine.
The state of the exhaust gas during the exhaust stroke is best approximated by a
pressure of one atmosphere, a temperature of T7 given in Eq. (37), and a specific volume
shown at point 7 in Fig. 6. It will be noted that this is inconsistent with Fig. 6 for the ex-
haust stroke process 5-6.The figure would suggest that the specific volume v changes dur-
ing process 5-6. This inconsistency occurs because Fig. 6 uses a closed system model to
represent an open system process, the exhaust stroke.Also, it should be noted that point 7
is a hypothetical state and corresponds to no actual physical piston position.
At the end of the exhaust stroke, there is still a residual of exhaust gas trapped in the
clearance volume of the cylinder. This exhaust residual gets mixed with the new incoming
charge of air and fuel and is carried into the new cycle. Exhaust residual is defined as
xr = mex>mm (38)
where mex is the mass of exhaust gas carried into the next cycle and mm is the mass of
gas mixture within the cylinder for the entire cycle. Values of exhaust residual range
from 3% to 7% at full load, increasing to as much as 20% at part-throttle light loads. CI
engines generally have less exhaust residual because their higher compression ratios
give them smaller relative clearance volumes. In addition to the effect of the clearance
volume, the location of the valves and the amount of valve overlap affect the amount
of exhaust residual.
In Fig. 6, if the blowdown process 4-7 is modeled as an isentropic expansion,
then
P4>P7 = 1v7>v42k = P4>Pex = P4>Po (39)
P3>P7 = 1v7>v32 = P3>Pex = P3>Po
k
(40)

The mass of exhaust in the cylinder after blowdown, but before the exhaust
stroke, will be
m7 = V5>vex = V5>v7 = V1>v7 (41)

The mass of exhaust in the cylinder at the end of the exhaust stroke will be

mex = V6>v7 = V2>v7 (42)

107
 Engine Cycles

where v7 is calculated using either Eq. (39) or (40) and represents the constant specific
volume of exhaust gas within the cylinder for the entire exhaust stroke 5-6. The mass of
gas mixture in Eq. (38) can be obtained from
mm = V1>v1 = V2>v2 = V3>v3 = V4>v4 = V7>v7 (43)

Combining this with Eqs. (38) and (42), we get

xr = 1V2>v72>1V7>v72 = V2>V7 (44)
V7 is the hypothetical volume of mm expanded to Po after combustion. Using Eqs. (42)
and (43), the exhaust residual can also be written as
xr = 1V6>v72>1V4>v42 = 1V6>V421v4>v72 = 11>rc21v4>v72 (45)
= 11>rc2[1RT4>P42>1RT7>P72]
xr = 11>rc21T4>Tex21Pex>P42 (46)
where
rc = compression ratio
Pex = P7 = Po = one atmosphere under most conditions
Tex = T7 from Eq. 1372

and T4 and P4 are conditions in the cylinder when the exhaust valve opens.
When the intake valve opens, a new charge of inlet air ma enters the cylinder and
mixes with the remaining exhaust residual from the previous cycle. The mixing occurs
such that total enthalpy remains constant and
mexhex + maha = mmhm (47)
where hex, ha, and hm are the specific enthalpy values of exhaust, air, and mixture, all of
which are treated as air in air-standard analysis. If specific enthalpy values are refer-
enced to zero value at an absolute temperature value of zero, then h = cpT and
mexcpTex + macpTa = mmcpTm (48)

Canceling cp and dividing by mm, we have

1mex>mm2Tex + 1ma>mm2Ta = Tm (49)

Combining this equation with Eq. (38) gives the temperature of the gas mixture in the
cylinder at the start of compression in terms of the exhaust residual xr:
1Tm21 = xrTex + 11 - xr2Ta (50)

where Tex = T7 and Ta is the temperature of the incoming air in the intake manifold.
As air enters the cylinder, it mixes with the small charge of hot exhaust residual,
heating the air and reducing its density. This, in turn, reduces the volumetric efficiency
of the engine. Part of this loss is gained back by the substantial cooling of the small
amount of exhaust residual, which increases its density. The partial vacuum this creates
in the clearance volume can then be filled with additional intake air.

108
 Engine Cycles

Example Problem 2
The engine operating at the conditions of Example Problem 1 has an exhaust pressure of
100 kPa.
Calculate:
1. exhaust temperature
2. exhaust residual
3. temperature of air entering cylinder
(1) Use Fig. 6 and Eq. (37) to calculate the exhaust temperature:

Tex = T7 = T31P7>P321k - 12>k

= 13915 K21100>10,111211.35 - 12>1.35 = 1183 K = 910°C

(2) Use Eq. (46) to find exhaust residual:

xr = 11>rc21T4>Tex21Pex>P42 = 11>8.6211844>118321100>5542 = 0.033

It was assumed that xr = 0.04 when the engine was analyzed in Example Problem 1.
That analysis should now be redone using this better value of xr = 0.033. When this is
done, the following corrected values are obtained:

P3 = 10,300 kPa
T3 = 3988 K
P4 = 564 kPa
T4 = 1878 K
Tex = 1199 K
xr = 0.033

The consistent value for the exhaust residual means that an additional iteration is not
needed. With a reasonable exhaust residual approximation to start with, two itera-
tions in the analysis will normally be sufficient. Other parameters (e.g., power, mep,
etc.) should now be recalculated, with slight changes in their values to be expected.
(3) Equation (50) is now used to find the temperature of the air entering the cylinder
from the intake manifold:

T1 = xrTex + 11 - xr2Ta
333 = 10.0332111992 + 11 - 0.0332Ta
Ta = 303 K = 30°C

Example Problem 3
The engine in Example Problems 1 and 2 is now run at part throttle such that the intake
pressure is 50 kPa. Calculate the temperature in the cylinder at the start of the compression
stroke.
The temperature of the intake air can be assumed to be the same even though it has expe-
rienced a pressure reduction expansion when passing the throttle valve. This is because it still
flows through the same hot intake manifold after the throttle. However, the temperature of the

109
 Engine Cycles

exhaust residual will be reduced due to the expansion cooling it undergoes when the intake
valve opens and the pressure in the cylinder drops to 50 kPa. The temperature of the exhaust
residual after expansion can be approximated using Fig. 4 and the isentropic expansion model
such that
T6a = Tex1P6a>P621k - 12>k = 11199 K2150>100211.35 - 12>1.35 = 1002 K = 729°C
Equation (50) is now used to find the temperature at the start of compression (point 1):
T1 = xrT6a + 11 - xr2Ta
T1 = 10.033211002 K2 + 11 - 0.03321303 K2 = 326 K = 53°C
This temperature and pressure of 50 kPa should now be used as a starting point and a complete
thermodynamic analysis should be done on the cycle with iterations until consistent results are
obtained. This is left as an exercise for the student.

6 DIESEL CYCLE
Early CI engines injected fuel into the combustion chamber very late in the compres-
sion stroke, resulting in the indicator diagram shown in Fig. 7. Due to ignition delay
and the finite time required to inject the fuel, combustion lasted into the expansion
stroke. This kept the pressure at peak levels well past TDC. This combustion process is
best approximated as a constant-pressure heat input in an air-standard cycle, resulting
in the Diesel cycle shown in Fig. 8. The rest of the cycle is similar to the air-standard
Otto cycle. The Diesel cycle is sometimes called a Constant-Pressure cycle.

Thermodynamic Analysis of Air-Standard Diesel Cycle

Process 6-1—constant-pressure intake of air at Po.
Intake valve open and exhaust valve closed:

w6 - 1 = Po1v1 - v62 (51)

Pressure, P

FIGURE 7
Indicator diagram of a historic CI
engine operating on an early four-stroke
cycle. Volume, V

110
 Engine Cycles

3
2 3

4
2

Temperature, T
Pressure, P

6
Po 1
5
1
TDC BDC
Specific Volume, v Entropy, s
(a) (b)

FIGURE 8
Air-standard Diesel cycle, 6-1-2-3-4-5-6, which approximates the four-stroke cycle of an early CI
engine on (a) pressure-specific volume coordinates, and (b) temperature-entropy coordinates.

Process 1-2—isentropic compression stroke.

