MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II)

Gaurav Dwivedi
Department of Mathematics
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus.
 Module-9
Elementary functions in complex variables
 Chapter 3
Elementary Functions

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 3 / 95

The contents of this chapter are
Exponential Functions

Logarithmic Functions

Complex Exponents

Trigonometric Functions

Hyperbolic Functions

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The following topics are for your self study
Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

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Exponential Function

Exponential Function
If z = x + iy, then the exponential function ez is defined
as
ez = ex eiy = ex (cos y + i sin y),
where y is in radians.

Re(ez ) = ex cos y, Im(ez ) = ex sin y.

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Exponential Function
In polar form, we can write

ez = ex eiy = ρeiϕ ,

where ρ = ex and ϕ = y + 2nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . ..

|ez | = ex > 0. Thus ez ̸= 0 for any z ∈ C.
arg(ez ) = y + 2nπ, n = 0, ±1, . . ..
Unlike real case ez may be negative. For example
eπi = −1.
For a given complex number c ̸= 0 there exists a z
such that ez = c.
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 7 / 95
Properties of ez
e0 = 1.
ez1 ez2 = ez1 +z2 .
ez1
z
= ez1 −z2 .
e 2

1
z
= e−z .
e
ez is entire (analytic in whole complex plane).
ez±2πi = ez i.e., ez is periodic with a period of 2πi.
z2 z3 zn
ez = 1 + z + + + · · · + + · · · (Maclaurin’s
2! 3! n!
series of ez ).
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Question

Show that e2+3πi = −e2 .

Sol. We have

e2+3πi = e2 e3πi
= e2 e2πi+πi
= e2 eπi
= e2 (cos π + i sin π)
= −e2 .

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 9 / 95

Question

2 2
Show that |ez | ≤ e|z| .
Sol. We have
2 2
−y 2 2ixy
|ez | = |ex e |
2 2
−y
= ex
2
+y 2
≤ ex
2
= e|z| .

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Question
Find all values of z such that
e2z−1 = 1.
Sol. Recall that r1 eiθ1 = r2 eiθ2 iff r1 = r2 and
θ1 = θ2 + 2nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . ..
Now, we have
e2z−1 = 1
e2x−1 e2iy = 1e0i
e2x−1 = 1, 2y = 0 + 2nπ, n = 0, ±1, . . .
1
x = , y = nπ, n = 0, ±1, . . .
2
Hence z = 12 + nπi, n = 0, ±1, . . ..
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 11 / 95
Question
Show that eiz = eiz̄ if and only if
z = nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . ..
Sol. We have

eiz = eiz̄
iff e−y+ix = ey+ix
iff e−y−ix = ey+ix
iff e−y e−ix = ey eix
iff e2y = 0 and 2x = 2nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2 . . .
iff y = 0 and x = nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2 . . . .

Hence z = nπ.
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 12 / 95
Question
Show that if ez is real, then

Im z = nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . .

Sol. We have

ez = ex eiy = ex (cos y + i sin y).

Thus if ez is real then ex sin y = 0 which gives sin y = 0

(as ez ̸= 0 for all z) and so y = nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . ..
Exercise If ez is pure imaginary, what restriction is placed
on z ?
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Question

State why is the function

f (z) = 2z 2 − 3 − zez + e−z ,

entire.

Sol. Since the sum, difference and product of entire

functions are entire.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 14 / 95

Question

2
Show in two ways that the function f (z) = ez is entire.
What is its derivative?

Sol. First way. Separating real and imaginary parts:

2 2
−y 2 +2ixy 2
−y 2
ez = ex = ex (cos 2xy + i sin 2xy).
2
−y 2 2
−y 2
Therefore u = ex cos 2xy and v = ex sin 2xy.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 15 / 95

Now, we have
2
−y 2
ux = ex (2x cos 2xy − 2y sin 2xy)
2
−y 2
uy = −ex (2y cos 2xy + 2x sin 2xy)
2 2
−y
vx = ex (2y cos 2xy + 2x sin 2xy)
2 2
−y
vy = ex (2x cos 2xy − 2y sin 2xy).

