Fundamentals Basic Concept of Computers “ CHAPTER ONEFundamentals Basic Concept of Computers Ch. no. OF 1. History of Computer Introduction: [tvis/ ani electronic device: that/is used to. solve\ various’ problems according to set of instructions given 10 it. » : Computer f666ives!input\(datay in a particular form. Performs operations on data by predetermined set of instructions (program) and produces output/fésult, (Information). Computers run programs, which process data and perform tasks based on the instruction contained in the program and computer program can evaluate data and perform task based on those evaluations, results are generated which can be used for large number of applications. Computers can process data with little assistance. Some examples for computer application are: +’ Printing books * Tracking inventory + Tuming on lights at a specified time etc. 1.1. History of Data Processing th -Itisa i ires with beads'strung on then, When these beads are moved around, according-to programming rules memorized by the user, all regular arithmetic problem can be done, The This device Permits the users to represent numbers by the position of beads on a rack. Simple addition and subtraction can be carried out rapidly and efficiently by positioning the beads appropriately. It is interesting to note that it ipacillusedin the Fansastand it” TheSo a commuter is normally sorisidet calculating: device that can an perform creations a ¥ But more re than 80% of the work done by. computer today is of no-mathematical nature. Computer was invented because ae is the mother of invention”. aan Another calculating was designed in ear] century and its upgraded versions were in use even around. (1890. HermaiiiHollerithijenmeliip with the concept Of punchedicards, which a few years ago were extensively used as input media in modem digital computers. Business machines and calculators made their appearanies in Barope and Aiffiética towards the end of the nitieteenthicentury, Charles’ Babbage, was a 19" centuryProfessorlatliCambrdge!l digital’computersyDuring this périod, mathematical and statistical tables were prepared by a group of clerks, Even the extreme care and precautions could not eliminate human errors. think to buildlaimaching which could ‘ ~be,ertor-freg. In this process, Babbage designed a Wiffereace|Enging”, in the year 1822 which could produce reliable tables. In.1842, Babbage came out with a new idea of Aifalyti¢al’ Engine! It was to be capable of performing the basic arithmetic functions for any mathematical problem. Some of the well-known computers are as under: 1.1.1, HARVARD MARK-I Computer (1939-1944): The Harvard Mark-I was an élécttomechanical compiiter/developed by Howard Aiken at Harvard University and Builf®by®IBM! It is also known as Automati¢ Srreeteesicaieios this’ was the firSt@full This machine was extremely reliable. There were over 30 ‘Switches |to control its operation. It was huge in eet approximately, It was capable of perform basic arithmetic operations like Addition, Subtraction, "multiplication, and division. It took approximately O]3!secondsitojadd ($ioTHlitabersjand HSiSeconds forinultiplicatiompftwoInumbers? This machine wasFundarsentals Basic Concept of Computers Ch. na. OF very slow as compared today’s computers, 1.1.2. ENIAC (1943-1946): ee ef and ENIAC was the dream of a universal computer. DesigaedlSpetifically:for It used plug boards for i i machine. The mhchine ‘ Instructions read from a card reader. The disadvantage was that it took days to rewire the machine for each new problem. This was such .a liability that only with some generosity could it be called 1.1.3. EDVAC Computer (1946-1952): Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer. was one of the earliest electronic computers, it did not become operational until 1952. EDVAC was an rather than the decimal operations of ENIAC. The basic idea was that a séqu i HS as well as dataléanlbelstoredy for automatic directing the flow of operations. The stored program influenced the development of modem digital computers because of this feature refer to modem digital computers. 1.1.4. UNIVAC-I Computer (1951): Universal Automatic Computer-I was the first general-purpose electronic digital You can give input with keyboard/console typewrite and magnetic tape was used for both type as input and output. 1.1.5. Computer Generation . Initially, the generation iguish between hardware technologies. Nowadays, génerationy » Which together make up an entire computer term was used to system. There are totall i i ill:to;date: The computer era in terms of generation came into wide after 1964, Each generation provides .a 4— framework for the growth of computer industry. Before- going to discuss the generation see the below figure: Generation of Computer ‘Fourth \Generntion Thiet 4971-1980) otic Second Generation Generation (1965-1971) toceness) (3350-065) gat Integrated cleat “Salesntagration Wacuumitube Transistors > 1* Generation Computer (1946-59): Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer was the world’s a general Purpose digital computer. ENIAC’ s started in l This system used 18000)y Drawback: It was programmed manually by setting switches and plugging/unplugging cables. The task of entering and altering programs was extremely tedious. > 254 Generation Computer (1959-1965): The first majorschange’ in the electronic computer was the replacement of the vacuum tubelbyithe transistor like in Figure 2 Transistor. The transistor is smaller, cheaper, and less heat generator than vacuum tube but can be used in the same way as a vacuum tube to construct > 34 Generation Computer (1965-1971): The new Figure Zvransistor technology ICiisiealled integrated ireuits|like'in JCs! The main advantages in electronics technology is a microelectronics and its be make possible to integrate large no of a circuit elements into very ©" 7 ‘small surface of Aiea oar as Sipgy01 Fundamentals Basic Concept of Computers One > 4% Generation Computer (1971-1980): Initially, the ifitegratedicireuitsy . This technology was named (smiall’seale/ / Later, it became possible to integrate up to alhundrediy become Very large scale integration (VLSD. uN > Sth Generation Computer (1980-Present and beyond): — ‘integration (ULSI) chips was introduced and this chip can contain Scientists are now at work on the fifth generation computers which has become reality with the aim to bring us machines with genuine intelligence, the ability to reason logically and with real knowledge of the world. In structure in parallel processing computer can be able to do multiple tasks simultaneously. 1.2. Types of Computers All the computers that are developed different designs and features. Some computers have i however, ey net eee GED GD ED > =) ce) depending upon the requirements. It als ‘© have internal structur t features and applicability, ‘e and subsequent computer system is categorized like in figure below: 124, Analog Computer This type of computers normally An analog computer doesnot operate with di gital signals like in figure bellow. 2. * 6| Analog Signal It @00Bilizes{datajas a continuous measurement of a physical property! Its Analog S#rusorswoncourvien computer has loWmemory and feWErAUNCHONE. It is usually built for special purposes. Analog computer is mainly gg6dV i , eg. voltage 1.2.2. Hybrid Computer ; A hybrid computer is a outer. Some part of processing is done on an analog computer and some part.on digital computer. A hybrid computer combines EXAMPLES OF HYBRID COMPUTERS both the analog and digital computer. It can ¢.g. Hybrid computer devices may galealatg” 1.2.3. Digital Computers Acdigital, computer, Works ‘with digits.’ numb¢ it operate on digit and eg, IBMIPO} Calculators; Digital watohes,ete.” Types of Digital Computer: Computers can be categorized in several ways. Some computers are designed for one person or groups of People. They also can be which ‘at which they operate. These system based on usage. Some computers fulfil the needs of many users at the same time. These Powerful.systems are often used by organizations, Such as businesses or omFundamentals Basic Concept of Computers Ch. no. O1 schools organizational network, ¢.g., Maitiffaine’ ComputérsiyNetwouk Servers, andy Few types of digital computer are as under: a, Super Computer: It is an extfémély!fast computer, which can execute ili Supercomputer is one of the computer is very expensive and specialized applications that require huge‘amounts of mathematical calculations. A supercomputer is not simply a fast or very large computer. This system normal point operat ond. It * Serial Processing: In general, computer does atyastimey so it does things in a distinct series of operations, e.g., like a person sitting at a grocery store checkout, picking up items from the conveyor belt, running them through the scanner, then passing them on for you to pack in your bags. + Parallel processing: A modern supercomputer works nnich'more'quickly by between several different friends. Each friend can go through a separate checkout with a few of the items and pay separately. Supercomputers are extremely po is equal to one ‘quadrillion floating point operations per second. operations all6w"a' Compilterito breakaway’ from traditional binary communication, improving the speed and complexity of the information. The most powerful supercomputers in the world today are capable of performing up to 93) pet flops, e.g., Weather forecasting, scientific simulations, animated graphics, complex calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data analysis etc. b. Mainframe Computer: itis aa capable of supporting te ftware technology is different from sfbecause they stipport more simultaneous programs. A farge!cabinet called "*iaifi franies" ‘like in figure below. These computers are capable of handling and Processing very large amounts of data quickly. It can exeoutesMIPS) (million instructions per second) and respond’ 1008) of ‘itiillions» of users: at»a timey e.g., governmental organizations! for Critical/applications;“bulk data processing such as census, industry and consumer statistics ¢.g., Control the city CCTV cameras étc. ¢. Workstation: It is also a siiglepuser computer/systemy similar to personal computer however a moreipowerfullinn7 jprocessor [Workstation is a computer gised ‘for’ engineering / applications (CAD/CAM)/ désktop publishing, . sofware development and other such types of applications which fies: require a moderatéamountyofwcomputifigm power and relatively highiqualityigraphicsjcapabilities. Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, lafgeyamount.ofsRAM, network support and a graphical user interface. Common operating’ systensifor ‘workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. d. Personal Computer: It is a sifigle“isercomputerssystem”have powerfull microprocessor; A PC can be definedyas’asmally relatively inexpensive computer designed for anindividialluserPCs are based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to putan entire: CPU onone chip’ "aad Personal computers can be wSéd!forsword'processing; accounting; ‘desktop publishing, spreadsheet” and database managementjapplications./A tome; the most popular use for personal computers is playingygames’ Ss > and siirfing the Internet. Figure I Personal Computer Types of Personal Computer: few types of personal computers are as below: © Tower model: The term refers to a computer in which the power supply, motherboard and mass storage devicesware|stacked’on top -of Gachvotherin' a: Cabinet This is in contrast to desktop models, in which these‘ Components "are. Housed i/aimore|compact box) The main advantage of tower models is that there are fewerspacelfor installation Of additional’storage devices casier as you can see in above figure 1 Personal computer.gg Fundamentals Basic Concept of Computers Ch. no. O1 e Desktop model: A computer designed to “4 typically with the esktop model computers are broad and low because of their shape used for internal mass storage devices like in figure Desktop model. Figure 2 Desktop Model * Notebook Computer: An extremely NGHEORIEAEPetenabicomaeo# Notebook ‘computers typically a o:fit bri Bige between a notebook conipute? ae a | personal computer is th Notebook computers use a variety of techniques, known as /flatpanel? ight; and’ non=bulky display-Sereehy’ Notebook computers cOSt aboutlltwiceyas much as equivalent regular-sized computers. Notebook computers come with battery packs that enable you to. i plugging theminyHowever, the batteries need to be recharged every few hours. Laptop Computer: A siialll portable computer can sition” lowadays, laptop"computers are more frequently called .noteébookscomputers. Notebook computers have a © Hand-held Computer: A portable computer that isismall /Although extremely convenient to carry, handheld computers havé it are specifically - esigned to jprovide|PIM{\(personal information manager) such as a . Hand-held computers are also and pocket computers liketin figure-3 handheld computer. ' 10 Figure3 Handheld computere Smart Phone: Smart phones work as small PCs because they offfentadvaricedy These features can include specialisoftware applications ‘and special’hardware such as:digitilicameras’or musiciplayérs, ¢.g.,appley phoneésAndroid'phone etc. 1 1.3. Components/Elements of Computer A computer device is made up of various elements which help in its effective functioning and processing. There are fivelbasie Componientslofithe:computer which help in making this processing of data easier and convenient swhich make"the"firictioningwof an electronic device, There are five basic components which include: Elements ofa computer system Figure 4 Elements of Computer -Central Processing Unit: CPUiisithe(core of any computer devices: It comprises threeimajoricomponents of the computer which have been discussed above: * Memory Unit * Control Unit « Arithmetic and Logical Unit All these three units are elements of CPU that help in-the efficient working and processing of data. IGiS/als6/knowniasithe“Brain of Computer” and nojaction can bey at The device is a close-knit circuit comparison microprocessor which helps in fetching the data and proving suitable results to the user. Thus, @PUlisithe ‘main processing ‘unit of the computer. 11Fundamentals Basic Concept of Computers J Ch. no. O1 ‘Alkthercomputations such as adding/@ibHActing, multiplying, and aividing processor. The most populavimicroprocessor used is the asta ‘ThE'Speed of a computer's processor is snecmsdinnessherizieveie® jut higher megahertz doesn't always mean better p formance. Though (HZ hip has a clock speed that is fWiG# as fast as a 3002Mihz chip, it doesn't mean that the computer with the 600-Mhz chip will run twice as fast. This is because the speedjof a computer is , such as therefficiency or thesprocessor, the busjarchitecture, the amount of memory and the software that is running on the computer. Some processors can complete more operations per clock cycle than other processors, making them more efficient than other processors with why the RewerPG:chips rmegahertz.y- -Memory Unit: When we enterthé/data' into the computer using.an input device, the entered information immediately gets saved.in,the memoryiinit because of the Presence of some existing programming, the Memory:Unit,transmitsethe data to a Similarly, when the output of our command is processed yy the computer, it is saved in the memory unit before giving the output to the user. : -Control Unit: CU is the GSR tit Which manages the entire Ritetioning of the” COMpUIEEIGEVIEE. It is one of the most essentialeomiponent of the computer system. The Control Unit c6lléstsithe'datajenitered Using the input unit, leads it on for processing and once that is done, the output and presents it to the user’ Itcan be said to the MAST all proves: ig actiOns taking place inside a computer device. Basically, the instructions taken, interpretation of entered data, issuing signals to execute the data and then finally retrieving the data is all done in the Control Unit. CU unit/controls the operations ofall parts of the;computer but fions. It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a computer. It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer. It 1 than Pentium: / for transfer of data or results from storage. It does not process or store data. -Arithmetical and Logical Unit: ALU performs all’ the miithemiatical 12caletilations or arithmetic operations are performed in the Arithmetic and Logical f the CPU. It can also péHonmilactions*likeyalicomparison or data’ and The ALU comprises circuits using which .addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and other numerical based calculations can be performed, -Input Unit: This unit is Wedntougivelomimands/insttuction to the CPU e.g., is used to type anything give/feed data to any program or softwares. The data entered can be in the form of numbers, alphabet, images, etc. We enter the information using an input device, the processing units convert it into computer understandable languages and then the final output is received by a human- understandable language. ioe Unit: The most basic devicd WEiSs ined to 800 tio OTST. Various output devices connected to the computer. Whatever we write using a keyboard or click using a mouse, is all displayed on the monitor. Thus, the output unit gives us the final result once the entire processing is done within the mechanism of a device. e.g., when we visit an ATM, we enter our details like language, piny to\beiwithdrawn, etc. and then the final money which the iste enttmaamseaest In this cashidispenser.acts.as.anoutput unit” case, the 1.4. Computer System and Business Computer System and iprocess|data according to internal instructions. Computers are used in govemment/agenciés! 