ES & BMS
Control Fundamentals
29-Aug-17 K H Ng, ES & BMS 1
Control Fundamentals
Introduction
Definitions
Control System Characteristics
Control System Components
Characteristics and Attributes of Control
Methods
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Introduction
Controls are essential to the proper system
operation
It should be considered in the early design
process
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Introduction
In a HVAC system, automatic controls
regulate the system output in response to
varying indoor and outdoor conditions
To maintain general comfort conditions in
offices; and
To provide narrow temperature and humidity
limits for product quality
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Introduction
Automatic controls
Optimize system operation, e.g. adjust
temperature and pressures automatically;
Limit energy usage
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HVAC Systems Characteristics
All the processes in HVAC system require
automatic controls
These processes include heating, cooling,
dehumidification, humidification,
ventilation and filtration
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Control System Characteristics
Automatic controls are used wherever a
variable condition must be controlled
In HVAC systems, the most commonly
controlled conditions or variables are
pressure, temperature, humidity and flow
rate
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Control System Characteristics
In control systems, the following terms need
to be clarified:
Controlled variables;
Control loop;
Control methods; and
Control modes
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Control Variables
An automatic control system control the
variable by manipulating a second variable
For example, air in a room moves through a
hot water coil
The thermostat measures the temperature
(controlled variable) of the room air
(controlled medium)
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Control Variables
As the room cools, the thermostat operates a
valve which regulates the flow (manipulated
variable) of hot water (control agent)
through the coil
The coil supplies heat to warm the room air
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Control Loop
A control loop consists of
a sensing element (sensor傳感器) which
receives an input, e.g. temperature sensor ;
a controller控制器 that processes the input and
produces an output signal; and
a final control element that operates according
to the output signal from the controller, e.g.
valve
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Sensor
Measures the value of the controlled
valuable, e.g. temperature
Sends the resulting signal to the controller
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Controller
Receives the sensor signal
Compare it with the desired value or set-
point, e.g. temperature
Generates a correction signal to direct the
operation of the controlled device or the
final control element, e.g. valve
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Final Control Element
The final control element varies the control
agent, e.g. hot water to device, to regulate
the output (e.g. flow rate) of the control
equipment (e.g. valve)
The desired condition is achieved
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Control Loop
Open or closed
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Open Loop
The system assumes a fixed relationship
between a controlled condition and an
external condition, e.g. control of perimeter
heating based on outdoor temperature
sensor
It does not take into account changing space
conditions from other changing variables in
the building
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Open Loop
Does not provide close control
May result deviation from the targeted
values of the measurable variables
Thus, it is not common in residential or
commercial applications
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Close Loop
Relies on measurement of controlled
variable to vary the controller output
Example: temperature of discharge air in a
heating system
Sensor measures the discharge air
temperature
Sends a feedback signal to the controller
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Close Loop
Controller compares the feedback signal to
the set-point
Based on the difference (deviation), the
controller issues a corrective signal to a
valve
The valve regulates the hot water flow to
meet the demand
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Close Loop
Changes in the controlled variable
(temperature) reflect the demand
Sensor continues to measure changes in
discharge air temperature and feeds the new
condition back to the controller for
continuous comparison and correction
Feedback reduce the magnitude of deviation
and produce system stability
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Control Methods
Automatic control system is classified by
Type of energy transmission; and
Type of control signal (A or D) used to perform
its functions
Most common forms of energy are
electricity and compressed air
Systems may comprise one or both forms of
energy
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Control Methods
Electromechanical, electronic or
microprocessor control systems use
electrical energy
Pneumatic control systems use varying air
pressure from the sensor to a controller
which output a pneumatic signal to a final
control element
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Control Methods
Pneumatic, electromechanical and
electronic systems performed limited, pre-
determined control functions and sequences
Microprocessor-based controllers use digital
control for a wide variety of control
sequences
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Control Methods
Self-powered systems use power of
measured variable to induce necessary
corrective action
Many complete control systems use a
combination of external power and self-
power
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Analogue Control
Analogue devices are traditionally used in
HVAC control
In a pneumatic controller, the sensor sends a
continuous pneumatic signal (pressure) to
controller
The signal (pressure) is proportional to the
value of the variable being measured
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Analogue Control
The controller compares the sent signal with
the desired value of air pressure as
determined by the set-point
An output signal is sent based on the
comparison
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Digital Control
The digital controller receives electronic
signals from sensors
The signals are converted into digital pulses
(values) and mathematical operations are
performed on these pulses
Controller re-converts the output value to a
signal to operate an actuator
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Digital Control
The digital controller periodically updates
the process as a function of a set of
measured control variables and a given set
of control algorithms
The controller works out the entire
computation, including the control
algorithm
Sends a signal to an actuator
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Digital Control
In most commercial control systems, an
electronic-pneumatic transducer converts
the electric output to a variable pressure
output
The variable pressure output is responsible
for the pneumatic actuation of the final
control element
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Control Modes
Control systems use different control modes
to accomplish their purposes.