Since ux , uy , vx , vy are all continuous everywhere and

satisfy C-R equations, so f is analytic everywhere and
hence is entire.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 16 / 95

Second way:
2
ez is a composition of two entire functions ez and z 2
and hence is entire [consider f (z) = z 2 and g(z) = ez ,
2
then (gof )(z) = ez ].
Also, we have
f ′ (z) = ux + ivx
2 −y 2
= ex (2x cos 2xy − 2y sin 2xy)
x2 −y 2
+ ie (2y cos 2xy + 2x sin 2xy)
x2 −y 2
=e [2x(cos 2xy + i sin 2xy) + 2iy(cos 2xy + i sin 2xy)]
x2 −y 2
=e [2xe2ixy + 2iye2ixy ]
2 −y 2 +2ixy
= 2ex [x + iy]
z2
= 2ze .
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 17 / 95
Question

Let the function

f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y),

be analytic in some domain D. State why are the

functions

U (x, y) = eu(x,y) cos v(x, y), V (x, y) = eu(x,y) sin v(x, y),

harmonic in D and why V (x, y) is, in fact, a harmonic

conjugate of U (x, y) in D ?

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 18 / 95

Sol. Clearly U (x, y) and V (x, y) are the real and
imaginary parts of ef (z) . Now since f (z) is analytic so
ef (z) is also analytic and so U (x, y) and V (x, y) are
harmonic (since real and imaginary parts of an analytic
function are harmonic).
Also, V (x, y) is, in fact, a harmonic conjugate of U (x, y)
(since g = U + iV is analytic iff V is a harmonic
conjugate of U ).

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 19 / 95

Multivalued Functions

Multivalued Function
Recall that a nonzero complex number z has n
distinct roots in complex plane. This means that
the process of “taking nth root ” of a complex
number z does not define a complex function.
Similarly, z 7→ arg(z) is also not a complex function.
These type of operations on Complex numbers
numbers are examples of multi-valued functions.

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Logarithmic Function

Logarithmic Function
For z ̸= 0, the solution of the equation ew = z for w, is
called logarithm of z. We denote it by w = log z.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 21 / 95

Logarithmic Function
Real and Imaginary Parts
If w = u + iv and z = reiΘ = |z|ei Arg z then ew = z gives

eu+iv = |z|ei Arg z

eu eiv = |z|ei Arg z .

Thus eu = |z| and v = Arg z + 2nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . ..

It gives
u = ln |z| and v = arg z.
Hence
log z = ln |z| + i arg z.
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Principal Value of log z

Principal Value of log z

The value of log z associated with principal argument is
called the principal value of log z and is denoted by
Log z. Thus

Log z = ln |z| + i Arg z, z ̸= 0.

Since arg z = Arg z + 2nπ, therefore

log z = Log z + 2nπi, n = 0, ±1, . . . .

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ez is defined as ez := ex (cos y + i sin y).
ez is entire function.
ez±2πi = ez i.e., ez is periodic with a pure imaginary
period of 2πi.
For z ̸= 0, the solution of the equation ew = z for
w, is called logarithm of z. We denote it by
w = log z.
For z ̸= 0,
log z = ln |z| + i arg z = ln |z| + i(Arg z + 2nπ),
n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
The principal value of log z is denoted by Log z and
is defined as
Log z = ln |z| + i Arg z, z ̸= 0.
Question
Show that
1 π
Log(1 − i) = ln 2 − i.
2 4

Sol. We have

Log(1 − i) = ln |1 − i| + i Arg(1 − i)
√  π
= ln 2 + i −
4
1 π
= ln 2 − i.
2 4

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 25 / 95

Question
Show that
Log(1 + i)2 = 2 Log(1 + i).