1 d households! but their impact has been greatest — Se competitivess#iatire of business has créatédiedemandsy spurring continuous ° ri 5 . F re . Meanwhile, declining Prices and increasing computing powei-has led a large percentage of all businesses to invest in computer-systems. eas Computers are used to process data in all areas of business operations: - Inventory;control anid’distribation > 13Ch. no. O1 Fundamentals Basic Concept of Computers - Sales and marketing - Transaction processing - ‘Customer support - Account/financial management md planning - Personnel management + Internal and external communications + Data exchange with suppliers, customers, and government agencies ¢ Laptops vs. Desktops: Business owners who are considering the purchase of computers have a lot of decisions to make, including the types of computers they want to be used in their offices, Laptops or desktops. Laptops have surged in popularity the past decade as However, some ‘Guatesktopsjareistilla'good option for many ¢omparties/Here are some factors to consider: i. Cost of purchase and repair: SBsshepomputen are often moréjaffordable, compared to laptops that have similar processing speeds and features. In addition, desktops may,be less|costly to repair as their internal components are generally more accessible. ii. Size and design: Both desktop and laptop computers are available in a range of sizes. If space is at a premium in your office, take the time to compare the size and shapé of available machines. ErgotiGiiics is also.a factor if your employees will be spending a lot of time at their desks, choosing a system that encourages In some cases, laptops can present greater ergonomic challenges, although these can be overcome by purchasing peripherals, such as a ‘Separate"monitor, and,accessories: This is especially the case for system keyboards, as laptops are designed with keyboards that are flatter than those with desktops. Portability: Where do your employees work? If you expect your team to be at their desks most of the time, desktops may make the most sense. If yeurteamiis” Of the road ‘alot; laptops"are'the better,choice. In some cases, your best option may be to purchase a mix of machines: Laptops for the sales and promotional teams, and desktops for administrative staff. Bear in mind that the computers: 14iv. Microcomputers in Business: Commonly known as desktopiicomputers or Personaliicomputers)(PCs), microcomputers , ns; especially those involving power? for..a.widesnumbér of business ,,functio eacemaEa gi The category "microcomputer", though somewhat more powerful computer but mainframes and minicomputers (midrange computers) that dominated business computing before the 1980s. While modem’ systems. : Popular businesssapplications)available.for.hicrocomputers’ include «spreadshieet;" wordyprocessinig/ database» management”'systems; decision” , , communications,” and . Illustrations of business use include transactional, knowledge-based, office —=, automation, management information, decision support, and executive support systems. : + Servers Computer: Our tant of business class servers from AFEHCSE ps We can unlock new levels of pecfarinnice —_ scalability for small businesses and organizations with even the most demanding workloads. When you depend, on. software applications,specific.to-younbusiness; kiowing” that. yoursserver-platform=is:extremely..important. Server’s computer that deliver ;, So that your business can stay ahead. Whether you run a small office or large multi-site operation, Servers from IT Champion are the perfect fit for your IT needs. ¢ Workstations Computer: A workstation computer and hardware from the world’s leading manufacturers including HP, Dell & Lenovo, which provide high Piiommance products and reliability backed up with excellent local and worldwide 1.4.1. System Design and Configuration Computer systems may be designed for a specific industry's use, including all necessary. Vendors that provide integrated computer systems include original equipment manufacturers are value-added resellers (VARs) etc. VARs wholesalers buy computers, software, and peripherals often from separate suppliers and configure them as ready-to-use systems. Alternatively, a business can have its computer system 15. OF Fundamentals Basic Concept of Computers Ch. no. 03 custom-designed by a computer service firm. However businesers companies purchase their computers and other system components separately and installed them on their own, a8 computers have become more standard and compatible with other computes, ~ Key applications: The most common uses of a computer system are for database’ ing, and..wordsprocessing? Database changing information on such / of large amounts of tems are usediiforya variety of mathematical yhether in the record keeping of financial service firms or in the general /aeeountitigitasks)of janyibusiness. Using spreadsheets and database management software, computers may be used by a and payrolldepartments, among. others. In accounts=payable, addition to i companies use computers to ge other critical performance information. Databases are also used to Help'make gic hrough the use of software based on artificial intelligence or other specialized tools. Database technology is increasingly being applied to Storing ‘human knowledge, experience, . wledge bases are frequently associated with expert systems, which are a special form of management decision support systems. The goal of such systems is to provide a decision maker with information that will help him to make the best possible choices. These systems attempt to harness the knowledge and experience of the most highly trained in field and Pass this information along to everyone in the business who works in that field. This is increasingly important in complex or rapidly changing professional environments. Expert systems are used in regulatory compliance, contract bidding, production control, customer support and general training, among other areas. Computer systems increasingly are also being used in like Ssepone ins igh seed eve mrp mio ters for a host of internal and external communications functions over computer networks. These functions include voice and electronic messaging as 16well as data exchange. The tremendous growth of the litemeband World Wideweb 1.4.2, Importance of Computers in Business Computers have become eSSéntial bUSitiessitools. They are used in every aspect of a company's operations including: - Product creation, =~ + Marketing, =~ - Accounting + Administration, ©" a It is critical that business owners.take the time to choose the Tight computers, — software and peripherals for their organization. Given the diversity of modem technology, from smartphones and tablets to large desktop systems, the choice of the best tech for your business can be daunting. Business Computer Functions: Most business processes now irivolve the use of computers like: + Communications: Companies use computers for both interalyandlextemal commitinications’ via email, messenger systems, conferencing and word Processing. + Research: Businesses can use computers in research industry, ‘Patents; ia search engines and proprietary databases. : + Media Production: Computers are now used to produce different types of media, including graphics, video and * Data Tracking and Storage} Although paper files containing hard copy documents are still in uSe, organizations also _ = Software and the cloud: *. Product Development: Developers use computers to ate Hew! prodiietjandy (Services. ; * Human resources: HR processes and payroll systems are managed using software and oe services. q 1.4.3. Business C Computer System accessories When purchasing business computer systems, remember to budget“for any 17Ch. no. 01 Fundamentals Basic Concept of Computers aed: monitor; keyboard aid mouse fokeachiemployer. Optin accessories you may “A oe : for cheap items can be a false economy. These are the tools employees use to interact with their computers, it's important they are comfortable and durable. Makersuré s. There may also be other accessories that would be beneficial. ~ Business Computer prices: Normal Pc’s prices start at £250 approximately in Pakistani rupees 70000/- but may need replacing sooner. Mid-range pes are best for general business tasks like word processing and accessing the internet. They cost £350 to £500 and should last about three years. High-end pcs with fast processors start at £600. They can handle intensive tasks like video editing and large databases. These office computers may also be better able to handle system upgrades. These prices are for desktop computers. Expect to pay a little more for a standard laptop, or significantly more for an ultra-thin model. If you opt for an Apple device, MAC desktop computers start from around £1,050, while MACBOOK laptops start at the £1,250 mark. V4 48. Backing Storage Devices = What is Data storage: Storing data mean puttitig thie dataliita kntownplaee?We can later come back to that place and get.our..data»backwagain” . Reading Gataimean’ retrieving data or opening a file are ways of say g that we aresgetting-our:data’ back from its_storage” - What is Backing Storage: Backing storage (s@condary) S1OPAB2) is the name for sallnotheridatalstorage devieesbinvarcompiiter: jmardeaHiVe! etc. Backing storage is usually donevolatile, so it is generally jacking Storage devices are Backing storage refers to (emory/(RAM). When a computer restarts or loses Power, it clears the internal memory: i i Common backing storage devices include aiteraal hard drivey, aaa, - Backing Storage vs Main Memory: The difference is like that: 18diitalin the!'memoryidisappears). Main memory is eal to store data whilst it is being processedibysthe’©PUSData can be put into memory, and read back from it, very quickly. + Backing storage an isiterialldevice y/stores data on a sompuie: while, it is in use. An extemal device such as a USB flash drivetca computers. Larger devices keep a backup copy of ‘data in case the Saeed drive fails or corrupts data. Backing storage devices need power to! inesentane ae (DVDspideal|forlong-termstorage. Backing storage also and hasifarigreatericapacity, allowing multiple copies of data mn different devices. Most backing'storage'dévices are slower than’ intertiali memory. ‘A data has * to be stored on some data