ECOLE SUPERIEURE DES SCIENCE, DE COMMERCE, ET D'ADMINISTRATION, DES

ENTERPRISES DU BENIN

LECTURER NAME: DR MRS DEVCOM

COURSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSIOLOGY

COURSE CODE: GNS113

GROUP MEMBERS AND MATRIC NUMBER:

1-Micheal Nwachukwu (M2225PR127)

2-Ogunyankinnu Anuoluwapo Desire (ESCAE/2022/FST/CSC/038/PN)

3-Ogunmuyit oluwakomiyo oluwatosin (ESCAE/2022/FMS/ACC/066/PN)

4-Enwan Virtue Oghogho (ESCAE/2022/FMS/HRM/039/PN)

5-Bankole Roshard Adigun (Escae/2022/FAC/MCM/052/PN.)

6-Oluwamuyiwa David Damilare (2225ICT115)

7-Itemba Onyinyechukwu God's Gift (ESCAE/2022/FPSS/LAW/053/PN)

8- Dennis Samson Itodo (Escae2022/FPSS/ITR/070/PN)

9- Mirabella Ayama Akpodeh (ESCAE/2022/FAC/PMG/064/PN)

10- Uduma David (2025ACC120)

11- Okoli Nmesomma Blessing (2025pir110)

12- Chukwu Ikechukwu Emmanuel (2025CSC124)

13-

GROUP 4
 INTRODUCTION TO CANCER

The origin of Cancer:

Human beings and other animals have had cancer throughout recorded history. So it’s no
surprise that from the dawn of history people have written about cancer. Some of the earliest
evidence of cancer is found among fossilized bone tumors, human mummies in ancient Egypt,
and ancient manuscripts. Growths suggestive of the bone cancer called osteosarcoma have
been seen in mummies. Bony skull destruction as seen in cancer of the head and neck has been
found, too.

Our oldest description of cancer (although the word cancer was not used) was discovered in
Egypt and dates back to about 3000 BC. It’s called the Edwin Smith Papyrus and is a copy of
part of an ancient Egyptian textbook on trauma surgery. It describes 8 cases of tumors or ulcers
of the breast that were removed by cauterization with a tool called the fire drill. The writing says
about the disease, “There is no treatment.”

Origin of the word cancer

The origin of the word cancer is credited to the Greek physician Hippocrates (460-370 BC),
who is considered the “Father of Medicine.” Hippocrates used the terms carcinos and
carcinoma to describe non-ulcer forming and ulcer-forming tumors. In Greek, these words refer
to a crab, most likely applied to the disease because the finger-like spreading projections from a
cancer called to mind the shape of a crab. The Roman physician, Celsus (25 BC - 50 AD), later
translated the Greek term into cancer, the Latin word for crab. Galen (130-200 AD), another
Greek physician, used the word oncos (Greek for swelling) to describe tumors. Although the
crab analogy of Hippocrates and Celsus is still used to describe malignant tumors, Galen’s term
is now used as a part of the name for cancer specialists – oncologists.

Cancer in the Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries

During the Renaissance, beginning in the 15th century, scientists developed greater
understanding of the human body. Scientists like Galileo and Newton began to use the scientific
method, which later was used to study disease. Autopsies, done by Harvey (1628), led to an
understanding of the circulation of blood through the heart and body that had until then been a
mystery.

In 1761, Giovanni Morgagni of Padua was the first to do something which has become routine
today – he did autopsies to relate the patient’s illness to pathologic findings after death. This
laid the foundation for scientific oncology, the study of cancer.
The famous Scottish surgeon John Hunter (1728-1793) suggested that some cancers might be
cured by surgery and described how the surgeon might decide which cancers to operate on. If
the tumor had not invaded nearby tissue and was “moveable,” he said, “There is no impropriety
in removing it.”

A century later the development of anesthesia allowed surgery to flourish and classic cancer
operations such as the radical mastectomy were developed.

Cancer in the Nineteenth Century

The 19th century saw the birth of scientific oncology with use of the modern microscope in
studying diseased tissues. Rudolf Virchow, often called the founder of cellular pathology,
provided the scientific basis for the modern pathologic study of cancer. As Morgagni had linked
autopsy findings seen with the unaided eye with the clinical course of illness, so Virchow
correlated microscopic pathology to illness.

This method not only allowed a better understanding of the damage cancer had done, but also
aided the development of cancer surgery. Body tissues removed by the surgeon could now be
examined and a precise diagnosis could be made. The pathologist could also tell the surgeon
whether the operation had completely removed the cancer.

Cancer in the twenty-first century

As new research on cancer prevention, treatment and control progresses, there is much to
celebrate in the war against cancer. More available cancer prevention information, earlier
detection and an increase in treatment options all lead to people living longer. Over the years,
state and federal policymakers and health officials have worked diligently to combat cancers by
establishing a variety of programs and enacting laws.

