BPHCT-133

ELECTRICITY AND
Indira Gandhi National
Open University
MAGNETISM
School of Sciences

Block

2
ELECTROSTATICS
UNIT 5
Electrostatic Force and Electric Field 153
UNIT 6
Gauss’s Law and Applications 183
UNIT 7
Applications of Gauss’s Law 211
UNIT 8
Electric Potential 239
UNIT 9
Electric Potential of Continuous Charge Distributions 267
Unit 5 Electrostatic Force and Electric Field

UNIT 5
Lightning in clouds is the most
powerful display of strong
ELECTROSTATIC FORCE
electrostatic forces and electric
fields in nature! AND ELECTRIC FIELD

Structure
5.1 Introduction 5.3 Electric Field
Expected Learning Outcomes Electric Field due to a Point Charge
5.2 Electrostatic Force Electric Field due to Multiple Discrete Charges
Electric Charge Electric Field due to Continuous Charge Distributions
Coulomb’s Law 5.4 Summary
The Principle of Superposition 5.5 Terminal Questions
5.6 Solutions and Answers

STUDY GUIDE
We hope that you have studied thoroughly the concepts of vector algebra given in Block 1 of
the course BPHCT-131 on Mechanics and the concepts of vector calculus presented in
Block 1 of this course. You can revise the basic concepts of vector algebra from the Appendix
given in Block 1 of this course. You have to make sure that you know all these concepts very
well and only then you should study this block and the remaining blocks of this course. In this
unit, you will learn about the basic concept of electrostatic force between charges, its
quantitative definition given by Coulomb’s law, which you have learnt in school physics. You
will also learn the concept of electric field and its relation with the electrostatic force. The
presentation of these concepts may be new to you. To help you learn the concepts and their
application better, we have given many Examples and SAQs within the unit and Terminal
Questions at its end. Most of these should take you at most 5 to 10 minutes to solve. You
should study all sections thoroughly and make sure that you can solve the SAQs and
Terminal Questions on your own before studying the next unit.

“Science is beautiful when it makes simple explanations of Stephen Hawking

phenomena or connections between different observations.”

153
Block 2 Electrostatics
5.1 INTRODUCTION
In your school physics, you have studied about electrostatic force between
electric charges and Coulomb’s law. How are these concepts related to your
direct experiences?
During the rainy season, you must have seen flashes of lightning in dark
clouds lighting them up. You may have wondered what causes lightning. Do
you know that it was Benjamin Franklin who first proved the electric nature of
lightning through his experiment with the flying kite? He also gave the idea
Benjamin Franklin that clouds possess electric charges, which when discharged in the
(1706- 1790), an atmosphere, give rise to a giant spark of lightning.
American polymath
(meaning expert in many Actually, human beings have known about the effect of electric charges for
subjects), was one of thousands of years  the Greeks knew that rubbing amber on a piece of fur
the founding fathers of made it attract light objects such as feathers. It was later found that many
the United States of materials such as silk, wax, precious stones, flannel, etc., when rubbed with
America. In physics, he other materials developed the ability to attract light objects. For example,
is well known for his
rubbing glass with silk made it attract pieces of paper. Such materials were
pioneering work on
electricity. He was also a called ‘electrics’. It was said that the materials became ‘electrified’ or ‘acquired
great inventor. The vitreous or resinous electricity’. You may have observed this effect yourself. If
lightning rod, bifocal you run a comb through your dry hair or rub any dry synthetic fabric, you will
glasses and urinary notice that small bits of paper or hair cling to them.
catheter are some of his
well known inventions in The concept of ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ charges was developed by Benjamin
use today. Franklin Franklin and other scientists in the eighteenth century to explain a large
coined several terms in number of such observations (as above) made in many experiments. A
electricity which we use notable thing about electric charges is that the force between them is
today: battery, charge, extremely large. This force is now known as the electrostatic force. As you
conductor, plus, minus,
may recall from Sec. 6.2.5 of Unit 6 of the course Mechanics (BPHCT-131),
positively, negatively,
condenser ( the electrostatic force is a fundamental force in nature that controls everyday
capacitor). phenomena such as friction, tension, normal force, etc. It helps form
electrically neutral stable atoms, molecules, solids and liquids.
‘Electrica’ is a Latin word So in Sec. 5.2, we explain the concept of electrostatic force between positive
coined from elektron, the and negative charges. To do so, we revise the concept of electric charge.
Greek word for amber. Then we give the mathematical expression of the force law known as
Electrica was translated
Coulomb’s law and use it to calculate the electrostatic force between two
as electrics in English
charges. We then discuss the concept of electric field in Sec. 5.3. You have
and later the two words
electrical and electricity been introduced to vector fields in the first block of this course. You have
were coined. All learnt that the electric field is a vector field, which is set up due to a charge or
electrical effects due to distribution of charges in the region surrounding it. You will learn how to
rubbing together of calculate the electric field due to different simple charge distributions. In the
various materials were next unit, you will study the concept of electric flux. You will use it to learn the
ascribed to two forms of
easier and more elegant Gauss’s law for determining the electric field due to
electricity – ‘vitreous’
electricity and ‘resinous’ various charge distributions.

Expected Learning Outcomes

electricity. Franklin
identified the term
‘positive’ with vitreous
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
electricity and ‘negative’
with resinous electricity.  use Coulomb’s law to calculate the electrostatic force between two given
154 charges at rest;
Unit 5 Electrostatic Force and Electric Field
 apply the principle of superposition of forces to calculate the resultant
force due to a system of more than two charges;

 define electric field due to multiple discrete charges and continuous

distribution of charges; and

 calculate the net electric field due to a distribution of multiple discrete

charges and infinite uniform line charge.