Sol. We have
π
Log(1 + i)2 = Log(2i) = ln |2i| + i Arg(2i) = ln 2 + i ,
2
and
π
2 Log(1 + i) = 2[ln |1 + i| + i Arg(1 + i)] = ln 2 + i .
2
Hence
Log(1 + i)2 = 2 Log(1 + i).
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 26 / 95
Question
Show that
Log(−1 + i)2 ̸= 2 Log(−1 + i).
Sol. We have
Log(−1 + i)2 = Log(−2i) = ln | − 2i| + i Arg(−2i)
π
= ln 2 − i ,
2
and
3π
2 Log(−1+i) = 2[ln |−1+i|+i Arg(−1+i)] = ln 2+i .
2
Hence
Log(−1 + i)2 ̸= 2 Log(−1 + i).
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 27 / 95
Question

Show that
log(i2 ) = 2 log i,
π 9π
when log z = ln r + iθ, r = |z| > 0, 4 <θ< 4 .
Sol. We have

log(i2 ) = log(−1) = ln | − 1| + iθ = iθ, θ = arg(−1).

π 9π
Now there is only one value of θ in 4 <θ< 4 that is π.
Thus
log(i2 ) = iπ.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 28 / 95

Now
log i = ln |i| + iθ = iθ, θ = arg(i).
π 9π
Again there is only one value of θ in 4 <θ< 4 that is
π/2. Thus
2 log i = iπ.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 29 / 95

Question

Show that
log(i2 ) ̸= 2 log i,
3π 11π
when log z = ln r + iθ, r = |z| > 0, 4 <θ< 4 .
Sol. We have

log(i2 ) = log(−1) = ln | − 1| + iθ = iθ, θ = arg(−1).

3π 11π
Now there is only one value of θ in 4 <θ< 4 that is
π. Thus
log i2 = iπ.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 30 / 95

Now
log i = ln |i| + iθ = iθ, θ = arg(i).
3π 11π
Again there is only one value of θ in 4 <θ< 4 that is
5π/2. Thus
2 log i = 5πi.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 31 / 95

Question
Show that the set of values of log(i1/2 ) is
 
1
n+ πi, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . ,
4
1
and the same is that of 2 log i.

Sol. We have i = e(2nπ+π/2)i and so i1/2 = e(nπ+π/4)i .

Therefore, we have
log(i1/2 ) = ln |e(nπ+π/4)i | + i (nπ + π/4)
 
1
= n+ πi, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
4
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Question

Find all the roots of the equation log z = iπ/2.

Sol. log z = iπ/2 gives ln |z| + i arg z = iπ/2 and so on
comparing real and imaginary parts: ln |z| = 0 and
arg z = π/2. Thus z = i.

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Branches and Derivatives of Log

If α is any real number and we restrict the value of θ

between α and α + 2π, then the function

log z = ln r + iθ, (r = |z| > 0, α < θ < α + 2π),

is single-valued and continuous in the above domain.

Also note that the function log z is not continuous on
the ray θ = α as arg z is not continuous on the ray
θ = α (Why?).

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Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 35 / 95
For if z0 is a point on the ray θ = α, then there are
points arbitrary close to z0 at which the values of θ are
nearer to α, and also there are points such that the
values of θ are nearer to α + 2π therefore lim arg z does
z→z0
not exist.

The function log z is not only continuous but also

analytic throughout the domain r > 0, α < θ < α + 2π
(since the first order partial derivatives are continuous
and satisfy C-R equations there).

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 36 / 95

Similarly on taking α = −π the function Log z is
analytic throughout the domain r > 0, −π < θ < π.
Also, the derivative of log z is given by
d
log z = e−iθ (ur + ivr ) = e−iθ /r = 1/z,
dz
α < arg z < α + 2π.
In particular,
d
Log z = 1/z, −π < Arg z < π.
dz

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Branch of a Function

Branch of a Function
A branch of a multi-valued function f (z) defined on a
set S is a single-valued function F (z) that is analytic in
some domain D ⊆ S such that for all z ∈ D, F (z) is
one of the values of f (z).