All valves closed:
T2 = T11v1>v22k - 1 = T11V1>V22k - 1 = T11rc2k - 1 (52)
P2 = P11v1>v22k = P11V1>V22k = P11rc2k (53)
V2 = VTDC (54)
q1 - 2 = 0 (55)
w1 - 2 = 1P2v2 - P1v12>11 - k2 = R1T2 - T12>11 - k2
= 1u1 - u22 = cv1T1 - T22 (56)
Process 2-3—constant-pressure heat input (combustion).
All valves closed:

Q2 - 3 = Qin = mfQHVhc = mmcp1T3 - T22 = 1ma + mf2cp1T3 - T22 (57)

QHVhc = 1AF + 12cp1T3 - T22 (58)
q2 - 3 = qin = cp1T3 - T22 = 1h3 - h22 (59)
w2 - 3 = q2 - 3 - 1u3 - u22 = P21v3 - v22 (60)
T3 = Tmax (61)
Cutoff ratio is defined as the change in volume that occurs during combustion, given as
a ratio:
b = V3>V2 = v3>v2 = T3>T2 (62)

111
 Engine Cycles

Process 3-4—isentropic power or expansion stroke.

All valves closed:
q3 - 4 = 0 (63)
T4 = T31v3>v42k - 1 = T31V3>V42k - 1 (64)
P4 = P31v3>v42k = P31V3>V42k (65)
w3 - 4 = 1P4v4 - P3v32>11 - k2 = R1T4 - T32>11 - k2
= 1u3 - u42 = cv1T3 - T42 (66)
Process 4-5—constant-volume heat rejection (exhaust blowdown).
Exhaust valve open and intake valve closed:
v5 = v4 = v1 = vBDC (67)
w4 - 5 = 0 (68)
Q4 - 5 = Qout = mmcv1T5 - T42 = mmcv1T1 - T42 (69)
q4 - 5 = qout = cv1T5 - T42 = 1u5 - u42 = cv1T1 - T42 (70)
Process 5-6—constant-pressure exhaust stroke at Po.
Exhaust valve open and intake valve closed:
w5 - 6 = Po1v6 - v52 = Po1v6 - v12 (71)
Thermal efficiency of Diesel cycle
1ht2DIESEL = ƒ wnet ƒ > ƒ qin ƒ = 1 - 1 ƒ qout ƒ > ƒ qin ƒ 2
= 1 - [cv1T4 - T12>cp1T3 - T22]
= 1 - 1T4 - T12>[k1T3 - T22] (72)
With rearrangement, this can be shown to equal
1ht2DIESEL = 1 - 11>rc2k - 1[1b k - 12>5k1b - 126] (73)
where
rc = compression ratio
k = cp>cv
b = cutoff ratio
If representative numbers are introduced into Eq. (73), it is found that the value of
the term in brackets is greater than one. When this equation is compared with Eq. (31), it
can be seen that for a given compression ratio the thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle
would be greater than the thermal efficiency of the Diesel cycle. Constant-volume com-
bustion at TDC is more efficient than constant-pressure combustion. However, it must
be remembered that CI engines operate with much higher compression ratios than SI
engines (12 to 24 versus 8 to 11) and thus have higher thermal efficiencies.

Example Problem 4
A large vintage straight six CI truck engine operates on an air-standard Diesel cycle (Fig. 8)
using heavy diesel fuel with a combustion efficiency of 98%. The engine has a compression ratio

112
 Engine Cycles

Indicated Thermal Efficiency, ␩ t(%) 80

70

60
rc ⫽ 18
50 rc ⫽ 14

40

30
FIGURE 9
20
Indicated thermal efficiency as a
0 1 2 3 4 function of cutoff ratio for air-
Cutoff Ratio, ␤ standard Diesel cycle 1k = 1.352.

of 16.5:1. Temperature and pressure in the cylinders at the start of the compression stroke are
55°C and 102 kPa, and maximum cycle temperature is 2410°C. Calculate:
1. temperature, pressure, and specific volume at each state of the cycle
2. air–fuel ratio of the cylinder gas mixture
3. cylinder temperature when the exhaust valve opens
4. indicated thermal efficiency of the engine

(1) State 1:

T1 = 55°C = 328 K given in problem statement

P1 = 102 kPa given
v1 = RT1>P1 = 10.287 kJ>kg-K21328 K2>1102 kPa2 = 0.9229 m3>kg
State 2:
Equations (52) and (53) give temperature and pressure after isentropic compression:

T2 = T11rc2k - 1 = 1328 K2116.521.35 - 1 = 875 K = 602°C

P2 = P11rc2k = 1102 kPa2116.521.35 = 4490 kPa
v2 = RT2>P2 = 10.287 kJ>kg-K21875 K2>14490 kPa2 = 0.0559 m3>kg

Or,
v2 = v1>rc = 10.9229 m3>kg2>116.52 = 0.0559 m3>kg
State 3:
T3 = Tmax = 2410°C = 2683 K given in problem statement
P3 = P2 = 4490 kPa
v3 = RT3>P3 = 10.287 kJ>kg-K212683 K2>14490 kPa2 = 1715 m3>kg

Using Eq. (62) for cutoff ratio,

b = v3>v2 = 10.17152>10.05592 = 3.08

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 Engine Cycles

State 4:
v4 = v1 = 0.9229 m3>kg
Equations (64) and (65) give temperature and pressure after isentropic expansion:

T4 = T31v3>v42k - 1 = 12683 k210.1715>0.922921.35 - 1 = 1489 K = 1216°C

P4 = P31v3>v42k = 14490 kPa210.1715>0.922921.35 = 463 kPa
(2) Eq. (58) is used to find the air–fuel ratio:

QLHVhc = 1AF + 12cp1T3 - T22

= 141,400 kJ>kg210.982 = 1AF + 1211.108 kJ>kg-K212683 - 8752K
AF = 19.25
(3) In air-standard Diesel cycle, the exhaust valve opens at state 4:

TEVO = T4 = 1489 K = 1216°C

(4) The work produced during the compression stroke is found using Eq. (56):

w1 - 2 = R1T2 - T12>11 - k2 = 10.287 kJ>kg-K21875 - 3282K>11 - 1.352

= -448.5 kJ>kg
The work produced during combustion is found using Eq. (60):

w2 - 3 = P21v3 - v22 = 14490 kPa210.1715 - 0.05592m3>kg = +519.0 kJ>kg

Work during power stroke is calculated using Eq. (66):
w3 - 4 = R1T4 - T32>11 - k2
= 10.287 kJ>kg-K211489 - 26832K>11 - 1.352
= +979.1 kJ>kg
Work during constant-volume blowdown is w4 - 1 = 0
Net work per unit mass of gas in cylinder for one cycle
wnet = w1 - 2 + w2 - 3 + w3 - 4 = 1-448.52 + 1+519.02 + 1+979.12 = +1049.6 kJ>kg
Equation (59) gives the heat added per unit mass for one cycle:
qin = q2 - 3 = cp1T3 - T22 = 11.108 kJ>kg-K212683 - 8752K = 2003.3 kJ>kg
The indicated thermal efficiency is
ht = w>qin = 11049.62>12003.32 = 0.524 = 52.4%

Thermal efficiency can also be found using either Eq. (72) or Eq. (73):

ht = 1 - 1T4 - T12>[k1T3 - T22] = 1 - 11489 - 3282>[1.3512683 - 8752] = 0.524

ht = 1 - 11>rc21 - k51b k - 12>[k1b - 12]6
= 1 - 11>16.521.35 - 15[13.0821.35 - 1]>[1.3513.08 - 12]6 = 0.524

7 DUAL CYCLE
If Eqs. (31) and (73) are compared, it can be seen that to have the best of both worlds,
an engine ideally would be compression ignition but would operate on the Otto cycle.
Compression ignition would operate on the more efficient higher compression

114
 Engine Cycles

ratios, while constant-volume combustion of the Otto cycle would give higher efficien-
cy for a given compression ratio.
The modern high-speed CI engine accomplishes this in part by a simple operating
change from early Diesel engines. Instead of injecting the fuel late in the compression
stroke near TDC, as was done in early engines, modern CI engines start to inject the
fuel much earlier in the cycle, somewhere around 20° bTDC. The first fuel then ignites
late in the compression stroke, and some of the combustion occurs almost at constant
volume at TDC, much like the Otto cycle. A typical indicator diagram for a modern CI
engine is shown in Fig. 10. Peak pressure still remains high into the expansion stroke
due to the finite time required to inject the fuel. The last of the fuel is still being inject-
ed at TDC, and combustion of this fuel keeps the pressure high into the expansion
stroke. The resulting cycle shown in Fig. 10 is a cross between an SI engine cycle and
the early CI cycles. The air-standard cycle used to analyze this modern CI engine cycle
is called a Dual cycle or sometimes a Limited Pressure cycle (Fig. 11). It is a Dual cycle
because the heat input process of combustion can best be approximated by a Dual
process of constant volume followed by constant pressure. It can also be considered a
modified Otto cycle with a limited upper pressure.