5.2 ELECTROSTATIC FORCE

Do you recall the concepts of charge and electrostatic forces between like and
unlike charges and Coulomb’s law from school physics? Do you remember
studying that like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each
other? You have studied about positive and negative charges and the forces
between them in your school physics. You may like to revise the concepts by
solving the problems in the pre-test given below. Otherwise, study this section
and then try to solve these problems again.

PRE-TEST
1. A glass rod rubbed with silk is said to be ‘positively’ charged and amber or
plastic rubbed with fur, ‘negatively’ charged. Select the correct conclusion
for each observation given below:

Observation 1: An object is repelled by a piece of glass that has been

rubbed with silk.

a) The object is positively charged.

b) The object is negatively charged.

Observation 2: Two objects are both attracted to a piece of amber that has
been rubbed with fur.

a) Both objects are positively charged.

b) Both objects are negatively charged.

2. State whether the following statements are true or false:

a) The charge on free particles has also been measured to be a fraction

of the charge on the electron, 1.6  10 19 C.
b) Objects are electrically neutral because they have equal numbers of
positive protons and negative electrons.
c) The total charge in the universe is conserved.
d) The force between two charges at rest is independent of their
magnitude.
e) The force between two charged particles at rest is proportional to the
product of the magnitudes of the charge on them.
f) The force between two charged particles at rest is an inverse square
force.
155
Block 2 Electrostatics
If you have solved these problems correctly, you know the basic concepts
Actually, electric charge about charges and the force between them. You may like to quickly go
could have been given through the remaining part of Sec. 5.2 and solve the SAQs given in it.
any other name by Otherwise, study it thoroughly and try the pre-test and SAQs again.
scientists. How it came
to be used is interesting.
In older English
5.2.1 Electric Charge
language, the word
charge was used for a In this section, we will quickly revise what you have learnt about electric
load carried by charges in your school physics, viz., the types of charge, the unit of charge,
anything, such as a quantisation of charge and charge conservation.
cannon or a horse.
Since the property/ Types of Charge and the Unit of Charge
substance/‘fluid’ was
‘carried’ by matter, it You have learnt in school physics that charge is a scalar quantity and is of
was called ‘electric two types: positive and negative. Electrons and protons are the most
charge’. familiar examples of negative and positive charges having the same
magnitude of charge, i.e., 1.6  10 19 C. As you can see, the SI unit of charge
is coulomb (denoted by C) named after the French physicist
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (1736 – 1806).

Coulomb, the unit of Atoms and molecules are electrically neutral because they are made up of an
charge is defined in equal number of electrons and protons. You may also have read an
terms of magnetic forces explanation of how two materials when rubbed together become electrically
and you will learn about
charged. On rubbing, electrons flow from one material (which becomes
them in Block 3.
positively charged) to another (which is then negatively charged). This way of
charge transfer is called charging by friction (because you are rubbing one
material with another). There are other ways of charging an object about
which you have studied in your school physics and we will not go into those
details here.

Quantisation of Charge

In the eighteenth century, scientists (including Benjamin Franklin) thought that

electric charge was a continuous invisible fluid present in all matter and could
flow in and out of objects to charge them positively or negatively. Later
experiments about the nature of matter revealed that it was made up of atoms,
and molecules and atoms were made up of electrons, protons and neutrons.
Today we know that the smallest free charge that is possible to obtain is that
of an electron or proton. The magnitude of this charge is denoted by e.

Electric charge was first measured in 1909 by an American Nobel Laureate

physicist Robert Millikan (1868 – 1953). His famous experiment known as the
oil-drop experiment is now performed in school and college laboratories. In
this experiment, you can observe the motion of a charged oil drop falling
between two electrified metallic plates under the influence of two forces: the
force of gravitation and an electric force being exerted on it in a direction
opposite to the gravitational force. Millikan made observations on a large
number of drops and found that charges on different drops were integral
multiples of an elementary charge 1.6  10 19 C. This is not only true for
negative charges but also for positive charges.

Mathematically, any positive or negative charge on a free particle is written as

156
Unit 5 Electrostatic Force and Electric Field
q  ne, n   1,  2,  3,..... (5.1a)

where
e  1.6  10 19 C (5.1b)

You may know that when a physical quantity can have only discrete values
rather than any arbitrary continuous value, we say that it is quantised. We do
not know why electric charge is quantised. But it is an experimental
observation that has had no exception so far. Thus, we say that

Charge is quantised; it takes discrete values that are integral multiples of e.

For example, we can find a free particle (such as positron, -particle) or

charged object (say, a charged sphere or a charged drop) that has a charge
equal to an integral multiple of e, i.e.,  4e or  4e, but never a free particle
having a charge of, say, 0.77e or  2.55e. You may know that protons and
neutrons are made up of tightly bound quarks having charges  e/3 and
 2e / 3. However, quarks are yet to be detected as free particles. So on the
basis of experimental evidence so far, we can say that

Charge is quantised, i.e., charges on free particles have always been

measured to be integral multiples of 1.6  10 19 C, never a fraction.

Conservation of Charge

Experiments on electric charges also show that whenever any two objects are
in contact (e.g., due to rubbing, touching, etc.) and there is an excess charge
on any one of these two objects after contact, then there is an excess charge
on the other object too. These excess charges on the two objects in contact
are equal in amount but opposite in sign. This means that when electric
charge (electrons) is transferred from one object to another, no electrons are
destroyed or created. Thus, the amount of charge contained in the two objects
is a conserved quantity. This is true for all isolated systems in nature.