However, most experts would agree that the battle is far from over. Cancer is one of the leading
causes of death in the U.S. and, according to the American Association of Cancer Care,
approximately $183 billion was spent on cancer-related care in 2015. The association estimates
the cost of care will increase by 34% ―to $246 billion―by 2030. The American Cancer Society
estimates that over 1.8 million new cases of cancer will have been diagnosed and more than
600,000 people will have died of cancer in the United States in 2020. Cancer rates vary by state,
often related to historical differences in tobacco use and other lifestyle factors.

Even more grim, cancer has a disproportionate effect on African American populations. The U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services Office of Minority Health reports that African
Americans have lower five-year survival rates than any other racial and ethnic group.
MEANING OF CANCER:

Cancer is a broad term used to describe a complex group of diseases characterized by the
uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal cells. It is a leading cause of morbidity and
mortality worldwide, affecting millions of people each year. In this comprehensive article, we will
delve into the intricacies of cancer, exploring its causes, types, progression, diagnosis treatment
options, and ongoing research efforts. By gaining a deeper understanding of cancer, we can
empower ourselves to make informed decisions about prevention, early detection, and
treatment.

Another name for cancer: Malignancy, tumor e.t.c

What was cancer first called?

Hippocrates is credicted with naming “cancer" as “karkinoma" because the tumor looked like a
crab (karkinoma is Greek for crab).

What is the difference between a normal cell and a cancerous cell?

Normally, cells follow instructions provided by genes. Genes set down rules for cells to follow,
such as when to start and stop growing. Cancerous cells ignore the rules that normal cells
follow. Normal cells divide and multiply in a controlled manner. Cancerous cells multiply
uncontrollably.

Normal cells are programmed to die (apoptosis). Cancerous cells ignore those directions.
Normal cells for solid organs stay put. All cancerous cells are able to move around.
Normal cells don’t grow as fast as cancerous cells.

How does cancer start in your body?

Cancer starts when a gene or several genes mutate and create cancerous cells. These cells

create cancer clusters, or tumors. Cancerous cells may break away from tumors, using your
lymphatic system or bloodstream to travel to other areas of your body. (Healthcare providers
call this metastasis.)
For example, a tumor in your breast may spread to your lungs, making it hard for you to breathe.
In some types of blood cancer, abnormal cells in your bone marrow make abnormal blood cells
that multiply uncontrollably. Eventually, the abnormal cells crowd out normal blood cells.

How common is cancer?

As of 2019, more than 16.9 million people were living with cancer. The most common cancers
in the world are:

1-Breast cancer

2-Lung cancer

3-Prostate cancer

4-Colorectal cancer

5-Blood cancers
PEOPLE LIKELY TO HAVE CANCER:

You’re more likely to get cancer as you get older. In fact, age is the biggest risk factor for the
disease. More than nine out of 10 cancers are diagnosed in people 45 and older. Those older
than 74 make up almost 28% of all new cancer cases. Researchers aren’t sure why this is so. It
could be that the passing decades give your cells more time to turn faulty, or mutate, and grow
into cancer. Or older age simply means you’ve been exposed to sunlight, cigarette smoke,
chemicals, and other cancer-causing agents for longer. It's likely a combination of time and
exposure that raises the risk of getting cancer at an older age.

Cancer Cases by Age Groups

You can get cancer at any age, including as infants and toddlers. But cancer is mostly a disease
of middle age and beyond. The median age at diagnosis is 66, meaning that half of all new
cases are found before then and half are diagnosed later.

The following is the share of diagnoses for all types of cancer in the U.S. by age groups:
Under 20: 1%

20-34: 3%

35-44: 5%

45-54: 14%

55-64: 24%

65-74: 25%

75-84: 20%

85 and over: 8%

Cancer Types by Age

The link between cancer and age can differ by types of cancer. For example, the most common
cancers found in kids 14 and younger are leukemia, lymphoma, or cancer of the brain or central
nervous system. More than one in four people diagnosed with bone cancer are under 20. The
risk of many cancers rises in tandem with age. One in 870 women at age of 40 will get ovarian
cancer within 10 years. For 80-year-olds, the chances are three times higher, or one out of 283
women.

Some common cancers in adults under age 50 include:

Leukemia and lymphoma

Thyroid cancer

Melanoma

Breast cancer

Germ cell tumors

Some of the most common cancers in adults over 50 include melanoma and cancers of the:

Breast

Lung

Prostate

Colon

Bladder

Some cancers, such as lung, pancreatic, and ovarian cancers, are often hard to notice until in
later stages. So by the time your doctor finds them, the cancer may have been growing for some
time. Other cancers, such as breast cancer, melanoma, and prostate cancer, are often caught
sooner.

The median ages at diagnosis by cancers by types are:

Breast: 62

Lung: 71

Prostate: 66

Pancreas: 70

Colon: 67

Melanoma: 65

Bladder: 73

Cervix: 50

Ovary: 63

Cancer risk factors you can control:

 Smoking: Smoking cigarettes increases your chance of developing lung, Pancreatic,

esophageal and oral cancer.
 Diet: Eating high fat or high sugary foods can increase your risks for many types of
cancer, you're also more vulnerable to disease if you don't get much exercises.

 Environment: Exposure to toxics in the environment such as asbestos, pesticide, and

radon can eventually lead to cancer.

