fextbook Chemistry Grease CHEMICAL BONDING AND INTERMOLECULAR FORCES Atoms of elements are rarely found by themselves in nature Everything around us is erate up ofelements, molecules, or compounds. The millions of different chemical compounds that male up everything on Earth are composed of 118 elements that join together in different ways The 1148 known elements interact with one another to create new, unique compounds that have entirely different chemical and physical properties from the elements that make them up. This is because the forces of attraction between the same or different atoms of these elements form molecules for compounds. The attractive forces that hold atoms together in compounds are also known as chemical bonds, All the inorganic and organic materials we use are created with the help of chemical bonding. Every day, the water we drink, the oxygen We breathe, the salt and sugar we tse, the proteins we need, the carbohydrates we eat, the fuels, the gas and plastics we use, and the medicines we need to cure ourselves are all the results of chemical bonding between atoms Chemical bonds also play an important role in all living things because they hold together the cells imour bodies. Basic concepts of bond formation, such as ionic bonds and covalent bonds between atoms and their physical properties, have been ‘introduced in Grade 10 Chemistry. This chapter further explores different types of bonding, emphasising their strengths and structures. In addition, how to depict molecular structures of molecules and how to predict the shapes of molecules are also included Table salt Learning Outcomes After completing this chapter, students will be able to: * indicate some basic concepts 10 understand chemical bonding: + classify the types of chemical bonding: + describe the formation of ionic bonds and ionic compounds, and compounds; + describe the formation of covalent bonds and Lewis structures o * predict the shape of covalent molecules using Valence ShellGrade 12 ‘Chemisty ‘Tentbook . 1 ee . a a “LL BASIE CONCEPTS TO UNDERSTAND CHEMICAL BONDING ‘Since the discovery of the electrome structure of atoms (refer to the Grade 10 Chemisiry Textbook), scientists have beon able to investigate the ways in which atoms of thesameor different > & elements can combine with one anather. The outermost shell electrons (valence electrons) of those atonts are the basis for understanding the joining of atoms. This interaction of electrons leads to ‘ the forces of attraction, chemical bonds, that hold atoms together in substances, Electronie structure and energy tevels of electrons In onder to explain the electronic structures af atoms, the principles of filling electrons in the atomic orbitals, such as the Aufbau principle, Pauli’s exclusion principle, and Hund's rule are fizndamental to understand r In atoms, there are K, L, M, Nu... main shells and each main shell can be divided into s, d, andi fsubshells. Each subshell can be filled with 2, 6, 10, and 14 electrons, respectively Bach of these subshells contains spaces for electrons called orbitals. In addition, » subshell has only one spherical-shaped orbital, There are three dumbbell-shaped p orbitals (p,, 7. p,) and the five d orbitals have double dumbbell-shapes According to the Authan principle (Aufbau means building up in German), electrons are. filled in the lower energy atomic orbitals before filling higher energy ones. The order of filling the orbitals is given as Is 2s 2p Av 3p dv 3d dp Moreover, to understand how many electrons can fit into an orbital, one of the properties of the electron, known as spin, has to be considered. Fach electron spins on an axis, like a globe Tr-can only spin in two directions, represented with arrows as | oF |. In order to ogeupy the same orbital, electrons must have opposite spins (1). That is, two electrons with the same spin cannot occupy the same orbital. Pauli’s exelusi ciple states that no more than two electrons can occupy the same orbital, and two electrons in the same orbital must have opposite spins Furthermore, Hund’s nule states that every orbital in a subshell is singly occupied with one electron before any one orbital is doubly occupied with oppasite spins, and all electrons in singly ‘occupied orbitals have the same spin ‘On the basis of these principles and nile, the deseription of electronic configurations of red in Figure 11 some elements is il } He ist 4 WN [He]282p" Not is gy} [Ne} 3523p" Hu awA Ls? 2822p? 39? at a 1 Se (Addex? Se Figure 1.1 Description ofTexsbook Chemistry Grade 12 Valence electrons and Octet rule The electrons in the valence shells (outermost shells) of aa atom are known as the valence electrons. For an atom, the mumber of valence electrons is equal to its group number in the Periodic Table. For example, carbon is in Group IV and has 4 valence electrons. Oxygen is in Group VI and has 6 valence