Actually, based on his experiments Benjamin Franklin was the first scientist to Conservation of total
propose the hypothesis of conservation of charge. No violations of this law electric charge in the
have been found in countless experiments done on microscopic particles such universe also points to
as elementary particles, nuclei, atoms and molecules as well as large charged the existence of
objects. So, we can add electric charge to the list of conserved quantities such anti-particles.
as linear momentum, energy and angular momentum and state the law of
conservation of charge. Experimental evidence shows that

In an isolated system, the total amount of electric charge (that is, the
algebraic sum of the positive and negative charge present in the
system at any time) never changes. We say that it is conserved.
Charge-carrying particles can be transferred from one object to
another, but the charge associated with those particles cannot be
created or destroyed. It follows that the total electric charge in the
universe is conserved.
157
Block 2 Electrostatics
You may like to go back to the pre-test and attempt questions 1 and 2a to c
before studying further. We now revise Coulomb’s law which tells us how
much force is exerted by one charged object on another.

5.2.2 Coulomb’s Law

The force law for charged particles at rest was arrived at after a series of
careful experiments by Coulomb. He discovered that the magnitude of the
force (electric, Coulomb or electrostatic force as we know it today) between
two charged particles q1 and q2 at rest is given by

q1 q2
F  k (5.2)
Charles-Augustin de r2
Coulomb (1736 – 1806)
was a French physicist where r is the distance between the charged particles and k is the constant of
who is best known for proportionality. The force is directed along the line joining the two particles.
his law describing the The force on either particle is directed toward the other particle if the two have
electrostatic forces
opposite (unlike) charges and away if the two have similar (like) charges. So
between charged
particles. Coulomb’s law we say that like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other. Since
has been firmly force is a vector quantity, let us write down Eq. (5.2) in vector form for both
established after like and unlike charges in one place.
countless experiments.
It applies to all electrical COULOMB’S LAW
charges whether free or
between the positively
charged nucleus and
The electrostatic force on a particle carrying a charge q1 by a particle
electrons bound within carrying a charge q2 situated at a distance r from it is given by
an atom. It accounts for  qq
the forces that bind F21  k 1 2 r̂21 (5.3a)
2
atoms to form r21
molecules, and atoms
and molecules to form where r̂21 is the unit vector along the line joining the particles and
all types of matter. Thus, directed from q2 to q1 (see Fig. 5.1) and k is called the Coulomb
it accounts for the      
constant. Note that r21  r1  r2 and r21  r . Here r1 and r2 are the
stability of matter.
position vectors of q1 and q2 , respectively. Note that the particles are at
 rest. In SI units, Coulomb’s law is written as
F21
 1 q1q2
F21  rˆ21 (5.3b)
40 r 2
21
q1 

where the units of q1 and q2 are coulomb, those of r21 and F21 are
r̂21 
r1 metre and newton, respectively. Here  0 is the permittivity of free space.
1
q2 Coulomb constant  8.99 109 N m2 C 2 .
40

r2
Note that Eqs. (5.3a and b) account for the attractive and repulsive nature
of the electrostatic force if q1 and q2 include the sign of the charge. So, if
O the charges are like, that is, both charges are either positive or negative,
 
the force F21 on q1 points away from q2, along r21 , i.e., it is repulsive.
Fig. 5.1: The electrostatic
force between two If the charges are unlike, that is, one of them is positive and the other

electric charges at rest. negative, the force F21 on q1 is towards q2, in the direction opposite to

r21 , i.e., it is attractive.
158
Unit 5 Electrostatic Force and Electric Field
Did you notice that the expression for the attractive Coulomb force between
unlike charges is similar to the expression of the gravitational force you have
studied in Unit 7 of Block 2 of the course on Mechanics (BPHCT-131)?

We have used the same sign convention here. The force of repulsion differs
only in sign. So, the mathematical expression of Coulomb’s law given by
Eq. (5.3a or b) sums up four experimental observations:

1. Unlike charges attract and like charges repel;

2. The force between two charged particles is exerted along the line
joining them;

3. The force between any two charged particles is proportional to the

magnitude of charge on each particle; and

4. It is an inverse square force, i.e., it is inversely proportional to the

square of the distance between the particles.

Let us now take up an example to show you how to apply Coulomb’s law.

XAMPLE 5.1 : APPLYING COULOMB’S LAW

Determine the magnitudes and directions of the electrostatic force on the

following charged particles at rest and show them on a diagram:

q1  5.0 C, q2   12 C at a distance of 30 m.

SOLUTION  The electrostatic force on each charge is given by

Coulomb’s law, i.e., Eq. (5.3b).

We substitute the values of q1, q2 and r in each case and take

1
 8.99  109 N m2 C2 .
40

The magnitude of the force on each particle is

5.0 C  12 C
F  (8.99  109 N m2 C2 )   6.0  108 N
2
(30 m)

Since the charges on the particles are unlike, they will attract each other.
The force on each particle will be directed toward the other particle. q1 
F12
Mathematically, we write the forces as: r̂21
 
Force on q1 by q2 is F21   6.0  108 N rˆ21 and F21 q2

Force on q2 by q1 is F12   6.0  108 N rˆ12   6.0  108 N rˆ21
Fig. 5.2: The electrostatic
since rˆ12   rˆ21. Both forces are shown in Fig. 5.2. forces for Example 5.1.

You can see that the force is very large.

159
Block 2 Electrostatics
Let us take up another example of applying Coulomb’s law and then you can
test yourself by solving an SAQ.

XAMPLE 5.2 : APPLYING COULOMB’S LAW

Two point charges Q1 and Q2 are 3.0 m apart and their combined charge
is 20 C. If one charge repels the other with a force of 0.075 N, what are
the magnitudes of the two charges?

SOLUTION  Once again we use Coulomb’s law given by Eq. (5.3b).