CAUSES OF CANCER

Cancers can be caused by a number of different factors and, as with many other illnesses, most
cancers are the result of exposure to a number of different causal factors. It is important to
remember that, while some factors cannot be modified, around one third of cancer cases can
be prevented by reducing behavioural and dietary risks.

Modifiable risk factors include:

It is important to note that income and education levels, national policies, industry tactics with
vested commercial interests, and genetics, are all factors that can make it very difficult to act on
a modifiable factor and change behaviour at the individual level.

1) Alcohol – The evidence that all types of alcoholic drinks are a cause of a number of cancers
is now stronger than ever before. Alcohol can increase the risk of six types of cancers, including
bowel (colorectal), breast, mouth, pharynx and larynx (mouth and throat), oesophageal, liver and
[Link] evidence suggests that in general, the most alcohol drinks people consume the
higher the risk of many cancers, and that even moderate alcohol intake increases the risk of
cancer

2) Being overweight or obese – Excess weight has been linked to an increased risk of
developing 12 different cancers, including bowl and pancreatic cancers. In general, greater
weight gain, particularly as adults, is associated with greater cancer risks. In general, greater
weight gain, particularly as adults, is associated with greater cancer risks.

3) Diet and nutrition – Experts suggest that diets and nutritional intake, particularly diets high in
red meats, processed meats, salted foods and low in fruits and vegetables have an impact on
cancer risks, particularly colorectum, nasopharynx and stomach1, 2, 3.

4) Physical activity – Regular physical activity not only helps to reduce excess body fat and the
cancer risks associated with this, but being physically active can help to reduce the risks of
developing colon, breast and endometrial cancers.

5) Tobacco – Tobacco smoke contains at least 80 different cancerIonising radiation –

Manmade sources of radiation can cause cancer and are a risk for workers. These include
radon, x-rays, gamma rays and other forms of high-energy radiation. Prolonged and unprotected
exposure to ultraviolet radiations from the sun, sunlamps and tanning beds can also lead to
melanoma and skin malignancies. Fair skinned people, individuals with a lot of moles or who
have a family history of melanoma or non-melanoma skin cancer, are at highest risk. However,
people of all skin tones can develop skin cancer, including individuals with darker skin.

6) Work place hazards – Some people risk being exposed to a cancer-causing substance
because of the work that they do. For example, workers in the chemical dye industry have been
found to have a higher incidence than normal of bladder cancer. Asbestos is a wellknown
workplace cause of cancer - particularly a cancer called mesothelioma, which most commonly
affects the covering of the lungs.

7) Infection – Infectious agents are responsible for around 2.2 million cancer deaths annually.
This does not mean that these cancers can be caught like an infection; rather the virus can
cause changes in cells that make them more likely to become cancerous. Around 70% of
cervical cancers are caused by Human papillomavirus (HPV) infections, while liver cancer and
Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma can be caused by the Hepatitis B and C virus, and lymphomas are
linked to the Epstein-Barr virus. Bacterial infections have not been thought of as cancer causing
agents in the past, but more recent studies have shown that people who have helicobacter
pylori infection of their stomach develop inflammation of the stomach lining, which increases
the risk of stomach cancer.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF CANCER

There are over 200 different types of cancer that can cause many different signs and symptoms.
Sometimes symptoms affect specific areas of the body, such as our tummy or skin. But signs
can also be more general, and include weight loss, tiredness (fatigue) or unexplained pain.
Some possible signs of cancer, like a lump, are better known than others. But this doesn’t mean
they’re more important or more likely to be cancer. It is important to get any possible symptom
of cancer checked out. Cancer can affect people in different ways. The type of symptoms a
person may have can be different to others, and some people don’t have any symptoms. So, you
don’t need to remember all the signs and symptoms of cancer.

General cancer symptoms:

1-Very heavy night sweats or fever:

Sweating at night or having a high temperature (fever) can be caused by infections or a side
effect of certain medications. It’s also often experienced by women around the time of the
menopause. But speak to your doctor if you have very heavy, drenching night sweats, or an
unexplained fever.

2- Fatigue:

There are lots of reasons why you may feel more tired than usual, particularly if you’re going
through a stressful event, or having trouble sleeping. But if you’re feeling tired all the time, or, for
no clear reason, it could be a sign that something is wrong - speak to your doctor.
3- Unexplained bleeding or bruising:

Unexplained bleeding or bruising when you have not hurt yourself is important to get checked
out by your doctor. This includes blood in your poo or pee, as well as vomiting or coughing up
blood. It also includes any unexplained vaginal bleeding between periods, after sex or after the
menopause. No matter how much blood or what colour it is (blood can be red, or a darker colour
like brown or black), speak to your doctor.

4- Unexplained pain or ache:

Pain is one way our body tells us that something is wrong. As we get older, it’s more common to
experience aches and pains. But unexplained or persistent pain anywhere in the body could be a
sign of something more serious.

5- Unexplained weight loss:

Small weight changes over time are quite normal, but if you have lost a noticeable amount of
weight without trying to, tell your doctor.