Thermodynamic Analysis of Air-Standard Dual Cycle

The analysis of an air-standard Dual cycle is the same as that of the Diesel cycle, except
for the heat input process (combustion) 2-x-3.
Process 2-x—constant-volume heat input (first part of combustion).
All valves closed:
Vx = V2 = VTDC (74)
w2 - x = 0 (75)
Pressure, P

Volume, V

FIGURE 10
Indicator diagram of a modern CI engine operating on a four-stroke cycle.

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 Engine Cycles

x 3

2 3
Pressure, P

Temperature, T
x

4 4
2
6
Po
5 1

TDC BDC
Specific Volume, v Entropy, s
(a) (b)

FIGURE 11
Air-standard Dual cycle, 6-1-2-x-3-4-5-6, which approximates the four-stroke cycle of a modern CI
engine on (a) pressure-specific volume coordinates, and (b) temperature-entropy coordinates.

Q2 - x = mmcv1Tx - T22 = 1ma + mf2cv1Tx - T22 (76)

q2 - x = cv1Tx - T22 = 1ux - u22 (77)
Px = Pmax = P21Tx>T22 (78)
Pressure ratio is defined as the rise in pressure during combustion, given as a ratio:
a = Px>P2 = P3>P2 = Tx>T2 = 11>rc2k1P3>P12 (79)
Process x-3—constant-pressure heat input (second part of combustion).
All valves closed:
P3 = Px = Pmax (80)
Qx - 3 = mmcp1T3 - Tx2 = 1ma + mf2cp1T3 - Tx2 (81)
qx - 3 = cp1T3 - Tx2 = 1h3 - hx2 (82)
wx - 3 = qx - 3 - 1u3 - ux2 = Px1v3 - vx2 = P31v3 - vx2 (83)
T3 = Tmax (84)
Cutoff ratio:
b = v3>vx = v3>v2 = V3>V2 = T3>Tx (85)
Heat in:
Qin = Q2 - x + Qx - 3 = mfQHVhc (86)

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 Engine Cycles

qin = q2 - x + qx - 3 = 1ux - u22 + 1h3 - hx2 (87)

Thermal efficiency of Dual cycle:

1ht2DUAL = ƒ wnet ƒ > ƒ qin ƒ = 1 - 1 ƒ qout ƒ > ƒ qin ƒ 2

= 1 - cv1T4 - T12>[cv1Tx - T22 + cp1T3 - Tx2]
= 1 - 1T4 - T12>[1Tx - T22 + k1T3 - Tx2] (88)

This can be rearranged to give

1ht2DUAL = 1 - 11>rc2k - 1[5ab k - 16>5ka1b - 12 + a - 16] (89)
where
rc = compression ratio
k = cp>cv
a = pressure ratio
b = cutoff ratio
As with the Otto cycle, the air-standard thermal efficiency obtained for CI en-
gines using Eqs. (73) or (89) is slightly higher than that of real air–fuel cycles [120]. This
is because of the same reasons of changing composition, heat losses, valve overlap, and
finite time required for cycle processes.
1ht2actual L 0.851ht2DIESEL (90)
1ht2actual L 0.851ht2DUAL (91)

8 COMPARISON OF OTTO, DIESEL, AND DUAL CYCLES

Figure 12 compares Otto, Diesel, and Dual cycles with the same inlet conditions and
the same compression ratios. The thermal efficiency of each cycle can be written as

ht = 1 - ƒ qout ƒ > ƒ qin ƒ (92)

The area under the process lines on T–s coordinates is equal to the heat transfer,
so in Fig. 12(b) the thermal efficiencies can be compared. For each cycle, qout is the
same (process 4-1). qin of each cycle is different, and using Fig. 12(b) and Eq. (92), it is
found that, for these conditions,
1ht2OTTO 7 1ht2DUAL 7 1ht2DIESEL (93)
However, this is not the best way to compare these three cycles, because they do
not operate on the same compression ratio. Compression ignition engines that operate
on the Dual cycle or Diesel cycle have much higher compression ratios than do spark
ignition engines operating on the Otto cycle. A more realistic way to compare these
three cycles would be to have the same peak pressure—an actual design limitation in
engines. This is done in Fig. 13. When this figure is compared with Eq. (92), it is found
that
1ht2DIESEL 7 1ht2DUAL 7 1ht2OTTO (94)

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 Engine Cycles

3A Otto : 1-2-3A-4-1
Dual: 1-2-x-3B-4-1
Diesel : 1-2-3C-4-1

x 3B

Pressure, P
2 3C

4
6
Po
5 1
TDC BDC
Specific Volume, v
(a)

3A
Otto : 1-2-3A-4-1
Dual: 1-2-x-3B-4-1
Diesel : 1-2-3C-4-1
3B

x
3C
Temperature, T

2
4

FIGURE 12
Comparison of air-standard Otto cycle, 1
Dual cycle, and Diesel cycle. All engines
Entropy, s
have the same cylinder input conditions
and the same compression ratio. (b)

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 Engine Cycles

2C x 3 Otto : 1-2A-3-4-1
Pmax
Dual: 1-2B-x-3-4-1
Diesel : 1-2C-3-4-1

2B
Pressure, P

2A
4

Po
6 6A 6B 5 1

Specific Volume, v
(a)

Tmax 3

x
Temperature, T

2C
4

2B

2A
Otto : 1-2A-3-4-1
FIGURE 13
Dual: 1-2B-x-3-4-1
Diesel : 1-2C-3-4-1 Comparison of air-standard Otto cycle,
1 Dual cycle, and Diesel cycle. All engines
have the same cylinder input conditions
Entropy, s
and the same maximum temperature and
(b) pressure.

Comparing the ideas of Eqs. (93) and (94) would suggest that the most efficient
engine would have combustion as close as possible to constant volume but would be
compression ignition and operate at the higher compression ratios which that requires.
This is an area where more research and development is needed.

Example Problem 5
A small truck has a four-cylinder, four-liter CI engine that operates on the air-standard Dual cycle
(Fig. 11) using light diesel fuel at an air–fuel ratio of 18.The compression ratio of the engine is 16:1
and the cylinder bore diameter is 10.0 cm. At the start of the compression stroke, conditions in the
cylinders are 60°C and 100 kPa with a 2% exhaust residual. It can be assumed that half of the heat
input from combustion is added at constant volume and half at constant pressure.

119
 Engine Cycles

Calculate:
1. temperature and pressure at each state of the cycle
2. indicated thermal efficiency
3. exhaust temperature
4. air temperature in intake manifold
5. engine volumetric efficiency
(1) For one cylinder,

Vd = 14 L2>4 = 1 L = 0.001 m3 = 1000 cm3

rc = VBDC>VTDC = 1Vd + Vc2>Vc = 16 = 11000 + Vc2>Vc

Vc = 66.7 cm3 = 0.0667 L = 0.0000667 m3

Vd = 1p>42B2S = 0.001 m3 = 1p>4210.10 m22S

S = 0.127 m = 12.7 cm
State 1:
T1 = 60°C = 333 K given in problem statement
P1 = 100 kPa given
V1 = VBDC = Vd + Vc = 0.001 + 0.0000667 = 0.0010667 m3
Mass of gas in one cylinder at start of compression is
mm = P1V1>RT1 = 1100 kPa210.0010667 m32>10.287 kJ>kg-K21333 K2
= 0.00112 kg
Mass of fuel injected per cylinder per cycle is
mf = 10.00112210.98211>192 = 0.0000578 kg
State 2: Equations (52) and (53) give temperature and pressure after
compression:
T2 = T11rc2k - 1 = 1333 K211620.35 = 879 K = 606°C
P2 = P11rc2k = 1100 kPa211621.35 = 4222 kPa
V2 = mRT2>P2 = 10.00112 kg210.287 kJ>kg-K21879 K2>14222 kPa2

= 0.000067 m3 = Vc
or,
V2 = V1>rc = 10.00106672>1162 = 0.0000667 m3
State x: Heating value of light diesel fuel is obtained:
Qin = mfQHV = 10.0000578 kg2142,500 kJ>kg2 = 2.46 kJ
If half of Qin occurs at constant volume, then Eq. (76) yields:
Q2 - x = 1.23 kJ = mmcv1Tx - T22
= 10.00112 kg210.821 kJ>kg-K21Tx - 879 K2