We are given that the charges repel each other. Therefore, they are like
charges. Let Q1 and Q2 represent their magnitudes.

Substituting the values of the distance and the force in the scalar form of
Eq. (5.3b), we get
Q1Q2
0.075 N  (8.99  109 N m2 C2 ) 
(3.0 m) 2

or Q1 Q2  75  10 12 C2  75  (10 6 C) 2  75 ( C) 2 (i)

Also Q1  Q2  20  C  Q2  20  C  Q1 (ii)

Substituting Q2 from Eq. (ii) in Eq. (i), we get a quadratic equation in Q1 :

75 ( C) 2  Q1 (20  C  Q1)  Q12  20 Q1  75  0

where Q1 is in C. Solving the equation gives the magnitudes of the

charges
Q1  5.0  C and Q2  15  C or Q1  15  C and Q2  5.0  C

SAQ 1 - Coulomb’s law

a) Determine the electrostatic force on q1 due to q2 for :

i) q1  8.0  C, q2  8.0  C at a distance of 0.04 m.

ii) q1  15 m C, q 2   10 m C at a distance of 3.0 m.

b) The hydrogen atom consists of an electron and a proton separated by an

average distance of 5.3 10 11 m. Calculate the magnitude of the
electrostatic force between the electron and proton taking them to be at
rest. Compare it with the magnitude of the gravitational force between
them. It is given that the mass of the electron is 9.110 31 kg, mass of
the proton is 1.7  10 27 kg and G  6.7  1011 N m2 kg 2 .

c)
In Example 5.2, we have used the term point charge. What does it mean? A
point charge is a hypothetical charge located at a single point in space. In
that sense, it has no size: it is dimensionless. It is a purely abstract
160 mathematical concept used in electrostatics. For many purposes, we consider
Unit 5 Electrostatic Force and Electric Field
the electron to be a point charge. However, its size can be characterized by a
length scale known as the electron radius. We often use the term point
charge in electrostatics when we do not wish to take the size (dimensions)
of the particle into consideration.

So far, you have learnt how to determine the electrostatic force between two
static charged particles. How do we calculate the electrostatic force on a
charge in a system having more than two charges at rest? We use the
principle of superposition. Recall that you have studied this principle for the
force of gravitation in Sec. 7.2.1 of Unit 7 of the course BPHCT-131 entitled
Mechanics. Let us now explain it for electrostatic forces.

5.2.3 The Principle of Superposition

The first thing to understand is that electrostatic forces are two-body forces.
This means that the electrostatic force between any pair of charged objects
does not change if other charged objects are present in their surroundings. In
a system having more than two charged objects, the electrostatic force
between each pair of objects is given by Coulomb’s law.

To determine the net electrostatic force on any given charged particle in a

system of charged particles, exerted by the other charged particles in the
system, we simply take the vector sum of the forces being exerted on it by the
other charged particles in the system.

Suppose there are three charges q1, q2 and q3 at rest in the system. Then

the net electrostatic force F1 exerted on q1 by q2 and q3 is the vector sum of
 
the electrostatic force F21 exerted on q1 by q2 and the electrostatic force F31
exerted on q1 by q3 , i.e.,
Note that while
   applying Eqs. (5.4b
F1  F21  F31 (5.4a)
and 5.4c), you have to
take into account the
 1 q1 q2 1 q1 q3
or F1  rˆ21  rˆ sign of the charges as
40 r21
2 2 31
40 r31 (5.4b) shown in Example 5.3.

In general, the electrostatic force Fi on the ith charge qi due to all other
charges q1, q2,...., q j ,... in a many-particle system of charged particles is given
by
  qi q j
Fji 
1
Fi   rˆ ji (5.4c)
j i
40 j  i r ji2

Note that the summation in Eq. (5.4c) does not include the ith charge. This is
indicated by putting j  i under the summation signs.

PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION

According to the principle of superposition, in a many-particle system

of charged particles, the resultant electrostatic force on any charged
particle is the vector sum of the electrostatic forces exerted by all
other charged particles on it [as given by Eq. (5.4c)].
161
Block 2 Electrostatics
You may like to work through an example to apply the principle of
superposition.
y
XAMPLE 5.3 : PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION
q3 Three charges q1   2.0  C, q2  9.0  C and q3  16.0  C are
situated at the corners of a right-angled triangle as shown in Fig. 5.3.
0.4 m

Calculate the electrostatic force exerted on q1 by q2 and q3 .

q2
SOLUTION  We use the principle of superposition given by Eq. (5.4b) for
q1
0.3 m x a system of three charges. Since rˆ21   ˆi and rˆ31   ˆj, we have
Fig. 5.3: Diagram for  q q 
1 q q
Example 5.3. F1   1 22 (  ˆi )  1 32 (  ˆj) (i)
40  (r21) (r31) 

where î and ĵ are unit vectors along the x and y-axes (Fig. 5.3).
Substituting all numerical values (with the sign of the charges) in
Eq. (5.4b), we get

 (  2.0  10 6 C)  (9.0  10 6 C) 
 (  ˆi ) 
  (0.3 m) 2 
9 2 2  
F1  (8.99  10 N m C ) (ii)
 6 6 
 (  2.0  10 C)  (16.0  10 C) (  ˆj)
 (0.4 m) 2 
 

or

 
F1  1.8 ˆi  1.8 ˆj N

The magnitude of the force is (1.8)2  (1.8)2 N  2.5 N

The direction of the force is given by the angle  it makes with the positive
 1.8 
x-axis:   tan 1  1
  tan (1)  45

 1.8 

So far you have revised the concepts of charge and electrostatic force
between charged particles/objects at rest. You have also revised Coulomb’s
law and the superposition principle, and learnt how to determine the
magnitude and direction of electrostatic forces between like and unlike
charges. We now discuss the concept of electric field that you have also learnt
in school physics.

