BA(JMC) 106 Unit 4, Lesson 1

Lesson 1 Photo Journalism: Definition and Concept, Role

and Importance

STRUCTURE

1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Photo Journalism
1.3 Photo Agencies
1.4 Assignment
1.4.1 Class Assignment
1.4.2 Home Assignment
1.5 Summing Up

1.6 Possible answers to Self-Check questions

1.7 Terminal Question

1.8 References

1.9 Suggested Further Readings

1.10 Keywords

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1. Photo Journalism: Definition and Concept,

Role and Importance

In Unit 4 of the course "Still Photography", we shall discuss the whole process of
printing digital photographs in detail. Over the two lessons of this unit we shall
discuss the process of printing photographs, photo appreciation and different
problems related to photography.
In this lesson we shall discuss how digital photographs are printed and
precautions which one should take throughout the whole process.

1.0 Objectives

After going through this lesson you should be able to:

talk about photo journalism

discuss various news agencies

1.1 Introduction
“A GOOD PHOTOGRAPH is equivalent to thousand words” is said rightly. Considering
various channels of information and communication, photographic medium is the latest
and fastest medium of all mass communication media. Visual impact of photographic
medium has it’s own importance in the press, printed and display publicity. In fact,
photography has become an essential part of every day’s life. Photographs are required
from birth till death of a person or institute etc. There are many branches of specialization
in photography. The basic idea of using photograph in various channels and outlets
such as newspapers, periodicals, information booklets and leaflets, albums, exhibitions,
display, stills on TV and internet etc. is to attract the receiver to receive your information
by visual support of your massage and minimise your words for your expression.

Since photography is a creative medium, man behind the camera always plays main role.
The same subject is given to ten different photographers with same type of camera and
film, we will certainly get different results from each one of them, showing different mood,
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angle, composition, exposure, aperture, shutter speed, print quality etc. Still photography
is more skillful than the film, TV or video shooting because the still photographer has to
act instantly to catch the right moment at the right time within a fraction of a second on a
single frame which will be the cream of the event. On the on the hand, film, TV or video
cameraman will be exposing hundreds of frames with various effects such as pan, tilt,
zoom, fade-in, fade-out, focus-in, focus-out to illustrate the same event under the
guidance of the Director or Producer of the film.

Photojournalism is one of the most difficult and powerful branch of the profession,
because it requires competence as well as specialisation in two fields—Photography and
Journalism. Moreover, one must have the knowledge and flair for story telling as well as
editing. It is a challenge to the photographers having journalistic background and
aptitude. An expert photographer having mastery over his art may not be successful
Photojournalist for lack of sheer ignorance of basic rule for creating and maintaining
interest in the subject. He has to be very active and imaginative while selecting subject
for his picture story and act firstly than others to present it to the press / periodicals etc.
Hence photojournalism is a special category itself, which gives ample opportunities and
scope to the photographer to show his ability and creative talent for disseminating the
required information through photographic illustrations by using minimum words. Talents
and abilities vary from person to person as much as in this field as in any other field. For
story treatment, advance case study, establishment of locals, inclusion of concern
subject matter or person, wide-angle and close-up shots from different angles are
necessary. Other than key-shot, few more supportive shots with variety and contrast are
also necessary for maintaining continuity and development of story.

Photographer’s presence is very much required on the spot and he has to be in the midst
of the event without which he cannot record. There are certain events which has to be
recorded as they are happening and photographer cannot anticipate or predict anything
further than what is happening at that particular moment; viz: riots, mass demonstration,
war, fire, natural calamities, accidents, sports events etc. So photographer has to record
sufficient stock shots, from which he can select his best action shots for the picture story
with appropriate captions. There is considerable risk involved in such coverage because
photographers sometimes face bitterness of irate mob or are stopped from taking
photographs by the police or security staff on duty. Journalist may not present at the site
of the actual happening of the event; but he can build up his story from hearing it from

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different sources. A photographer has to be present on the spot and take live
photographs of actual event risking his life, equipment etc.

As camera never lies, sometimes one may get very rare action photograph of the event,
which brings him name and fame. So photojournalist has to be always very alert and
news conscious. Sometimes he reaches the spot when actual event is over. In such
cases it is not possible for him to rehearse or repeat it again but he can find out other
circumstantial evidence and present it dramatically depending upon the caliber and
power of taking on the spot decision. Sometimes personal likes and dislikes of
photographers reflect in his coverages and ultimately result in positive or negative
coverages. In short, photojournalist is a combination of Photographer, Journalist,
Director, Actor, writer and Social reformer etc.

As far as the subject is concerned, sky is the limit for imaginative worker.
Photojournalism can broadly be divided in two sections—Press or News coverage and
Photo-features etc. Coverage, which has instant news value, comes under first category.
Photographs related to VVIP’s activities / functions, national and state celebrations,
accidents, fire, natural calamities, riots, demonstrations, major sports events etc. Such
pictures are to be treated on “Do it now or never” basis. One can find great demand
for numerous illustrated magazines, periodicals, newspapers, and advertisers etc., which
are available on every roadside corner. Most of the magazines, periodicals are on
general subjects of human interest of everyday life with photographic illustrations while
some are devoted to exclusive subjects like sports, women, fashion, children, travel,
science, cinema, medicine, industry, politics etc. Illustrative photo stories have
generated great interest and enthusiasm amongst the common reader and most of the
magazines have got some dedicated readership also. National and language dailies
bring out their daily supplements and weekend magazines with illustrative photo-feature
apart from printing one or two multi-column photographs on their front page.

Considering the vast canvas and opportunities, photojournalists are in great demand due
to highly specialised and creative nature of their job. In turn they get fairly high payment
for their illustrative stories depending upon the freshness of the subject and news value.
So, while selecting the subject, he has to be very choosy as well as to exhibit something
different than the other in the field, so that his story will be acceptable to the magazines
and ultimately to readers. Editors are always looking for fresh and some new concept
avoiding the same old or stale photographic stories, which has been published earlier or

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other magazines. Photojournalism, like writing has it’s own overworked and threadbare
clinches. A stereotyped worn-out idea is just undesirable in illustrative photo stories.
Repetition and identical stories are to be avoided. Similar stories can be presented with
new angles or treatment to show them different than others. Easy to get pictures are
mostly preferred for record purpose.

Every photograph must have appropriate caption and if required, text around hundred
words. Editors rarely have any time to read text on the spot, he will pick up the story only
it pictures and captions look interesting. It is fairly safe rule that if the text has any plums,
they should be transferred to the captions, because their enhanced impact gives a
valuable lift to the picture. The caption writing is also an art. Caption should be
trenchant, brief and condensed avoiding unnecessary references. Every statement
should be correct and complete and should convey the over-all essence of the story.
Would be clever captions that merely skim the surface and convey no real information
are usually an admission that writer does not really know his own story well enough and
should have spent more time looking up the facts.

Some camera-journalist tries to handle the literary text as well as photographic side of
their assignments. Theoretically this should result in better combination and integration
of text and pictures—but in practice it creates problems. While on assignment it is
difficult to establish one kind of relationship with people as a photographer and then set
about establishing another kind as writer. Taking photographs is strenuous business,
which often exhausts people on both sides of camera and during their tiring photographic
session, no one is in right mood for discussion, interviews etc. Both things do not go well
tighter, hence photographers who must do their own writings should take the pictures at
one session and interview at another so that fair justice is done in both cases.

Presently we are in the midst of communication revolution and rapid technological

changes have opened new horizons in communication and information infrastructure
throughout the world. The developing countries like ours has to learn both positive and
negative things from the experience of developed countries and pick up only what is
relevant and useful to our environment and reject what is baneful. Now newly developed
electronic still cameras can transmit picture anywhere in the world and print B & W or
colour photo instantly within five minutes without going to darkrooms. To keep pace with
time we will have to change and adopt new technology for fast and better results.

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1.2 Photo Agencies

Every Photograph requires appropriate utilization through proper channel. Though,

Photographers take very high quality picture or on-the-spot hard news coverage but if he
doesn’t know the market or outlet, his efforts are wasted. Many international, national,
newspapers / news-agencies/ magazines are having their own staff Photographers and
network of freelance photographers spread all over the country or abroad. Other than
this, there are certain agents who are in constant touch with editors and others who buys
the photographs at appropriate reasonable price as per the current market requirement
and news-value.

Photo News Agencies: There are many well-known International / National News
Agencies viz. Reuters, Associated Press (AP), Europa Press (EP), Press Trust of India
(PTI), United Press International (UPI), United News of India (UNI), BBC etc., having
their worldwide network for collection and quick distribution of photographs. They employ
number of staff photographers in major cities and countries as well as center of activities
etc. apart from chain of free-lance photographers.

Headquarter or important branches of the Organisation keep track of newsworthy events

and in anticipation deploy their photographers for coverage. Apart from this, freelance
photographers sent their coverage to the agencies with detail captions / information etc.
depending upon their news value by fastest possible means.