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 Engine Cycles

Tx = 2217 K = 1944°C
Vx = V2 = 0.0000667 m3
Px = mRTx>Vx
= 10.00112 kg210.287 kJ>kg-K212217 K2>10.0000667 m32
= 10,650 kPa = Pmax
or
Px = P21Tx>T22 = 14222 kPa212217>8792 = 10,650 kPa
State 3:
P3 = Px = 10,650 kPa = Pmax
Equation (81) gives
Qx - 3 = 1.23 kJ = mmcp1T3 - Tx2
= 10.00112 kg211.108 kJ>kg-K21T3 - 2217 K2
T3 = 3208 K = 2935°C = Tmax
V3 = mRT3>P3 = 10.00112 kg210.287 kJ>kg-K213208 K2>110,650 kPa2
= 0.000097 m3
State 4:
V4 = V1 = 0.0010667 m3
Equations (64) and (65) give temperature and pressure after expansion:
T4 = T31V3>V42k - 1 = 13208 K210.000097>0.001066720.35

= 1386 K = 1113°C
P4 = P31V3>V42k = 110,650 kPa210.000097>0.001066721.35 = 418 kPa
Work out for process x-3 for one cylinder for one cycle, using Eq. (83), is
Wx - 3 = P1V3 - Vx2 = 110,650 kPa210.000097 - 0.00006672m3 = 0.323 kJ
Work out for process 3-4, using Eq. (66), is
W3 - 4 = mR1T4 - T32>11 - k2
= 10.00112 kg210.287 kJ>kg-K211386 - 32082K>11 - 1.352
= 1.673 kJ
Work in for process 1-2, using Eq. (56), is
W1 - 2 = mR1T2 - T12>11 - k2
= 10.00112 kg210.287 kJ>kg-K21879 - 3332K>11 - 1.352
= -0.501 kJ
Wnet = 1+0.3232 + 1+1.6732 + 1-0.5012 = +1.495 kJ

(2) Equation (88) gives indicated thermal efficiency:

1ht2DUAL = ƒ Wnet ƒ > ƒ Qin ƒ = 11.495 kJ2>12.46 kJ2 = 0.607 = 60.7%

Pressure ratio is
a = Px>P2 = 10,650>4222 = 2.52

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 Engine Cycles

Cutoff ratio is

b = V3>Vx = 0.000097>0.0000667 = 1.45

Use Eq. (89) to find thermal efficiency:

1ht2DUAL = 1 - 11>rc2k - 1[5ab k - 16>5ka1b - 12 + a - 16]

= 1 - 11>1620.35[512.52211.4521.35 - 16>511.35212.52211.45 - 12 + 2.52 - 16]
= 0.607

(3) Assuming exhaust pressure is the same as intake pressure, and using Eq. (37) for ex-
haust temperature, we get

Tex = T41Pex>P421k - 12>k = 11386 K21100>418211.35 - 12>1.35 = 957 K = 684°C

Equation (46) gives exhaust residual:

xr = 11>rc21T4>Tex21Pex>P42
= 11>16211386>95721100>4182 = 0.022 = 2.2%

(4) Use Eq. (50) to find air temperature entering the cylinder:

1Tm21 = xrTex + 11 - xr2Ta

1333 K2 = 10.02221957 K2 + 11 - 0.0222Ta
Ta = 319 K = 46°C

(5) Mass of air entering one cylinder during intake is

ma = 10.00112 kg210.982 = 0.00110 kg

Volumetric efficiency is

hv = ma>raVd = 10.00110 kg2>11.181 kg>m3210.001 m32

= 0.931 = 93.1%

HISTORIC—ATKINSON CYCLE

In Otto and Diesel cycles, when the exhaust valve is opened near the end of the expansion
stroke, pressure in the cylinder is still on the order of three to five atmospheres. A potential
for doing additional work during the power stroke is therefore lost when the exhaust valve
is opened and pressure is reduced to atmospheric. If the exhaust valve is not opened until
the gas in the cylinder is allowed to expand down to atmospheric pressure, a greater amount
of work would be obtained in the expansion stroke, with an increase in engine thermal effi-
ciency. Such an air-standard cycle is called an Atkinson cycle or Overexpanded cycle (or
Complete Expansion cycle) and is shown in Fig. 14.
Starting in 1885, a number of crank and valve mechanisms were tried to achieve this
cycle, which has a longer expansion stroke than compression stroke. No large number of
these engines has ever been marketed, indicating the failure of this development [58].

122
 Engine Cycles

Pressure, P

2
4a
4
Po
6 5a 1 5

Specific Volume, v

FIGURE 14
Air-standard Atkinson cycle, 6-1-2-3-4-5-6, with larger expansion ratio v4>v3 than compression
ratio v1>v3. The same engine operating on an Otto cycle would follow cycle 6-1-2-3-4a-5a-6.

9 MILLER CYCLE

The Miller cycle, named after R. H. Miller (1890–1967), is a modern modification of the
Atkinson cycle and has an expansion ratio greater than the compression ratio. This is
accomplished, however, in a much different way. Whereas an engine designed to oper-
ate on the Atkinson cycle needed a complicated mechanical linkage system of some
kind, a Miller cycle engine uses unique valve timing to obtain the same desired results.
Air intake in a Miller cycle is unthrottled. The amount of air ingested into each
cylinder is then controlled by closing the intake valve at the proper time, long before
BDC (point 7 in Fig. 15). As the piston then continues towards BDC during the latter
part of the intake stroke, cylinder pressure is reduced along process 7-1. When the pis-
ton reaches BDC and starts back towards TDC, cylinder pressure is again increased
during process 1-7. The resulting cycle is 6-7-1-7-2-3-4-5-6. The work produced in the
first part of the intake process 6-7 is canceled by part of the exhaust stroke 7-6, process
7-1 is canceled by process 1-7, and the net indicated work is the area within loop 7-2-3-
4-5-7. There is essentially no pump work. The compression ratio is

rc = V7>V2 (95)

and the larger expansion ratio is

re = V4>V2 = V4>V3 (96)

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 Engine Cycles

Pressure, P
2

7
Po 5
FIGURE 15 6
1
Air-standard Miller cycle for unthrottled
naturally aspirated four-stroke cycle SI
engine. If the engine has early intake valve
closing, the cycle will be 6-7-1-7-2-3-4-5-7-6. If
the engine has late intake valve closing, the TDC BDC
cycle will be 6-7-5-7-2-3-4-5-7-6. Specific Volume, v

The shorter compression stroke, which absorbs work, combined with the longer ex-
pansion stroke, which produces work, results in a greater net indicated work per cycle. In
addition, by allowing air to flow through the intake system unthrottled, a major loss ex-
perienced by most SI engines is eliminated. This is especially true at part throttle, when
an Otto cycle engine would experience low pressure in the intake manifold and a corre-
sponding high negative pump work. The Miller cycle engine has essentially no pump
work (ideally none), much like a CI engine. This results in higher thermal efficiency.
The mechanical efficiency of a Miller cycle engine would be about the same as
that of an Otto cycle engine, which has a similar mechanical linkage system. An Atkin-
son cycle engine, on the other hand, requires a much more complicated mechanical
linkage system, resulting in lower mechanical efficiency.
Another variation of this cycle can be obtained if the intake air is unthrottled and
the intake valve is closed after BDC. When this is done, air is ingested during the entire
intake stroke, but some of it is then forced back into the intake manifold before the in-
take valve closes. This results in cycle 6-7-5-7-2-3-4-5-6 in Fig. 15. The net indicated
work is again the area within loop 7-2-3-4-5-7, with the compression and expansion ra-
tios given by Eqs. (95) and (96).
For either variation of the cycle to work efficiently, it is extremely important to
be able to close the intake valve at the precise correct moment in the cycle (point 7).

124
 Engine Cycles

However, this point where the intake valve must close changes as the engine speed or
load is changed. This control was not possible until variable valve timing was perfect-
ed and introduced. Automobiles with Miller cycle engines were first marketed in the
latter half of the 1990s. A typical value of the compression ratio is about 8:1, with an
expansion ratio of about 10:1.
The first production automobile engines operating on Miller cycles used both
early intake valve closing methods and late intake valve closing methods. Several
types of variable valve timing systems have been developed and used. Opening and
closing valves with electronic actuators, without the use of a camshaft, offers the
greatest flexibility, both for variable timing and variable lift. This method will be-
come common with the transition to 42-volt electrical systems.
If the intake valve is closed bBDC, less than full displacement volume of the
cylinder is available for air ingestion. If the intake valve is closed aBDC, the full dis-
placement volume is filled with air, but some of it is expelled out again before the valve
is closed (process 5-7 in Fig. 15). In either case, less air and fuel end up in the cylinder
at the start of compression, resulting in low output per displacement and low indicated
mean effective pressure. To counteract this, Miller cycle engines are usually super-
charged or turbocharged with peak intake manifold pressures of 150–200 kPa. Fig. 16
shows a supercharged Miller engine cycle.