storage medium like: / — + Magnetic tape: This tape is deadjllonglivélaround inthe’80s. Magnetic tape was most commonly:used;medium. for: data storage; ybackup,"/- ds interchange. In computer, this was a storage medium that allowsiforidatajarch collection, and backup, At first, the tapes were wound in wheel-like reels but then cassettes and cartridges came along, which offered more protection for the tape inside like in figure Magnetic Tape. ~ Magnetic Tepe = ) , ~~ = Hard disk: Hard disks were built according to the concept in 1980s. Hard disk drives were normallysused together: — ig inseam paconstitero/ ices ‘were'set aside for the!computers: ‘to break’ the 1GB barrier in 1980. Hard disks (ard drives amounts of ptops and other digital systems. The main hard disk in a PC system is where the operating system, executable programs and files are stored. Hard-drives have'a very large storage capacity, a. They can be used to store vast amounts of data, Hard drives are randoi «to store all types of data’ including huge files such as y fast. Data is stored inside\a hard-drive on rotating metal or elas dice queensFundamentals Basic Concept of Computers are Of veryicomipiiter hala ANed hatdediive? Fixed hard-drives act as the main.backingy aa almost all computers since they provide almost:instantiaccessito idom access and high access speeds). Portable/extern: rd Drive: A portable hard-drive is one that is of data to be transported from computer to computer. Many, (iPod classic) ives! These devices are just not much bigger than a stamp, but can still store over t > Removable Media Magnetic Discs: few types are as below: © Zip Disc: A removable and portable storage medium, similar in ; ith much capacity of (L00MB, 250MByor 750MB):" h were . Another obsolete storage device, zip dises were a is ;, but they never caught on fully before being superseded by cheaper media like ©D5ROMs and‘@D:RS like in figure Zip Disk. Figure 5 Zip Disk . © Jaz Disc: A removable and portable storage medium based on hard-drive technology, with 's are random acoéss devices which were . Discs were éxpensive'to)bily and . Like the Zip disc, this system never Teally caught on and was superseded by far cheaper and more reliable and cheaper technology. 20Figure 6 Jaz disk © Optical Storage/Dise Drives: The optical storage device that most of us are familiar with is the . A CD can Storeshugesamountslofidigitay dofommiation on a very small surface | that is incredibly imexpensivejtormanufacture: The CD t areatrangediiny The ‘CD ayer reads bumps with a precise laser, and interprets the information as bits of data like in figure optical storage. f Figure 7 Optical Storage Why Optical: Optical storage devices Mailman iempaso RIDE can (Ge FeAdWBing light! A laser‘beamtyisithemusualjlight;source. The data on the storage medium is read, by- bouncing, the laser, beamiofi the surfacerof the medium. If the jt is reflected back differently to how it would be if there were no dot. This difference can be detected, so the data can be read. Dots can be created using the laser beam (for media that is writable such as CD-Rs). The beam is used 2aFundamentals Basic Concept of Computers Ch. no. O1 in a high-power mode to actually mark the surface of the'medium, making a dot. This 2 : © Read-Only Discs; Read-only optical discs have data written onto’ them witeny This_data,cannotibelichatiged’ Compact Disc Read-Only they: are manufactured, Memory (CD-ROM) discs can e data cannot be altered (aonevolatile), so jeaittiotibejaccidentlyrdeleted” CD-ROMs are safidoni’ snccessidevices: CD-ROMS are used to distribute all sorts of data like software, 6ffice © DVD-ROM: discs can hold around 4{%GBI6Fdatay DVD-ROMS are random-access devices. DVD-ROMs are used in the same way as CD-ROMs but they can holdimoredataythey are also © Blu-Ray Disk: Blu-Ray disks are a gecentireplacement*for-DVDS. A Blu- Ray disc can hold!25/t6{50GB'6f data! Blu-Ray discs are random-access devices. Blu-Ray discs are used in thé same way as DVD-ROMs but they can hold more data, they are also used i i © HD DVD: Highidensity/aisesi¢an hold ‘around 1SGB of data. HD-DVDs are random-access devices. HD-DVD discs are. i s but they can hold more data, they are | sey Neto you nove the photo om the hardrive {0.0 CO-R.youdo nothave 2 back-up —you sil srr haeane copy te ts bt ey Orginal dota ockupts) ‘870 0n a CD instead of the hard-drive. Why Backup Data: If you delete a file by accident, your computer breaks, your laptop is stolen, or your business burns to the ground, having a backup copy means that you have not lost your precious data. You can recover your lost files and Continue working. Most businesses use computers to store very important data (customer records, financial information, designs for products, etc.) If this data is 23Fundamentals Basic Concept of Computers Ch, no. O1 lost, the business could possibly havé to close. Backing-up business data is essential. How Are Backups Created? Personal backups of the data on your hard-drive can be made by, © Burning files toa CD-R : © Copying files to an external hard-drive © Copying the files to another computer on a network Businesses backup essential data by, © Making copies of data very regularly © Using large-capacity media such as magnetic tape © Keeping old copies of backups © Keeping backup media off-site (in case of fire or theft) 1.5.2. Data backup methods: Few types of backup methods are as under: ' = Full Backups: Entire data set, regardless of any previous backups or circumstances. <= Eazy ge SS B= OS SS qe, Ct Ge) ees ee SSS , Ss Ss SS SS SS oe = SSS ees Gee Seed 4 Sa SSS Bs es ee = Differential Backups: Additions and alterations since <= the most recent full backup. —_ EE ————————— —— SS Ses Bee = — = =o . Incremental Backups: Additions and alterations since the most récent incremental backu = qe ST Sa == at SP Al ‘At (i Initial Full and Ist 3rd ith Backup Backup Backup Backup | Backup aie Backup 24+ Full Backups: A full backup store a copy of all files and typically worm automatically. Full back up is the starting point for all other backups, and contains all the data in the folders and files that are selected to be backed up because full backup stores all files and folders, Files are usually compressed to save space, ‘however, even when compressed full backups may consume a lot of storage. Full backups cause heavy access to the backup disk, which shorten disk life and consume network bandwidth. Restoring a file requires only the file name, location, and date Guea which in tsioe ths att; Rasination fs rebsivaly ivighite nes as long as the backup files from that date or time are available. + Incremental backup: an incremental backup is one that backs up only files and data that have changed since a previous backup was performed. The advantage of an incremental backup is that it takes the least time to complete. However, during a restore operation, each incremental backup must be processed. Incremental backups save space by backing up only those files that have been created or changed. The first backup in an incremental backup is a full backup. The succeeding backups will only store changes that were made to the previous backup. Businesses have more flexibility in spinning these types of backups as often as they want, with only the most recent changes stored. * Differential Backup: Differential backups are a compromise between performing regular full backups and regular incremental backups. Incremental backups require one full backup to be made. Afterward, only the files that have changed since the last full backup are backed up. This means that to restore, you only need the latest full backup set and the latest differential backup set. There’s no need t re more than those two backup sets, which saves more time than restoring from an incremental backup, but still takes a bit longer than Testoring from a full’backip. It also takes up less space than incremental backups, - but more space than full ‘backups. * tig, ‘ 1.5.3, Comparison of different Data Backup Method: Backup Type Data Backed U Backup Time [Restore Time] Storage Space Full backup Slowest. Fast Large Incremental ‘New/Modified Files backup _ Only Fast Moderate Small 25Fundamentals Basic Concept of Computers Ch. no. 01 [panera Ail 1.6. Unit of Memory A computer numeric processor is made up of many decision circuits, each of which may be cither off or on. In order to count higher than one, such bits (Binary digits). A group of eight bits is known as a byte. One byte can represent numbers from zero (00000000) to 255 (11111111), or 2*8 = 256 distinct states. The bytes may also be combined to represent larger numbers. The computer represents all numbers. and character internally in this fashion. 1.6.1. What is Number System in Math A number system is defined as a system of writing to express numbers. It is the mathematical notation for representing numbers of a given set by using digits or other symbols in a consistent manner. It provides a unigue representation of every number and represents the arithmetic and algebraic structure of the figures. It also allows us to operate arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction and division. The value of any digit in a number can be determined by: Last P Moderate Fast ‘Moderate © The digit e Its position in the number e The base of the number system A number is a mathematical value used for counting or measuring or labelling objects. Numbers are used to perform arithmetic calculations, e.g., natural numbers, whole numbers, rational and irrational numbers, etc. 0 is also a number that represents a null value. A number has many variations such as even and odd numbers, prime and composite numbers. Even and odd terms are used when a number is divisible by 2 or not, whereas prime and composite differentiate between the numbers that have ‘only two factors and more than two factors, respectively. In a number. system, these numbers are used as digits. 