Exposed rolls or prints are sent either by personal delivery, rail, and road or by air to the
agencies with marking “Urgent Press Matter” for processing, selection, distribution etc.
Copies of selected prints depending upon the news value are circulated with the fastest
mode to the clients in a shortest possible time for publication either by personal delivery,
courier service, rail, road, and air or transmission by radiophoto machine. Now a day,
photographs can be transmitted instantly through computer or digitally.

Self-Check Questions

4. A is defined as a likeness of a person, especially of the

person’s face.
5. is one of the most difficult and powerful branch of the
profession, because it requires competence as well as specialisation in two fields
and .
6. Name two Photo News Agencies & .
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1.3 Assignment

1.3.1 Class Assignment

1. What precautions one should take while doing wildlife photography?

1.3.2 Home Assignment

1. Write a brief on different types of photography.

1.4 Summing Up
Depending on the situation, photography can be classified into Portrait, Wildlife, nature,
photo journalism, advertising and night photography. Each requires all together different
set of skills and lighting plays an important role in differentiating one from the other.

1.5 Possible answers to self-Check Questions

4. portrait
5. Photo journalism, photography and journalism
6. Reuters & Associated Press (AP).

1.6 Terminal Questions

1. What in your opinion is a better option: Photo journalism, fashion photography,

sports photography and why?
2. Write short notes on:
a. Photo Journalism
b. Photo news agencies
c. Wildlife photography

1.7 References

1. Langford Michael, Langford's Basic Photography, Focal Press, London

2. Sharma O.P, Practical Photography, Hind Pocket Books, New Delhi

1.8 Suggested Further Readings

1. Langford Michael, Langford's Advanced Photography, Focal Press, London

2. Keene Martin, Practical Photo-Journalism, Focal Press, London

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1.9 Keywords
Portrait: A portrait is defined as a likeness of a person, especially of the person’s face.
But, the word in general use has deeper connotations. A photographic portrait is
understood to be a good quality image that not only captures a person’s physical
likeness on film or on a digital camera's sensor, but also something of the person’s
character, generally in a manner that is attractive and pleasing to the subject

Exposure Bracketing: For night photography it is best to take four or five images of the
same scene at different exposures. This is called Exposure Bracketing. With digital
cameras, even though you can inspect your results on site, its best to bracket and save
the images as well.

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Lesson 2 Photo Stories, Photo Features and Photo

Essays

STRUCTURE
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Photo Stories
2.3 Photo Features

2.4 Photo Essays

2.5 Assignment
2.5.1 Class Assignment
2.5.2 Home Assignment
2.6 Summing Up

2.7 Possible answers to Self-Check questions

2.8 Terminal Question

2.9 References

2.10 Suggested Further Readings

2.11 Keywords

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2. Photo Stories, Photo Features and Photo Essays

In Unit 4 of the course "Still Photography", we shall discuss the whole process of
printing digital photographs in detail. Over the two lessons of this unit we shall
discuss the process of printing photographs, photo appreciation and different
problems related to photography.
In this lesson we shall discuss how digital photographs are printed and
precautions which one should take throughout the whole process.

2.0 Objectives

After going through this lesson you should be able to:

differentiate between photo stories, features and essays

2.1 Introduction
A lot of people say a picture story has a beginning, middle and end whereas a photo
essay doesn’t necessarily. Not exactly. I’d say a picture story tends to be about one
place or person or situation whereas an essay tends to be about one type or aspect of
many places, things or people.

2.2 Photo Story

Each type of story requires the same thing: A thread that holds them together. The
thread can, and should, vary widely from one story or essay to the next. You could make
pictures of a thousand guys with beards but not have a cohesive body of work unless
something other than beards makes the images relate to each other, for instance. Or you
could follow one person’s life for years and still not have a set of pictures that tell a story
if you’ve not had a narrative in mind.

A way of saying this is that you could make a bunch of threads and work very hard to do
so. But that doesn’t mean those threads make a tapestry.

Why is it important to work on both stories and essays? On the one hand, having both in
your portfolio makes you a more attractive hire. On another, each requires a different set
of skills and mind set. Together they push what you can achieve, they help you reach a
potential you might not otherwise.

Working on picture stories tends to require immense personal skills. Being able to stay in
a setting for great lengths of time isn’t easy. The subject has to want you there and

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getting to that point isn’t a clear path. The story changes, life gets complicated, you have
to adjust and reinterpret - it’s like knitting a sweater for someone while you’re in a boxing
match. And it’s not like that at all.

Essays, on the other hand, require a clarity of seeing. You define the point of view
entirely, often by connecting seemingly unrelated objects, occurrences or times. They
require diligence and persistence that is different from a story.

Then there are topics that require both approaches. You can do individual picture stories
that combine like an essay to deal with a larger topic than one person or place might
reveal. Eugene Richards' Americans We and others he has done come to mind as some
of the best examples of this approach.

In the end, both forms tell a story. You’ve just gotten there by different paths. The more
paths we follow in this photographic life, the richer we become.

2.3 Photo Feature

In your job as a photojournalist, you may find yourself spending a lot of your time
shooting photos for various feature stories or putting together a feature photo spread. A
feature picture contains strong human interest and is designed to entertain or inform the
reader. The subject of a feature picture may be an individual or an event, and its content
is timeless.
Types of feature pictures include news, sports and personality.
- A news feature concentrates on a human or unique aspect of a news event, giving the
photograph a timeless interest.
- Sports feature pictures emphasize the event and continue to interest the reader after
the event has passed.
- A personality feature captures a subject’s personality rather than just a person’s image.
– An environmental portrait is of an individual in his natural surroundings. The subject is
performing no action and is looking at the photographer as the photo is taken.
Elements
The essential elements of a feature picture are identification and action.
- Identification of the subject is achieved by shooting your subject so that you can clearly
see who he/she is. This requires showing either full face or three fourths (3⁄4) face. You
must see both of your subject’s eyes. Avoid profiles and back shots.
- Subjects should be actively involved in performing some function. They also must be
looking at whatever action they are performing. Use of props will add visual information
about the person and provide a context.

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2.4 Photo Essay

A photo-essay is a set or series of photographs that are made to create series of

emotions in the viewer. A photo essay will often show pictures in deep emotional stages.
Photo essays range from purely photographic works to photographs with captions or
small comments to full text essays illustrated with photographs.

Examples of photo essays include:

An article in a publication, sometimes a full page or a two-page spread

A book or other complete publication.
A web page or portion of a web site.
A single montage or collage of photographic images, with text or other additions,
intended to be viewed both as a whole and as individual photographs. Such a
work may also fall in the category of mixed media.
An art show which is staged at a particular time and location. Some such shows
also fall into other categories category.
In fashion publishing especially, a photo-editorial – an editorial-style article
dominated by or entirely consisting of a series of thematic photographs

Photographers known for their photo-essays include:

W. Eugene Smith[1]

Ansel Adams[2]

Photo-essays moved from printed press to the net.

Self-Check Questions

1. is an expression of your natural sense and creative mind.

2. have variable focal length.

2.5 Assignments
2.5.1 Class Assignment
1. Define photo appreciation.

2.5.2 Home Assignment

1. Explain the problems related to photography

2.6 Summing Up
To enhance appreciation of photography it is necessary to develop the skills to make
careful visual analysis. While everyone can easily discuss the contents of photographs
("what you see"), most need more training to learn about formal analysis used in the
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visual arts. While analyzing basic common language of photography, we have to learn:
Identify and look closely at photograph, decipher the clues you find, imagine the
circumstances behind the photo and confirm your findings with more research.

2.7 Possible answers to self-Check Questions

1. Photographic composition.
2. Zoom lens

2.8 Terminal Questions

1. Explain the manipulation of image step by step.
2. What are the main principles of photo appreciation and explain different
problems related to digital photography?

2.9 References

1. Langford Michael, Langford's Basic Photography, Focal Press, London

2. Sharma O.P, Practical Photography, Hind Pocket Books, New Delhi

2.10 Suggested Further Readings

1. Langford Michael, Langford's Advanced Photography, Focal Press, London

2. Keene Martin, Practical Photo-Journalism, Focal Press, London

2.11 Keywords
Vertical view: It emphasizes depth. A feeling of depth can be best achieved by having
familiar and recognizable objects at varying distances from the camera. Proper
placement of objects stimulates three-dimensional effects. Apply depth-of-field
technique.

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Lesson 3 Photo Appreciation

STRUCTURE
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Photo appreciation / Reading the Photograph
3.2 Questions for "Reading" a Photograph
3.3 Different problems related to Photography & Career Options
3.4 Career options
3.5 Tips for Good Photography
3.6 Assignments

3.6.1 Class Assignment

3.6.2 Home Assignment
3.7 Summing Up
3.8 Possible answers to Self-Check Questions
3.9 Terminal Questions
3.10 References
3.11 Suggested Further Readings
3.12 Keywords

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3. Photo Appreciation

In the last lesson we had discussed the process of printing of digital photographs
and editing the same according to one's need.
In this lesson we shall discuss what is photo appreciation and the factors which
should be kept in mind while critically appreciating the same. Apart from this,
various problems related to photography and career options shall also be
discussed.