3
Pressure, P

4
7
8
FIGURE 16
1 Air-standard Miller cycle for a four-stroke
Po 5
6 cycle SI engine equipped with a
turbocharger or supercharger. If the engine
has early intake valve closing, the cycle will
be 6-7-1-7-2-3-4-5-6. If the engine has late
TDC BDC intake valve closing, the cycle will be 6-7-8-
Specific Volume, v 7-2-3-4-5-6.

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 Engine Cycles

Example Problem 6
The four-cylinder, 2.5-liter SI automobile engine of Example Problem 1 is converted to operate
on an air-standard Miller cycle with early valve closing (cycle 6-7-1-7-2-3-4-5-6 in Fig. 16). It has
a compression ratio of 8:1 and an expansion ratio of 10:1. A supercharger is added that gives a
cylinder pressure of 160 kPa when the intake valve closes, as shown in Fig. 16. The temperature
is again 60°C at this point. The same fuel and AF are used with combustion efficiency
hc = 100%.
Calculate:
1. temperature and pressure at all points in the cycle
2. indicated thermal efficiency
3. indicated mean effective pressure
4. exhaust temperature
From Example Problem 1, for one cylinder,
Vd = 0.000625 m3
Expansion ratio is calculated using Eq. (94):

re = V4>V3 = 1Vd + Vc2>Vc = 10 = 10.000625 + Vc2>Vc

Vc = 0.000069 m3 = V2 = V3 = V6
V1 = V4 = V5 = Vd + Vc = 0.000625 + 0.000069 = 0.000694 m3

Compression ratio is calculated using Eq. (93):

V7 = V2rc = 10.0000692182 = 0.000552 m3

(1) Temperatures and pressures:

T7 = 60°C = 333 K given in problem statement

P7 = P8 = 160 kPa given
P1 = P71V7>V12k = 1160 kPa210.000552>0.00069421.35 = 117 kPa
T1 = T71V7>V12k - 1 = 1333 K210.000552>0.00069420.35 = 307 K = 34°C
T2 = T71rc2k - 1 = 1333 K21820.35 = 689 K = 416°C
P2 = P71rc2k = 1160 kPa21821.35 = 2650 kPa

Mass of gas in cylinder is

m1 = P1V1>RT1 = 1117 kPa210.000694 m32>10.287 kJ>kg-K21307 K2

= 0.000922 kg

If AF = 15 and the exhaust residual xr = 4%, the mass of fuel will be

mf = 11>16210.96210.0009222 = 0.000055 kg
Qin = mfQHVhc = 10.000055 kg2144,300 kJ>kg211.002 = 2.437 kJ
Qin = mmcv1T3 - T22 = 2.437 kJ
= 10.000922 kg210821 kJ>kg-K21T3 - 689 K2
T3 = 3908 K = 3635°C
P3 = P21T3>T22 = 12650 kPa213908>6892 = 15,031 kPa

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 Engine Cycles

T4 = T31V3>V42k - 1 = T311>re2k - 1 = 13908 K211>1020.35

= 1746 K = 1473°C
P4 = P311>re2k = 115,031 kPa211>1021.35 = 671 kPa
V4 = mRT4>P4 = 10.000922 kg210.287 kJ>kg-K211746 K2>1671 kPa2
= 0.000694 m3 This agrees with the value for V4 obtained earlier.
P5 = Pex = 100 kPa
T5 = T41P5>P42 = 11746 K21100>6712 = 260 K

(2) Indicated thermal efficiency is calculated as follows:

W3 - 4 = mR1T4 - T32>11 - k2
= 10.000922 kg210.287 kJ>kg-K211746 - 39082K>11 - 1.352
= 1.635 kJ
W7 - 2 = mR1T2 - T72>11 - k2
= 10.000922 kg210.287 kJ>kg-K21689 - 3332K>11 - 1.352
= -0.269 kJ
W6 - 7 = P71V7 - V62 = 1160 kPa210.000552 - 0.0000692m3 = 0.077 kJ
W5 - 6 = P51V6 - V52 = 1100 kPa210.000069 - 0.0006942m3 = -0.063 kJ
Wnet = 1+1.6352 + 1-0.2692 + 1+0.0772 + 1-0.0632 = +1.380 kJ
1ht2MILLER = ƒ Wnet ƒ > ƒ Qin ƒ = 11.380 kJ2>12.437 kJ2 = 0.566 = 56.6%

(3) Indicated mean effective pressure is

imep = Wnet>Vd = 11.380 kJ2>10.000625 m32 = 2208 kPa

(4) The exhaust temperature is
Tex = T41Pex>P421k - 12>k = 11746 K21100>671211.35 - 12>1.35 = 1066 K = 793°C

10 COMPARISON OF MILLER CYCLE AND OTTO CYCLE

When the Otto cycle engine of Example Problems 1 and 2 is compared with a similar
engine operating on a Miller cycle as in Example Problem 6, the superiority of the
Miller cycle can be seen. Table 1 gives such a comparison.
Temperatures in the two cycles are about the same, except for the exhaust tem-
perature. It is important that the temperature at the beginning of combustion for either
cycle be low enough so that self-ignition and knock do not become problems. The lower
exhaust temperature of the Miller cycle is the result of greater expansion cooling that
occurs from the essentially identical maximum cycle temperature. Lower exhaust tem-
perature means less energy is lost in the exhaust, with more of it used as work output in
the longer expansion stroke. Pressures throughout the Miller cycle are higher than
those of the Otto cycle, mainly because of the super-charged input. The output parame-
ters of imep, thermal efficiency, and work are all higher for the Miller cycle, showing the
technical superiority of this cycle. Some of the indicated work and indicated thermal ef-
ficiency of the Miller cycle will be lost due to the need to drive the supercharger. Even

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TABLE 1 Comparison of Otto and Miller Cycles

Miller Cycle Otto Cycle

Temperature at start of combustion T2: 689 K 707 K
Pressure at start of combustion P2: 2650 kPa 1826 kPa
Maximum temperature T3: 3908 K 3915 K
Maximum pressure P3: 15,031 kPa 10,111 kPa
Exhaust temperature: 1066 K 1183 K
Indicated net work per cylinder
per cycle for same Qin: 1.380 kJ 1.030 kJ
Indicated thermal efficiency: 56.6 % 52.9 %
Indicated mean effective pressure: 2208 kPa 1649 kPa

with this considered, however, brake work and brake thermal efficiency will be substan-
tially greater than in an Otto cycle engine. If a turbocharger were used instead of a su-
percharger, brake output parameter values would be even higher.

11 TWO-STROKE CYCLES
The first practical two-stroke cycle engines appeared about 1887, and since then many
CI and SI engines have been manufactured. The very smallest engines and the largest
engines almost always operate on a two-stroke cycle. It is desirable for most small en-
gines (chain saws, leaf blowers, etc.) to be lightweight and inexpensive. Both of these
requirements can be met by eliminating engine valves, possible with two-stroke cycles.
Very large engines operate at very low speeds, and thus need the two-stroke cycle for
smoothness of operation. At very low RPM, a power stroke in every cylinder on every
cycle is needed for smoothness.
Two-stroke cycle engines have been used in vehicles off and on throughout the
history of the automobile, the last two being made in East Germany until 1990. No
modern automobile is now made in high volume with a two-stroke cycle engine be-
cause of emission laws of the various countries. Using a two-stroke cycle engine in au-
tomobiles is very attractive because of the lower specific weight (engine weight/power)
and smoothness of operation (power stroke on every revolution). However, satisfying
pollution laws has so far been an insurmountable obstacle. Starting in the late 1980s
and going through the 1990s, a large program was instigated by several major world au-
tomobile companies to develop a two-stroke cycle automobile engine. This came about
after the Orbital Company of Australia developed an air-assisted direct-fuel-injection
system for two-stroke cycle engines. Although this greatly reduced hydrocarbon emis-
sions, ever more stringent pollution laws doomed the two-stroke cycle for automobile
application, and most development programs were put on the back burner. However,
many modern two-stroke cycle engines are being manufactured for applications other
than road vehicles (e.g., outboard motors).
With no exhaust stroke and imperfect scavenging, large amounts of exhaust
residual remain in the cylinder at the start of the next cycle. This dilutes the air–fuel
mixture in the cylinder and results in lower combustion temperature. This reduces the
generation of NOx emissions, but the lower exhaust temperature creates other re-
quirements in the catalytic system.

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 Engine Cycles

HISTORIC—TWO-STROKE CYCLE AUTOMOBILES

The last two automobile models manufactured with two-stroke cycle engines were made
in the German Democratic Republic until 1990. These were the 0.6 liter Trabant with two-
cylinder air-cooled engine, and the 1.0 liter Wartburg with three-cylinder liquid-cooled
engine.