0 and 1 are the most common digits in the number system that are used to represent binary numbers. On the other hand, 0 to 9 digits are also used for other number systems. . 261.6.2. What is Uni®of Memory? The storage capacity of the memory is expressed in various units of memory. These are as follows: © Bit: A microprocessor uses binary digits 0 and 1 to decide the OFF and ON state respectively, of various circuits. A bit is the smallest unit of Tepresentation in the binary language. « Nibble: A nibble is a collection of 4" *s, « Byte: A byte is the representation of a group of 8 bits. Moreover, a byte is a unit that expresses any word, symbol, or character in the computer language. Computer memory is always in terms of multiples of bytes. « Word: A computer word is similar to a byte, as it is also a group of bits. Moreover, a computer word is fixed for each computer. At the same time it varies from computer to computer. the length of a computer word is the word-size or way length. Therefore, a computer stores information in the. form of ¢ of computer - omputer stores mformation in the.torm of computer we « Kilobyte: It is the most common unit of memory but it is greater than the byte. The abbreviation for kilobytes is ‘KB’. It contains 1000 bytes. It is synonyms to kibi-bytes which contain 1024 (210) bytes. Kilobytes usually measure the size of large files. For example high-resolution images, songs, storage of compact disks, etc. - ewer « Megabyte: The abbreviation for megabyte is ‘MB’. It contains 1000,000 bytes. It is synonyms to mebi-bytes which contains 1048576 (220) bytes. . Gigabyte: The abbreviation for the gigabyte is ‘GB’ or ‘gigs’. It contains 1000,000,000 bytes. It is synonyms to > gibbets which contain 1073741824 . (2430) bytes. + Terabyte: The abbreviation for terabytes is ‘TB’. It contains one trillion bytes. It ———— ——— is synonyms to tebi-bytes which contains 2*40 bytes. « Petabyte: The abbreviation for petabyte is ‘PB’. It contains 10°15 bytes. It is synonyms to pebi-bytes which contains 250 bytes. Petabytes usually measure the total data storage in large networks or server farms. For example, the data in Google or Facebook data servers is around more than 10 PBs. —— ee Ome mee SS . . Exabyte: The abbreviation for exa-byte is ‘EB’. It contains 10°18 bytes. It is 27Fundamentals Basic Concept of Computers Ch. no. 01 synonyms to exbi-bytes which contains 2*60 bytes. The exabyte unit is so large that it does not even measure the storage of large cloud servers. Rather, it can be used to measure the amount of data transfer over the internet for a certain time limit. + Zettabyte: The abbreviation for zetta-byte is ‘ZB’. It contains 10°21 bytes, It is synonyms to zebi-bytes which contains 2*70 bytes. It can measure a huge ot ee ts, amount of data. In fact, the whole data in the world is just a few zettabytes, + Yottabyte: The abbreviation for yotta-byte is ‘YB’. It contains 10*24 zettabytes. It is synonyms to yobi-bytes which contains 2°8Q,bytes, It is a tremendously huge unit of medSurement. Therefore, it has no practical use. ie ee eee ee The following table lists some higher storage units: S.No. —_ Unit & Description 1 Kilobyte (KB), 1 KB = 1024 Bytes Megabyte (MB), 1 MB = 1024 KB GigaByte (GB), 1G Zettabyte (ZB), 1 ZB= 1024 EB ie Yottabyte(YB), 1 YB= 1024 ZB : s 6.3. What is number systems in Computer? Number systems are the technique to, represent numbers in the computer system architecture, every value that you are saving or getting into/from computer memory has a defined number system. Computer architecture supports following number systems. 2 3 4 5 6 Exabyte (EB), 1EB= 1024 PB x 7 8 1 o Binary number system © Octal number system o Decimal number system o Hexadecimal (hex) number system Number Base Used digits Example system Binary 2 0,1 11110000} Octal = 8 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7 Gaon 2 Decimal 10 0,12'345,67,8,9 (240)10 Hexa- — 16 —_0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F 12)i6 28decimal What is Binary Number System: A Binary number system has only two digits it are O and 1. Every number (value) represents with 0 and 1 in this number system. The base of binary number system is 2 because it has only two digits. Example: Convert decimal no (14)io into a binary number. Solution: 24 2} 7 0 -2[3 4 1-1 Base 2 Number System Example + (14)1o = 11102 > What is Octal Number System: Octal number system has only eight (8) digits from 0 to 7. Every number (value) represents with 0,1,2,3,4,5,6 and 7 in this number system. The base of octal number system is 8, because it has only 8 digits. Example: Convert Octal number (215)s into decimal number. + Solution: 215: =(2)10 = 2x8? +1x814+5x8° = 2x64+1x8+5x1 =128+8+5 =14110 > What is Decimal Number System: Decimal number system has only ten (10) digits from 0 to 9. Every number (value) represents with 0,1,2,3,4,5,6, 7,8 and 9 in this number system. The base of decimal number system is 10, because it has only 10 digits. Example: Convert decimal number (1457)10 into decimal number. Solution: © (110°) + (4x10?) + (5%10!) + (7x10) © (1%1000) + (4%100) + (5x10) + (7*1) 29Ch. no. O1 Fundamentals Basic Concept of Computers « 1000+ 400+50+7 « 1457 > What is Hexadecimal Number System: A ‘Hexadecimal number system has i: i 0 to 9 and A@ F. Every number (value) sixteen (16) alphanumeric values from. s % represents with 0,1,2,3,4,5,6, 7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E and Fin thisnumber sem The base ‘of hexadecimal number system is 16, because it has 16 alphanumeric values. Example: Convert Hex-number (14A)is into Octal number. Solution: Use the LCM method. 14Ats =(?)2 = (101001010)2 1.6.4, Number System Conversions There are following types of conversion: 1- Decimal Number System to Other Base: We are familiar with ten digits 0,1.2,3, 4,5,6,7, 8,9 and also know that any value can be represented by using these ten digits only, ¢.g., the value four hundred and fifty three can be written as: 453 = 4x10? + 5x10! + 3x10°. To convert Number system from Decimal Number System to Any Other Base is quite easy; you have to follow just two steps: © Divide the Number (Decimal Number) by the base of target base system (in which you want to convert the number, Binary (2), octal (8) and Hexadecimal (16)). © Write the remainder from step 1 as a Least Signification Bit (LSB) to Step last as a Most Significant Bit (MSB). Here are few example about number system: |+ Decimal to Binary Conversion Result [Decimal Number is = (12345)10 Binary Number is ((11000000111001), 30a jise o ° 2 2 2 oO ° ° ° ° ° 1 2] mse + Decimal to Octal Conversion + Result ‘Decimal Number is : (12345)io — Number is (30071)s 8 | 12345 1] isp 8 [11543 7 8 192 oO 8 24 oO . 3 3 | MsB. + Decimal to Hexadecimal + Result Conversion |Example 1: Decimal Number is [Hexadecimal Number is (3039)i¢ 2 (12345)t0 16 [ 32345 9] tsB Las| 71 3 16| 48 0 8 3 3) MsB Example 2: Decimal Number is |Hexadecimal Number is (2D5)i6 £ (725)10 |Convert 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 {to its equivalent, A, B, C, D, E,F 1Ch. no. OF Fundamentals Basic Concept of Computers no. 16 [725 “ 5] ts6 16 | 4S 13 do 2 2] 2] mss 2- Other Base System to Decimal Number Base To convert any Other Base System to Decimal Number System, you have to follow just three steps: © Determine the base value of source Number System (that you want to convert), and also determine the position of digits from LSB (first digit’s position — 0, second digit’s position 1 and so on). © Multiply each digit with its corresponding multiplication of position value and Base of Source Number System’s Base. © Add the resulted value in step-B. Explanation regarding examples: Below given exams contains the following Tows: © Row 1 contains the DIGITs of number (that is going to be converted). ¢ Row 2 contains the POSITION of each digit in the number system. * Row 3 contains the multiplication: DIGIT* BASE*POSITION. ¢ Row 4 contains the calculated result of step C. «And them add each value of step D, resulted value is the Decimal Number. Binary to Decimal Conversion Binary Number is : (11000000111001)2 7] 1 1] o ofofofovloflivfivlifolo]i a3 {a2 {a1 fats |set7t[eystalsla2tilo 22" | seat | ona | oxzte | 0x2? | gea* | 0x2” | axa® [1x28 | ax2* | ax2® | axe? | ona® [na #192 | 4056 |_o ofolo}ojtofszf{fwlsfolotd =8192+4096+32+16+8+1 \ =12345, Octal to Decimal Conversion Octal Number (30071)s =(?)i0 Result . =12288+0+0+56+1 =12345 Decimal Number is: (12345) 32=512+208+5 =725 Decimal Number is: (725)10 siz_|'_208 5 Description about Number System There are many methods or techniques which can be used to convert numbers from one base to another like in figure, e.g., decimal number system has base 10 because it uses ten digits from 0 to 9. In decimal number system, the positions represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands and so on. Every position shows a particular power of the base (10), e.g., the decimal number 1457 consists ofthe digit 7 in the units position, 5 in the tens <2 Gai D place, 4 in the hundreds position, and 1 in the thousands place whose value can be written as: (1*1000) + (4%100) + (5*10) + (7x1) aD) (1103) + (4102) + (5x101) + (7x1) + 1000 +400 +50 +7 This system using the symbols 0, 1, two will be of base 3, four symbols will be of base 4 and so on, e.g., the decimal number 1234 consists of the 4 digit in the units Position, 3 in the tens position, 2 in the hundreds position and 1 in the thousands Position, e.g. = (1x1000) + (2x100) + (3x10) + (4x1) (1103) + (2x102) + (3x101) + (4x100) es = 1000 +200 +30 +4 = 1234 Example: 33Ch. no, O1 Fundamentals Basic Concept of Computers i- 20=(2)10 = (2x10)+ (0x1) =20 +0 answer=(20)i0 ¢ Binary number to Decimal number conversion ; Converting from binary to decimal numbers is simple and each digit in the binary number represents a power of two. If you want to convert the binary number (101100101): to decimal number, First list the digits in order then count from the RIGHT starting with zero: . inary 01100101 Number position [87 6543210 The first row contains the digits from the binary number. The second row contains the power of 2 (the base) corresponding to each digits. Now convert each digit to the power of two: . = 0X27 + 1x28 + 1x25 + 0x24 + 0x23 + 1x224 0x2! + 1x29 = 0x128 + 1x64 + 1x32 + 0x16 + Ox8 + 1x4 + 0x2 + 1x] = 0 + 6+ 324+ 0404+ 440 41 =(101)i0. Example: inary to Decimal number system. Binary Number Decimal Number 01012 P10 1x24) + Ox2)+(x2)+Oxahe 1x 2° F(6+0+4+0+ Ipio answer GOT OF4 +04 Tyg ° Binary to Decimal No Conversion: To convert binary to decimal, each digit is multiplied by the value of its position, and the Tesults are added eg, i- (10) = (1x2!) + (0x2 = 1x2 +0x1 m2 +0 7 answer =(2)19 ii- (101); = (1x22) + (0x2!) + (142% = 1x4 +0x2 © + 1x1 =4 +0 +1 answer =(5)10 34Octal ae to Decimal number Conversion: Base-8 called octal number system. ase-8 means the system is based on the number eight. In base-8 have eight digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7, there’s no such thing as 8 or 9. Characteristics of octal number system are as follow: + Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8), e.g., 8° + Last position in an octal number represents a x power of the base (8), e.g., 8° where x represents the last position], e.g., Octal Number : (12570): Technique to convert: + Multiply each bit by 8", where 7 is the “weight” of the bit + The weight is the position of the bit, starting from 0 on the right + Add the results like in below table. ; Example:125703 =(2)10 (Lx 84) + (2x 89) + Sx 8) + (7% 8!) + (0x8) =(4096 + 1024 + 320 + 56+0)i0 2 answer =549610 Examples; - . (111)s = 1x8?7+1x8!+1x8° te =64.+°8 +1 =T310 * Octal number to Binary number Conversion: Following step used to convert decimal to binary number system. + Convert each octal digit to a 3-bit equivalent binary representation + After that write all bits in order like in below table. Example: : Octal Number Binary Number 25s =()2 =(2)2 & (5)2 =(010)2 (101)2 =0101012 . ° * Binary to Octal no conversion: Must follow the following steps: * Group bits in three, starting from right * Then calculate each no value from right to left Eaumple: (10010110). = (?)p 1x27+0x26+0x25+1x24+0x2?+1x2?+1x2!+0x2° =128+0 +0 +16 +0 +4 +2 +40 35°» Fundamentals Basic @yncept of Computers Ch. no. OL = (150)10 Then, convert it into octal number = (150)10 * Hexadecimal to Decimal No Conversion: The hexadecimal number system - known as hex, is a numeral system made up of 16 symbols (base 16). The dard numeral system is called decimal (base 10) and uses ten symbols, 0, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and includes six extra symbols. Hexadecimal is a convenient way to express binary numbers like 10 digits and 6 letiers are 0,1,2,3,4, 5,6,7,8,9, A, B, C, D, E, F. Must follow the rules: * Multiply each bit by 16", n is the “weight” of the bit * The weight is the’position of the bit, starting from 0 on the right + Add the results Hexa-Number Decimal Number | Q9FDE)ics =(2)0 (1 x 164) + (Ox 16) + Fx 16) ¥(D x 16) + (Ex 16) =(1 x 16%) + (9 x 165) + (15 x 165 + (3 x 16+ (14x 16° =(65536_+ 36864 +3840 +208 +14) Answer (106462)10 —| (B5)is =(2)10 . =(11x16) + Sx16 = 11x16 + 5x1 =176 +5 : = 181 answer | =1811 ¢ Binary number to Hexadecimal number conversion: Use the following step - Group bits in fours, starting from tight side - Then Convert to hexadecimal digits like below Example: Convert (01001110): = (2)16 [Binary Number _| Hexadecimal Number —] 10101 (0100)2 (1110), 101012 “@wo _(5)0 101012 4Ei6 Result: Binary Number 010011102 = Hexadecimal Number 4Ei¢ 1.6.5. Few other conversion of Decimal to Binary / Octal / Hexadecimal Number System . To convert a number from the decimal number system to binary /octal/ 36hexadecimal number system, we use the fo! convert decimal number to octal number s: Example: Convert (4320) 19 = ()s Solution: Step 1: Identify the base of the required i i at system, the base of the sailed ae aah icra Step 2: Divide the given number by the base of the required number and note dowa the quotient and the remainder in the quotient-remainder form. As in figure below, repeat this process (dividing the quotient again by the base) until we get the quotient less than the base. Step 3: The given number in the octal number system is obtained just by reading all the remainders and the last quotient from bottom to top. Mowing steps. These steps followed to system, oe 4320 Therefore (4320)10 = (10340)s. + Binary to Number System to Hexadecimal Conversion: To convert a number from one of the binary/octal/hexadecimal systems to one of the other systems, we first convert it into the decimal system, and then we convert it to the Tequired systems by using the above-mentioned processes. Example: (1010111100)2 = (?)10 Solution: Step 1: Convert this number to the decimal number system. 1 oo Fort tT 1 0 0 Ox 2" =0x1=0 0x2" =0x2=0 IxPatxdeas 1x2 =ixBe8 Ix2elx l6=16 dx 2? ete 32=32 0x64 =0 = 1x 128 = 128 0x2" =0x256=0 V2? bx 7Ch. no. 01 Fundamentals Basic Concept of Computers - (0). Thus, (1010111100)2= (7000+ CY. sccimal system), into Step 2: Now convert this (700)io number (which is in the de Hexadecimal number system. Divide the following number with base 16 and note the remainder like in below figure, as you know that in hexadecimal system, the numbers 11 represent the value B and 12 represent C respectively like in below figure. 16] 700 16] 43 — 12(or) [C] 2J~ 11 (or) Figure 9 Binary to Hexa-Conversion Thus, 70010 = 2BCis — (2). From the equations (1) and (2), 10101111002 = 2BCis. Example: Convert (100111)2=(?)io Solution: Step 1: Identify the base of the given number. Here, the base of 1001112 is 2. Step 2: Multiply each digit of the given number, starting from the rightmost digit, with the exponents of the base. The exponents should start with 0 and increase by 1 every time as we move from right to left. Since the base is 2 here, we multiply the digits of the given number by 2°, 2!, 2?, and so on from right to left. 1 > O80. bed i : Le ae : 1x2! 1x2* . 0x2? Ox2* - : 1.x 2° Step 3: We just simplify each of the above products and add them. oeLinas Ix2=1x2=2 IxQelxdag Ox2=0x8=0 Ox 2=0x 16=0 1x 2*= 1 x32 =3: 2™ method for conversion: Example: Convert (100111)2=(? )1o vt 100111)2 | =(2)10 2 = (1x25) + (0x24) + (0x25) + (xa) + (1x2) + (1x2) [= (1x32) + (0x16) + (0x8) + (1x4) + (1x2) + x1) —32+0+0+4+2+1 =39 [Thus, 1001112 = 3910. I 1.6.6. What is Complement Number System Complements are used in the digital computers in order to simplify the subtraction operation and for the logical manipulations. Complements are used in digital circuits, because it is faster to subtract by adding complements than by performing true subtraction. The binary complement of a number is created by Teversing all bits and adding 1. The carry from the high-order position is eliminated, The following example subtracts 5 from 8. Decimal Binary Complement 8 1000 1000 5 -0101 0 +4022 3 9011 0012 Figure 10 Number Complement © Representation of Number using 1" & 2" complement 39Ch. no. OF Fundamentals Basic Concept of Computers An integer is a whole number (not 4. fractional negative, or zero, e.g., integers are: -5, -2, 1, 5, 8,9 &3 are: -1.43, 1 3/4, 3.14, 0.09 & 5,643.1 etc. number) that can be positive, 043 etc. that are not integers One's confenent| > Sign & Unsigned integer In Computer, numbers are stored (usually) as a fixed number of binary digits. * Unsigned integer is assumed to be Positive. + Signed integer is assumed to be Negative no. One bit is used to indicate sign or unsigned number where the sign = 1 for negative and Un-sign = 0 for positive. Example of Sign bit integers: o +3 =00000011 o -3 =10001011 o +5=00000101 o -5=10000101 - Representation of Sign Numbers: You know how to represent positive numbers in different number systems. Base 2, Base 8, Base 10 and Base 16. It is time to look at another interesting question. How we represent both positive and negative numbers in Binary number system. There are many methods of representing signed numbers in binary e.g., sign ' magnitude method, I* complement and 2" complement method, Signed binary numbers used the MSB (most significant bit) as a sign bit to display a range of either Positive numbers or negative numbers like in below figure signed bit. 40Bi word povive tte sgobt bis . Figure 11 Signed bit > 1* Complement Method: To understand this method of representing signed numbers. 