5.3 ELECTRIC FIELD

Although the notion of electric field first figured in the work of British physicist
Michael Faraday (1791 – 1867) on electromagnetic induction, he did not
develop its concept. This was done by James Clerk Maxwell (1831 – 1879), a
Scottish physicist. You will read more about the work of these two physicists in
Block 4 of this course. You are familiar with the concept of vector fields from
162
Unit 5 Electrostatic Force and Electric Field
Block 1. You have studied about the gravitational field in Unit 7 of the course
on Mechanics. You know that the concept of electric field is a very powerful
concept that gives us a simple tool for determining the electrostatic force on
any charge due to another charge.

The advantage of this concept is that to calculate the net electrostatic force on
a given charge due to other charges, we need not follow the lengthy process
of Coulomb’s law (where we need to know the relative positions of these
charges) and vector addition. You will appreciate this point better as you study
this section further and learn the concept of electric field. You may ask: How
do we define electric field? We begin with the simplest case of a point
charge.

5.3.1 Electric Field due to a Point Charge

Let us define the electric field due to a point charge.

ELECTRIC FIELD

A point charge Q sets up an electric field in the region surrounding it. If

another charge, say q, is placed in this region, it experiences the
electrostatic force in accordance with Coulomb’s law. The electric field
generated by an electric charge or a group of charges is a vector field
defined as follows:

Suppose a positive charge q of an infinitesimal (negligibly small) P


magnitude, called a test charge, is placed at a position r relative to a
r
point charge Q (Fig. 5.4). According to Coulomb’s law, at that point, the test
charge q will experience the electrostatic force
r̂
  Q
1 Qq
F (r )  rˆ (5.5)
40 r 2 Fig. 5.4: Unit vector for
 electric field at point P
where r̂ is the unit vector along r . Then the electric field of the point charge due to a point charge
 Q.
Q at a point having position vector r is defined as the electrostatic force on
a test charge at that point divided by the magnitude of the test charge. It is

denoted by E (r ). Mathematically, it is given by
 
  F (r ) 1 Q
E (r )   rˆ (5.6a)
q 40 r 2

Its magnitude is given by

1 Q
E (5.6b)
40 r 2

You have learnt how to visualise electric fields due to a point charge Q defined
by Eqs. (5.6a and b) in Sec. 2.2.2 of Unit 2. The representations of these
electric fields are shown in Figs. 5.5a and b for positive and negative charges. 163
Block 2 Electrostatics
Note that the magnitude of the electric field is the same for both positive and
negative electric charge ( Q or  Q). However, the directions are different as
these are given by the direction of the electrostatic force experienced by the
respective test charges. The electric field due to a positive point charge is
directed away from the charge (Fig. 5.5a). For a negative point charge, it
points towards the charge (Fig. 5.5b). The arrows in both Figs. 5.5a and b
indicate the direction of the electric field. The continuous lines are called field
lines (or the lines of force).

 

(a) (b)

Fig. 5.5: Electric field lines around a) positive electric charge; b) negative
electric charge.

So, to draw electric field lines, you should always remember that

Electric field lines (or lines of force) begin at positive charges and
end at negative charges. Electric field lines may also go to infinity
without terminating. These lines do not intersect.

These are close together near the point charges where the electric
field is strong and far apart at large distances from the charges
where the electric field is weak.

From Eq. (5.6a), you should also note that the electrostatic force on the
charge q when it is placed in the electric field of charge Q is given by
 
F  qE (5.7)

So, if you know the electric field in a region of space (could be due to a charge
or system of charges), you can determine the electrostatic force on any
charge placed in that electric field using Eq. (5.7).

Before studying further, you may like to calculate the electric field due to a few
point charges. Work out SAQ 2.

SAQ 2 - Electric field due to point charge

a) Determine the electric field due to the point charges (i)  5 C at a point
30 cm from it and (ii)  10 C at a point 1 m from it. Show them in
properly labelled diagrams.

b) If a point charge  6C is placed in the electric fields at the respective

points given in part (a), what electrostatic force would be exerted on it
in both cases?
164
Unit 5 Electrostatic Force and Electric Field
You may now like to ask: How is the electric field due to a group of
charges defined? This is what you will now learn.

5.3.2 Electric Field due to Multiple Discrete Charges


Consider a group of point charges q j , having position vectors r j . Let us place

a test charge qi having position vector ri in the electric field of these charges.
From the principle of superposition for electrostatic forces, the net electrostatic
force on the test charge qi due to this group of charges is given by
 qi q j

1
F  rˆ ji (5.8)
40 j  i r  r 2

i j

The electric field due to the group of charges at the point with position vector

ri is defined as

 qj

F 1
E   rˆ ji (5.9)
qi 40 j  i r  r 2
i j

Eq. (5.9) defines the electric field at a point in space due to a group of
point charges. Now, in Eq. (5.9), each charge appears only once. So if only
one charge, say q j , were present, we could write the electric field due to it as
 1 qj
Ej  rˆ ji (5.10)
40 r  r 2
i j

So, Eq. (5.9) becomes

 
E  Ej (5.11)
j
In other words, the total electric field due to a group of charges is the
vector sum of the individual electric fields of the charges. This is just the
principle of superposition at work. You may like to study Fig. 5.6 to get a
sense of the vectors involved in Eq. (5.10) before reading further.
P  
 (ri  rj )
ri
qj

rj
O

r3 q3
 
r1 r2

q1 q2
Fig. 5.6: The vectors involved in defining the electric field due to a group of charges.
  
