School of Mechanical Aerospace and Civil Engineering

Introduction: What is CFD?

Msc CFD-1
◮ CFD: Computational Fluid Dynamics

◮ Many modern engineering systems require a detailed knowledge of fluid

flow behaviour.

CFD-1 ◮ Experiments provide useful data, but are often costly and
time-consuming. It can also be difficult to measure the details required:
T. J. Craft
◮ Measurement probes may disturb the flow excessively, and/or optical
George Begg Building, C41
access may not be convenient.
◮ Obtaining the correct parameter scaling may be difficult.

Reading:
◮ Reproducing some flow conditions safely (eg. explosions) may be
J. Ferziger, M. Peric, Computational Methods for Fluid difficult.
Dynamics
H.K. Versteeg, W. Malalasekara, An Introduction to ◮ Empirical correlations can be useful for simple problems – or first
Computational Fluid Dynamics: The Finite Volume
Method estimates – but are usually not available or applicable for complex
S.V. Patankar, Numerical Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow problems.
Notes: http://cfd.mace.manchester.ac.uk/tmcfd
- People - T. Craft - Online Teaching Material
CFD-1 2010/11 2 / 21

◮ The equations governing fluid flows are a set of coupled, non-linear ◮ Note the use of the word “approximations”: all CFD solutions have some
partial differential equations: error associated with them.
Continuity: ◮ CFD does not remove the need for experiments: numerical models need
∂ ρ ∂ ρ Ui to be validated to ensure they produce reliable and accurate results.
+ =0
∂t ∂ xi
◮ With the growth of available computing power it has become possible to
Momentum: apply CFD even to very complex flowfields, giving detailed information
∂ ρ Ui ∂ ρ Ui Uj ∂P ∂ ∂ Ui
 
about the velocity field, pressure, temperature, etc.
+ =− + µ
∂t ∂ xj ∂ xi ∂ xj ∂ xj ◮ The key to successful use of CFD is an understanding of where the
◮ Many real problems include additional terms and/or equations, governing errors come from; their implications, and how to ensure they are small
heat-transfer, chemical species, turbulence models, etc. enough to be acceptable in a particular application.
◮ Analytic solutions are known only for a few very simple laminar flow ◮ The main aims of this course are thus to:
cases. ◮ Give an understanding of the processes involved in approximating
◮ An alternative is to “solve” the governing equations numerically, on a differential equations by a set of algebraic (discretized) equations.
computer. ◮ Allow an appreciation of the accuracy and stability issues associated
◮ Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is this process of obtaining with different approximations.
numerical approximations to the solution of the governing fluid flow ◮ Provide an understanding of how the resulting set of equations are
equations. solved, and how coupled sets of equations are handled.
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 ◮ A number of commercial CFD codes are available (Fluent, Star-CD, The CFD Process
CFX,. . . ).
◮ Grid Generation
◮ These may appear “easy -to-use”, but to do so reliably requires a good
understanding of the above issues and of the numerical methods ◮ Structured, unstructured,. . .
employed by the programs. Only with this can one select appropriate
options for particular problems.

◮ For example, the ‘default’ numerical approximations in such codes are

often rather diffusive (a term that will be explained later). This makes the
solution more stable, so an inexperienced user is more likely to get a
converged result, but the errors in it may be large, so the result may not ◮ Depending on the numerical scheme, values of variables may be
correspond closely to the true flow. stored at cell centres, cell vertices, or a combination.
◮ Informed use of CFD codes also requires a good understanding of basic
fluid mechanics – so one can choose appropriate physical models for a
particular problem and recognise whether “solutions” coming from
simulations make sense or not.

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◮ Discretization ◮ Solution of Discretized Equations

◮ Approximating the differential equations by a set of algebraic ones ◮ The discretized equations can be written in matrix form
linking the variable nodal values.
Ax = b
For example, a central difference
scheme might use: x is the vector of unknowns (the nodal variable values). The values
U U U
W P E in A and b depend on the discretization method adopted.
∂ 2 U (UE − UP )/∆x − (UP − UW )/∆x
≈
∂x2 ∆x ◮ Different methods can be employed to solve this set of equations
(usually in an iterative fashion).
◮ This process involves approximating derivatives, and often entails ◮ The choice of method depends on the particular type of problem,
interpolating variable values. form of the matrix A, etc.
◮ The methods employed for these approximations can affect both the
◮ Post-Processing
accuracy and stability of the numerical scheme.
◮ The result is a (large) set of algebraic equations.

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 Flow Over 2-D Hills Flow Over 3-D Hill

◮ Well-resolved LES by ◮ Experiments by Simpson et al

Temmerman & Leschziner (2002).
(2001)
◮ Complex separation and
vortex pattern downstream of
◮ Re ≡ Ub H/ν = 10590
hill.

◮ Separation from curved surface, followed by reattachment. ◮ Re = UH/ν = 130000

◮ Few models return the correct separation and reattachment points.

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Flow Around Simplified Car Hatchback Wing-Tip Vortex Development – 1

◮ Experiments by Lienhart et al (2000). ◮ Near-field development of the wing-tip vortex off a NACA 0012 aerofoil at
10o incidence.
◮ A rear slope angle of 25o .
◮ Experiments by Chow et al (1994) show an accelerated core region.
◮ Linear and non-linear EVM’s, and stress transport schemes have been
tested (all with wall-functions over the wing surface).
◮ Adequate resolution of the downstream vortex requires grids of 5-6M
cells (even with wall-functions on all walls).