1* complement of an 8-bit binary number is obtained by subtracting the number from 11111111@). If the sign is positive (0), no more action required. If the sign is negative, every bit will complement like in below figure Complement bit. The 1* complement of a binary value is obtained by changing the 1’s to 0’s and 0’s to I's. Figure 12 Complement bit Example: - +4 > 00000100, This is a nonnegative no since the left-most bit is 0. - -4 10001100, Take the complement of +4' to obtain negative 4 - Complement is 0000 or 0, hence this is 0, which is still 0. > 20 Complement: Computers normally used 16 bits to represent integers. When i numbers represented in fixed number of bits the 2’s complement method is a very useful way of representing signed numbers. Most computers represent integers using this method. May digital calculators also used this method integer number’ Tepresentation. 2" complement of a binary number can be obtained by taking 1* complement and then adding 1 in the result. This process’ is shown in figure 24 complement: 41Fundamentals Basic Concept of Computers Ch. no. O1 Forexample: Let's find out the 2's complement of a 00101001 11010110 Invert the bits + 00000001 Then, add 1 11010111 : ‘ ‘The 2's complement of 00101001 Is 11010113 Figure 13 2nd Complement Example 01: Equation Binary no Decimal no 2 0000 0010 1's Complement answer Change the state of the every no 1111 1101 Add'1' +0000 0001 2's Complement answer liiiiio | > Binary Arithmetic: Basic arithmetic operation i.e., addition, subtraction, multiplications and division for binary integers. Following rules used to convert two bits. *Binary addition: Must remembers the following rules given below” in Table 1 Binary addition. Operation | Result 0+0 0 O+1 1 140 1 1+1 0 With carry of 1 Table 1 Binary addition Example: Add (01011101)2 and (00110010)2 Istrow 01011101 2nrow 00110010 Answer 10001111 *Binary Subtraction: Subtraction of two binary numbers, must follow the rule given in Table 2 Subtraction Table. 42Sano iS eo] Operation Result ‘: 0-0 0 0-1 1 With a barrow from the next position 1-0 1 1-1 0 Table 2 Subiraction Table Example 1; Subtract 010111012 from 101100102 1* row 01011101 2™ row . 10110010 Auswer 01100001 Z Note that when you take a barrow from the higher position 0 becomes 102 and 102-1=1. As it is difficult and expensive to make a computer that uses this method for performing subtraction. Normally computers use nd compleateat or 1 complement method for performing subtraction. ; Example 2: Subtract -9 + -5? Take the 2’s complement of both negative numbers and use regular binary addition. (-9) 11110111. +(-5) +011 -14 HINO 8" Bit = 1: Answer is Negative Disregard 9” Bit * Binary Multiplication: multiply two unsigned binary integers by using the multiplication process. Follow table gives the basic multiplication rules for two bits with the decimal point so, replace it with’x like in Table 3 Binary multiplication.Fundamentals Basic Concept of Computers Ch. no. OF Table 3 Binary mulupli Example3: Calculate (0110x1011)2 = (?)10 Solution: 0110 0110xxx 1000010 1.6.7. Exercises about Conversion Decimal | Binary | Octal | Hexadecimal 33 CYSC« | ? Daca] ? 1410101 |? ? ? 2 703 2? 2 % it 1A a =" > 1* Exercise: Sr, Question 1. | 58710 +7 87310 =(%)s 2.| AB6is + 4Ci6 = (216 3. 01011012 x 10112, =(?)10 4.| 101110012 x 10012 = (?)2 5.| 71g+ 100101102 - =(?)0 > 274 Exercise: Sr, Question 1,| 5F2is_ = (?)i6Take Two’s complement: 10000101 Question > 3° Exercise: 1.7. Yiruses and Anti-viruses Issues A computer virus much like a biological flu virus. It is designed to spread from host to host and has the ability to replicate itself. Similarly, in the same way that flu viruses cannot reproduce without a host computer and spread without programming such as a file or document. A computer virus is a type of malware that attaches to another program (like a document) which can replicate and spread after a person first Tuns it on their system. For instance, you could receive an email with a malicious attachment, open the file unknowingly and then the computer virus runs on your computer. Viruses are harmful and can destroy data, slow down System resources. In more technical terms, a computer virus is a type of malicious code or Program written to alter the computer program and is designed to spread from one computer to another. A virus operates by inserting or attaching itself to any computer Program or document that supports macros in order to execute its code. Virus has the potential to cause unexpected or damaging effects, such as harming the system software by corrupting or destroying data. > What virus ‘can do: Some computer viruses are Programmed to harm your computer by damaging programs, deleting files, or reformatting the hard drive. Others simply replicate themselves or flood a network with traffic, making it impossible to perform any internet activity. Even less harmful computer viruses can significantly disrupt your system’s performance weakening computer memory and causing frequent computer crashes. The infected computer depends on the type of virus, Typically most computer viruses will delete data, overwrite information, display messages, and add itself to other files on the computer. Almost all computer viruses damage data contained on the computer and do not 45,Fundamentals Basic Concept of Computers CA. no. O1 physically harm the computer or its hardware. > What Worm can do: Computer worms are similar to viruses in that they replicate copies of themselves ‘and can cause the same type of damage, worms are standalone software and do_not require a host Program or human help to Propagate. To spread, worms either exploit a vulnerability on the target system or use some kind of social engineering to trick users into executing them, It may cause many damages to a computer system a virus can: * Acomputer virus can damage data or software on the computer. * * Itcall delete Some or all files on the computer system. * Titcan destroy all data by formatting hard drive, * It may display a political or false message every few times. > Virus vs. malware: The terms “virus” and “malware” are often used interchangeably but they’re not the same thing. While a een virus is a type of malware, not all malware are computer viruses. The easiest way to differentiate computer viruses from other forms of malware is to think about viruses in biological terms: Take the flu virus, e.g., flu Tequires some kind of interaction between two people like a hand shake, a kiss or touch infected person. Once the flu virus gets inside a person’s system it attaches to healthy human cells, using those cells to create more viral cells. Computer virus/code is attached to some part of the normal computer operating system. This code tell the computer to perform some task. This task is often a destructive one such as deleting important information or crashing the hard disk. However there are other viruses that may only slow down your computer. Millions of computer viruses now operate over the intemet and new computer viruses are discovered every day, virus can do: * Damage data or software on the computer. * Delete some or all files on the computer system. + Destroy all data by formatting hard drive. What are the signs of a computer virus: A computer virus attack can produce a variety of symptoms are: . o Frequent pop-up windows. Pop-ups might encourage you to visit unusual sites. Or they might prod (encourage) you to download antivirus or other, software programs. 46o Changes to your homepage. Your usual homepage may change to another website, you may be unable to reset it. © Mass emails being sent from your email account. A criminal may take control of your account or send emails in your name from another infected computer. ' o Frequent crashes, A virus can inflict major damage on your hard drive. This may cause your device to freeze/crash. It may also prevent your device from coming back on. 2 © Slow computer performance. A sudden change of ‘processing speed could signal that your computer has a virus, o Unknown programs that start up when you turn on your computer. You may become aware of the unfamiliar program when you start your computer. Or you might notice it by checking your computer’s list of active applications. P © Unusual ‘activities like password changes: This could prevent you from logging into your computer. e 1.7.1, History of Computer Viruses ° Computers and computer users are under assault (hamla) by hackers like never before, but computer viruses are almost as old as’‘electronic computers. Most people use the term “computer virus” to refer to all malicious software. Computer Viruses are actually just one type of malware, a self-replicating programs designed to spread itself from computer to computer. In fact, virus known as malware. Some of the most famous viruses and malware ever: 1949-1966 — Self-Reproducing Automata: Self-replicating programs were established in 1949, to produce a large number of viruses, John von Neumann, known as “Father of Cybemetics”, wrote an article on the “Theory of Self- Reproducing Automata” that was published in 1966. 