electrons. Only valence electrons can take part in chemical bonding. Whenever a chemical bond forms, atoms lose, gain, or share electrons in order to achieve the stable electronic structures of poble gases, i¢., cight electrons in the valence shell, which is known as the octet rule. However, there are a few exceptions found with elements of the second period of the Periodic Table when there are an odd number of valence electrons, too few valence electrons, or too many valence electrons. Additionally, the octet rule does not apply to d-block elements. To explain the chemical bonding and structures of atoms, molecules, and ions, the chemically important valence clectrons occupied in s and p orbitals are represented using Lewis symbols introduced by Gilbert Newton Lewis (1875-1946), an American physical chemist The Lewis symbols for some elements from the second period of the Periodic Table are given below The dots represent electrons. Lie Be: Electronegativity, Electron affinity and lonisation energy Chemical bonding is any of the interactions that allow for the association of atoms into molecules, ions, and compounds. Therefore, a chemical bond is formed when atoms are held together by the attractive forces between them after sharing or transferring the valence electrons. ‘The strenath of sharing or transferring the valence electrons depends on the electroneyativity of the atoms involved in the chemical bonding. Since electronegativity (EN) is @ measure of the ability of an stom 0 attract the shared electrons to itself, the greater ani element's electronegativity, the stronger its attractive power to electrons will be. in general, electron affinity (EA) is the amount of energy released when ant 1 added to a gaseous atom, and ionisation energy (TE) is the amount of energy required ¢ tn electron from a gaseous atom. Therefore, the elements having high electron gain electrons, resulting in the formation of the anions, and the elements g energy easily lose electrons, resulting in the formation of the cations. Generally, the higher the first ionisation energy of an el clectronegativity. The higher the value of the electronegativity, the greater to electrons. Types of chemical bonding ‘The type of chemical bonding depends on the types of elements: that are involved. There are three main types of chemical bonding, § covalent bonding, and metallic bonding. Although the atoms within between molecules are weak. it bonding and van der Waals interaction, dipole-dipole interaction, and London dispersion forces. “The types of chemical bonding and intermolecular forces are 1 =Grade 12 Chemistry affect the structures and ical properties of elements and compounds. In generat 2 bond is stronger than Fo ey the hycroden vod 6 is teceeeee followed by van der Waals forces. Among van der Waals forces, London dispersion fin the Weakest intermolecular forces that can be found in all substances, Before we consider the details of ionic and covalent bond models, it js j emphasise that most bonds are not 100 % ionic or 100 % covalent. Instead, ‘ost bonds have least some degree of both ionic and covalent character. . cer =, 1 (1) (@) What are the lowest energy main shell and subshell that electrons occupy? (b) What are the directions of the electron spins in the same orbital of an atom? - (ce) Howmany orbitals are there in thes, p, anddsubshells? Whatare the shapes ofthese orbitalsy (2) Some elements such as ,,Al, ;sP, 46S, joK, 35Br, and ygKr are given. (i) Describe the electronic configuration for each clement. (li) Describe the valence electrons of the elements listed (ili) Give a Lewis symbol for each element. (3) (@) What is meant by the term electronegativity of an element? (b) What does the type of chemical bonding depend on? (©) @) Classify the main type of chemical bonding. Among them, which force is the suonges? (ii) Mention the intermolecular forces. Key Terms i * Valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost shell of an atom. + Aufbau principle states that electrons are filled in the lower energy atomic orbitals before filling higher energy ones. : * Pauli’s exclusion principle states that no more than two electrons can occupy the same orbital, and two electrons in the same orbital must have opposite spins. + Hund’s rule states that every orbital in a subshell is singly occupied with one electron before any one orbital is doubly occupied, and all electrons in singly occupied orbitals have the same spin. 1,2 IONIC BONDING Ionic bonding (electrovalent bonding) results from the transfer of electrons from. atom having small ionisation energy to another atom having a large it the electrostatic attractions between cations (positiy ed ion: charged ions) are formed. (a) Formation of Ionic Bond Nature of ionic bonding Tonic bonding depends on the difference it takes place when the difference in el g between reactive metals and reactive