Two-Stroke SI Engine Cycle

An air-standard approximation to a typical two-stroke SI engine cycle is shown in
Fig. 17.
Process 1-2—isentropic power or expansion stroke.
All ports (or valves) closed:

T2 = T11V1>V22k - 1 (97)
P2 = P11V1>V22k (98)
q1 - 2 = 0 (99)
w1 - 2 = 1P2v2 - P1v12>11 - k2 = R1T2 - T12>11 - k2 (100)

1
Pressure, P

3
4
6 5
Po

FIGURE 17
TDC BDC
Air-standard approximation for a two-
Volume, V stroke cycle SI engine, 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-1.

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 Engine Cycles

Process 2-3—exhaust blowdown.

Exhaust port open and intake port closed.
Process 3-4-5—intake, and exhaust scavenging.
Exhaust port open and intake port open.

Intake air entering at an absolute pressure on the order of 140–180 kPa fills and
scavenges the cylinder. Scavenging is a process in which the air pushes out most of the
remaining exhaust residual from the previous cycle through the open exhaust port into
the exhaust system, which is at about one atmosphere pressure. The piston uncovers the
intake port at point 3, reaches BDC at point 4, reverses direction, and again closes the
intake port at point 5. In some engines fuel is mixed with the incoming air. In other en-
gines the fuel is injected later, after the exhaust port is closed.

Process 5-6—exhaust scavenging.

Exhaust port open and intake port closed.
Exhaust scavenging continues until the exhaust port is closed at point 6.
Process 6-7—isentropic compression.
All ports closed:

T7 = T61V6>V72k - 1 (101)
P7 = P61V6>V72k (102)
q6 - 7 = 0 (103)
w6 - 7 = 1P7v7 - P6v62>11 - k2 = R1T7 - T62>11 - k2 (104)

In some engines, fuel is added very early in the compression process. The spark plug is
fired near the end of process 6-7.
Process 7-1—constant-volume heat input (combustion).
All ports closed:

V7 = V1 = VTDC (105)
W7 - 1 = 0 (106)
Q7 - 1 = Qin = mfQHVhc = mmcv1T1 - T72 (107)
T1 = Tmax (108)
P1 = Pmax = P71T1>T72 (109)

Two-Stroke CI Engine Cycle

Many compression ignition engines—especially large ones—operate on two-stroke cy-
cles. These cycles can be approximated by the air-standard cycle shown in Fig. 18. This
cycle is the same as the two-stroke SI cycle except for the fuel input and combustion
process. Instead of adding fuel to the intake air or early in the compression process,
fuel is added with injectors late in the compression process, the same as with four-
stroke cycle CI engines. Heat input or combustion can be approximated by a two-step
(dual) process.

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 Engine Cycles

x 1

7
Pressure, P

3
4
6 5
Po

FIGURE 18
Air-standard approximation for a
TDC BDC
two-stroke cycle CI engine, 1-2-3-
Volume, V 4-5-6-7-x-1.

Process 7-x—constant-volume heat input (first part of combustion).

All ports closed:

V7 = Vx = VTDC (110)
W7 - x = 0 (111)
Q7 - x = mmcv1Tx - T72 (112)
Px = Pmax = P71Tx>T72 (113)

Process x-1—constant-pressure heat input (second part of combustion).

All ports closed:
P1 = Px = Pmax (114)
Wx - 1 = P11V1 - Vx2 (115)
Qx - 1 = mmcp1T1 - Tx2 (116)
T1 = Tmax (117)

Example Problem 7
A fishing boat is equipped with an outboard motor that operates on an air-standard two-stroke
SI engine cycle at 3100 RPM. The four-cylinder engine has a bore and stroke of B = 5.2 cm and
S = 5.8 cm, a mechanical efficiency of hm = 77%, compression ratio of rc = 12, and a connect-
ing rod length to crankshaft offset ratio R = r>a = 3.2. The exhaust slot on the side of the cylin-
der opens at 105° aTDC and the intake slot opens at 50° bBDC. With crankcase compression, the
inlet air–fuel mixture enters at a pressure of P = 145 kPa and after mixing with the hot exhaust

131
 Engine Cycles

residual the cylinder gas temperature at the start of compression is T = 48°C. Maximum tem-
perature in the cycle is Tmax = 2250°C. Calculate:
1. effective compression ratio
2. cylinder temperature at the start of exhaust blowdown
3. indicated power
4. brake power
5. indicated mean effective pressure
(1) Using Fig. 17, we see that actual compression starts when the exhaust slot closes at
point 6, 105° bTDC or crank angle = 255°. Effective compression ratio is

1rc2eff = V>Vc = 1 + 1冫21rc - 12[R + 1 - cos u - 4R2 - sin2 u]

= 1 + 1冫2112 - 12[3.2 + 1 - cos1255°2 - 213.222 - sin21255°2] = 8.74
(2) Exhaust blowdown occurs when the exhaust slot is opened at point 2:

T2 = T1[1>1rc2eff2]k - 1 = 12523 K211>8.7421.35 - 1 = 1181 K = 908°C

(3) The displacement volume of one cylinder can be calculated as follows:

Vd = 1p>42B2S = 1p>4215.2 cm2215.8 cm2 = 123.2 cm3 = 0.0001232 m3

Clearance volume at TDC is
rc = 1Vd + Vc2>Vc = 12 = 1123.2 + Vc2>Vc, Vc = 11.20 cm3 = 0.0000112 m3
Temperature and pressure at end of compression:

T7 = T6[1rc2eff]k - 1 = 1321 K218.7421.35 - 1 = 686 K = 413°C

P7 = P6[1rc2eff]k = 1145 kPa218.7421.35 = 2707 kPa

Mass of gas in the cylinder during cycle, calculated at end of compression, is

m = P7Vc>RT7
= 12707 kPa210.0000112 m32>10.287 kJ>kg-K21686 K2 = 0.000154 kg

Work produced during the power stroke, using Eq. (1), is

W1 - 2 = mR1T2 - T12>11 - k2
= 10.000154 kg210.287 kJ>kg-K211181 K - 2523 K2>11 - 1.352 = 0.1695 kJ

Work during compression stroke is

W6 - 7 = mR1T7 - T62>11 - k2 = 10.000154210.28721686 - 3212>11 - 1.352

= -0.0461 kJ

The Cylinder volume at point 3 when the intake slot opens, 50° bBDC or a crank
angle of 130° can be calculated as follows:

V3>V1 = 1 + 1冫2112 - 12[3.2 + 1 - cos1130°2 - 冑13.222 - sin21130°2 = 10.547

V5 = V3 = 110.5472V1 = 110.547210.0000112 m32 = 0.000118 m3

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 Engine Cycles

Use effective compression ratio to find cylinder volume at point 6:

V6 = V2 = V11rc2eff = 10.0000112 m3218.742 = 0.0000979 m3

Work for process 5-6 is

W5 - 6 = P1V6 - V52 = 1145 kPa210.0000979 - 0.0001182m3 = -0.0029 kJ

W3 - 4 is canceled by W4 - 5
Net work for one cylinder for one cycle is

Wnet = 10.16952 + 1-0.04612 + 1-0.00292 = 0.1205 kJ>cylinder-cycle

Indicated power is
#
Wi = WN>n = [10.1205 kJ>cyl-cycle213100>60 rev>sec2>11 rev>cycle2]14 cyl2
= 24.9 kW = 33.4 hp

(4) Brake power is

Wb = hmWi = 10.772124.9 kW2 = 19.17 kW = 25.7 hp

# #

(5) Indicated mean effective pressure is:

imep = [110002124.92112]>[14 cylinders210.1232213100>602] = 978 kPa = 141.8 psia

12 STIRLING CYCLE
In recent years, a number of experimental engines that operate on the Stirling cycle
shown in Fig. 19 have been tested. The concept of the Stirling engine has been around
since 1816, and while it is not a true internal combustion engine, it is included here
briefly because it is a heat engine used to propel vehicles as one of its applications. The
basic engine uses a free-floating, double-acting piston with a gas chamber on both ends
of the cylinder. Combustion does not occur within the cylinder, but the working gas is
heated with an external combustion process. Heat input can also come from solar or
nuclear sources. Engine output is usually a rotating shaft [8].
A Stirling engine has an internal regeneration process that uses a heat exchanger.
Ideally, the heat exchanger uses the rejected heat in process 4-1 to preheat the internal
working fluid in the heat addition process 2-3. The only heat transfers with the sur-
roundings then occur with a heat addition process 3-4 at one maximum temperature
Thigh, and a heat rejection process 1-2 at one minimum temperature Tlow. If the process-
es in the air-standard cycle in Fig. 19 can be considered reversible, the thermal efficien-
cy of the cycle will be

1ht2STIRLING = 1 - 1Tlow>Thigh2 (118)

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 Engine Cycles

3 4

Temperature, T
Pressure, P

2
4 2 1

Specific Volume, v Entropy, s

(a) (b)

FIGURE 19
Ideal air-standard Stirling cycle, 1-2-3-4-1, on (a) pressure-specific volume coordinates, and
(b) temperature-entropy coordinates.