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 38 / 95

Example

Example
For each fixed α the single valued function

log z = ln r + iθ, r > 0, α < θ < α + 2π,

is a branch of the multiple-valued function

log z = ln r + i arg z.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 39 / 95

Principal Branch of log z
Log z = ln |z| + iΘ where |z| > 0, −π < Θ < π is called
the principal branch of the function f (z) = log z.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 40 / 95

Branch Cut

Branch Cut
A portion of a line (or curve) that is used to define a
branch F of a multi-valued function f is called a branch
cut. All points on the branch cut for F are the singular
points of F and a point that is common to all branch
cuts of f is called a branch point.

Example
The negative real axis(including origin) is a branch cut
for Log z, and the point z = 0 is a branch point.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 41 / 95

Question

Show that the function Log(z − i) is analytic everywhere

except on half line x ≤ 0, y = 1.
Sol. We know that the logarithmic function is analytic
everywhere except its branch cut (the singularities).
Now the singularities of Log(z − i) are given by

Re(z − i) ≤ 0 and Im(z − i) = 0

⇒ Re(x + i(y − 1)) ≤ 0 and Im(x + i(y − 1)) = 0
⇒x ≤ 0 and y = 1.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 42 / 95

Question
Log(z + 4)
Show that f (z) = is analytic everywhere
z2 + i
except at the points ± (1−i)
√
2
and on the portion x ≤ −4
of the real axis.
Sol. The singularities of f (z) are the singularities of
Log(z + 4) and the points where z 2 + i = 0.
Thus the singularities are given by
Re(z + 4) ≤ 0, Im(z + 4) = 0, and z 2 + i = 0
⇒x + 4 ≤ 0, y = 0 and z 2 = e−iπ/2
(1 − i)
⇒x ≤ −4, y = 0 and z = ± √ (How?)
2
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Question

Write log(Log i) in terms of a + ib.

Sol. We have

log(Log i) = log(ln |i| + i Arg i)

= log(iπ/2)
= ln |iπ/2| + i arg(iπ/2)
= ln(π/2) + i(π/2 + 2nπ), n = 0, ±1, . . . .

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 44 / 95

Properties of Logarithm

If z1 and z2 are any two non-zero complex numbers then

log(z1 z2 ) = log z1 + log z2 .
 
log zz12 = log z1 − log z2 .

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Proof.
(i) Let z1 = r1 eiθ1 , z2 = r2 eiθ2 , then we have
z1 z2 = r1 r2 ei(θ1 +θ2 ) .
Now

log(z1 z2 ) = ln(r1 r2 ) + i(θ1 + θ2 )

= ln r1 + ln r2 + i(θ1 + θ2 )
= ln r1 + iθ1 + ln r2 + iθ2
= log z1 + log z2 .

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 46 / 95

Proof.
(ii) Now, we have z1 /z2 = (r1 /r2 )ei(θ1 −θ2 ) .
Therefore

log(z1 /z2 ) = ln(r1 /r2 ) + i(θ1 − θ2 )

= ln r1 − ln r2 + i(θ1 − θ2 )
= ln r1 + iθ1 − (ln r2 + iθ2 )
= log z1 − log z2 .

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 47 / 95

Remark
The above identities are not true in the case of principal
logarithms.

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Example
Example
If z1 and z2 are any two non-zero complex numbers then
give an example such that

Log(z1 z2 ) ̸= Log z1 + Log z2 .

Sol. Take z1 = −1 and z2 = i. Then

Log z1 = Log(−1) = ln | − 1| + i Arg(−1) = iπ,

and

Log z2 = Log i = ln |i| + i Arg(i) = iπ/2.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 49 / 95
Example

Example
and so
Log z1 + Log z2 = 3iπ/2.
Now

Log(z1 z2 ) = Log(−i) = ln | − i| + i Arg(−i) = −iπ/2.