3.0 Objectives

After going through this lesson you should be able to:

Describe critical appreciation of a photograph

Explain different problems related to photography

3.1 Photo appreciation / Reading the Photograph

To enhance your appreciation of photography it is necessary to develop the skills

to make careful visual analysis. While everyone can easily discuss the contents of
photographs ("what you see"), most need more training to learn about formal
analysis used in the visual arts.

While analyzing basic common language of photography, we have to learn:

1. Identify and look closely at photograph

2. Decipher the clues you find
3. Imagine the circumstances behind the photo
4. Confirm your findings with more research
Identify:

Look at the photo quietly at least for one full minute

Cover the photo and list everything you remember seeing
Uncover the photo and look again carefully. Correct any mistakes on your
list and add anything you missed. Write down any inscriptions or a caption that came
with the photo.
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Interpret:

What is happening in the photo?

Who are the people in the photo? What are they doing? How are they dressed?
Location of the photograph—buildings, landscapes, road, air, water etc.
Candid or posed photograph?
When it was taken? Year? Season? Time of the day?
Imagine:

Why do you think this photo was taken? Place or event in the photo?
What do you think happened just before this photo was taken?
What might be about to happen next?

However, a description of a photograph based only on formal analysis would be

incomplete. Photographers make decisions about composition (arrangement of visual
elements), content (meaning) as well as technical qualities when taking photographs.
Consequently, it is important to consider the photographer's intentions for making a
photograph of a particular subject. Finally, the historical and social context in which a
photograph was made must also be carefully considered.

Each image offers a variety of interpretations. Therefore, the information provided in

each photograph should be regarded as a starting point for discussion and not as a
conclusive interpretation. There is no one correct answer when interpreting masterpiece.
We encourage you to carefully examine photographs to develop your skills for analyzing
photographs and to explore your own personal interpretations.

3.2 Questions for "Reading" a Photograph

1. What is the subject of this photograph?

2. What message is conveyed by the photograph?

3. Can you determine the location of this photograph?

4. What do you think was the purpose of the photograph?

5. Do you think this photograph was staged or candid?

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6. Describe this photograph--the people, the scene or setting, the activities,

newsworthiness, archival value etc.

7. What do the details --clothing, accessories, facial expressions, body language,

activities, products, etc.--tell you about the people in this photograph?

8. What are the strengths of using this photograph in learning about the past?

9. What are the weaknesses of using this photograph in learning about the past?

10. How does it compare with other sources for learning about the past? Is it contradicted
by other sources or does it strengthen your overall knowledge of what is happening at
this time and place?

Different problems related to Photography & Career Options

More than half of all photographers are self-employed; the most successful are adept at
operating a business and able to take advantage of opportunities provided by rapidly
changing technologies. For a good photographer, imaginative good eye, technical
expertise and creativity are essential.

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Nature of the work

Photographers produce and preserve images that paint a picture, tell a story, or record
an event. To create commercial-quality photographs, photographers need both technical
expertise and creativity. Producing a successful picture requires choosing and presenting
a subject to achieve a particular effect, and selecting the appropriate equipment. For
example, photographers may enhance the subject’s appearance with natural or artificial
light, shoot the subject from an interesting angle, draw attention to a particular aspect of
the subject by blurring the background, or use various lenses to produce desired levels of
detail at various distances from the subject.

Today, most photographers use digital cameras instead of traditional silver-halide film
cameras, although some photographers use both types, depending on their own
preference and the nature of the assignment. Traditional photography gives better and
sharper image than Digital Photography. In traditional photography camera don’t lie but
in digital photography, camera lies on every click. Regardless of the camera they use,
photographers also employ an array of other equipment—from lenses, filters, and tripods
to flash attachments and specially constructed lighting equipment—to improve the quality
of their work.

Digital cameras capture images electronically, allowing them to be edited on a computer.

Images can be stored on portable memory devices such as compact disks (CDs) or on
smaller memory chips used in digital cameras. Once the raw image has been transferred
to a computer, photographers can use processing software to crop or modify the image
and enhance it through color correction and other specialized effects. As soon as a
photographer has finished editing the image, it can be sent anywhere in the world over
the Internet.

Photographers also can create electronic portfolios of their work and display them on
their own webpage, allowing them to reach prospective customers directly. Digital
technology also allows up to certain extend the production of larger, more colorful, and
more accurate prints or images for use in advertising, photographic art, and scientific
research. Photographers who process their own digital images need to have computers,
high-quality printers, and editing software, as well as the technical knowledge to use
these tools effectively.

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No one is complete Photographer, until he or she gains a fundamental knowledge of

darkroom practices which helps them to understand requirement of clients and convince
them accordingly. Photographers who use cameras with silver-halide film often send
their film to laboratories for processing. Color film requires expensive equipment and
exacting conditions for correct processing and printing. Other photographers develop and
print their own photographs using their own fully equipped darkroom, especially if they
use black and white film or seek to achieve special effects. Photographers who do their
own film developing must invest in additional developing and printing equipment and
acquire the technical skills to operate it.

Some photographers specialize in areas such as portrait, commercial and industrial,

scientific, news, or Fashion, fine arts photography. Portrait photographers take pictures
of individuals or groups of people and often work in their own studios. Some specialize in
weddings, religious ceremonies, or school photographs and may work on location.
Portrait photographers who own and operate their own business have many
responsibilities in addition to taking pictures. They must arrange for advertising, schedule
appointments, set and adjust equipment, purchase supplies, keep records, bill
customers, pay bills, and—if they have employees—hire, train, and direct their workers.
Many also process their own images, design albums, and mount and frame the finished
photographs.

Commercial and industrial photographers take pictures of various subjects, such as

buildings, models, merchandise, artifacts, and landscapes. These photographs are used
in a variety of media, including books, reports, advertisements, and catalogs. Industrial
photographers often take pictures of equipment, machinery, products, workers, and
company officials. The pictures are used for various purposes—for example, analysis of
engineering projects, publicity, or records of equipment development or deployment,
such as placement of an offshore oil rig. This photography frequently is done on location.

Scientific photographers take images of a variety of subjects to illustrate or record

scientific or medical data or phenomena, using knowledge of scientific procedures. They
typically possess additional knowledge in areas such as engineering, medicine, biology,
or chemistry etc.

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News photographers also called photojournalists, photographing newsworthy subjects,

people, places, and sporting, political, and community events for newspapers, journals,
magazines, or television is a main challenge before them.

Fine arts photographers sell their photographs as fine artwork. In addition to technical
proficiency, fine arts photographers need artistic talent and creativity.

Fashion or Glamour photography is in great demand both in fashion shows as well as in

print media, magazines etc.

Self-employed, or freelance, photographers usually specialize in one of the above fields.

In addition to carrying out assignments under direct contract with clients, they may
license the use of their photographs through stock-photo agencies or market their work
directly to the public. Stock-photo agencies sell magazines and other customers the right
to use photographs, and pay the photographer a commission. These agencies require an
application from the photographer and a sizable portfolio of pictures. Once accepted,
photographers usually are required to submit a large number of new photographs each
year.

Working conditions

Working conditions for photographers vary considerably. Photographers employed in

government and advertising studios usually work a 5-day, 40-hour week. On the other
hand, news photographers often work long, irregular hours and must be available to work
on short notice. Many photographers work part time or on variable schedules. Most
photographers spend only a small portion of their work schedule actually taking
photographs. Their most common activities are editing images on a computer—if they
use a digital camera—and looking for new business—if they are self-employed.

Portrait photographers usually work in their own studios but also may travel to take
photographs at the client’s location, such as a school, a company office, or a private
home. News, travel and commercial photographers frequently travel locally, stay
overnight on assignments, or travel to distant places for long periods.

Some photographers work in uncomfortable or even dangerous surroundings, especially

news photographers covering accidents, natural disasters, civil unrest, or military
conflicts. Many photographers must wait long hours in all kinds of weather for an event to
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take place and stand or walk for long periods while carrying heavy equipment. News
photographers often work under strict deadlines.

Self-employment allows for greater autonomy, freedom of expression, and flexible

scheduling. However, income can be uncertain and the continuous, time consuming
search for new clients can be stressful. Some self-employed photographers hire
assistants who help seek out new business.

More than half photographers are self-employed, a much higher proportion than for most
occupations. Some self-employed photographers have contracts with advertising
agencies, magazine publishers, or other businesses to do individual projects for a set
fee, while others operate portrait studios or provide photographs to stock-photo agencies.

Most salaried photographers work in portrait or commercial photography studios; most of

the others work for newspapers, magazines, and advertising agencies. Photographers
work in all areas of the country, but most are employed in metropolitan areas.

Training, other qualifications, and advancement

Employers usually seek applicants with a "good eye," imagination, and creativity, as well
as a good technical understanding of photography. Entry-level positions in
photojournalism or in industrial or scientific photography generally require a college
degree in photography or in a field related to the industry in which the photographer
seeks employment. Freelance and portrait photographers need technical proficiency,
gained through a degree program, vocational training, or extensive photography
experience.