6- Unusual lump or swelling anywhere

Persistent lumps or swelling in any part of your body should be taken seriously.

NB: There are other signs and symptoms of cancer such as:

Abnormal periods or pelvic pain

Changes in bathroom habits

Bloating

Difficulty In swallowing

Chronic coughing

Oral changes

Chronic headache

Skin changes

Stomach pain or nausea

How Is Cancer Diagnosed?

There is no single test that can accurately diagnose cancer. The complete evaluation of a
patient usually requires a thorough history and physical examination along with diagnostic
testing. Many tests are needed to determine whether a person has cancer, or if another
condition (such as an infection) is mimicking the symptoms of cancer.

Effective diagnostic testing is used to confirm or eliminate the presence of disease, monitor the
disease process, and to plan for and evaluate the effectiveness of treatment. In some cases, it
is necessary to repeat testing when a person's condition has changed, if a sample collected was
not of good quality, or an abnormal test result needs to be confirmed.

Diagnostic procedures for cancer may include imaging, laboratory tests (including tests for
tumor markers), tumor biopsy, endoscopic examination, surgery, or genetic testing.

Cancer diagnosis methods:

1) Lab tests

2) Diagnostic imaging

3) Endoscopic exams

4) Genetic tests
5)Tumor biopsies

What are the different types of lab tests used to diagnose cancer?

Clinical chemistry uses chemical processes to measure levels of chemical components in body
fluids and tissues. The most common specimens used in clinical chemistry are blood and urine.
Many different tests exist to detect and measure almost any type of chemical component in
blood or urine. Components may include blood glucose, electrolytes, enzymes, hormones, lipids
(fats), other metabolic substances, and proteins.

The following are some of the more common laboratory tests:

1) Blood tests

2) Complete blood count (CBC)

3) Urinalysis

4) Tumor markers

 Diagnostic imaging

Diagnostic radiology has greatly advanced in recent years with the development of new
instruments and techniques that can better detect cancer and also help patients avoid surgery.
The diagnostic radiology staff and physicians at the Stanford Cancer Center are leaders in their
field and have access to the most advanced technology available today for imaging of cancer.

In fact, the expertise of our doctors is so well recognized that we proudly serve as a reference
center, meaning that outside physicians can send our staff complex or borderline images and
receive expert interpretation for their patients.

In addition to advanced instruments and experienced staff, the Cancer Center was designed to
improve the delivery of diagnostic radiology. For example, we have consolidated imaging
workstations for mammograms, ultrasounds, and magnetic resonance images in one room,
allowing physicians to directly compare images from multiple sources.

This unprecedented cross-platform, simultaneous access ensures that all of the relevant data is
at your doctor's fingertips when s/he is making important decisions about your care.

What are the different types of diagnostic imaging?

Imaging is the process of producing valuable pictures of body structures and organs. It is used
to detect tumors and other abnormalities, to determine the extent of disease, and to evaluate
the effectiveness of treatment. Imaging may also be used when performing biopsies and other
surgical procedures. There are three types of imaging used for diagnosing cancer: transmission
imaging, reflection imaging, and emission imaging. Each uses a different process.

 Transmission imaging

X-rays, computed tomography scans (CT scans), and fluoroscopy are radiological examinations
whose images are produced by transmission. In transmission imaging, a beam of high-energy
photons is produced and passed through the body structure being examined. The beam passes
very quickly through less dense types of tissue such as watery secretions, blood, and fat,
leaving a darkened area on the X-ray film. Muscle and connective tissues (ligaments, tendons,
and cartilage) appear gray. Bones will appear white.

X-ray

Computed tomography scan (also called a CT scan or computed axial tomography or CAT scan)

Bone scan

Lymphangiogram (LAG)

Mammogram

 Reflection imaging

Reflection imaging refers to the type of imaging produced by sending high-frequency sounds to
the body part or organ being studied. These sound waves "bounce" off of the various types of
body tissues and structures at varying speeds, depending on the density of the tissues present.
The bounced sound waves are sent to a computer that analyzes the sound waves and produces
a visual image of the body part or structure.

Ultrasound

 Emission imaging

Emission imaging occurs when tiny nuclear particles or magnetic energy are detected by a
scanner and analyzed by computer to produce an image of the body structure or organ being
examined. Nuclear medicine uses emission of nuclear particles from nuclear substances
introduced into the body specifically for the examination. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
uses radio waves with a machine that creates a strong magnetic field that in turn causes cells
to emit their own radio frequencies. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

What are the different types of endoscopic examinations used to diagnose cancer?
Types of endoscopies include:

1-Cystoscopy (also called cystourethroscopy)

2-Colonoscopy

3-Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP)

4-Esophagogastroduodenoscopy (also called EGD or upper endoscopy)

5-Sigmoidoscopy

What are the different types of genetic testing used to diagnose cancer?

Testing for mutations in genes that give an increased risk for cancer is complicated. The
concepts are important to understand when considering cancer susceptibility gene testing.

What are the different types of tumor biopsies used to diagnose cancer?