Thus
Log(z1 z2 ) ̸= Log z1 + Log z2 .

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 50 / 95

Example
Example
If z1 and z2 are any two non-zero complex numbers then
give an example such that

Log(z1 /z2 ) ̸= Log z1 − Log z2 .

Sol. Take z1 = 1 and z2 = −1. Then

Log z1 = Log 1 = ln |1| + i Arg(1) = 0,

and

Log z2 = Log(−1) = ln | − 1| + i Arg(−1) = iπ.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 51 / 95
Example

Example
and so
Log z1 − Log z2 = −iπ.
Now

Log(z1 /z2 ) = Log(−1) = ln | − 1| + i Arg(−1) = iπ.

Thus
Log(z1 /z2 ) ̸= Log z1 − Log z2 .

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 52 / 95

Q. 1, Page - 100 Show that if Re z1 > 0 and Re z2 > 0,
then
Log(z1 z2 ) = Log z1 + Log z2 .

Sol. Let z1 = r1 eiΘ1 and z2 = r2 eiΘ2 , then

z1 z2 = r1 r2 ei(Θ1 +Θ2 ) .

Since Re z1 > 0, so we have − π2 < Θ1 < π2 and since

Re z2 > 0, so − π2 < Θ2 < π2 , and so −π < Θ1 + Θ2 < π.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 53 / 95

Now

Log(z1 z2 ) = ln(r1 r2 ) + i(Θ1 + Θ2 )

= (ln r1 + ln r2 ) + i(Θ1 + Θ2 )
= (ln r1 + iΘ1 ) + (ln r2 + iΘ2 )
= Log z1 + Log z2 .

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 54 / 95

Complex Exponents
Complex Exponents
If c is a complex number and z ̸= 0, then the complex
power z c is defined as

z c = ec log z .

Principal Value of Complex Exponent

If log z is replaced by Log z in the above definition, then
the corresponding value of z c is called its principal value
i.e., principal value of z c is ec Log z . We write it as

P.V. z c = ec Log z .
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 55 / 95
Question

Find the principal value of ii .

Sol. We have

ii = ei Log i = ei[ln |i|+i Arg i] = ei[iπ/2] = e−π/2 .

Therefore P.V. ii = e−π/2 .

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 56 / 95

Question

Find the principal value of i−i .

Sol. We have

i−i = e−i Log i = e−i[ln |i|+i Arg i] = e−i[iπ/2] = eπ/2 .

Therefore
P.V. i−i = eπ/2 .

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 57 / 95

Question
Find the principal value of

(1 − i)4i .
Sol. We have

(1 − i)4i = e4i Log(1−i)

= e4i[ln |1−i|+i Arg(1−i)]
√
4i[ln 2+i(−π/4)]
=e
= e2i ln 2+π
= eπ (cos(2 ln 2) + i sin(2 ln 2)).

Therefore P.V. (1 − i)4i = eπ (cos(2 ln 2) + i sin(2 ln 2)).

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 58 / 95
Question

Show that √ √
(−1 + 3i)3/2 = ±2 2.
Sol. We have
√ √
(−1 + 3i)3/2 = e3/2 log(−1+ 3i)
√ √
= e3/2[ln |(−1+ 3i)|+i arg(−1+ 3i)]

= e3/2[ln 2+i(2π/3+2nπ)]
= e3/2 ln 2+(3n+1)πi
√
= ±2 2.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 59 / 95

Question
Find the principal value of (1 − i)1+i .
Sol. We have
(1 − i)1+i = e(1+i) Log(1−i)
= e(1+i)[ln |1−i|+i Arg(1−i)]
√
= e(1+i)[ln 2+i(−π/4)]
√ √
= e[ln 2+π/4]+i[ln 2−π/4]
√ √ √
= eln 2+π/4
[cos(ln 2 − π/4) + i sin(ln 2 − π/4)].