Photography courses are offered by many universities, colleges, vocational-technical

institutes, and private trade and technical schools. Basic courses in photography cover
equipment, processes, and techniques. Bachelor’s degree programs, especially those
including business courses, provide a well-rounded education.

Individuals interested in a career in photography should try to develop contacts in the

field by subscribing to photographic newsletters and magazines; joining camera clubs;
and seeking summer or part-time employment in camera stores, newspapers, or photo
studios.

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Photographers may start out as assistants to experienced photographers. Assistants

acquire the technical knowledge needed to be a successful photographer and also learn
other skills necessary to run a portrait or commercial photography business. Freelance
photographers also should develop an individual style of photography to differentiate
themselves from the competition. Some photographers enter the field by submitting
unsolicited a portfolio of photographs to magazines and to art directors at advertising
agencies; for freelance photographers, a good portfolio is critical.

Photographers need good eyesight, artistic ability, and good hand-eye coordination.
They should be patient, accurate, and detail-oriented. Photographers should be able to
work well with others, as they frequently deal with clients, graphic designers, and
advertising and publishing specialists. Photographers need to know techniques of
traditional photography as well as how to use computer software programs and
applications that allow them to prepare and edit images and those who market directly to
clients should be familiar with using the Internet to display their work.

Portrait photographers need the ability to help people relax in front of the camera.
Commercial and fine arts photographers must be imaginative and original. News
photographers must not only be good with a camera, but also understand the story
behind an event so that their pictures match the story. They must be decisive in
recognizing a potentially good photograph and act quickly to capture it. Photographers,
who operate their own business, or freelance, need business skills as well as talent.
These individuals must know how to prepare a business plan; submit bids; write
contracts; keep financial records; market their work; hire models, if needed; get
permission to shoot on locations that normally are not open to the public; obtain releases
to use photographs of people; license and price photographs; and secure copyright
protection for their work. To protect their rights and their work, self-employed
photographers require basic knowledge of licensing and copyright laws, as well as
knowledge of contracts and negotiation procedures. After several years of experience,
magazine and news photographers may advance to photography or picture editor
positions. Some photographers teach at technical schools, film schools, or universities.

Photographers can expect keen competition for job openings because the work is
attractive to many people. The number of individuals interested in positions as
commercial and news photographers usually is much greater than the number of

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openings. Those who succeed in landing a salaried job or attracting enough work to earn
a living by freelancing are likely to be adept at operating a business and to be among the
most creative, able to find and exploit the new opportunities available from rapidly
changing technologies. Related work experience, job-related training, or some unique
skill or talent—such as a background in computers or electronics—also are beneficial to
prospective photographers.

Salaried photographers—more of whom work full time—tend to earn more than those
who are self-employed. Because most freelance and portrait photographers purchase
their own equipment, they incur considerable expense acquiring and maintaining
cameras and accessories.

Career options
After completion of “Photography” training, one can become

1) Press Photographer
2) Fashion Photographer
3) Studio Photographer
4) Portrait Photographer
5) Staff Photographer
6) Political Photographer
7) Freelance Photographer
8) Pictorial Photographer
9) Industrial Photographer
10) Wild Life Photographer
11) Sports Photographer
12) Travel Photographer
13) Commercial photographer
14) Personal Photographer for a Political Leader
15) Personal Photographer for Model/ Actor/ Actress
16) Photographer for an Advertising Agency
17) Photographer for Modeling Agency
As a Photographer one can easily get minimum Rs.5, 000/- to Rs.20, 000/- per assignment or
from Rs.10, 000/- up to Rs.50, 000/- per month depending upon the experience, performance
and creativity of a person.

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A to Z Subjects
1) Aerial Photography 26) Mountain Photography
2) Animal Photography 27) Nature Photography
3) Archaeological Photography 28) Night Photography
4) Architectural Photography 29) Nude Photography
5) Astronomical Photography 30) Panoramic Photography
6) Birds Photography 31) Pictorial Photography
7) Calendar Photography 32) Police Photography
8) Child Photography 33) Portrait Photography
9) Commercial Photography 34) Press Photography
10) Crime Photography 35) Seaside Photography
11) Fashion Photography 36) Snow Photography
12) Fireworks Photography 37) Sports Photography
13) Flash Photography 38) Spy Photography
14) Flowers Photography 39) Studio Photography
15) Freelance Photography 40) Table-top Photography
16) Groups Photography 41) Technical Photography
17) Interior Photography 42) Theatre Photography
18) Internet Photography 43) Time-lapse Photography
19) Landscape Photography 44) Travel Photography
20) Macro Photography 45) Trick Photography
21) Magazine Photography 46) Underwater Photography
22) Marine Photography 47) War Photography
23) Medical Photography 48) Wild-life Photography
24) Micro Photography 49) Wedding Photography
25) Model Photography 50) Zoo Photography

Tips for Good Photography

Photographs can be clicked of anything, anywhere and at anytime.

Always load and unload film in the shade and process film at earliest.

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Ensure that, threading and leading edge properly secure before the back is closed
and film is winding smoothly.
For Digital camera, select appropriate exposure mode, image size and quality.
Adjust viewfinder closer to eyelevel and hold camera firmly with elbows close to
the body to avoid shaky pictures. Keep your feet open with one foot slightly
forward and press the shutter gently with index finger.
Aim your camera on the subject and see “what you are taking”. You should be
able to concentrate your whole attention on “what you are photographing” without
being distracted by other factors.
Conceptualize your “Picture” through viewfinder on focusing screen before you
click. “Picture speaks” and this is what you learn to say with camera that counts.
All pictures tell story, but some do it more obviously than others.
Picture frames are common in almost all houses; offices etc. & they do have
purpose. Photographically, frame devices tend to center interest on the subject by
separating that subject from whatever surrounds it. In a sense, they contribute
feeling of unity and depth.
Natural frames can be found almost anywhere. Trees, fences, windows, doors and
bridges are familiar objects that make first-rate photographic frames. Sometimes,
unusual frames make unusual snapshots.
Photographic composition is an expression of your natural sense and creative
mind. Good composition makes difference. Apply the rule of thirds.
In general, Horizontal views evoke a feeling of spaciousness and communicate
rest. They are the horizon of a quite meadow or water etc.
Vertical view emphasizes depth. A feeling of depth can be best achieved by
having familiar and recognizable objects at varying distances from the camera.
Proper placement of objects stimulates three-dimensional effects. Apply depth-of-
field technique.
Diagonal lines mean action. They are the athlete straining forward for an extra
measure of speed or the train leaning against a curved section of track.
Straightforward arrangements attract the eye because they express their content
quickly. In picture of people or things, simplicity is a true virtue.
Picture should almost always be made from as close as possible without
eliminating any part of the subject that’s important to the snapshot or any part of
the background that contributes to the meaning or the mood of it.

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To avoid this, shift your snapping position to acquire a plain, simple, less
distracting one. Sometimes, you may shoot slightly upward or downward so that
the sky, horizon, trees, grass, water, beach etc. become the background.
The ideal lighting for nearly all subjects is outdoor “diffused sunlight”.
If sun shines from directly behind the photographer’s back, the result is a flat.
Shadow-less picture is rarely pleasing. Black & white representation of objects
depends for its effectiveness on the interplay of light & shade.
Angular side lighting gives better results. Because, it casts powerful shadows and
gives subject depth and dimensional effect.
Against the light picture gives beautiful effects. In such photographs, exposure is
very critical particularly in shadow area. It is always better to go closure to the
subject & take reading of shadow area forgetting the highlights.
Some subjects have interesting outlines but dull details. These can be
photographed as silhouettes quite easily by back lighting and exposing only for the
highlight areas. The Shadows will appear dark and emphasis will be put on the
shape of object such as temple or church etc.
Bright sun can create unattractive deep facial shadows, so to eliminate shadows
use your flash to lighten the face.
The most important part of every picture is the light. It affects the appearance of
everything you photograph.
Look for signs or landmarks around the area you are visiting and include them in a
picture appropriately.
Food is an interesting part of traveling or get-together, be sure to take pictures of
the food you eat and the restaurants you visit. Zoom in on the plate or capture
your companion enjoying their food.
Some cameras have what is called interchangeable lenses, where the normal lens
can be removed and replaced by one having a different “point of view”.
A “Wide angle lens”, as its name implies, sees a much greater area than a Normal
lens. It is useful where space is limited.
The “Telephoto lens” is just the opposite. It sees much less than Normal lens and
closer like taking photo through binoculars.
The “Zoom lenses” are having variable focal length, which can be adjusted
continuously by the movement of the lens. This lens serves the purpose of Wide
angle, Normal and Telephoto depending upon the focal length of the lens.