A biopsy is a procedure performed to remove tissue or cells from the body for examination
under a microscope. Some biopsies can be performed in a physician's office, while others need
to be done in a hospital setting. In addition, some biopsies require use of an anesthetic to numb
the area, while others do not require any sedation. Biopsies are usually performed to determine
whether a tumor is malignant (cancerous) or to determine the cause of an unexplained infection
or inflammation. The following are the most common types of biopsies:

1)Endoscopic biopsy

2)Bone marrow biopsy

3)Excisional or incisional biopsy

4)Fine needle aspiration biopsy

5)Punch biopsy

6)Shave biopsy

7) biopsy

STAGES OF CANCER

The TNM staging system

The TNM staging system stands for Tumour, Node, Metastasis.

T describes the size of the tumour

N describes whether there are any cancer cells in the lymph nodes

M describes whether the cancer has spread to a different part of the body

The system uses letters and numbers to describe the cancer.

T refers to the size of the cancer and how far it has spread into nearby tissue – it can be 1, 2, 3
or 4, with 1 being small and 4 large

N refers to whether the cancer has spread to the lymph nodes – it can be between 0 (no lymph
nodes containing cancer cells) and 3 (lots of lymph nodes containing cancer cells)

M refers to whether the cancer has spread to another part of the body – it can either be 0 (the
cancer hasn't spread) or 1 (the cancer has spread)

So for example a small cancer that has spread to the lymph nodes but not to anywhere else in
the body may be T2 N1 M0. Or a more advanced cancer that has spread may be T4 N3 M1.

Sometimes doctors use the letters a, b or c to further divide the categories. For example, stage
M1a lung cancer is a cancer that has spread to the other lung. Stage M1b lung cancer has
spread to one other part of the body. Stage M1c lung cancer has spread to more than one part
of the body.

The letter p is sometimes used before the letters TNM. For example, pT4. This stands for
pathological stage. It means that doctors based the staging on examining cancer cells in the lab
after surgery to remove a cancer.

The letter c is sometimes used before the letters TNM. For example, cT2. This stands for
clinical stage. It means that the stage is based on what the doctor knows about the cancer
before surgery. Doctors may look at your tests results and use the clinical information from
examining you.

Number staging systems

Number staging systems use the TNM system to divide cancers into stages. Most types of
cancer have 4 stages, numbered from 1 to 4. Doctors often write the stage down in Roman
numerals. So they may write stage 4 as stage IV.

Here is a brief summary of what the stages mean for most types of cancer:

Stage 1 usually means that a cancer is small and contained within the organ it started in

Stage 2 usually means that the tumour is larger than in stage 1 but the cancer hasn't started to
spread into the surrounding tissues. Sometimes stage 2 means that cancer cells have spread
into lymph nodes close to the tumour. This depends on the particular type of cancer

Stage 3 usually means the cancer is larger. It may have started to spread into surrounding
tissues and there are cancer cells in the lymph nodes nearby.

Stage 4 means the cancer has spread from where it started to another body organ. For example
to the liver or lung. This is also called secondary or metastatic cancer

Sometimes doctors use the letters A, B or C to further divide the number categories. For
example, stage 3B cervical cancer.

TYPES OF CANCER

Cancers are named for the area in which they begin and the type of cell they are made of, even if
they spread to other parts of the body. For example, a cancer that begins in the lungs and
spreads to the liver is still called lung cancer.

There are also several clinical terms used for certain general types of cancer:

Carcinoma is a cancer that starts in the skin or the tissues that line other organs.

Sarcoma is a cancer of connective tissues such as bones, muscles, cartilage, and blood vessels.

Leukemia is a cancer of the bone marrow, which creates blood cells.

Lymphoma and myeloma are cancers of the immune system

Here are some other types of cancer

Appendix cancer, bladder cancer, bone cancer, brain cancer, breast cancer, cervical cancer,
colon or colorectal cancer, duodenal cancer, ear cancer, endometrial cancer, esophageal cancer,
heart cancer, gallbladder cancer, kidney or renal cancer, laryngeal cancer, leukemia, lip cancer,
liver cancer, lung cancer, lymphoma, mesothelioma, myeloma, oral cancers, ovarian cancer,
pancreatic cancer, penile cancer, prostate cancer, rectal cancer, skin cancer, small intestine
cancer, spleen cancer, stomach or gastric cancer, testicular cancer, thyroid cancer, uterine
cancer, vaginal cancer, vulvar cancer

Cervical cancer and prostate cancer. Some screenings, such as for cervical cancer and
prostate cancer, may be done as part of routine exams.

Lung cancer. Screenings for lung cancer may be performed regularly for those who have certain
risk factors.

Skin cancer. Skin cancer screenings may be performed by a dermatologist if you have skin
concerns or are at risk of skin cancer.

Colorectal cancer. The American Cancer Society (ACS)Trusted Source recommends regular
screenings for colorectal cancer beginning at age 45. These screenings are typically performed
during a colonoscopy. At-home testing kits may also be able to detect some forms of colorectal
cancer, according to a 2017 review of researchTrusted Source.