Therefore
√ √ √
P.V. (1 − i)1+i = eln 2+π/4
[cos(ln 2 − π/4) + i sin(ln 2 − π/4)].

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 60 / 95

Trigonometric Functions

If z ∈ C, we define
eiz + e−iz
cos z = ,
2
eiz − e−iz
sin z = .
2i
Thus eiz = cos z + i sin z.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 61 / 95

Trigonometric Functions

Other trigonometric functions can be defined in terms of

sine and cosine as
sin z cos z
tan z = , cot z = ,
cos z sin z
1 1
sec z = , csc z = .
cos z sin z

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 62 / 95

Exercise Prove that sin z and cos z are entire.
Sol. Since ez is entire (and so eiz and e−iz ) and a linear
combination of two entire functions is also entire.
iz −iz iz −iz
Therefore e +e2 and e −e2i that is cos z and sin z are
entire.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 63 / 95

Properties of Trigonometric
Functions
sin(−z) = − sin z, cos(−z) = cos z.
d d
dz sin z = cos z, dz cos z = − sin z.
d
dz tan z = sec2 z.

sin(z1 ± z2 ) = sin z1 cos z2 ± cos z1 sin z2 .

cos(z1 ± z2 ) = cos z1 cos z2 ∓ sin z1 sin z2 .

sin 2z = 2 sin z cos z.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 64 / 95
 cos 2z = cos2 z − sin2 z.

cos2 z + sin2 z = 1.

cos(2π + z) = cos z, sin(2π + z) = sin z.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 65 / 95

 eiz +e−iz
In cos z = 2 , put x = 0:

ei(iy) + e−i(iy)
cos(iy) =
2
e + e−y
y
=
2
= cosh y.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 66 / 95

 eiz −e−iz
Similarly in sin z = 2i , put x = 0:

ei(iy) − e−i(iy)
sin(iy) =
2i
e − e−y
y
=−
2i
e − e−y
y
=i
2
= i sinh y.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 67 / 95

Question
Separate real and imaginary part of sin z and cos z.
Sol. We have

sin z = sin(x + iy)

= sin x cos iy + cos x sin iy
= sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y.

and

cos z = cos(x + iy)

= cos x cos iy − sin x sin iy
= cos x cosh y − i sin x sinh y.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 68 / 95

Question
Prove that unlike the real function sin x, the complex
function sin z is unbounded.
Sol. We have

sin z = sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y.

Taking absolute values on both sides and on squaring:

| sin z|2 = (sin x cosh y)2 + (cos x sinh y)2

= sin2 x cosh2 y + cos2 x sinh2 y
= sin2 x cosh2 y + (1 − sin2 x) sinh2 y
= sin2 x + sinh2 y.
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 69 / 95
Since sinh y is unbounded therefore sin z is also
unbounded.

Similarly, we can see that cos z is unbounded.

Remark
Both sin z and cos z are unbounded but satisfy

sin2 z + cos2 z = 1.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 70 / 95

Exercises

Prove the following identities:

1 | sin z|2 = sin2 x + sinh2 y.
2 | cos z|2 = cos2 x + sinh2 y.
3 cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 71 / 95

Question

Show that tan z and sec z are analytic for all z except
z = (2n + 1) π2 , n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . .
sin z 1
Sol. Since tan z = cos z and sec z = cos z . Therefore both
of these are analytic except the points where cos z = 0.
Now

cos z = 0
⇒ cos x cosh y − i sin x sinh y = 0
⇒ cos x cosh y = 0 and sin x sinh y = 0.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 72 / 95

Continued

cos x cosh y = 0
⇒ cos x = 0 (as cosh y ̸= 0)
π
⇒ x = (2n + 1) , n = 0, ±1, . . . .
2
Now
sin x sinh y = 0
⇒ sinh y = 0 (as sin x ̸= 0)
⇒ y = 0.