The vector r ji  (ri  r j ) represents the vector joining q j to the point P
 
having position vector ri . The vector r̂ ji is the unit vector along r ji .

Once again, if a charge q is placed in the electric field given by Eq. (5.9), the
electrostatic force exerted on it will be given by Eq. (5.7). This makes the
calculation of electrostatic force on a charge due to a group of charges much
easier than using Coulomb’s law. Let us now consider an example to calculate 165
Block 2 Electrostatics
the electric field due to a special arrangement of two charges called the
 electric dipole.
q C q r P

d
r XAMPLE 5.4 : ELECTRIC FIELD OF AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE
Fig. 5.7: An electric Two point charges  q and  q are separated by distance 2d (see
dipole made up of equal
Fig. 5.7). Such an arrangement of equal and opposite charges placed at
and opposite charges,
 q, separated by some distance from each other is called an electric dipole. Determine the
distance 2d. The net electric field due to the charges at the point P located on the dipole

vector 2d along the axis (i.e., the line joining the charges) at a distance r from the midpoint C of
axis of the dipole is the dipole axis.
drawn from the
negative to the SOLUTION  From Eq. (5.10), we determine the electric field due to each
positive charge. The charge at the point P and then use Eq. (5.11).
point P lies on the
dipole axis at a distance From Eq. (5.9), the electric fields due to both charges at the point P are,
r from the midpoint C. respectively,
 q rˆ  ( q ) rˆ
E q  and E q 
40 (r  d )2 40 (r  d )2

Here r̂ is the unit vector pointing from the charge  q to the charge
 q along the line joining them and d is the distance of the midpoint from
each charge (see Fig. 5.7). From Eq. (5.11), the resultant or net electric
field at the point P due to the two charges is:
   q rˆ  4rd 
E  E q  Eq   
40  ( r 2  d 2 )2 
 

If we assume that the point P lies far away from the dipole so that r  d,
we can neglect the term d 2 in comparison to r 2 in the denominator of the

expression for E. Under this assumption, the net electric field at P is
 
1 q rˆ( 4rd ) 1 2p
E   (i)
40 r4 40 r 3
 
where p  2qdrˆ ( 2qd) is a vector quantity called dipole moment.

d d You may like to solve an SAQ to determine the electric field of a dipole.
q q
C
r̂
SAQ 3 - Electric field due to an electric dipole
Fig. 5.8: Diagram for
SAQ 3. Determine the electric field due to an electric dipole at the midpoint of its axis.

Let us now calculate the electric field of an electric dipole at a point off its axis.

XAMPLE 5.5 : ELECTRIC FIELD OF AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE

Determine the net electric field due to the electric dipole of Example 5.4 at
a point P situated on the perpendicular bisector at a distance r from the
midpoint C of the dipole axis.
166
Unit 5 Electrostatic Force and Electric Field

SOLUTION  As in Example 5.4, we use Eq. (5.10) to determine the

electric field due to each charge at point P and then apply Eq. (5.11).

The distance of the point P from both the charges  q and  q is

(d 2  r 2 and therefore, from Eq. (5.10), the magnitudes of the electric
fields at P due to these charges are equal and, respectively, given by:

1 q 1 q 
E q  and E q  E q
40 d  r 2
2 40 d  r 2
2
 P
From Fig. 5.9a, you can see that the direction of the field is away from the 

charge  q and towards the charge  q. To obtain the expression for the E q
resultant field at P, we take the vector sum of the two electric fields using r
the parallelogram law of vector addition. From Fig. 5.9a, note that the
 
angle between the two electric field vectors is 2. So we obtain the q q
d
magnitude and direction of the resultant electric field as follows
[Eqs. (A1.3a and b) in the Appendix A1 of Block 1]: 2d
(a)
1 2q
E  E2q E 2q
 2E  q E q cos 2  cos  
40 d  r 2
2
E q
1 2qd d
or E  since cos   
40 (d  r )
2 2 3 / 2
d  r2
2 E P

The direction
 of the resultant electric field is given by the angle  it makes 
with E q (Fig. 5.9b): E q
(b)
 E q sin 2 
  tan tan   
1 1
  tan 
 Eq  E q cos 2  Fig. 5.9: Diagram for
   Example 5.5.
Note that E is anti-parallel to p. So, we can express E at point P as
 
p
E
40 (r 2  d 2 )3 / 2

If the point P is located far away from the dipole so that r  d, we can
express the electric field due to the electric dipole at the point as
 
p
E (i)
40r 3

You may now like to learn how to determine the electric field due to a system y
of more than two charges. Consider the following example.
D 2q C
q

XAMPLE 5.6 : ELECTRIC FIELD OF MANY CHARGES

a
Three charges  q,  2q and  q are kept in the xy plane at three vertices of 45
q
a square ABCD of side a (as shown in Fig. 5.10). Determine the net electric
A a B x
field due to these charges at the point B.

SOLUTION  We use Eq. (5.10) to determine the electric field at point B

due to each charge. Then we apply Eq. (5.11) to obtain the net electric Fig. 5.10: Diagram for
Example 5.6.
field.
167
Block 2 Electrostatics

 1 q ˆ
The electric field at B due to charge  q is E  q  i where î is
40 a 2
the unit vector along the x-axis. To simplify the algebra, we write
1 q 
E0  so that E q  E0 ˆi
40 a 2
 1 q ˆ
The electric field at B due to charge  q is E q  ( j)  E0 ˆj
40 a 2

Using the geometry of Fig. 5.10, we resolve the electric field at B due to
charge  2q along the x and y-axes to get
 1 2q
E 2q  E 2q cos 45 ˆi  E 2q sin 45 ˆj where E 2q   E0
40 ( 2a)2
The net electric field at B is, therefore,
    E
E  E q  Eq  E 2q  E0 ˆi  E0 ˆj  0 ( ˆi  ˆj)
2
 1 ˆ 1 ˆ
or E  E0 (1  )i  E0 (1  )j
2 2

The magnitude of the resultant electric field is [Eq. (A1.3a), Appendix A1 of

Block 1]:

 1 2 1 2
E  E0 (1  )  (1  )   3 E0
 2 2 

The direction of the resultant electric field is given by the angle

 1 
 (1  2 ) 
  tan 1    tan 10.17    9.6
 (1  1 ) 
 2 
3 q
The resultant electric field has magnitude .
40 a 2
It makes an angle of 9.6 with the x-axis.