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Shutter speed and aperture are the two important controls of a camera dependent
on each other and always used in combination to regulate the amount of light that
reaches the film.
If one does have control over the shutter speed and aperture, then one need to
decide which of these controls is more important for the given picture. Sometimes,
the choices will be very limited due to the lighting factor. If one has a moderate to
high level of light, then it must be decided whether the aperture or shutter speed is
most important.
In case of shutter priority, fast moving subjects tend to need shutter speed of
1/250th of a second or faster in order to freeze motion or prohibit blur. The faster
the subject, the faster the shutter speed needed. Fast shutter freeze action and
creates sharp picture without tripod.
In case of aperture priority, the larger the aperture number, the smaller the
aperture hole, and the better the depth-of-field. The smaller the aperture number,
the larger the hole, and less focus or depth-of-field.
The ASA / ISO of the film are direct factor in one’s aperture or shutter speed
choice. Both are inversely proportionate to each other.
It is advisable to use “Lens hood” to avoid flare etc.
Keep proper record of your photographs.

Self-Check Questions

1. is an expression of your natural sense and creative mind.

2. have variable focal length.

3.4 Assignments
3.4.1 Class Assignment
1. Define photo appreciation.

3.4.2 Home Assignment

1. Explain the problems related to photography

3.5 Summing Up
To enhance appreciation of photography it is necessary to develop the skills to make
careful visual analysis. While everyone can easily discuss the contents of photographs
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("what you see"), most need more training to learn about formal analysis used in the
visual arts. While analyzing basic common language of photography, we have to learn:
Identify and look closely at photograph, decipher the clues you find, imagine the
circumstances behind the photo and confirm your findings with more research.

3.6 Possible answers to self-Check Questions

1. Photographic composition.
2. Zoom lens

3.7 Terminal Questions

1. Explain the manipulation of image step by step.
2. What are the main principles of photo appreciation and explain different
problems related to digital photography?

3.8 References

1. Langford Michael, Langford's Basic Photography, Focal Press, London

2. Sharma O.P, Practical Photography, Hind Pocket Books, New Delhi

3.9 Suggested Further Readings

1. Langford Michael, Langford's Advanced Photography, Focal Press, London

2. Keene Martin, Practical Photo-Journalism, Focal Press, London

3.10 Keywords
Vertical view: It emphasizes depth. A feeling of depth can be best achieved by having
familiar and recognizable objects at varying distances from the camera. Proper
placement of objects stimulates three-dimensional effects. Apply depth-of-field
technique.

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Lesson 4 Photo Editing Tools, Morphing

STRUCTURE
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction to Digital Workflow
4.2 Photo Editing Tools
4.3 Assignments

4.3.1 Class Assignment

4.3.2 Home Assignment
4.4 Summing Up
4.5 Possible answers to Self-Check Questions
4.6 Terminal Questions
4.7 References
4.8 Suggested Further Readings
4.9 Keywords

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4. Photo Editing Tools, Morphing

In the last lesson we had discussed the process of printing of digital photographs
and editing the same according to one's need.
In this lesson we shall discuss what is photo appreciation and the factors which
should be kept in mind while critically appreciating the same. Apart from this,
various problems related to photography and career options shall also be
discussed.

4.0 Objectives

After going through this lesson you should be able to:

Describe critical appreciation of a photograph

Explain different problems related to photography

4.1 Introduction to Digital Workflow

Capturing a digital photograph is just one step in a multi-step process called the digital
workflow. Every photographer personalizes their workflow to some extent, but all include
the post-capture steps of transferring pictures from the camera; reviewing, organizing,
and ranking them; then adjusting, publishing and archiving them. Many of the steps in
this workflow have traditionally been performed using a variety of applications including
those that do image management. Although each photographer personalizes their
workflow to meet their own needs, all include some variation of the following steps—each
of which can be broken down farther into a series of sub steps:-

Step 1. Capturing Photographs

When you pick up your camera, the first workflow related steps include checking that the
lens is clean, the battery is charged, the memory card is in the camera and has enough
storage capacity for the number of photos you plan to shoot, and all settings are the way
you want them.

Step 2. Storing & Organizing Photographs

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After capturing images, you usually transfer them to a computer for more permanent
storage. As you do so, you need to transfer them in an organized manner so you can
quickly find images later. The latest image management programs provide a number of
tools that make this easier such as the ability to rank images, add keywords, and sort
images by a number of criteria.

Step 3. Editing Photographs

When a photograph is in a digital format, you can edit or manipulate it with a photo-
editing program. In some cases you improve an image by eliminating or reducing its
flaws, adjusting its tones, colors and sharpness. In other cases, you adjust an image for
a specific purpose, perhaps to make it smaller for e-mailing or posting on a Web site.

Step 4. Sharing Photographs

Once an image is the way you want it, you'll find that there are many ways to display and
share it. These include printing it (on almost anything from art paper to coffee mugs),
inserting it into a document, posting it on a photo sharing Web site or a blog, e-mailing it,
including it in a printed book or a slide show that plays on a DVD player connected to the
TV or a DVD drive in a computer, or displaying it in a digital photo frame.

Step 5. Archiving and Backing up Photographs

When you have photos for which you have no immediate use, but want to save, or
important photos you don't want to loose, you can copy them to CD/DVDs or even
another hard disc. If you then delete the images from the hard disk on your main system
the remaining files are referred to as archive files. If you also keep them on the main
system the duplicates are called back up

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Digital Camera Scanner

Computer

Printer, Copier & Scannr TV / LCD Projection

CD / DVD

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Digital Workflow

It is easy to capture images from digital cameras and transfer it to computer for
persevering memories. Further, you will need prints for your photo albums, scrapbooks
or portfolios. To get finest quality prints you will have to follow few steps:

Maximize image quality

The best prints come from the finest images. Help improve picture quality by following
these suggestions

1. Increase photo resolution: As a rule, the higher the resolution, the better the
picture. Most digital cameras offer a choice of settings. Check your camera's
instructions to figure out how to change the resolutions you're using. For premium.
printing results, always select the maximum offered photo size and quality Here
are some good resolution guidelines to consider.

2 megapixels: Appropriate for an attractive valet size (2.5 x 3.5 inch) or album
sized (4 x 6 inch) print

3 megapixels: Minimum resolution required for projects and calendars &

greeting cards or album sized (4 x 6 inch) print

5 to 6 megapixels: A resolution that offers better image quality for use with
craft projects. Also suitable for printing and framing an 11-by-14-inch photo for
use around the home

8 megapixels: A resolution that's capable of providing attractive 16-by-20-inch

prints

10 megapixels or more: Optimal for printing larger (20 x 30 inch)prints, and

panoramas

The more you increase photo resolution, the more you'll improve image clarity and detail

2. Choose the correct file format: The JPEG file format, which compresses image
data, is suitable for emailing pictures or posting them to the web. For photo-printing
purposes though, it generally pays to stick with larger TIFF files. Despite consuming
more space on a memory card, TIFF images are smoother, crisper, and vastly superior
to their JPEG counterparts.

3. Edit and enhance images: Use programs such as Windows Live Photo
Gallery (Windows 7 and Windows Vista) to soften edges experiment with lighting and
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color, remove blemishes, and ouch up your photos. It's a simple way to add special
effects, get rid of red eye, and otherwise improve your snapshots. Read more articles
about how to make simple fixes to your digital photos, take better pictures, capture the
perfect moment, and create online photo albums

Prepare your printer: Enhance print quality by configuring your printer for optimum
results:

1. Use current drivers: Drivers are software interpreters that let your computer and
printer communicate. But printer manufacturers are constantly revising these
drivers. Always use the most current drivers to help ensure peak performance and
picture quality. Check your printer manufacturer's website regularly for
downloadable updates

2. Don’t skimp on dots per inch: The higher your printer's dots per inch (dpi)
specifications, the better the prints it will produce. Avoid images that suffer from
frayed and jagged edges by using a printer with 600 x 600 dpi or better printing
capabilities when producing hard copies of color digital photos.

3. Configure print quality settings: After installing your printer, check your owner's
manual for instructions on how to change print quality settings, or read this article,
which covers the basics of printer selection, page orientation, and color
management. Remember that it's always important to choose the right print
options and preferences before printing. Detailed instructions on how to print
pictures are also available that can help you get the most from your images, as
are answers to frequently asked questions

4. Managing paper: Different types of paper, such as high gloss or card stock,
require varying amounts of ink and touch-ups When setting printing preferences,
be sure to tell your printer which type you're using to help ensure first-rate results
and to avoid wasting expensive stock.

5. Ongoing maintenance: It's a good idea to run printer alignment, color calibration,
and print cartridge cleaning functions every 90 days. These practices help prevent
blurring, streaking, and off-center photo prints. See your printer's owner's manual
for instructions on how to perform this maintenance

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Pick the right paper and ink: Help improve photo prints by selecting paper and ink that
perfectly complements your images.

1. Go with photo paper: Standard printer paper isn't suitable for creating pleasing
photo prints. Unless you're printing documents choose a glossy or matte finish
photo paper instead. Black-and-white prints generally look best on matte finish
papers, and color tends to look best on glossy paper

2. Creativity counts: Multiple varieties of paper stock are available, designed for a
wide range of specialty uses. These special purpose materials can enhance
any photo printing project. Whether incorporating your photos into decals business
cards, or T-shirts, before starting a new project, browse the selection at your local
office supply or electronics retailer.