non- electrons to form positively charged ions ( electrons to form negatively charged ions (anio s )Textbook Chemistry ‘Grade 12 then attracted to each other by strong electrostatic force, which is known as an ionic bond. The number of lost or gained electrons by an alom during ionic bonding is the same as the valency of that element. l For example, in the formation of sodium chloride, one electron from a sodium atom # transferred to one chlorine atom to form a sodium ion, Na* and a chloride ion, Cl- because the difference in electronegativity between Na (0.9) and Cl (3.0) is 2.1. As a result, both tons, Na* and Cl-, have the electronic configurations of noble gases Ne and Ar, respectively. They differ, however, from neutral atoms of Ne and Ar by carrying their respective ionic charges. ‘The electrostatic attraction resulting from the opposite charges constitutes ionic bonds. The ions arrange themselves into a crystal lattice. Since electrons loss always equals clectrons gain in an electron transfer process, ionic compounds are always neutral. The ratio in which positive and negative ions combine is the ratio that achieves neutrality of the resulting compound. The Na* and CI ions can be present only in a 1:1 ratio in the sodium chloride compound, so the formula must ‘be NaCl. By using Lewis symbols of Na and Cl, the Lewis structure of NaCl can be illustrated as below. ~~ Nae 281 28.7 28 «288 [Ne] 3s! [Ne] 3s? 3p? (Ne] Ar] sodium atom chlorine atom sodium ion chloride ion sodium chloride, NaCt In the case of magnesium oxide (MgO), since the electronegativity difference (2.3) between Mg (1.2) and oxygen (3.5) is greater than 1.8, Mg loses two electrons, and oxygen gains two electrons. It results in Mg?* and O2- ions with the electronic configuration of stable noble gas (Ne). The formation of MgO can be described using Lewis symbols of the elements as below. 2 Mg: ‘ ——> Me Peencre Beat 282 26 28 [Ne] 39? [He] 2? 2p* [Ne] magnesium atom oxygen atom magnesium ion magnesium Structures of Tonic Compounds In ionic compounds, the cations and anions are held together electrostatic attraction. In general, the greater the charge on the ions, the electrostatic attraction and the stronger the ionic bond will melting points of the ionic compounds with the greater charge on | are higher. In solid ionic compounds, their ions are held in fixed and cannot move, and hence they cannot conduct electricity. In the crystalline state of ionic compounds, the oppositely are held together in orderly three-dimensional arrangements, 5 (b)Grade 12 Chemistry structures. The crystalline structure of an ionic solid is called a crystal lattice unit cells. The unit cells can be of different types, such as cubic unit cells. The cubic have three types: simple cubic (sc) unit cell, face-centred cubic (fee) unit cell, and Cubic (bce) unit cell, as shows in the illustrations “ which indicates are donated. The formation of NH} oF I1,0" ions is an example « The ammonia molecule possesses a lone pair of electrons fo a hydrogen ion to produce the ammonium jon NH}, produces an clectron duplet to the hydrogen nucleus aGrade 12 Drawing Lewis structures The steps to draw the Lewis Step (1) Step (2) Step (3) Step (4) structures of covalent molecules are as follows: + of valence electrons in all atoms to be used in the of molecules or ions. For ions, it is necessary to add clectrons to account for negating charges, and subtract electrons to account for positive charges. Write a skeleton arrangement of the molecule or polyatomic ion. Select the central | place the other atoms surrounding the central atom, and connect them with a singe Calculate the total numbe covalent bond (two dots), Subtract the number of electrons used in shared pairs from the total number of vat electrons. Place the remaining electrons into the skeleton as unshared pairs. Use double and triple bonds only if necessary. Insert the unshared paired electrons (Jone pairs) into the skeleton to complete the acter of every element (except H, which can share only 2 electrons), Some examples are given below. For F, molecule, Step (1) Step (2) Step (3) Step (4) Jectrons (for F) * 2 = 14 electrons the total number of valence electrons = 7 valen: Skeleton of F, is FF. shared electrons between two F atoms = 2 electrons the remaining electrons = 14 -2 = !2 electrons, i.e., 6 lone pairs By inserting the 6 lone pairs around two F atoms, a stable severe [FE] is attained. One single bond is formed between two F atoms. For CO molecule, Step (1) Step (2) Step (3) Step (4) For PF, molecule, Step (1) Step (2) Step (3) Step (4) the total number of valence electrons = 4 (for C) + 6 (for O)= 10 electrons Skeleton of CO is C-O. shared electrons between C and O atoms = 2 electrons the remaining unshared electrons = 10-2 = 8 ek The 4 lone pairs are placed around C and O atoms So, the CO molecule contains a triple bond betwed total