Breast cancer. Mammograms to test for breast cancer are recommended for women ages 45
and olderTrusted Source, but you may choose to begin screenings at age 40. In people at a high
risk, screenings may be recommended earlier.

CURE FOR CANCER:

Will we ever cure cancer? Is there a cure for cancer? If so, how close are we? To answer these
questions, it’s important to understand the difference between a cure and remission

 Cure:. A cure means that treatment has eliminated all traces of cancer from the body
and has ensured that it won’t come back.

 Remission: Remission means that signs of cancer have reduced or gone away entirely. A
person who is in remission may have few to no signs of cancer cells in their body.
Generally speaking, there are two different kinds of remission:

A complete remission, which means there aren’t any detectable signs of cancer.

A partial remission, which means the cancer has shrunk, but the cancer cells are still detectable.

Even after a complete remission, cancer cells can remain in the body. This means the cancer
can come back. If this happens, it’s usually within the first 5 yearsTrusted Source after
treatment.

While some doctors may use the term “cured” when referring to cancer that doesn’t return
within 5 years, it’s still possible for it to come back, meaning it’s never truly cured. Because of
this, most doctors will use the term “in remission” instead of “cured.”

TREATMENT FOR CANCER

1) Immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy is a type of treatment that helps the immune system fight cancer cells.

The immune system is made up of various organs, cells, and tissues that help the body fight off
outside invaders, including: bacteria, viruses, parasites.
However, cancer cells are a part of us and aren’t seen by our bodies as invaders. Because of
this, the immune system may need help identifying them. There are several ways to provide this
help.

2) Vaccines

When you think of vaccines, you probably think of them in the context of preventing infectious
diseases, like COVID-19, measles, and the flu. However, some vaccines can help prevent or even
treat certain types of cancer.

For example, the human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine protects against many types of HPVs
that can cause cancers of the cervix, anus, and throat. Additionally, the hepatitis B vaccine helps
to prevent a chronic infection with the hepatitis B virus, which can lead to liver cancer.

Bacillus Calmette-Geurin (BCG) is a vaccine that’s normally used for tuberculosis but can also
be a part of bladder cancer treatment. In this treatment, BCG is supplied directly to the bladder
by a catheter that stimulates immune cells to attack bladder cancer cells.

Researchers have also been trying to make a vaccine that helps the immune system fight
cancer directly. Cancer cells usually have molecules on their surface that aren’t on healthy cells.
A vaccine containing these molecules may help the immune system better recognize and
destroy cancer cells.

So far, there’s only one vaccine that’s been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
to treat cancer. It’s called Sipuleucel-T (Provenge) and is used to treat advanced prostate cancer
that hasn’t responded to other treatments.

This vaccine is unique because it’s customized. Immune cells are removed from the body and
sent to a laboratory, where they’re modified to recognize prostate cancer cells. They’re then
injected back into the body, where they help the immune system find and destroy cancer cells.

According to a 2021 reviewTrusted Source, researchers are currently working on developing and
testing new vaccines to treat certain types of cancer. These vaccines are sometimes tested in
combinationTrusted Source with established cancer drugs, according to the National Cancer
Institute (NCI)Trusted Source.

Some examples of cancers with vaccines that have been or are currently being tested are:
pancreatic cancer, melanoma, non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), breast cancer, multiple
myeloma

3) T-cell therapy
T-cells are a kind of immune cell. They work to destroy outside invaders detected by your
immune system.

T-cell therapy involves removing these cells from the body and sending them to a lab. The cells
that seem most responsive against cancer cells are separated and grown in large quantities.
These T-cells are then injected back into your body.

A specific type of T-cell therapy is called CAR T-cell therapy. During treatment, T-cells are
extracted and modified to add a receptor to their surface. This helps the T-cells better recognize
and destroy cancer cells when they’re reintroduced into your body.

As of this writing, 6 CAR T-cell therapiesTrusted Source have been approved by the FDA. These
are used to treat blood cancers, including some types of leukemias and lymphomas as well as
multiple myeloma.

Generally speaking, CAR T-cell therapy is recommended when other cancer treatments haven’t
been effective. While it can be beneficial for people with cancers that are hard to treat, it’s also
associated with some potentially serious side effects.

One of these is called cytokine release syndrome (CRS)Trusted Source. This happens when the
newly reintroduced T-cells release a large number of chemicals called cytokines into the
bloodstream. This can send the immune system into overdrive.

Serious effects on the nervous system, like seizures and confusion, have also been observed
after CAR T-cell therapy.

Clinical trials are in progress to see how this therapy might be able to treat other types of
cancers, including solid tumors, which can be harder for CAR T-cells to reach.

Researchers are also studying better ways to manage the side effects associated with CAR T-
cell therapy.

4)Monoclonal antibodies

Antibodies are proteins produced by B cells, another type of immune cell. They’re able to
recognize specific targets, called antigens, and bind to them. Once an antibody binds to an
antigen, T-cells can find and destroy the antigen.

Monoclonal antibody (mAb) therapy involves making large amounts of antibodies that
recognize antigens that are usually found on the surface of cancer cells. They’re then injected
into the body, where they can help find and neutralize cancer cells.