3. Choose the right Size: Photos come in many shapes and forms, from wallet-sized
(2.5 x 3.5 inch) to album/scrapbook-ready (4 x 6-inch or 5 x7 inch) prints. Match
the paper to fit. Alternately, choose a standard letter-sized (8.5 x 11 inch) paper
and use Windows Photo Gallery or Windows Live Photo Gallery to squeeze
several smaller images onto one sheet. You can also easily print single or multiple
photos, or order prints online, from Windows Photo Viewer.

4.2 Image Compression & Fine Tuning

Resolution & Memory

Resolution is critical factor in digital image, which is determined by the number of pixels
in an image. Generally speaking, the more pixels it can record at once the more
expensive the camera. Resolution requirement for printing press, which are typically at
least 250 pixels per inch, are high compared to a computer or video screen, where 72
pixels per inch is the standard.

MegaPixels Vs Print Size

The number of megapixels relate directly to how large a digital file can be printed. The
other factors governing the final print are D.P.I and quality. D.P.I. stands for dots per
inch. More dots equals more detail and so higher quality. 72 DPI will not look great,
unless viewed from a distance, and the drop in quality will be noticeable. The trade off is
a much larger print size. Simply put, more megapixels means you can print bigger.
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Digital Image Resolution

Resolution Pixels Examples

Format

2000 x 1600 3,200,000 Newsletter cover

1600 x 1200 1,920,000 Jacket for book

1280 x 1024 1,310,720 Small paper back cover

1280 x 960 1,228,800 CD cover

1152 x 864 995,328 Small catalogue photo

768 x 575 442,368 Newspaper photo

640 x 480 307,200 Animation image

493 x373 183,889 Web page photo

480 x240 115,200 Business card image

There is a difference between an 8Mp DLSR and an 8Mp fixed lens camera. Fixed lens
cameras usually have similar size bodies but smaller sensors e.g. the Sony DSC-F828 -
a so called 'prosumer' (professional/consumer) camera looks very much like an SLR. The
sensor size however, is just 8.8mm x 6.6mm compared to the 23.7mm x 15.6mm of a
Nikon D50. The very small sensor suffers more from electronic noise, a grainy effect in
the image caused by electronic interference, as the sensor records what is sees

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When you take a photograph, the size of the image file is huge compared to many other
types of computer files since each pixel requires 24 bits (3 bytes) to store color
information. As the resolution increases, so does the file size.

Print publications require high quality 300 D.P.I. But 200 D.P.I. will provide very
acceptable quality for all but the most demanding gallery exhibitions.

Mega Pixel Just acceptable# Reasonable# Very Good#

Pixels Dimensions 72 D.P.I. 150 D.P.I. 200 D.P.I,

1 1225 x 816 17 x 11 8 X5 6X4

2 1732 X 1155 24 X 26 12 X 8 9X6

3 2121 X1414 30 X 20` 14 X 9 11 X 7

4 2449 X 1633 34 X 23 16 X 10 12 X 8

5 2739 X 1826 38 X 25 18 X 12 14 X 9

6 3000 X 2000 42 X 28 20 X 13 15 X 10

7 3240 X 2160 45 X 30 22 X 14 16 X11

8 3464 X 2309 48 X32 23 X15 17 X 12

9 3674 X 2449 51 X 34 24 X 16 18 X 12

10 3873 X2582 54 X 36 25 X 17 19 X 13

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To make image files smaller and more manageable, digital cameras use a process called
compression. Compressing images not only let's you save more images on a camera's
storage device; it also allows you to download, display, edit, and transmit them more
quickly.

During compression, data that is duplicated or that has no value is eliminated or saved in
a shorter form, greatly reducing a file’s size. For example, if large areas of the sky are the
same shade of blue, only the value for one pixel needs to be saved along with the
locations of the other pixels with the same color. When the image is then edited or
displayed, the compression process is reversed.

You have a number of choices when it comes to file formats. All digital cameras store still
images in the JPEG format, but some also let you select TIFF and/or CCD RAW. Let’s
look at all three formats.

JPEG, named after the Joint Photographic Experts Group and pronounced "jay-peg," is
by far the most popular format for photographic images. In fact, most cameras save their
images in this format unless you specify otherwise.

The only reason to choose higher compression is because it creates smaller file so you
can store more images, and it’s easier to send them by e-mail, or post them on the Web.
Most cameras give you two or three choices equivalent to good, better, best although the
names vary.

TIFF (Tagged Image File Format) has been widely accepted and widely supported as an
image format. Some cameras let you save your images in this format and because of its
popularity in digital photography, the format has been revised to TIFF/EP (Tag Image
File Format—Electronic Photography). TIFF/EP may be stored by the camera in
uncompressed form, or using JPEG compression. TIFF/EP image files are often stored in
a "read-only" fashion to prevent accidental loss of important information contained within
the file. This is why you sometimes can’t delete them once they are on your computer
without first turning off the file’s read-only attribute.

CCD RAW format stores the data directly from the image sensor without first processing
it. This data contains everything captured by the camera. In addition to the digitized raw

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sensor data, the RAW format also records color and other information that is applied
during processing to enhance color accuracy and other aspects of image quality.

In addition to image quality, RAW files have other advantages. Their files are
approximately 60% smaller than uncompressed TIFF files with the same number of
pixels and the time you have to wait between shots is shorter since processing time in
the camera is shorter.

Choosing a format

If your camera lets you choose an image format or compression ratio you should always
choose those that give you the highest quality. If you decide later that you can use a
smaller image or greater compression, you can do so to a copy of the image using a
photo-editing program. If you shoot the image at a lower quality setting, you can never
really improve it much or get a large, sharp print if you want one.

When you open an image to work on it, you should first save it so you are working on a
copy, preserving an unchanged original. Save it in a loss-free format such as TIFF. Even
better, your photo-editing program may have its own native format that preserves
information that no other format will. If you want a specific format for the finished image,
save it in that format as the final step. In particular, don't repeatedly close, open, and
resave JPEG original images.

4.3 Analogue versus Digital – what’s the difference?

Analogue systems record information about the world by creating an analogue of the
reality we perceive normally through our senses. For example, when we take a silver
image photograph we create a pattern of latent chemical changes in the emulsion layer
of the film which through development can be made visible

The camera negative, in the case of a black and white image, resembles the original to
the extent that we can hold up the image to the original scene and, although the tones
are reversed and the colours turned to shades of grey, we can see obvious similarities
between the two - so much so that we usually can recognise the negative as a
representation in two dimensions of that original scene. The recorded scene is similar to,
but not the same as, the original.

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If you have ever played a vinyl phonograph record without the sound being amplified,
you will still hear, coming from the needle (or stylus) a thin but recognizable version of
the music on the disk. This is because the original sound captured by a microphone has
been through a series of analogue changes to eventually become the analogue groove
on the record which vibrates the stylus to create the sound. Again, the recording is close
to, but not completely identical to, the original sound in its form. There are analogue
systems where this is much less obvious. For example, analogue audio or videotape
recording requires some hardware to make it obvious that the recording contains
analogue elements similar to, but not identical to the original. If you have ever seen a
sound or video image represented on an oscilloscope you will know the difference..

So what about digital? The key word with digital, the word behind all aspects of
computing, is "code". Did you ever as a child make up sentences by transposing letters
to a pattern? You couldn’t understand the sentence until you had the code key - the
secret to how it was encrypted. Have you dialed onto the internet lately? The sound you
hear coming from your modem (a device to turn digital code into audio signals that the
phone system has sufficient bandwidth to cope with) is your computer 'talking' to the
server at your internet provider. That storm of noise you hear if you accidentally pick up
the phone while you're on the net is the audio, video, text and graphics data being fed
through your computer to your screen. The important thing about this is that, unlike an
analogue system, the information bears no logical resemblance to what you are seeing
and hearing on your computer monitor. Without the necessary hardware and software we
cannot interpret digital information as anything but 'noise' or, if it could be printed out in
its raw form, page after page of coded figures.

Compared to human beings computers really are very stupid. Computers are only
capable of recognising two basic states. Computers work with binary code, a system of
ones and zeros or 'ons' and 'offs'. Every piece of information that the computer
represents as text, graphics or even video is still made up of a code consisting of ones
and zeros which are given meaning and value by the computer software. Computers
attain their complexity of operation by being incredibly fast at processing these 'on' and
'off' signals and being able to decode them to a logical meaning. The simplest element
of the code is a 'bit' which can have the value 1 or 0. If we have two bits the range of
values we can represent goes up from two to four as we can have the two bits combined
as 00, 10, 01 or 11. Three bits gives us 2 X 2 X 2 possibilities, and so on. The smallest
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block of data normally dealt with by a computer is a 'byte' (BINARY TABLE) which, at 8
bits, is enough to represent a character in text or to give us 256 colour possibilities
("codes" if you prefer) in a digital image. Digital imaging is literally painting by numbers!

Self-Check Questions
1. ____________ is determined by the number of pixels in an image
2. DPI stands for .
3. JPEG stands for .