number of valence electrons = $ (for P) + 7 F pee ly Skeleton is ae \ shared electrons = 10 Sesion the remaining electrons = 40— 0 = 30 e} The 15 lone pairs are placed around five F structure. So, five single bonds are Present in 10Textbook Chemistry Grade 12 Example 1: Draw the Lewis structure of carbon tetrachloride, CCl, molecule, Solution: total number of valence electrons = 4 (for C) + 7 (for Cl) x 4 = 32 electrons shared electrons = 8 electrons the remaining electrons = 32-8 = 24 electrons, i.c., 12 lone pairs qo 1a 4 skeleton Example 2: Draw the Lewis structure for the carbonate ion, coy. Solution; total number of valence electrons = 4 (for C) + 6 (for 0) x 3 + 2 electrons . (from 2 negative charges) = 24 electrons shared electrons = 6 electrons the remaining unshared electrons = 24 - 6 = 18 electrons, ic., 9 dere pairs [ots] ote ee skeleton Place 2 electrons at the Catom {o attain stable structure Example 3: Draw the Lewis structure for the ammonium ion, NH, Solution: total number of valence electrons = 5 (for N) + 1 (for H) * 4 —1 electron (for one positive charge) = 8 electrons shared electrons = 8 electrons the remaining unshared electrons = 8 ~~ 0 electron, i¢., no lone pair 4 cbs skeleton Exceptions to the octet rule (e.g, NO, BeCl,, can occur. The central and that in an expanded » MWee he Cheameny ‘The Lewis structures of some molecules that deviate from the octet rule are i the. following figures: Televtrow arvuad the N 4 eketrons around the He 6 electrons around the B No Betty Be, Lewis structures of some electron-deficient molecules Welectrons and the P10 electrums around the f 12 electrons around the § ic, SF, Jes of some expanded valence shell molecules (©) Prediction of Molecular Shapes (VSEPR Model) ‘The Lewis structures provide a simple way to predict the distribution of valence electrons and bond lengths in a molecule. Covalent molecules take on definite shapes that depend upon. the number of bonds involved and the number of unshared electron pairs around an atom. The molecular shape in which the atoms and electron pairs exist in a three-dimensional can be predicted by using the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR - p vesper) theory, In modern days, the description of the electronic structure of a nickels explained using the molecular orbital theory (MOT) Valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory This theary is a model in chemistry used to predict the shape of covalent molecules. It based on the idea that the three-dimensional geometry of a molecule is mostly determined by the repulsive interactions of the electron pairs around a central atom. This model assumes electron pairs will arrange themselves to minimise repulsion sffects fm of electrons may be expressed as lone pairs and/or bondi shape. In the case of molecules containing multiple bo these bonding pairs behave as a single unit, The repulsive interaction of electron pairs inere bonding pair-bonding pair < lone pair- ‘The lone pairs are localised on the central two atoms. These lone pairs of electrons in a mole bonding pairs of electrons. Thus, the repulsion b compared to the lone pair-bonding pair and bonding pi effects result in deviations from the idealised shapesTextbook Chemistry Prediction of the shape of a covalent molecule To predict the shape of a molecule, the steps to be followed are shows below Step (1) Draw the Lewis structure of the molecule. Step (2) Count the number of electron pairs around the central atom. Step (3) Coun he geometry of elecron pairs as linea or wiangular plane or etn a kt HL linear triangular planar tetrahedral Geometry of electron pairs aronad the central atom Step (4) Predict the shape of molecule, "All diatomic molecules represent two poiats in space and are joined by a straight line, += they are linear, €. g., Hz, Os, Ny F, Clp, Bre, f,, and CO. ‘There is no central ator in these molecules. ‘As shown in Table 11, a tratomic molecule (AX, type) has 2 linces shape. In this typ=.8 (two single bonds) without lone pairs. Thus, the shape of BeCl, is linear. In the CO, motecwle, there are four bonding pairs (two double bonds) without lone pairs. These four bonding pairs (two double bonds) are considered as two single units. Hence, the shape of CO, is linear. ‘Apart from AX, molecules, the other types of molecules which have bonding pairs without Jone pain around th ceatral atom are similar to the gcometry of the banding pars. Hi BUS BE rival in these types, the molecular shapes are notte same 3s the p=Omesy Of ASSATS PAS Itis due to the electron pair repulsion between bonding pairs and lone pairs. Fer example, AX, bas a triangular planar and AX,E, where E represents 2 lone pair, has 2 V-shape (bent), meneny of electron peirs and molecular shapes of different types of molecziss Se summarised in Table 1-1. Example 4: Predict the shape of « molecule of BF, in terms of - (i) Lewis structure and (ii) YSEPR model. What will be the bood angle of F-B-F? Solution: Fs (i) _ Lewis structure of BF, is } ee (i) It consists of 3 electron pairs around the central atom) ‘The geometry of electron pairs triangular So, it has Example 5: Predict the shape of 2 molecule of NH, in terms (Lewis structure and (i) VSEPR model. What will be the bond Solution: i @ Lewis structure of NH, is #—¥—#- # 3REM TTNT (1) Four electron pairs are around the central atom N. oe Tus, the geometry of the electron pars is tetrahedral, There is 6 lore pait on , iw the nitrogen ator, Because of the electron pair tepulsion between this lone \oa Pait and the bond The bond angle off Number of bonding Pairs and lone pairs Around the central atom | Geometry of ciectron pairs. | Molecular shape 1RO® xCad_x linear x 120 | aa x7 x triangular planar linear triangular planar (trigonal planar) = XS >Xx <120° ben/V-shaped i oo ° xe x x tetrahedral tnangular planar (trigonal planar) tetrahedral Note: Symbol E cepresents the number of lone pairs, i‘Textbook Chernostry ie (4) Giant Structures of Covalent Molecules Some elements occur in slide where the atoms wre eld together by singe creme bo, existing es gunt tructures For example, i a diamond, exch carbon stor is juimed to frst otter carbon atoms by song covalent bonds, and the carbon ators form a regutat retort resulting im a giant structore There are no free electrons in the case of graphite, if has a layer and planar structure formed by joming each carbon stom to the other three carbon atoms by covalent bonds Esch layer is formed with hexaj | fet “ Tings of carbon atoms. Tncon wek tunes saan > ip Sip hy Gelagees ct caen wan der Waals forces between the Iayers, — which give rise to 2 giant structure In contrast to diamond, graphite has free-moving ¢lectrons in each layer ae ee That is why graphite can conduct to eloper electricity. Although diamond and graphite are giant moleceles, other synthetic allotropes of carbon such as fullerene (C,), carbon nanotubes, and gaphene, dy mk exist as giant structures. They are only bulky covalent molecules Silicon{IV) oxide, SiO, (silica or quartz) is an example of = giane cowalent molecule. In quartz, each silicon atom 3 bonded to forme emyger toms, but each oxygen atom is bonded to only two silicon ators. The ‘oxygen stoms are formed as bridges between the tetrahedrally bonded silicon atoms. It has a similar structure to & diasnond. They ale have samilar properties. It does not conduct electricity hecause it has no free (b) Draw the Lewis. (c) Write Lewis suuctures for the clerments. Gj) Hand S (2) @) Which one is covalent molecule? Which one is an ionic (b) Refer VSEPR theory, for the covalent molecule that you kave answer in terms of - (ji) central stom of the (0) Lewis structure (iii) number of valence electron pairs sound the central stom {hiv) geometry of electron pairs («) molecular shapeee Ee. ‘Chemstry {9) (2) You are given two covalent molecules: NH and BF, (0) Draw their Lewis structures. (i) Which one has a lone pair electrons in the central atom? (it) Which one is an electron-deficient molecule? (iv) Can these two molecules react? If so, write a chemical equation for it. (¥) Wentify the chemical bond formed between these two molecules, (b) Which of the following are giant covalent molecules? diamond, graphite, fullerene, carbon nanotuibe, silica Key Terms * Coordinate bond (dative bond) is a covalent bond that consists of a pair of electrons by only one of the two bonded atoms. * Electron-deficient molecule is a molecule in which there is an insufficient number of valence electrons to complete the octet of the central atom. * Expanded valence shell molecule is a molecule in which there are more than 8 electrons in the valence shell of the central atom. 7 * Molecular shape is the three molecule. Ye Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory is a theory used to predict the ‘Shapes of molecules and ions, based on the repulsive interactions of the electrons around 4 ‘central atom + Molecular orbital theory is a method for describing the electronic structure of mol based on quantized energy Jevels. a * Lone pair (unshared pair) is an electron pair that is not involved in bonding with other atoms. + Bonding pair is an clectron pair being shared by the atoms * Bond angle 1s an angle between any two bonds that include a common atom, ustally_ measured in degrees. * Giant structure is a three-dimensional structure of atoms that are joined by a network of bonds. 