There are many types of mAbs that have been developed for cancer therapy. Some examples
include:
  a) Alemtuzumab (Campath). This mAb binds selectively to a protein that is highly
expressed on the surface of both T and B cell lymphocytes. By targeting this specific
protein, both the T and B cells are marked for destruction, which helps your body get rid
of any cancer-containing cells.

Trastuzumab (Herceptin). This mAb is specific for HER2, a protein found on some breast cancer
cells and promotes their growth. Trastuzumab binds to HER2, which blocks its activity. This
stops or slows the growth of breast cancer cells.

 b) Blinatumomab (Blincyto). This therapy is considered a T-Cell therapy and a mAb,

since it contains two different mAbs. One attaches to the cancer cells, while the other
attaches to immune cells. This brings the two cell types together and allows the immune
system to attack the cancer cells. It’s currently used to treat acute lymphocytic leukemia,
and similar drugs are being developed for diseases like myeloma.

Monoclonal antibodies can also be attached to radioactive particles or chemotherapy drugs.

These are called conjugated mAbs. Because the antibodies are specific for antigens on cancer
cells, they allow these cancer-fighting substances to be delivered directly to cancer cells.

A couple of examples of conjugated mAbs include:

 Ibritumomab tiuxetan (Zevalin). This mAb has a radioactive particle attached to it,
allowing radioactivity to be delivered directly to the cancer cells when the antibody binds.
It’s used to treat some types of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma.

 Ado-trastuzumab emtansine (Kadcyla). This antibody has a chemotherapy drug

attached to it. Once the antibody attaches, it releases the drug into the cancer cells. It’s
used to treat some types of breast cancer.

5) Immune checkpoint inhibitors

Immune checkpoint inhibitors boost the immune system’s response to cancer. The immune
system is designed to attach to outside invaders without destroying other cells, but it doesn’t
recognize cancer cells as invaders.

Usually, checkpoint molecules on the surfaces of cells prevent T-cells from attacking them.
Checkpoint inhibitors help T-cells avoid these checkpoints, allowing them to better attack
cancer cells.

Immune checkpoint inhibitors are used to treat a variety of cancers, including lung cancer and
skin cancer. A few examples of immune checkpoint inhibitors include:
  atezolizumab (Tencentriq)

 nivolumab (Opdivo)

 pembrolizumab (Keytruda)

CANCER PREVENTION METHODS

1. Don't use tobacco

Smoking has been linked to many types of cancer, including cancer of the lung, mouth, throat,
voice box, pancreas, bladder, cervix and kidney. Even being around secondhand smoke might
increase the risk of lung cancer.

But it's not only smoking that's harmful. Chewing tobacco has been linked to cancer of the
mouth, throat and pancreas.

Staying away from tobacco — or deciding to stop using it — is an important way to help prevent
cancer. For help quitting tobacco, ask a health care provider about stop-smoking products and
other ways of quitting.

2. Eat a healthy diet

Although eating healthy foods can't ensure cancer prevention, it might reduce the risk. Consider
the following:

 Eat plenty of fruits and vegetables. Base your diet on fruits, vegetables and other foods
from plant sources — such as whole grains and beans. Eat lighter and leaner by
choosing fewer high-calorie foods. Limit refined sugars and fat from animal sources.

 Drink alcohol only in moderation, if at all. Alcohol increases the risk of various types of
cancer, including cancer of the breast, colon, lung, kidney and liver. Drinking more
increases the risk.

 Limit processed meats. Eating processed meat often can slightly increase the risk of
certain types of cancer. This news comes from a report from the International Agency
for Research on Cancer, the cancer agency of the World Health Organization.

 People who eat a Mediterranean diet that includes extra-virgin olive oil and mixed nuts
might have a reduced risk of breast cancer. The Mediterranean diet focuses mostly on
plant-based foods, such as fruits and vegetables, whole grains, legumes and nuts.
People who follow the Mediterranean diet choose healthy fats, such as olive oil, over
butter. They eat fish instead of red meat.
3. Maintain a healthy weight and be physically active

Being at a healthy weight might lower the risk of some types of cancer. These include cancer of
the breast, prostate, lung, colon and kidney.

Physical activity counts too. Besides helping control weight, physical activity on its own might
lower the risk of breast cancer and colon cancer.

Doing any amount of physical activity benefits health. But for the most benefit, strive for at least
150 minutes a week of moderate aerobic activity or 75 minutes a week of hard aerobic activity.

You can combine moderate and hard activity. As a general goal, include at least 30 minutes of
physical activity in your daily routine. More is better.

4. Protect yourself from the sun

Skin cancer is one of the most common kinds of cancer and one of the most preventable. Try
these tips:

 Avoid midday sun. Stay out of the sun between 10 a.m. and 4 p.m. when the sun's rays
are strongest.

 Stay in the shade. When outdoors, stay in the shade as much as possible. Sunglasses
and a broad-brimmed hat help too.

 Cover your skin. Wear clothing that covers as much skin as possible. Wear a head cover
and sunglasses. Wear bright or dark colors. They reflect more of the sun's harmful rays
than do pastels or bleached cotton.