Hence z = (2n + 1) π2 , n = 0, ±1, . . ..

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 73 / 95
Exercises

1 Show that cot z and csc z are analytic for all z

except z = nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . ..

2 Show that Zeroes of cos z are same as of cos x.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 74 / 95

Question

Show that
| sin x| ≤ | sin z|.
Sol. We have already proved that

| sin z|2 = sin2 x + sinh2 y.

Therefore
| sin x| ≤ | sin z|.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 75 / 95

Question
Show that
| cos z| ≥ | cos x|.
Sol. We have
cos z = cos x cosh y − i sin x sinh y,
and so
| cos z|2 = cos2 x cosh2 y + sin2 x sinh2 y
= cos2 x cosh2 y + (1 − cos2 x) sinh2 y
= cos2 x(cosh2 y − sinh2 y) + sinh2 y
= cos2 x + sinh2 y.
Therefore
| cos z| ≥ | cos x|.
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 76 / 95
Question
Show that

| sinh y| ≤ | sin z| ≤ cosh y.

Sol. We have already proved that:

| sin z|2 = sin2 x + sinh2 y ......... (1),

which gives

| sin z|2 = sin2 x + cosh2 y − 1

= cosh2 y − cos2 x ......... (2)

Using (1) and (2), we obtain | sinh y| ≤ | sin z| ≤ cosh y.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 77 / 95
Question
Show that
| sinh y| ≤ | cos z| ≤ cosh y.
Sol. Consider
cos z = cos x cosh y − i sin x sinh y.
Taking absolute values on both sides and on squaring:
| cos z|2 = (cos x cosh y)2 + (− sin x sinh y)2
= cos2 x cosh2 y + sin2 x sinh2 y
= cos2 x cosh2 y + (1 − cos2 x) sinh2 y
= cos2 x + sinh2 y .........(1)
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 78 / 95
 | cos z|2 = cos2 x + cosh2 y − 1
= cosh2 y − sin2 x .........(2)

Using (1) and (2), we obtain | sinh y| ≤ | cos z| ≤ cosh y.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 79 / 95

Question
Show that

sin(iz) = sin(iz̄) iff z = nπi, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . .

Sol. We have

sin(iz) = sin(i(x + iy))

= sin(ix − y)
= sin(ix) cos y − cos(ix) sin y
= i sinh x cos y − cosh x sin y.

Therefore

sin(iz) = −i sinh x cos y − cosh x sin y.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 80 / 95
Now

sin(iz̄) = sin(i(x − iy))

= sin(ix + y)
= sin(ix) cos y + cos(ix) sin y
= i sinh x cos y + cosh x sin y.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 81 / 95

Therefore (on comparing real and imaginary parts)
sin(iz) = sin(iz̄) iff sinh x cos y = 0 and
cosh x sin y = 0.
Now cosh x sin y = 0 gives sin y = 0 (as cosh x > 0) and
so y = nπ. Again (for y = nπ) sinh x cos y = 0 gives
(−1)n sinh x = 0 and so x = 0. Hence z = nπi,

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 82 / 95

Question
Find all the roots of the equation
sin z = cosh 4.
Sol. We have
sin z = sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y,
and so on comparing real and imaginary parts,
sin z = cosh 4 gives
sin x cosh y = cosh 4 and cos x sinh y = 0.
Now cos x sinh y = 0 gives cos x = 0 or sinh y = 0. For
sinh y = 0, we have y = 0 and then the first equation
sin x cosh y = cosh 4 gives sin x = cosh 4 which is not
possible (as cosh 4 > 1).
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 83 / 95
Therefore, we must have cos x = 0 that is
π
x = (2n + 1) , n = 0, ±1, . . . .
2
Now again first equation sin x cosh y = cosh 4 gives
(−1)n cosh y = cosh 4 or cosh y = (−1)n cosh 4. Now
since cosh y is positive so we must expect n to be even
and so y = ±4. Hence
π
z = (4n + 1) ± 4i, n = 0, ±1, . . . .
2

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 84 / 95

Question
Show that the roots of the equation

cos z = 2,

are

z = 2nπ + i cosh−1 2, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . .

Then express them in the form

√
z = 2nπ ± i ln(2 + 3).
Sol. Exercise

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 85 / 95

Hyperbolic Functions

The hyperbolic functions are defined as follows:

ez +e−z ez −e−z
cosh z = 2 , sinh z = 2 .

sinh z cosh z
tanh z = cosh z , coth z = sinh z .

1 1
sech z = cosh z , cosech z = sinh z .

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 86 / 95

Properties of Hyperbolic Functions

Since ez and e−z are entire so sinh z and cosh z are

also entire.
d d
dz sinh z = cosh z, dz cosh z = sinh z.

cos(iz) = cosh z, sin(iz) = i sinh z.

cosh(iz) = cos z, sinh(iz) = i sin z.

sinh(−z) = − sinh z, cosh(−z) = cosh z.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 87 / 95

 cosh2 z − sinh2 z = 1.

sinh(z1 + z2 ) = sinh z1 cosh z2 + cosh z1 sinh z2 .

cosh(z1 + z2 ) = cosh z1 cosh z2 + sinh z1 sinh z2 .

sinh z = sinh x cos y + i cosh x sin y.

cosh z = cosh x cos y + i sinh x sin y.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 88 / 95

Question
Prove that
sinh 2z = 2 sinh z cosh z.
Sol. We have (by definition)

e2z − e−2z
sinh 2z =
2
(e − e−z )(ez + e−z )
z
=
2 
−z
ez + e−z
 z 
e −e
=2
2 2
= 2 sinh z cosh z

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 89 / 95

Exercises

1 Show that | sinh z|2 = sinh2 x + sin2 y.

2 Show that | cosh z|2 = sinh2 x + cos2 y.

3 Show that tanh z and sech z are analytic for all z
except (2n + 1) iπ2 , n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . ..
4 Show that coth z and cosech z are analytic for all z
except z = nπi, n = 0, ±1, . . ..

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 90 / 95

Question
Why is the function sinh(ez ) entire? Write its real
component as a function of x and y, and state why that
function must be harmonic everywhere.
Sol. Being a composition of two entire functions
sinh(ez ) is entire.
Now
sinh(ez ) = sinh(ex cos y + iex sin y))
= sinh(ex cos y) cosh(iex sin y) + cosh(ex cos y) sinh(iex sin y)
= sinh(ex cos y) cos(ex sin y) + i cosh(ex cos y) sin(ex sin y).

Thus, we have separated the real and imaginary parts.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 91 / 95
Aliter We have

sinh(ez ) = sinh(ex (cos y + i sin y))

x x
ee − e−e (cos y+i sin y)
(cos y+i sin y)
=
2
ex cos y iex sin y x x
e e − e−e cos y e−ie sin y
= .
2

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 92 / 95

Now, we have
x
cos y iex sin y x
ee e = ee cos y
{cos(ex sin y) + i sin(ex sin y)},

and
x
cos y −iex sin y x
e−e e = e−e cos y
{cos(ex sin y)−i sin(ex sin y)}

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 93 / 95

On subtracting and dividing by 2:
1 x x x x
sinh(ez ) = [ee cos y eie sin y − e−e cos y e−ie sin y ]
2
x x
cos(ex sin y){ee cos y − e−e cos y }
=
2
ex cos y x
x
sin(e sin y){e + e−e cos y }
+i
2
= cos(ex sin y) sinh(ex cos y) + i sin(ex sin y) cosh(ex cos y).

Thus, we obtained real and imaginary parts.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 94 / 95

Exercise

Find all the roots of the equations

1
(a) sinh z = i (b) cosh z = (c) cosh z = −2.
2

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) June 6, 2023 95 / 95