7 dimensional arrangement of the atoms that constitute 14 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES ~*~ Molecules in a substance are formed by joining atoms to and repulsive forces that arise between the molecules. These forces, which are responsible for most of the physical and bond within a molecule is described as a pair of electrons are not identical, the electrons will not be equally shared. electrons will be slightly negative and the other atom bond polarity. Thus, bond polarity within a molecule the molecule, Moreover, a dipole moment of the molecule into account the magnitude of the charge and the types of intermolecular forces can substance. The electronegativity of bonded atoms and role in determining their polerity, 16aeeek: Chemistry et vee (a) Polar and Non-polar Molecules Polar and non-polar covalent bonds Depending on the difference in electronegativity between two bonded atoms, covalent bonds can be polar or non-polar. If two different non-metal atoms are bonded, then the atom with the higher electronegativity will attract the shared electron pair more strongly. It results in a polar covalent bond being formed where one atom with higher electronegativity will have @ partially negative charge (6°), and the other will haye a partially positive es . charge (8°), known as a dipole. For example, since the ani tlectronegativity of Cl (3.0) is higher than that of hydrogen oe F&F (21), the electron pair is unequally shared between Cl H—cl ft and H atoms. So, the covalent bond formed in HCI is polar, . unequally sharing electrons in H-CT eo and it can be described as H-Cl. The 5° or 5 signifies a partial positive or a partial negative charge that is less in magnitude than the charge associated with a free proton (1+) of electron (-). The bond becomes more polar as the difference in electronegalivity values of the storms im a covalent bond increases. For example, the H-F bond is more polar than H-Cl, H-Br, and H=L. Difference in electronegativily: H-F > H-Cl> H-Br> H-1 Bond polarity: H-F > H-Cl> H-Br > H-1 In « covalent bond formed between two similar A ad non-metal atoms, the shared electron pair is equally attracted A—a fo the two atoms resulting in non-polar covalent bond, cqually sharing electeans in CLC e.g, ClI— Cl as illustrated in the figure. ‘As a result of the dipole formed in a polar covalent bond, the ‘bond possesses the dipole moment, The degree of bond polarity is measured as a dipole moment ofa bond. ‘The direction of the dipole can ‘also be shown by the -—» sign. The direction of arrow points to the negative end of the dipole, For example, in the polar hydrogen chloride (HCI) molecule, hydrogen is presented as H¢ and chlorine as Cl'-, and it can be deseribed as HCl So, any individual polar covalent bond possesses @ dipole moment. However, any non-polar ‘covalent bond has a zero dipole moment, ¢-g.. the dipole moment of Cl-Cl is zer0, Polar and non-polar molecules Polar or non-polar molecules cen be determined according to the ti the molecules. All diatomic molecules containing polar covalent bonds are pt they have dipole moments. In the case of polyatomic molecules, their dipole moments jndividual bond dipoles but also on the shape of the molecules. In such ofa molecule is the vector sum of the dipole moments of various bonds. For example, the H,0 molecule has a bent shape, It isa polar mo! of an H,O molecule will occur from the total dipole moments of two Figure 1.8 (a). Th the ease of the CO, molecule, it is linear and the two It“rade 12 Chemistry Symimetrically, The two equal bond dipoles point in opposite directions and cancel the eg ther. Thus, the dipole mament of CO, is evo (Figure 1.8 (b)) and it isa non-polar . 8. oa & » oye cor Say bond dipoles Total dipole moment band 6 in HO isnot zero, ‘Total dipole moment ia CO, iy xp (5) (a) Figure1.8 Bond Dipoles and Dipole Moments of (a) H,O and (b) CO; Molecates () van der Waals Forces ; Intermolecular forces are forces that act between a molecule and another molecule. leas classified as van der Waals forces and hydrogen bonding. Van der Waais forces are weak which include dipole-dipole interaction, ion-dipole interaction, and London dispersion forces Dipote-dipole interaction Dipole-dipole interactions are formed when two dipolar molecules interact with each, in space. When this occurs. the partially negative portion of one of the polar molecules is amma to the partially positive Portion of the second polar molecule as shown in the following figure 6° és 6° a 6° a a Se H a u oa H a «a @ — aoe a 4 polar molecule dipole-dipote interactions ! For example, polar molecules such as HCl, HCN, SO,. etc, are held together & dipole-dipole interactions. Ton-dipole interaction This type of intermolecular force is formed from the interaction between an ion and a dipole molecule. It happens especially in Solutions where a negative ion will be attracted to the positi of the polar molecule while a positive ion will negative pole of the polar molecule. For e: when sodium chloride dissolves in water, as ill Since sodium chloride is an ionic compound, molecule, the ion-dipole interactions are negative pole O* of a water molecule and between the posit ive pole H* of a water molecTextbook Chemistry ‘Grade te Landon dispersion