This is the same thermal efficiency as a Carnot cycle and is the theoretical maxi-
mum possible. Although a real engine cannot operate reversibly, a well-designed Stir-
ling engine can have a very high thermal efficiency. This is one of the attractions that is
generating interest in this type of engine. Other attractions include low emissions with
no catalytic converter and the flexibility of many possible fuels that can be used. This is
because heat input is from a continuous steady-state combustion in an external cham-
ber at a relatively low temperature around 1000 K. Fuels used have included gasoline,
diesel fuel, jet fuel, alcohol, and natural gas. In some engines, the fuel can be changed
with no adjustments needed.
Problems with Stirling engines include sealing, warm-up time needed, and high
cost. Other possible applications include refrigeration, stationary power, and heating of
buildings.

HISTORIC—LENOIR ENGINE

One of the first successful engines developed during the second half of the 1800s was the
Lenoir engine (Fig. 20). Several hundred of these were built in the 1860s. They operated
on a two-stroke cycle and had mechanical efficiencies up to 5% and power output up to
4.5 kW (6 hp). The engines were double acting, with combustion occurring on both ends of
the piston. This gave two power strokes per revolution from a single cylinder [29].

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 Engine Cycles

FIGURE 20
Lenoir noncompression engine of 1861. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [29], “Internal Fire” by
Lyle Cummins.

13 LENOIR CYCLE
The Lenoir cycle is approximated by the air-standard cycle shown in Fig. 21. The first
half of the first stroke was intake, with air–fuel entering the cylinder at atmospheric
pressure (process 1-2 in Fig. 21). At about halfway through the first stroke, the intake
valve was closed and the air–fuel mixture was ignited without any compression. Com-
bustion raised the temperature and pressure in the cylinder almost at constant volume
in the slow-moving engine (process 2-3). The second half of the first stroke then be-
came the power or expansion process 3-4. Near BDC, the exhaust valve opened and
blowdown occurred (4-5). This was followed by the exhaust stroke 5-1, completing the
two-stroke cycle. There was essentially no clearance volume.
Thermodynamic Analysis of Air-Standard Lenoir Cycle
The intake process 1-2 and the latter half of the exhaust stroke process 2-1 cancel each
other thermodynamically on P–V coordinates and can be left out of the analysis of the
Lenoir cycle. The cycle then becomes 2-3-4-5-2.
Process 2-3—constant volume heat input (combustion).
All valves closed:
P2 = P1 = Po (119)
v3 = v2 (120)

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 Engine Cycles

Pressure, P
4

1
Po 5
2

FIGURE 21
Air-standard approximation for a historic TDC BDC
Lenoir engine cycle, 1-2-3-4-5-1. Volume, V

w2–3 = 0 (121)
q2–3 = qin = cv1T3 - T22 = 1u3 - u22 (122)
Process 3-4—isentropic power or expansion stroke.
All valves closed:
q3–4 = 0 (123)
T4 = T31v3>v42k - 1 (124)
P4 = P31v3>v42k (125)
w3–4 = 1P4v4 - P3v32>11 - k2 = R1T4 - T32>11 - k2 (126)
= 1u3 - u42 = cv1T3 - T42

Process 4-5—constant-volume heat rejection (exhaust blowdown).

Exhaust valve open and intake valve closed:

v5 = v4 = vBDC (127)
w4–5 = 0 (128)
q4–5 = qout = cv1T5 - T42 = 1u5 - u42 (129)

Process 5-2—constant-pressure exhaust stroke at Po.

Exhaust valve open and intake valve closed:

P5 = P2 = P1 = Po (130)
w5–2 = Po1v2 - v52 (131)
q5–2 = qout = 1h2 - h52 = cp1T2 - T52 (132)

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 Engine Cycles

Thermal efficiency of Lenoir cycle:

1ht2LENOIR = ƒ wnet ƒ > ƒ qin ƒ = 1 - 1 ƒ qout ƒ > ƒ qin ƒ 2

= 1 - [cv1T4 - T52 + cp1T5 - T22]>[cv1T3 - T22] (133)
= 1 - [1T4 - T52 + k1T5 - T22]>1T3 - T22

SUMMARY
This chapter reviewed the basic cycles used in internal combustion engines. Although
many engine cycles have been developed, for over a century most automobile engines
have operated on the basic SI four-stroke cycle developed in the 1870s by Otto and
others. This can be approximated and analyzed using the ideal air-standard Otto cycle.
During the 1990s a major effort was made by several car manufacturers to develop a
two-stroke cycle engine for automobiles. This effort failed because of pollution regula-
tions. Many small SI engines do operate on two-stroke cycles, sometimes (erroneously)
called a two-stroke Otto cycle.
Early four-stroke CI engines operated on a cycle that can be approximated by
the air-standard Diesel cycle. This cycle was improved in modern CI engines of the type
used in automobiles and trucks. Changing the injection timing resulted in a more effi-
cient engine operating on a cycle best approximated by an air-standard Dual cycle.
Due to the greater thermal efficiency of these engines, there is an ever-increasing per-
centage of vehicles being manufactured with four-stroke cycle CI engines, especially in
Europe. Most small CI engines and very large CI engines operate on a two-stroke
cycle.
At present, most automobiles operate on an SI four-stroke cycle, approximated
either by the air-standard Otto cycle, or the more modern Miller cycle. The Miller cycle
is an improvement on the Otto cycle brought about by several technology advance-
ments, mainly variable valve timing control. Valve control allows for a more efficient
cycle by reducing pumping losses and giving an expansion ratio that is greater than the
effective compression ratio.

PROBLEMS
1 Cylinder conditions at the start of compression in an SI engine operating at WOT on an
air-standard Otto cycle are 60°C and 98 kPa. The engine has a compression ratio of 9.5:1
and uses gasoline with AF = 15.5. Combustion efficiency is 96%, and it can be assumed
that there is no exhaust residual.
Calculate:

(a) Temperature at all states in the cycle. [°C]

(b) Pressure at all states in the cycle. [kPa]
(c) Specific work done during power stroke. [kJ/kg]
(d) Heat added during combustion. [kJ/kg]
(e) Net specific work done. [kJ/kg]
(f) Indicated thermal efficiency. [%]

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 Engine Cycles

2 The engine in Problem 1 is a three-liter V6 engine operating at 2400 RPM. At this speed
the mechanical efficiency is 84%.
Calculate:

(a) Brake power. [kW]

(b) Torque. [N-m]
(c) Brake mean effective pressure. [kPa]
(d) Friction power lost. [kW]
(e) Brake specific fuel consumption. [gm/kW-hr]
(f) Volumetric efficiency. [%]
(g) Output per displacement. [kW/L]
3 The exhaust pressure of the engine in Problem 2 is 100 kPa.
Calculate:

(a) Exhaust temperature. [°C]

(b) Actual exhaust residual. [%]
(c) Temperature of air entering cylinders from intake manifold. [°C]
4 The engine of Problems 2 and 3 is operated at part throttle with intake pressure of 75
kPa. Intake manifold temperature, mechanical efficiency, exhaust residual, and air–fuel
ratio all remain the same.
Calculate:

(a) Temperature in cylinder at start of compression stroke. [°C]

(b) Temperature in cylinder at start of combustion. [°C]
5 An SI engine operating at WOT on a four-stroke air-standard cycle has cylinder conditions
at the start of compression of 100°F and 14.7 psia. Compression ratio is rc = 10, and the
heat added during combustion is qin = 800 BTU>lbm. During compression the tempera-
ture range is such that a value for the ratio of specific heats k = 1.4 would be correct. Dur-
ing the power stroke the temperature range is such that a value of k = 1.3 would be
correct. Use these values for compression and expansion, respectively, when analyzing the
cycle. Use a value for specific heat of cv = 0.216 BTU>lbm-°R, which best corresponds to
the temperature range during combustion.
Calculate:

(a) Temperature at all states in cycle. [°F]

(b) Pressure at all states in cycle. [psia]
(c) Average value of k which would give the same indicated thermal efficiency value as
the analysis in parts (a) and (b).
6 A CI engine operating on the air-standard Diesel cycle has cylinder conditions at the start
of compression of 65°C and 130 kPa. Light diesel fuel is used at an equivalence ratio of
f = 0.8 with a combustion efficiency hc = 0.98. Compression ratio is rc = 19.
Calculate:

(a) Temperature at each state of the cycle. [°C]

(b) Pressure at each state of the cycle. [kPa]
(c) Cutoff ratio.