4.4 Assignment
4.4.1 Class Assignment
1. What is the difference between analogue and digital technology.

4.4.2 Home Assignment

1. Explain the process of printing a digital photograph.

4.5 Summing Up

Capturing a digital photograph is just one step in a multi-step process called the digital
workflow. Every photographer personalizes their workflow to some extent, but all include
the post-capture steps of transferring pictures from the camera; reviewing, organizing,
and ranking them; then adjusting, publishing and archiving them. Many of the steps in
this workflow have traditionally been performed using a variety of applications including
those that do image management.

4.6 Possible answers to Self-Check Questions

1. resolution.
2. dots per inch.
3. joint picture expert group.

4.7 Terminal Question

1. Write short notes on:

a. Mega Pixels Vs Print Size

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b. Post-capture steps of transferring pictures from the camera

4.8 References

1. Langford Michael, Langford's Basic Photography, Focal Press, London

2. Sharma O.P, Practical Photography, Hind Pocket Books, New Delhi

4.9 Suggested Further Readings

1. Langford Michael, Langford's Advanced Photography, Focal Press, London

2. Keene Martin, Practical Photo-Journalism, Focal Press, London

4.10 Keywords

JPEG: named after the Joint Photographic Experts Group and pronounced "jay-peg," is
by far the most popular format for photographic images.

TIFF: Tag Image File Format has been widely accepted and widely supported as an
image format.

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Lesson 5 Legal and Ethical Issues

STRUCTURE
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Legal and Ethical Issues
5.3 Assignments

5.3.1 Class Assignment

5.3.2 Home Assignment
5.4 Summing Up
5.5 Possible answers to Self-Check Questions
5.6 Terminal Questions
5.7 References
5.8 Suggested Further Readings
5.9 Keywords

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5. Legal and Ethical Issues

In the last lesson we had discussed the process of printing of digital photographs
and editing the same according to one's need.

In this lesson we shall discuss various legal and ethical issues related to
photography.

5.0 Objectives

After going through this lesson you should be able to:

discuss the legal and ethical issues related to photography

5.1 Legal and Ethical Issues

Copyright gives the photographer exclusive rights to use and reproduce their work.
According to Wikipedia, "Photography tends to be protected by law through copyright
and moral rights". This definition looks at the protection offered to the photographed from
the photographer. It argues that photography is restricted by privacy laws, interests of
public morality and protection of children.

"Fair Use Doctrine" allows limited copying of copyrighted images for educational and
research purposes. It is not an infringement if the reproduction is used for criticism, news
reporting, teaching, scholarship and research. Any image published before 1923 is
deemed to be in the public domain, but, after this date there are various different
limitations according to when published. However 'infringement' is the unauthorised use
of the whole, or part of a photograph, without the copyright owner's permission or
commissioning the recreation of the photograph by another photographer. It is possible
to register your photograph's copyright at a cost but only very determined photographers
are willing to sue someone in court.

A signed Model Release form is essential for the photographer the model's images is
going to be used in any commercial context. Basically it grants permission for the
photograph to be published in different contexts. For stock photography, it is essential to
submit a Model Release form, of any photograph containing an identifiable person,
before it will be accepted. Shutterstock, in particular, is very strict about images of people
taken on the street. As with Google Street Maps, the blurring of people's faces can get
round this issue to some extent, but it is a legal area relating to privacy. Generally the law
is vague and varies from country to country and is usually pursued by the rich and
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famous when their photograph is taken by the paparazzi.

Photograph on Shutterstock being offered as editorial

In general, the Copyright act allows the photographing of building from public spaces.
Shutterstock has a very long list of buildings which need a property release. This
includes the Eiffel Tower, the Royal Parks, Chatsworth House and any property owned
by the National Trust. Shutterstock will reject any photograph of building less than a
hundred years old due to not wanting to infringe on any design copyrights of the architect
and/or the developer. Their list includes restrictions relating to design objects, such as
cameras, bank notes and mobile phones, just to mention a few.

Intellectual Property Rights

Plagiarism is when a photographer copies the work of another photographer without any
reworking or difference and without giving credit to the original photographer. This could
include copying an exact viewpoint of a building or landscape and at the same time of
day when it was first taken by another photographer. Passing off is seen a photographer
misrepresenting their own work by taking advantage of the work of another
photographer. An example of this could be the placing of another photographer's work
in their own portfolio and passing it off as their own. Both plagiarism and passing off are
rife within the photographic industry. It has become so easy with the ability to copy off the
Internet and manipulate within digital manipulation software, such as Photoshop. Both
have to be seen as unethical and fraudulent.

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Ethical Issues

Manipulation of the female figure in Photoshop to change the body shape

Defamation of a person by either intentional/accidental means can take place when

someone is wrongly identified as someone else and then associated with a discreditable
act. This can be seen as libellous. Similarly, if a representation of a person is
manipulated to such a extent that it becomes a caricature, or to create a false image and
open the person to ridicule, could lead to a court action.

Crude photomontage to place Stalin in close proximity with

Lenin for greater political legitimacy
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Ideological Persuasion

The so-called reputation of photography for factual objectivity has always made it a
powerful tool for ideological persuasion and has served as a means of swaying public
opinion, fostering patriotism, advancing racial ideologies and supporting or protesting
against totalitarian regimes. It has long been recognised that the falsification of
photographs was widespread when Stalin ruled the Soviet Union. In the 1930's, John
Heartfield was creating satirical anti-Nazi photomontages by drawing on the pictorial
traditions of political cartooning. Thus in terms of photographic propaganda,
Heartfield's blatant rhetoric imagery is celebrated for its ethical attacks on a fascist and
racist regime, while Stalin's photographic propagandists have remained anonymous and
unknown for their unethical erasure of communist apparatchiks and their fall from favour.

Caricature of President Lyndon Johnson by

Weegee from c1968

Offensive to an individual

Not surprisingly, it is difficult to find examples of offensive photographs of individuals on

the internet, apart from photo-caricatures on stock photography sites, such as
FotoSearch. Recently, in October 2012, Rowan Atkinson attacked the 'new intolerance'
being created by the Public Order Act. For him, it was another example of the "chilling
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effect on free expression and free protest". For him, criticism, ridicule, and sarcasm are
increasingly being interpretated as an insult to religious organisations, such as the
Scientology and Islamic fundamentalist group, Hizb ut-Tahrir. This has resulted in the
controversial arrest of a 16 year old boy and a Christian preacher according to the Daily
Telegraph. The article doesn't fully explain the offense caused by these individuals'
insults. However, the main ethical issue here is the dividing line between freedom of
expression to ridicule and satirise and the insult to religious beliefs that could be caused
by a photographic image.

Viral outrage against Lindsey Stone

Offensive to social or cultural groups

Recently a woman's Facebook picture caused Internet outrage

(http://www.myfoxboston.com/story/20150053/womans-facebook-picture-prompts-
internet-outrage). The complaints were about the woman, Lindsey Stone, making a rude
gesture and pretending to scream next to a sign asking for 'silence' and 'respect' beside
the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Washington D.C. The outrage resulted in calls being
made to Facebook, complaints being posted on the company's Facebook page and even
a Facebook page being created to demand she be fired. The consequences of this
perceived insult to America's fallen veterans was for her to be placed on unpaid leave by
her employers, the Cape Cod business, Living Independently Forever (LIFE).

Jamie Schuh, the other LIFE employee involved in the incident, had to offer a lengthy
apology for the pain the image had caused through its poor taste and embarrassment to
their employers. It is clear Stone had not thought through the strength of American
reaction before posting the photograph and the resulting media storm. However, should
she be censured to such an extent for a moment of inappropriate humour.

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Most people expect the right to privacy and are offended by any physical intrusion into
their private space. People are therefore entitled to an expectation of seclusion with a
reasonable expectation that others will not interfere with that privacy. Actions by
investigators and photographers, which might violate this principle, include trespassing,
use of covert cameras and fraudulent entry. Therefore, in a public space the
photographer can photograph anything to be seen, except for harassing people or
creating a disturbance. However, there is an increasing privatisation of public space
with more restrictions being placed on photographers by the police's use of anti-
terrorism legislation.

Attack on a paparazzi for invasion of privacy.

Photographers can't use long telephoto lens to intrude into someone's private space.
This was shown by the recent controversy over the topless photographs of Kate
Middleton, taken by an unknown 'lurking paparazzi' photographer and the royal family's
multinational battle to stop the spread of the images. Obviously, part of the argument for
stopping their publication would centre on the photographer's unethical intrusion on Kate
Middleton's private space in order to make financial gain. There is an interesting article
called "Privacy, not invisibility" from the Press Complaints Commission about various
rulings they have made, such as the Prince William photographs in Chile, and other
acceptable/unacceptable use of photography in the press
(http://www.pcc.org.uk/assets/449/Clause_3.pdf).

Public disclosure is the opposite side of the debate, to the need for privacy, when
embarrassing private facts are published about an individual. This can be seen as highly
offensive to the person and they could sue for damages, especially if it is not of legitimate
concern to the public. However, it can be argued that public disclosure by photographic
means of criminal or terrorist activities is ethical, especially if it supports whistle blowing
on corporate or government activities, which are illegal. Lawyers will often defend public
disclosure for reasons of newsworthiness, revealing facts not known to the public and
for revealing criminal activities. The decision between what is privacy and public
disclosure is often a legal decision.