forces ‘The weakest intermolecular forces that can be formed between atoms, as well as non-polar molecules, are knows as London dispersion forces, named after the German physicist rite London (1900 - 1954), Because of the constant motion of the electrons, an atom can develop temporary (instantaneous) dipole when the electrons are distributed unsymmetrically about the imcleus Then, this instantaneous dipale ‘of the first atom can induce a second atom to he distorted because electrons repel one another. It leads to form a dipole in the second atom resulting in an electrostatic attraction between these two atoms. This electrostatic attraction is known as the London dispersion force, also called induced dipole-induced dipole interaction. Figure 1.10 represents the formation of the London dispersion forces between helium atoms as an example syinmetnical ‘unyyminettical London slisteabunio distribution, temporary dispersion Wermiporaty ‘ot electro ‘of electrons dipole force mucedd dipole Acwm Atom | Mom! Atom? (nodipajey (instantaneous dpe) Figure 1.10 Formation of (a) Temporary Dipole ‘of He Atom and (b) London Dispersion Force between Two He Atoms These Landon dispersion forees can occur between non-polar molecules such as halogens, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, methane, and noble gases. Due 0 these weak attractive forces, non-polar substances ean condense into liquids and can freeze into solids when the temperature is lowered sufficiently, ¢g., liquid nitrogen and dry ive (solid CO,), Hence, London dispersion forces are instantaneous dipole-dipole interactions that exist between all atoms and molecules, non-polar as well as polar. 4 (c) Hydrogen Bonding The formation of hydrogen bonds between covalent molecules requires: (1) the first molecule has hydrogen attached to a high electronegative atom (F, ©, or N) and (2) the second molecule possesses a lone pair of electrons on a small electronegative atom (F, O, oF N). of the highly electronegativity difference between H atom and bonded FO, of Nat is very highly polansed. The 8+ charge on the hydrogen atom is high ¢r formed with a lone pair of ‘electrons on the F, O, or N atom of a neiChemistry Grade 12 igure 1.11 (a) shows the formation of intermolecular hydrogen Oe at vie 1.11 (b) represents the — Reine das hydrogen bonds. Hydrogen bonding can Lat e inert lar and fe ‘A hydrogen bond is a special type of ipo! sae eration ta molecules and is stronger than van der Waals forces. The hydrogen bond js bond and is the strongest of all intermolecular forces (1) You are given the following covalent bonds: ce NELNN Ot, C009. ivities: H = 1.0, C=2.5,N=3.0, 0-35, Br=2.8) (clectronegativities: H = 1.0, C = 2.5, (2) Which bonds are polar? (i) Which bonds are non-polar (ii) Arrange them: in inereasing order of bond polarity for polar covalent bonds. i les; O,, HBr, and SO,. (2) You are given the covalent molecules; O;, HBr, and SO, (clectronegativities: H= 1.0, 0=3.5, S~ 25, Br=28) (i) Which motecule(s) can have dipole moment? Which molecule(s) cannot have? (ii) Which molecule(s) is(are) polar? Which molecule(s) is(are) non-polar) (3) (@) Classify the type of intermolecular forces (b) Arrange the strengths of different types of intermolecular forces in increasing op (c) Which one of the intermolecular forces (hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole ion-dipole interaction, and London dispersion forces) exists in each of the fo (i) aqueous KI solution (ii) CH,OH (iii) Ny (iv) HE Key Terms * Intermolecular forces are the forces between atoms, molecules, and ions when: placed close (o each other. * Polarity is a separation of charge, leading to one part of a bond or molecule b positively charged and the other negatively charged, + Polar covalent bond is a coyalent bond in which the bonding electrons is ut between two atoms. “ + Dipole is a pair of charges that are equal in magnitude separated by a distance. + Non-polar covalent bond is @ covalent bond in equally between the two atoms. + Dipole moment is a measure of the polarity of a coy * Polar molecule is a molecule in which one end of the other end is slightly negative. * Non-polar molecu!Textbook ‘Chemistry + London dispersion force is a temporary attractive force that results from the temporary dipoles formed due to the occupying positions of electrons in two adjacent atoms. + Hydrogen bonding is the electrostatic attraction between a hydrogen atom in one polar molecule and a small electronegative atom (as of oxygen, nitrogen, oF fluorine) in another molecule of the same or different polar substance, + Intermolecular hydrogen bonds are the hydrogen bonds that occur between two atoms of same or different molecules. 