1959 — Core Wars: A computer game was programmed in Bell Laboratory by Victor Vsottsky, H. Douglas Mcllroy and Robert P Morris. They named it Core Wars, In this game, infectious programs. 1971- The Creeper: Bob Thomas developed an experimental self-replicating Program. It accessed through ARPANET (The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network) and copied to a remote host systems. A message displayed 47Fundamentals Basic Concept of Computers Ch. no. 01 that “I’m the creeper, catch me if you can!”, + 1974 — Wabbit (Rabbit): This infectious program was developed to make multiple copies of itself on a computer the system reducing the performance of the computer, * 1986- Boot Sector: In 1986, Brain virus also known as the “Brain boot sector” that is compatible with IBM PC and developed by two Pakistani programmers Basit Faroog Alvi, and his brother, Amjad Farooq Alvi. 1.7.2. Types of Viruses Following are some important types of viruses: * File Infectors: File infectors are the most common type of virus. It attaches to program files and spread to other programs on the hard drive. * Boot Sector Viruses: Boot sector viruses attach themselves to the boot sector of a hard drive. They execute each time the computer is started. They may destroy all data on the computer system. ae * Macro Viruses: Macro viruses infect the automatic-command. They attach themselves to the data files in word processing, spreadsheet and database programs. They spread when the data files are exchanged between users. * Time Bombs: Time bombs are also called logic bombs. They perform an activity on a particular date. They are harmless until a certain event or circumstance activates the program. Michelangelo is a popular time bomb. It destroys data on the hard disk. * Worms: It is similar to a virus. It spreads from one computer to another. It controls the infected computers and attacks other networked computers. * Trojan Horse: Trojan horse disguises itself a8 useful program. It contain hidden instructions and may erase data or cause other damage. It does not create copies of itself. * Boot sector viruses: Boot sector viruses are some of the most dangerous, because they infect the master boot record, they are notoriously difficult to Temove, often requiring a full system format. This virus has encrypt the boot sector. They typically spread via removable media. They reached a peak in the 1990s when floppy disks were used but you can still find them on USB drives agand in émail attachments, Direct Action Virus: A direct action virus is one of the two main types of file infector viruses. The virus is considered non-resident. It works by attaching itself to a particular type of file (EXE or COM files). Resident Virus: Resident virus is a primary type of file infectors, They install themselves on a computer, It allows them to work even when the original source of the infection has been eradicated. Depending on the Programming of the virus, they can be tricky to fix even trickier to remove. Overwrite Virus: This is one of the most frustrating virus even if it’s not particularly dangerous for your system as a whole. It delete the contents of any file which infects the only way to remove the virus is to delete the file, lose its contents, Trojan horse virus: A Trojan horse is a program that hides a legitimate program. A certain condition or action usually triggers. It does not replicate malicious code. Trojan horse contains hidden instructions and may erase data or cause other damage. It does not create copies of itself. ~. Boot sector virus: This type of virus can take control when you start/boot your computer. It can spread by plugging an infected USB drive into your computer. Web scripting virus: This type of virus exploits the code of web browsers and web pages. If you access a web page, the virus can infect your computer. Browser hijacker: This type of virus “hijacks” certain web browser functions, and you may be automatically directed to an unintended website. Resident virus: This is a general term for any virus that inserts itself in a computer system’s memory. A resident virus can execute anytime when an operating system loads. . Direct action virus: This type of virus comes into action when you execute a file containing a virus, Otherwise, it remains dormant. Polymorphic virus: A polymorphic virus changes its code each time an infected file is executed. It does this to evade antivirus programs. File infector virus: This common virus inserts malicious code into executable files used to perform certain functions or operations on a system. . 49Fundamentals Basic Concept of Computers Ch. no. O1 * Multipartite virus: This kind of virus infects and spreads in multiple ways. It can infect both program files and system sectors. > Virus spreading reason: A virus is spread on different computers due to the following reasons: If the user opens and downloads an email containing a virus. If the user downloads software from Internet containing virus. If the user install pirated software that contains virus. If the user copies infected file from one computer to another. Ifthe user connects with a computer on LAN virus. Unknown websites on Internet. 1.8. Antivirus ©20000 Antivirus is software that is used to detect and remove a virus ona computer system. You can stop viruses before they enter your computer. You can do this by using a good virus protection program i.e. antivirus software, it will check all files for viruses. Once installed, an antivirus program can be set to work in the background. It will check all files before they enter your computer and will alert you if a virus is detected before it contaminates your system, If a virus is detected, your antivirus program will quarantine or eliminate it so, that it cannot harm your computer. i a This software is used to detect and remove viruses is called antivirus software. Antivirus program contain information about different known viruses. Many antivirus programs are available in the market. But no single software can detect and remove all viruses. Many new viruses are invented and spread through internet. Antivirus programs are also upgraded continuously to detect these new viruses. Antivirus program not only detect viruses from computer but also prevent new viruses from entering into the computer. Some important’ antivirus programs are: Safeguards against Malware: Methods that guarantee a computer network is safe from computer viruses and other malware simply do not exist. However, Users can take several precautions. Measures to stop incoming Malware in computer. How to stop incoming Malware: Following points must be keep in mind: * Carefully connect removable media (USB, CD, Phones) with computer. Because Malware can enter into computer from infected removable Medias. 50* Use Navigation pane to open removable media in your computer. Avoid opening by double click or Auto run options like in Figure 50 Navigation of files. + Donot download unknown files (application files) from email/internet. : + Do not install unnecessary software in your computer from internet. : Insert removable media in your computer carefully. It may contain Malware Figure 50 Navigation of files > Virus Activation: When the computer virus starts its-working, it is called the activity Of virus. A virus is normally runs all the time in the computer. Different Viruses are activated in different ways. Many viruses are activates on a certain date, ¢.g., the 13b virus will activate only if the date is 13 and day will be Friday. > Protection from Virus: If antivirus software is not installed, latest software should be installed on computer to protect from viruses. A computer system can be Protected from virus by following precautions: * The latest antivirus should be installed on computer. * The antivirus software must be upgraded regularly. * The USB disk should be scanned for viruses before use. * Junk or unknown emails should not be opened. * Unauthorized or pirated software should not be installed on computer. > Protection Myth: * Prevention is better than the cure * Use a highly-regarded anti-virus suite * 51Fundamentals Basic Concept of Computers Ch. no. o1 * Don’t open emails from unrecognized sources * Don’t trust free USB sticks from conferences and expos i- What is password? A password is a string of characters used for authenticating a user on.a computer system, ¢.g., you may have an account on your computer that requires you to log in. In order to successfully access your account, you must provide a valid username and password. This combination is often referred to as a login. While usernames are generally public information, passwords are private to each user, * : ; Always use strong password having alphabets, numbers and symbols i.e. AthnW@433, Don't recycle passwords, Passwords shouldn't be words from the dictionary, spouses' names, birthdays etc. ii- Install Firewall: Remember that only an Antivirus software will not protect your computer. It is a good security measure to install a firewall in combination with an Antivirus software. A firewall protects against any attacks or unauthorized access. Probably your operating system comes with a built in firewall but third party Firewall is a good option. Firewall protects your computer from unauthorized access. The ee the gatekeeper for Internet activity like in Figure 51 Firewall. “Amternet ie Bie ct cage horensre teat Figure 51 Firewall 32.