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 Engine Cycles

(d) Indicated thermal efficiency. [%]

(e) Heat lost in exhaust. [kJ/kg]
7 A compression ignition engine for a small truck is to operate on an air-standard Dual cycle
with a compression ratio of rc = 18. Due to structural limitations, maximum allowable
pressure in the cycle will be 9000 kPa. Light diesel fuel is used at a fuel–air ratio of
FA = 0.054. Combustion efficiency can be considered 100%. Cylinder conditions at the
start of compression are 50°C and 98 kPa.
Calculate:

(a) Maximum indicated thermal efficiency possible with these conditions. [%]
(b) Peak cycle temperature under conditions of part (a). [°C]
(c) Minimum indicated thermal efficiency possible with these conditions. [%]
(d) Peak cycle temperature under conditions of part (c). [°C]
8 An in-line six, 3.3-liter CI engine using light diesel fuel at an air–fuel ratio of AF = 20 op-
erates on an air-standard Dual cycle. Half the fuel can be considered burned at constant
volume, and half at constant pressure with combustion efficiency hc = 100%. Cylinder
conditions at the start of compression are 60°C and 101 kPa. Compression ratio rc = 14:1.
Calculate:

(a) Temperature at each state of the cycle. [K]

(b) Pressure at each state of the cycle. [kPa]
(c) Cutoff ratio.
(d) Pressure ratio.
(e) Indicated thermal efficiency. [%]
(f) Heat added during combustion. [kJ/kg]
(g) Net indicated work. [kJ/kg]
9 The engine in Problem 8 produces 57 kW of brake power at 2000 RPM.
Calculate:

(a) Torque. [N-m]

(b) Mechanical efficiency. [%]
(c) Brake mean effective pressure. [kPa]
(d) Brake specific fuel consumption. [gm/kW-hr]
10 An Otto cycle SI engine with a compression ratio of rc = 9 has peak cycle temperature
and pressure of 2800 K and 9000 kPa. Cylinder pressure when the exhaust valve opens is
460 kPa and exhaust manifold pressure is 100 kPa.
Calculate:

(a) Exhaust temperature during exhaust stroke. [°C]

(b) Exhaust residual after each cycle. [%]
(c) Velocity out of the exhaust valve when the valve first opens. [m/sec]
(d) Theoretical momentary maximum temperature in the exhaust. [°C]
11 An SI engine operates on an air-standard four-stroke Otto cycle with turbocharging.
Air–fuel enters the cylinders at 70°C and 140 kPa, and heat in by combustion equals
qin = 1800 kJ>kg. Compression ratio rc = 8 and exhaust pressure Pex = 100 kPa.

139
 Engine Cycles

Calculate:

(a) Temperature at each state of the cycle. [°C]

(b) Pressure at each state of the cycle. [kPa]
(c) Work produced during expansion stroke. [kJ/kg]
(d) Work of compression stroke. [kJ/kg]
(e) Net pumping work. [kJ/kg]
(f) Indicated thermal efficiency. [%]
(g) Compare with Problems 12 and 13.
12 An SI engine operates on an air-standard four-stroke Miller cycle with turbocharging. The
intake valves close late, resulting in cycle 6-7-8-7-2-3-4-5-6 in Fig. 16. Air–fuel enters the
cylinders at 70°C and 140 kPa, and heat in by combustion equals qin = 1800 kJ>kg. Com-
pression ratio rc = 8, expansion ratio re = 10, and exhaust pressure Pex = 100 kPa.
Calculate:

(a) Temperature at each state of the cycle. [°C]

(b) Pressure at each state of the cycle. [kPa]
(c) Work produced during expansion stroke. [kJ/kg]
(d) Work of compression stroke. [kJ/kg]
(e) Net pumping work. [kJ/kg]
(f) Indicated thermal efficiency. [%]
(g) Compare with Problems 11 and 13.
13 An SI engine operates on an air-standard four-stroke Miller cycle with turbocharging. The
intake valves close early, resulting in cycle 6-7-1-7-2-3-4-5-6 in Fig. 16. Air–fuel enters the
cylinders at 70°C and 140 kPa, and heat in by combustion equals qin = 1800 kJ>kg. Com-
pression ratio rc = 8, expansion ratio re = 10, and exhaust pressure Pex = 100 kPa.
Calculate:

(a) Temperature at each state of the cycle. [°C]

(b) Pressure at each state of the cycle. [kPa]
(c) Work produced during expansion stroke. [kJ/kg]
(d) Work of compression stroke. [kJ/kg]
(e) Net pumping work. [kJ/kg]
(f) Indicated thermal efficiency. [%]
(g) Compare with Problems 11 and 12.
14 A six-cylinder SI engine with a compression ratio of 10.5:1 operates on a four-stroke cycle
at 3000 RPM. Air enters the cylinders at T1 = 110°F and P1 = 12.8 psia. The intake valve
closes at 20° aBDC and combustion starts when the spark plug fires at 15° bTDC. Con-
necting rod length is 6.64 in. and crank offset is 1.66 in.
Calculate:

(a) Cylinder temperature at start of combustion using air-standard Otto cycle analysis. [°F]
(b) Cylinder temperature when spark plug fires assuming compression doesn’t start until
intake valve closes. [°F]

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 Engine Cycles

15 A spark ignition four-stroke cycle engine operates on an air-standard Miller cycle with no
supercharger, and early intake valve closing (cycle 6-7-1-7-2-3-4-5-6 in Fig 15). Compres-
sion ratio is 8.2 and expansion ratio is 10.2. Cylinder conditions when the intake valve clos-
es are T7 = 57°C and P7 = 100 kPa. Maximum temperature and pressure in the cycle are
Tmax = 3427°C and Pmax = 9197 kPa.
Calculate:

(a) Minimum cylinder pressure during cycle. [kPa]

(b) Pump work for one cylinder for one cycle. [kJ]
(c) Pressure in cylinder when exhaust valve opens. [kPa]
16 An experimental two-stroke cycle SI automobile engine operates on the air-standard cycle
shown in Fig. 17, with a compression ratio of 10.5:1. When the intake valve opens at 52°
bBDC a supercharger supplies air-fuel to the cylinders at a pressure of Pintake = 17.8 psia.
The exhaust port opens at 70° bBDC. Maximum temperature and pressure in the cycle are
Tmax = 4200°F and Pmax = 1137 psia. Connecting rod length is 9.5 inches and crank offset
is 2.5 inches.
Calculate:

(a) Cylinder temperature when exhaust port opens. [°F]

(b) Effective compression ratio.
(c) Temperature and pressure at the end of the compression stroke. [°F, psia]
17 A six cylinder, two-stroke cycle CI ship engine with bore B = 35 cm and stroke S = 105 cm
produces 3600 kW of brake power at 210 RPM.
Calculate:

(a) Torque at this speed. [kN-m]

(b) Total displacement. [L]
(c) Brake mean effective pressure. [kPa]
(d) Average piston speed. [m/sec]
18 A single-cylinder, two-stroke cycle model airplane engine with a 7.54-cm3 displacement
produces 1.42 kW of brake power at 23,000 RPM using glow plug ignition. The square en-
gine 1bore = stroke2 uses 31.7 gm/min of castor oil–methanol–nitromethane fuel at an
air–fuel ratio AF = 4.5. During intake scavenging, 65% of the incoming air–fuel mixture
gets trapped in the cylinder, while 35% of it is lost with the exhaust before the exhaust port
closes. Combustion efficiency hc = 0.94.
Calculate:

(a) Brake specific fuel consumption. [gm/kW-hr]

(b) Average piston speed. [m/sec]
(c) Unburned fuel exhausted to atmosphere. [gm/min]
(d) Torque. [N-m]
19 A historic single-cylinder engine with a mechanical efficiency hm = 5% operates at 140
RPM on the Lenoir cycle shown in Fig. 21. The cylinder has a double acting piston with a
12-in. bore and a 36-in. stroke. The fuel has a heating value QLHV = 12,000 BTU/lbm and
is used at an air–fuel ratio AF = 18. Combustion occurs at constant volume half way
through the intake-power stroke when cylinder conditions equal 70°F and 14.7 psia.

141