Before studying further, you may like to practice how to calculate the electric
field due to many charges.
 4q  2q

SAQ 4 - Electric field due to many charges

P Four charges  2q,  2q,  4q and  4q are placed at the vertices of a square
of side a (Fig. 5.11). Determine the net electric field due to the charges at the
centre P of the square given that q  1.0  10 9 C and a  6.0 cm.
 2q  4q
So far, we have defined the electric field and calculated its value for an
Fig. 5.11: Diagram
isolated point charge or an arrangement of two or more point charges. You
for SAQ 4.
may like to ask: What is the electric field of a continuous charge
distribution, for example, charge distribution on a wire, lamina or
sphere? Let us find out.
168
Unit 5 Electrostatic Force and Electric Field

5.3.3 Electric Field due to Continuous Charge

Distributions

Let us calculate the electric field at point P with position vector ri due to any
continuous distribution of charge (like the one shown in Fig. 5.12). Let us take
the continuous charge distribution to be made up of infinitesimal charges dq j .

Then from Eq. (5.10), the electric field dE j due to the infinitesimal charge dq j

(having position vector r j ) at the point P is given by

 1 dq j
dE j  rˆ ji (5.12)
40 r  r 2

i j

From
 the principle of superposition [Eqs. (5.11 and 5.9)], the net electric field
E at point P due to the charge distribution will be just the vector sum of
electric fields due to all such infinitesimal charges comprising the
distribution:
  dq j
 
1
E  dE j  ˆ
4    2 r ji (5.13)
j 0 j ri  r j
P
But in the limit as the charges are infinitesimally small and tend to zero, the 
r
sum in Eq. (5.13) can be written as the following integral:
 1 dq
E  
40 r 2
rˆ (5.14) dq

The limits of the integral are defined so that the entire region over which
charge is distributed is included. Remember that in Eq. (5.14), r̂ is the unit Fig. 5.12: Determining

vector from the charge dq to the point P (having position vector r ) at which electric field at a point
due to a continuous
the electric field is being determined (see Fig. 5.12).
charge distribution.
Now, the charge may be continuously distributed over a line, a surface or a
volume as shown in Figs. 5.13a, b and c. In such distributions, instead of
charges, we speak of the density of charges. The charge density (line, surface
or volume) will, in general, be a function of the coordinates. However, in this
course, we will consider only those charge distributions that have constant
charge density.
P
P P

 
r r
 da
r d
dl 
Line charge density  Surface charge density  Volume charge density 
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 5.13: Determining electric field due to a) line charge distribution;

b) surface charge distribution; c) volume charge distribution.

If the charge is distributed over a line, as in a wire, (Fig. 5.13a), then we speak
of the line charge density, i.e., charge per unit length and usually denote it
by . The SI unit of  is C m1 . 169
Block 2 Electrostatics
The line charge is, in general, a function of the position along the line. Its
In general, when the
expression is given in the margin. If the line charge is distributed uniformly,
line charge density is
not constant, we have i.e., the line charge density  is constant, then we have

dq   (r ) dL dq   dL (5.15a)

and q    (r ) dL (i) So, the electric field due to a uniformly distributed line charge is defined by
C
 1  dL   dL
Suppose we use the
Cartesian coordinates
E 
40  r2
rˆ or E 
40  r 2 rˆ (5.15b)
C C
to solve these
integrals. Then in
For continuous charge distribution over a surface (Fig. 5.13b), we define the
Eq. (i), we will
integrate with respect surface charge density  as the charge per unit area. Its SI unit is C m2 . It
to only one variable x, is constant for a uniformly distributed charge on any surface. In this case,
y or z depending on
whether the line dq   dS (5.16a)
charge is distributed
along the x, y or z-axis. and the electric field due to a uniformly distributed surface charge is
defined as
For a non-uniform
surface charge   dS
distribution,  is not E 
40  r 2 rˆ (5.16b)
constant, and we have S

dq   (r ) dS
Eq. (5.16b) is a surface integral about which you have studied in Unit 4.

q    (r ) dS  (ii)
S If the continuous charge distribution is spread over a volume (Fig. 5.13c), then
we use the volume charge density , which is the charge per unit volume.
Since an area is
defined in two Its SI unit is Cm 3 . For a uniformly distributed charge over any volume,  is
dimensions, we will constant and
integrate Eq. (ii) with
respect to any two dq   dV (5.17a)
variables x and y, y
and z or z and x.
The electric field due to a uniformly distributed volume charge is defined as
  dV