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Control Modes
These include
Two-position
Step;
Floating;
Proportional (P);
Proportional-integral (PI);
Proportional-integral-derivative (PID); and
Adaptive
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Two-position Control
The final control element occupies one of
two possible positions
Used in simple HVAC systems to start and
stop fan coil units and refrigeration
machines
Two values of the controlled variable
determine the position of the final control
element
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Two-position Control
Between these values is a zone called
“differential gap” or “differential”
When the controlled variable is within this
differential, the controller cannot initiate an
action of the final control element
For close temperature control, the cycling
must be accelerated or timed
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Basic Two-position Control
Cyclical operation of the control equipment
The controlled variable cycles back and
forth between 2 values (‘on’ and ‘off’ points)
Influence by the lag in the system
The differential is the minimum possible
swing of the controlled variable
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Basic Two-position Control
Overshoot and undershoot conditions are
caused by the lag of the system
It is best used in systems where
Minimal total system lag (including transfer,
measuring and final control element lags)
Close control is not required
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Timed Two-position Control
Anticipates requirements and delivers
measured quantities of heating or cooling
on a percentage on-time basis
Reduce control point fluctuations
Timing is accomplished by a timer
The controller responds to gradual changes
in the average value of the controlled
variable rather than to cyclical fluctuations
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Timed Two-position Control
Overshoot and undershoot are reduced or
eliminated
Faster cycling rate of mechanical equipment
Closer control of the variable than basic
two-position control
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Timed Proportioning Control
Provides more effective two-position
control
Available with sophisticated
electromechanical thermostats and
electronic and microprocessor-based
controllers
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Step Control
Step controllers operate switches or relays
in sequence to enable or disable multiple
outputs, or stages, of two-position devices
Uses a proportional signal to attempt to
obtain proportional output from equipment
that is typically either on or off
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Step Control
Stages may be arranged to operate with or
without overlapping operating (on/off)
differentials
Typical two-position differentials still exist
Total output is proportioned
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Floating Control
A variation of two-position control
Often called “three-position control”
Available in most microprocessor-based
control systems
Requires a slow-moving actuator and a fast
responding sensor
Keeps the control point near the set-point at
any load level
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Floating Control
Can only be used on systems with minimal
lag between the control medium and the
control sensor
Used primarily for discharge control
systems where the sensor is immediately
downstream from the coil, damper or device
that it controls
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Floating Control
The farther the control point moves beyond
the dead-band, the faster the actuator moves
to correct the deviation
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Proportional Control
Proportions the output capacity of the
equipment to match the heating or cooling
load
Unlike two-position control, the mechanical
equipment is neither full on nor full off
Achieves the desired heat replacement or
displacement rate
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Proportional Control
The final control element moves to a
position proportional to the deviation of the
value of the controlled variable from the
set-point
The position of the final control element is a
linear function of the value of the controlled
variable
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Proportional Control
The final control element is seldom in the
middle of its range
The set-point is typically the middle of the
throttling range
There is usually an offset between the
control point and the set-point
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Proportional Control
The throttling range is the amount of change
in the controlled variable required for the
controller to move the controlled device
through its full operating range
For some controllers, throttling range is
referred as “proportional band”
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Proportional Control
Output of the controller is proportional to
the deviation of the control point from set-
point
The control point is rarely at set-point and
offset may be acceptable
Compensation is the resetting of the set-
point to compensate for varying load
conditions
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Proportional Control
Compensation reduces the effect of offset
for more accurate control
Compensation is also called “reset control”
or “cascade control”
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Compensation Control
A control technique in proportional control
A secondary, or compensation, sensor resets
the set-point of the primary sensor
Compensation can either increase or
decrease the set-point
Positive or summer compensation
Negative or winter compensation
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Compensation Control
Most commonly used for temperature
control
But can also be used with humidity
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PI Control
Reset of control point is automatic
Also called “proportional-plus- reset”
control
Virtually eliminates offset and makes
proportional band nearly invisible
The controlled variable may deviate from
the set-point and offset develops
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PI Control
Proportional band gradually and
automatically shifts
The controlled variable is brought back to
the set-point
P control is limited to a single final control
element position for eachvalue of the
controlled valuable
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PI Control
PI controls changes the final control
element position to accommodate load
changes
The control point is kept at or very near the
set-point
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PI Control
Reset action of the integral component
shifts the proportional band as necessary
around the set-point as the load on the
sysem changes
Shifting of proportional band keeps the
control point at set-point by making further
corrections in the control signal
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PI Control
Offset is eliminated
Proportional band is usually set fairly wide
to ensure system stability under all
operating conditions
Reset of control point is not instantaneous
Whenever the load changes, the controlled
variable changes
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PI Control
The proportional control makes an
immediate correction, which usually results
in an offset
The integral function of the controller
makes control correction to bring the
control point back to set-point
Has a reset time adjustment that determines
the rate at which the proportional band
shifts
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PI Control
Under steady state conditions, the control
point and set-point are the same for any
load conditions
Integral windup, or an excessive overshoot
condition, can occur in PI control
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PID Control
Adds the derivative function to PI control
Derivative function opposes any change and
is proportional to the rate of change
The more quickly the control point changes,
the more corrective action PID system
provides
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Adaptive Control
Available in some microprocessor-based
controllers
Its algorithms enable a controller to adjust
its response for optimum control under all
load conditions
A controller tuned to control accurately
under one set of conditions cannot always
respond well when conditions change
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Adaptive Control
An adaptive control algorithm monitors the
performance of a system and attempts to
improve the performance
One measurement of performance is the
response time towards disturbance
The shorter the time, the better the
performance
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Adaptive Control
The methods used to improve are
determined by the type of adaptive
algorithm
Used in energy management programmes
such as optimum start
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Application Guidelines
Considerations for control requirements
The degree of accuracy required and the
amount of offset, if any, that is acceptable
The type of load changes expected, including
their size, rate, frequency and duration
The system process characteristics, such as time
constants, number of time lag elements and
reaction rate
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Application Guidelines
The simplest mode of control that meets
application requirements is best to use, both
for economy and for best results
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