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ANNEXURE
History of Photography Timeline

Ancient times: Camera obscuras used to form images on walls in darkened

rooms; image formation via a pinhole
16th century: Brightness and clarity of camera obscuras improved by enlarging
the hole inserting a telescope lens
17th century: Camera obscuras in frequent use by artists and made portable in
the form of sedan chairs
1727: Professor J. Schulze mixes chalk, nitric acid, and silver in a flask; notices
darkening on side of flask exposed to sunlight. Accidental creation of the first
photo-sensitive compound.
1800: Thomas Wedgwood makes "sun pictures" by placing opaque objects on
leather treated with silver nitrate; resulting images deteriorated rapidly, however,
if displayed under light stronger than from candles.
1816: Nicéphore Niépce combines the camera obscura with photosensitive paper
1826: Niépce creates a permanent image
1834: Henry Fox Talbot creates permanent (negative) images using paper
soaked in silver chloride and fixed with a salt solution. Talbot created positive
images by contact printing onto another sheet of paper.
1837: Louis Daguerre creates images on silver-plated copper, coated with silver
iodide and "developed" with warmed mercury; Daguerre is awarded a state
pension by the French government in exchange for publication of methods and
the rights by other French citizens to use the Daguerreotype process.
1841: Talbot patents his process under the name "calotype".
1851: Frederick Scott Archer, a sculptor in London, improves photographic
resolution by spreading a mixture of collodion (nitrated cotton dissolved in ether
and alcoohol) and chemicals on sheets of glass. Wet plate collodion
photography was much cheaper than daguerreotypes, the negative/positive

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process permitted unlimited reproductions, and the process was published but
not patented.
1853: Nadar (Felix Toumachon) opens his portrait studio in Paris
1854: Adolphe Disderi develops carte-de-visite photography in Paris, leading to
worldwide boom in portrait studios for the next decade
1855: Beginning of stereoscopic era
1855-57: Direct positive images on glass (ambrotypes) and metal (tintypes or
ferrotypes) popular in the US.
1861: Scottish physicist James Clerk-Maxwell demonstrates a color photography
system involving three black and white photographs, each taken through a red,
green, or blue filter. The photos were turned into lantern slides and projected in
registration with the same color filters. This is the "color separation" method.
1861-65: Mathew Brady and staff (mostly staff) covers the American Civil War,
exposing 7000 negatives
1868: Ducas de Hauron publishes a book proposing a variety of methods for
color photography.
1870: Center of period in which the US Congress sent photographers out to the
West. The most famous images were taken by William Jackson and Tim
O'Sullivan.
1871: Richard Leach Maddox, an English doctor, proposes the use of an
emulsion of gelatin and silver bromide on a glass plate, the "dry plate" process.
1877: Eadweard Muybridge, born in England as Edward Muggridge, settles "do
a horse's four hooves ever leave the ground at once" bet among rich San
Franciscans by time-sequenced photography of Leland Stanford's horse.
1878: Dry plates being manufactured commercially.
1880: George Eastman, age 24, sets up Eastman Dry Plate Company in
Rochester, New York. First half-tone photograph appears in a daily newspaper,
the New York Graphic.
1888: First Kodak camera, containing a 20-foot roll of paper, enough for 100 2.5-
inch diameter circular pictures.
1889: Improved Kodak camera with roll of film instead of paper
1890: Jacob Riis publishes How the Other Half Lives, images of tenament life in
New york City
1900: Kodak Brownie box roll-film camera introduced.

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1902: Alfred Stieglitz organizes "Photo Secessionist" show in New York City
1906: Availability of panchromatic black and white film and therefore high
quality color separation color photography. J.P. Morgan finances Edward
Curtis to document the traditional culture of the North American Indian.
1907: First commercial color film, the Autochrome plates, manufactured by
Lumiere brothers in France
1914: Oscar Barnack, employed by German microscope manufacturer Leitz,
develops camera using the modern 24x36mm frame and sprocketed 35mm
movie film.
1917: Nippon Kogaku K.K., which will eventually become Nikon, established in
Tokyo.
1921: Man Ray begins making photograms ("rayographs") by placing objects
on photographic paper and exposing the shadow cast by a distant light bulb;
Eugegrave;ne Atget, aged 64, assigned to photograph the brothels of Paris
1924: Leitz markets a derivative of Barnack's camera commercially as the
"Leica", the first high quality 35mm camera.
1925: André Kertész moves from his native Hungary to Paris, where he begins
an 11-year project photographing street life
1928: Albert Renger-Patzsch publishes The World is Beautiful, close-ups
emphasizing the form of natural and man-made objects; Rollei introduces the
Rolleiflex twin-lens reflex producing a 6x6 cm image on rollfilm.; Karl Blossfeldt
publishes Art Forms in Nature
1931: Development of strobe photography by Harold ("Doc") Edgerton at MIT
1932: Inception of Technicolor for movies, where three black and white
negatives were made in the same camera under different filters; Ansel Adams,
Imogen Cunningham, Willard Van Dyke, Edward Weston, et al, form Group
f/64 dedicated to "straight photographic thought and production".; Henri
Cartier-Bresson buys a Leica and begins a 60-year career photographing
people; On March 14, George Eastman, aged 77, writes suicide note--"My
work is done. Why wait?"--and shoots himself.
1933: Brassaï publishes Paris de nuit
1934: Fuji Photo Film founded. By 1938, Fuji is making cameras and lenses in
addition to film.

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1935: Farm Security Administration hires Roy Stryker to run a historical

section. Stryker would hire Walker Evans, Dorothea Lange, Arthur Rothstein,
et al. to photograph rural hardships over the next six years. Roman Vishniac
begins his project of the soon-to-be-killed-by-their-neighbors Jews of Central
and Eastern Europe.
1936: Development of Kodachrome, the first color multi-layered color film;
development of Exakta, pioneering 35mm single-lens reflex (SLR) camera

World War II:

Development of multi-layer color negative films
Margaret Bourke-White, Robert Capa, Carl Mydans, and W. Eugene
Smith cover the war for LIFE magazine
1947: Henri Cartier-Bresson, Robert Capa, and David Seymour start the
photographer-owned Magnum picture agency
1948: Hasselblad in Sweden offers its first medium-format SLR for commercial
sale; Pentax in Japan introduces the automatic diaphragm; Polaroid sells
instant black and white film
1949: East German Zeiss develops the Contax S, first SLR with an unreversed
image in a pentaprism viewfinder
1955: Edward Steichen curates Family of Man exhibit at New York's Museum
of Modern Art
1959: Nikon F introduced.
1963: First color instant film developed by Polaroid; Instamatic released by
Kodak; first purpose-built underwater introduced, the Nikonos
1970: William Wegman begins photographing his Weimaraner, Man Ray.
1972: 110-format cameras introduced by Kodak with a 13x17mm frame
1973: C-41 color negative process introduced, replacing C-22
1975: Nicholas Nixon takes his first annual photograph of his wife and her
sisters: "The Brown Sisters"; Steve Sasson at Kodak builds the first working
CCD-based digital still camera
1976: First solo show of color photographs at the Museum of Modern Art, William
Eggleston's Guide
1977: Cindy Sherman begins work on Untitled Film Stills, completed in 1980;
Jan Groover begins exploring kitchen utensils
1978: Hiroshi Sugimoto begins work on seascapes.
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1980: Elsa Dorfman begins making portraits with the 20x24" Polaroid.
1982: Sony demonstrates Mavica "still video" camera
1983: Kodak introduces disk camera, using an 8x11mm frame (the same as in
the Minox spy camera)
1985: Minolta markets the world's first autofocus SLR system (called
"Maxxum" in the US); In the American West by Richard Avedon
1988: Sally Mann begins publishing nude photos of her children
1987: The popular Canon EOS system introduced, with new all-electronic lens
mount
1990: Adobe Photoshop released.
1991: Kodak DCS-100, first digital SLR, a modified Nikon F3
1992: Kodak introduces PhotoCD
1993: Founding of photo.net (this Web site), an early Internet online
community; Sebastiao Salgado publishes Workers; Mary Ellen Mark publishes
book documenting life in an Indian circus.
1995: Material World, by Peter Menzel published.
1997: Rob Silvers publishes Photomosaics
1999: Nikon D1 SLR, 2.74 megapixel for $6000, first ground-up DSLR design
by a leading manufacturer.
2000: Camera phone introduced in Japan by Sharp/J-Phone
2001: Polaroid goes bankrupt
2003: Four-Thirds standard for compact digital SLRs introduced with the
Olympus E-1; Canon Digital Rebel introduced for less than $1000
2004: Kodak ceases production of film cameras
2005: Canon EOS 5D, first consumer-priced full-frame digital SLR, with a
24x36mm CMOS sensor for $3000; Portraits by Rineke Dijkstra

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