 Don't skimp on sunscreen. Use a broad-spectrum sunscreen with an SPF of at least 30,
even on cloudy days. Apply a lot of sunscreen. Apply again every two hours, or more
often after swimming or sweating.

 Don't use tanning beds or sunlamps. These can do as much harm as sunlight.

5. Get vaccinated

Protecting against certain viral infections can help protect against cancer. Talk to a health care
provider about getting vaccinated against:

 Hepatitis B. Hepatitis B can increase the risk of developing liver cancer. Adults at high
 risk of getting hepatitis B are people who have sex with more than one partner, people
who have one sexual partner who has sex with others, and people with sexually
transmitted infections.

Others at high risk are people who inject illegal drugs, men who have sex with men, and health
care or public safety workers who might have contact with infected blood or body fluids.

 Human papillomavirus (HPV). HPV is a sexually transmitted virus that can lead to
cervical cancer and other genital cancers as well as squamous cell cancers of the head
and neck. The HPV vaccine is recommended for girls and boys ages 11 and 12. The U.S.
Food and Drug Administration recently approved the use of the vaccine Gardasil 9 for
males and females ages 9 to 45.

6. Avoid risky behaviors

Another effective cancer prevention tactic is to avoid risky behaviors that can lead to infections
that, in turn, might increase the risk of cancer. For example:

 Practice safe sex. Limit the number of sexual partners and use a condom. The greater
the number of sexual partners in a lifetime, the greater the chances of getting a sexually
transmitted infection, such as HIV or HPV.

 People who have HIV or AIDS have a higher risk of cancer of the anus, liver and lung.
HPV is most often associated with cervical cancer, but it might also increase the risk of
cancer of the anus, penis, throat, vulva and vagina.

 Don't share needles. Injecting drugs with shared needles can lead to HIV, as well as
hepatitis B and hepatitis C — which can increase the risk of liver cancer. If you're
concerned about drug misuse or addiction, seek professional help.

7. Get regular medical care

Doing regular self-exams and having screenings for cancers — such as cancer of the skin, colon,
cervix and breast — can raise the chances of finding cancer early. That's when treatment is
most likely to succeed. Ask a health care provider about the best cancer screening schedule for
you.
THE WORLD'S CONTRIBUTION TOWARDS THE CURE OF CANCER

WHO (World Health Organization) Outlines Steps To Save 7 Million Lives From Cancer.*

The World Health Organization (WHO) today spells out the need to step up cancer services in
low and middle-income countries. WHO warns that, if current trends continue, the world will see
a 60% increase in cancer cases over the next two decades. The greatest increase (an estimated
81%) in new cases will occur in low- and middle-income countries, where survival rates are
currently lowest.

This is largely because these countries have had to focus limited health resources on
combating infectious diseases and improving maternal and child health, while health services
are not equipped to prevent, diagnose and treat cancers. In 2019, more than 90% of high-income
countries reported that comprehensive treatment services for cancer were available in the
public health system compared to less than 15% of low-income countries.

“This is a wake-up call to all of us to tackle the unacceptable inequalities between cancer
services in rich and poor countries,” says Dr Ren Minghui, Assistant Director-General, Universal
Health Coverage/ Communicable and Noncommunicable Diseases, World Health Organization.
“If people have access to primary care and referral systems then cancer can be detected early,
treated effectively and cured. Cancer should not be a death sentence for anyone, anywhere.”

Yet, progress in poorer countries is achievable. WHO and the International Agency for Research
on Cancer (IARC) are releasing two coordinated reports on World Cancer Day (4 February), in
response to government calls for more research into the scope and potential policies and
programmes to improve cancer control.

“At least 7 million lives could be saved over the next decade, by identifying the most appropriate
science for each country situation, by basing strong cancer responses on universal health
coverage, and by mobilizing different stakeholders to work together”, said Dr Tedros Adhanom
Ghebreyesus, Director-General, WHO.

WHO (World Health Organization) highlights a wide range of proven interventions to prevent
new cancer cases. These include controlling tobacco use (responsible for 25% of cancer
deaths), vaccinating against hepatitis B to prevent liver cancer, eliminating cervical cancer by
vaccinating against HPV, screening and treatment, implementing high-impact cancer
management interventions that bring value for money and ensuring access to palliative care
including pain relief.

"The past 50 years have seen tremendous advances in research on cancer prevention and
treatment,” says Dr Elisabete Weiderpass, Director of IARC. “Deaths from cancer have been
reduced. High-income countries have adopted prevention, early diagnosis and screening
programmes, which together with better treatment, have contributed to an estimated 20%
eduction in the probability of premature mortality between 2000 and 2015, but low-income
countries only saw a reduction of 5%. We need to see everyone benefitting equally.” The
challenge will be for countries to select treatments balancing considerations including cost,
feasibility and effectiveness. Each government is tasked with choosing the appropriate
innovative cancer therapies, while recognizing that established treatments, many of which are
very effective and affordable, can provide benefits for cancer without causing financial hardship.