◮ Strong vortices roll up off the corners

of the upper roof.
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 Wing-Tip Vortex Development – 2 Transonic Afterbody Flows

Streamwise Velocity at x /c = 0.678

Exptl Meas.
−0.1 −0.05 0.0 0.05
Linear k−
−0.1 −0.05 0.0 0.05
◮ Measurements reported by
0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15

Vortex Centre Development Berrier (1988). Surface Pressure coefficients

0.125 0.125 0.125 0.125
ο ο ο
θ=0 θ=45 θ=180
0.6
Freestream M = 0.944 with
0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
◮
y/c 0.075 0.075 y/c 0.075 0.075

0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

nozzle pressure ratio 1.98. 0.4 Exp.
MCL
0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 ◮ Computed with 1.4M nodes. 0.2

Cp
−0.1 −0.05 0.0 0.05 −0.1 −0.05 0.0 0.05
z/c z/c
Non−linear
Kok k− k− TCL
TCL 0.0
−0.1 −0.05 0.0 0.05 −0.1 −0.05 0.0 0.05

0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15

0.125 0.125 0.125 0.125 −0.2

0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

y/c 0.075 0.075 y/c 0.075 0.075

−0.4 0
0.6 0.8 1.0 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.6 0.8 1.0
0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
x/l x/l x/l

0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

−0.1 −0.05
z/c
0.0 0.05 −0.1 −0.05
z/c
0.0 0.05
◮ TCL scheme shows good
agreement with the limited
◮ Fine downstream grid required to resolve vortex development.
available data.
◮ Advanced stress transport scheme (TCL) does capture the flow
development.
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3-D Duct with Staggered Ribs Important Concepts in CFD

◮ Local heat transfer measurements taken on ribbed wall. Accuracy

◮ Non-orthogonal grid of ◮ This can be thought of as three issues:

76×64×30 cells.
◮ Modelling accuracy. How well do the differential equations represent
the physical system.
For single phase laminar flow this is not usually an issue, but may be
once models are introduced for turbulence, etc.
◮ Discretization accuracy: How well does the discretized solution (the
collection of velocity, pressure, temperature,. . . values at grid nodes)
represent the true solution of the original differential equations.
◮ Solver Accuracy: How close does the matrix solver get to the true
solution of the discretized system.

◮ The second is the accuracy question that will addressed in most detail in
this course. Different approximation schemes and grid arrangements can
have a significant effect on the accuracy of the solution.

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 Stability Stability vs. Accuracy

◮ Most CFD schemes employ an iterative solution procedure to solve the ◮ In general, there is often a trade-off between accuracy and stability.
resulting system of discretized algebraic equations. Stability in this
context refers to the convergence (or otherwise) of this process. ◮ A numerical scheme that is very diffusive, for example, can be very stable
because it is effectively adding too much “viscosity” to the problem.
◮ In time-dependent problems stability refers to whether the method
produces a bounded solution (assuming the exact solution should remain ◮ However, by doing so it may be smoothing out steep gradients, and will
bounded). not, therefore, be very accurate.

◮ A stable scheme thus ensures that small errors (which inevitably appear ◮ Understanding these effects, and how to get the right balance between
in a numerical solution) do not get magnified. the two, is a crucial aspect of CFD.

◮ Stability of a scheme can be analysed analytically for very simple Consistency

equations, but there are few such results for non-linear coupled systems.
◮ If the discretization scheme is consistent, then it should formally become
◮ In practise, stability often places a restriction on the time step that can be exact as the grid spacing/time step tends to zero.
used, or the level of under-relaxation applied.
◮ Truncation errors (see later lectures) are generally proportional to (∆x )n
or (∆t)n for some n (which depends on the discretization scheme); a
consistent scheme will have n > 0.

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Conservation Course Structure

◮ The equations being solved arise from physical conservation laws. A ◮ Content:
conservative numerical scheme will retain this property on both a local
◮ Basic numerical solution techniques
(cell) and global (domain) level.
◮ Finite difference methods
◮ For example, in a steady state problem there should be a balance ◮ Finite volume methods
between mass inflow and outflow over each cell, and over the entire
◮ Solving sets of linear equations
domain.
◮ Handling coupled sets of equations

Boundedness ◮ Time dependent problems

◮ Body-fitted grids for complex geometries

◮ Ensures that the numerical solution lies within physical bounds.
◮ Considerations in turbulent flows

◮ For example, in a heat conduction problem the minimum and maximum

temperatures should occur on the domain boundaries. A bounded
◮ Two laboratory exercises.
scheme would not produce spurious maxima/minima within the domain. ◮ Suggested Reading:
◮ Higher order discretization schemes can often produce unbounded J. Ferziger, M. Peric, Computational Methods for Fluid Dynamics
solutions in the form of undershoots and overshoots, which can H.K. Versteeg, W. Malalasekara, An Introduction to Computational Fluid
sometimes lead to stability and convergence problems. Dynamics: The Finite Volume Method
S.V. Patankar, Numerical Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow
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 Course Delivery and Assessment

◮ Lectures given by Dr Tim Craft and Prof Dominique Laurence.

◮ Monday 11:00-13:00 SSB/G41
◮ Thursday 11:00-12:00 R/F1

◮ Two lab sessions to be arranged.

◮ Assessment:
◮ Three hour examination in January (80%)
◮ Reports on lab exercises (20%)

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