1.5 METALLIC BONDING Most of the metals are solids at room temperature, and therefore, there must be some sort of bonding between these metal atoms, These metal atoms are held together in solid crystalline form by a metallic bonding. (a) Metallic Bonds sea of electrons In a metallic bond, the atoms do not share or (mobile electrons) transfer electrons to bond together. The structure of a ~“ metallic bond is quite different from that of covalent "4 or ionic bonds. In metallic solids, ¢.g., sodium, magnesium, and aluminium, atoms of metals are present. They form ) metallic bonds, In e metallic bond, the valence electrons of the atoms are very loosely held, forming EY a common electron cloud, These valence electrons ° move freely within this electron cloud. These mobile ease electrons are often described as "a sea of electrons" yy, _ Which make the metals easily conduct electricity. The Figure 1.12 Metallic Beatin positively charged metallic nuclei are surrounded by free-moving electrons (Figure 1.12). The bonding results from the interaction of these electrons with the various nuclei. Hence, they are held together by a strong electrostatic attraction that results in low volatility of the metals. (b) Strength of Metallic Bonding Metals consist of giant structures of atoms that are packed clo arrangement called a lattice. The strength of metallic bonding increas positive charge on the ions in the metal lattice, (2) the decreasing size ber of mobile electrons (valence electro and (3) the increasing num strength of metallic bond is lower than that of an onic bond, Cons some metals become lower compared with the ionic compounds. REVIEW QUESTIONS (1) Deseribe two everyday objects that ntain the following chemical (i) covalent bonds (1i) ionic bonds metallic bonds (2) (a) Identify the type of bond existing in each of the following Zn, CCl,, NaBr. Al, and MgCl,. 2Grade 12 Chemany Which of these substances will conduct electricity most effectively» Camn for the following pai 4 Ce the strength of metallic bonding pairs of : Se ro} ae and magnesium (i) magnesiom and calcium metals: lent, and tmetallie G) Tabulate the different types of bonding: tonic, coval (types of elements involved, (ii) bond formation in terms of electrons, (ii) between atoms, (iv) bond strength (strong/weak), (v) melting Point (ij (vi) electrical conductivity (yes/no), Q 1 to Q 4 (Understanding) 1. Write TRUE or FALSE for each of the {a) Chemical bonding occurs only by tray involved in the bond. ] (b) To transfer a valence electron, the atom. (c) The molecular shape of a water (qd) Beryllium chloride, BeCl.,, is a stab (©) Carbon tetrachloride, CCl, isa pol Fill in the blanks with a suitable word 0} (a) A bond's polarity is determined by (b) In ionic compounds, the opposit‘Textbook Chemistry Grade te (6) The weak intermolecular forces that bind molecules together are known as _- (d) The shape of ammonia molecule is s (e) The strength of metallic bonding increases with the decreasing size of the __ ion in the Isttice. 3. Choose the correct answer. (a) The element having (a high electron affinity, high electron affinity and clectronegativity, a high electronegativity) favours the formation of an anion. (b) The electrons located in the outer shell of an atom are known as (valence electrons, valency, the sea of mobile electrons) of the atom, (c) Nitrogen oxide, NO is a (polar, non-polar, triatomic) covalent molecule. (a) In a diamond, each carbon atom is joined to (three, four, five) other carbon atoms forming a giant covalent structure, {e) In the HCI molecule, there are (six, four, three) unshared pair electrons on the Clatom. 4, Answer the following: (2) G@)_ Why is chemical bonding important? (ii) How can a chemical bond form between two atoms? {b) (i) Write the complete electronic configuration for each of the following elements: 6s Chi SPs MBs asAD 168i woke (ii) Write Lewis symbols for the following atoms: sLi, y4Si,.5P, Nes AF (iii) What do Lewis symbols for atoms show? {c) Classify the types of intermolecular forces and arrange their strengths in increasing order. QS to Q I! (Analysing and Problem Solving) $5. (a) Using Lewis structures, show how ionic bond formed between the elements in cach of the following pairs: ()Kand,,Br (ii) 3oCaand ,,Cl (b) Deseribe the formation of magnesium fluoride compound using Lewis symbols. (c) Briefly discuss the structure of solid sodium chloride. 6. (a) What would happen when two hydrogen atoms are approaching one another? (b) Explain how the ‘covalent bonding takes place in a molecule. (c) Arrange the single, double and triple bonds in increasing order of bond | strength. Give reasons for your answers. (a) What are the differences between covalent bonding and coordit examples, ; . (b) Explain the formation of hydronium ion using the Lewis struett 8. (a) How do you understand the VSEPR theory? (b) Draw the Lewis structures and predict the molecular shapes fo 9. Given the following Lewis structure, where X and Y each re} (i) What is the valency of X? (ii) What is the valency of ¥? would X and Y represent?