For a non-uniform
E  rˆ (5.17b)
volume charge 40 r2
distribution,  is not V
constant, and we have Let us take up an example to apply the simplest of these equations,

dq   (r ) dV  Eq. (5.15b), to calculate the electric field of a uniform line charge.
and

q    (r ) dV  (iii) XAMPLE 5.7 : ELECTRIC FIELD OF INFINITE LINE CHARGE
V

Now we will have to A straight line of infinite length carries a uniform charge with line charge
integrate Eq. (iii) density . Determine the electric field at a distance y above the midpoint of
with respect to the the line.
variables x, y and z
since volume is SOLUTION  We apply Eq. (5.15b) to determine the electric field due to a
defined in three uniformly distributed infinite line charge.
dimensions. These
calculations are Study Fig. 5.14, which shows the charge distribution in the given geometry.
beyond the scope of Let us choose the xy coordinate system to solve this problem with its origin
this course.
at the midpoint.
170
Unit 5 Electrostatic Force and Electric Field

Here dq   dx (i) y

By definition, the magnitude of the electric field due to dq at the point P  

dE dE
directly above the origin is given by 
 P
1 dq
dE  rˆ (ii) dEx dEx
40 r 2
r r
where r is the distance of dq from P and r̂, the unit vector from dq to P. y

Note that the direction of r̂ will be different for different elements of r̂ r̂

charge
 . Now to determine the net electric field, we write the electric field dq O dq x
dE in terms of its x and y-components and then integrate each component
over the respective variable x or y.
Fig. 5.14: Electric field of
Our choice of the coordinate system simplifies the calculation. Note that for a uniform infinite line
each infinitesimal charge dq placed at the point  x to the right of the origin, charge.
we can place a corresponding infinitesimal charge dq at the point  x to the
left of the origin. So these form a pair. Now the x-components of the
electric fields due to this pair cancel out as shown in Fig. 5.14. This will be
the case for each pair of points  x on the x-axis. Therefore, the
x-component of the electric field dE will be zero. The y-component of the
electric field due to the element of charge dq is given by

1 dq 1 dq y y
dE  dE y  cos   ( cos   ) (iii)
40 r 2 40 r 2 r r

where  is the angle between r̂ and the y-axis. We add the y-components
Let x  y tan.
of the electric fields of the two elements at the points  x that will be in the
same direction to get the net electric field due to them as, Then dx  y d sec 2 
with the limits from 0 to
 1 2dq y ˆ 1 2y dx
dEnet  j  ˆj ( dq  dx ) 
40 r 2 r 40 ( x  y 2 )3 / 2
2 . The electric field is
2
then given by
The net electric
 field due to the infinite line charge is obtained by 
integrating dEnet with respect to x with the limits from 0 to . E net

y /2 y sec 2  d ˆ
Although the line extends from   to  , we integrate over only half the   j
20 0 y 3 sec 3 
line because the expression we are integrating is already the electric field
of a charge pair dq.
 /2
  x    cos  d ˆj
1 2ydx 20 y
Thus, 
Enet  dEnet   40 ( x  y 2 )3 / 2
2
ˆj (iv) 0

x 0
 /2
 sin  ĵ
20 y 0
Integrating the right hand side of Eq. (iv) gives (read the margin remark):

 ĵ
 1 2 ˆ 20 y
E  j
40 y

You will agree that this way of calculating the electric field is quite lengthy as it
involves solving complicated integrals. You will learn a much simpler way of 171
Block 2 Electrostatics
determining the electric field of such continuous charge distributions that have
some symmetry of this kind in the next unit.

Let us now stop and review what you have learnt in this section. To sum up,
you have learnt the definition of the electric field and calculated it for a point
charge, arrangements of discrete point charges and a continuous line charge.
But while going through this section, this question may still have puzzled you:
What exactly is an electric field?

You should think of the electric field as a real physical entity which exists in
the space in the neighbourhood of any charge, groups of charges or
continuous charge distributions, which set up the electric field. Any charge
kept in the electric field experiences the electrostatic force given by Eq. (5.7).
The concept of electric field is abstract and it is difficult to imagine it
concretely. But you have learnt how to calculate the electric field and also the
electrostatic force experienced by a charge kept in the electric field.

This is actually all that we are supposed to do in electrostatics: Determine the

electrostatic forces and electric fields due to a given charge distribution.
However, as you may have felt while working through Example 5.7, the
integrals involved in calculating electric fields can be quite complicated even
for simple charge distributions. So, much of electrostatics is about learning the
tools and methods that simplify these calculations so that we have no need to
solve such complicated integrals. This is what you will be learning in the
remaining units of this block and Units 10 and 11 of the next block.

We now summarise the concepts you have studied in this unit.

5.4 SUMMARY

Concept Description

Electric charge  From a large number of observations and experiments, it has been
deduced that there exist two types of electric charges in nature, which are
arbitrarily called positive and negative charges. In SI system, the unit of
electric charge is coulomb denoted by C.

Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.

In an isolated system, electric charge is always conserved. Thus, the total

positive charge is equal to the total negative charge in an isolated system.

Free electric charge is quantised and can take only discrete values that are
integer multiples of the charge on the electron.

Electrostatic force  The magnitude of the electrostatic force between two charged particles at
and Coulomb’s law rest is proportional to the product of the magnitudes of charges on them
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The
quantitative expression of the electrostatic force between two charges is
given by Coulomb’s law: The electrostatic force on a particle carrying a
charge q1 by a particle carrying a charge q2 situated at a distance r from it
172 is given by
Unit 5 Electrostatic Force and Electric Field
 q q
F21  k 1 2 r̂21
2
r21

where r̂21 is the unit vector along the line joining the particles and is
    
directed from q2 to q1 . Note that r21  r and r21  r1  r2 where r1

and r2 are the position vectors of q1 and q2, respectively. In SI units,
Coulomb’s law is written as
 1 q1 q2
F21  rˆ21
40 r 2
21

Principle of  According to the principle of superposition, in a many-particle system of

superposition charged particles at rest, the resultant electrostatic force on any charged
particle is the vector sum of the electrostatic forces  exerted by all other
particles on it. In general, the electrostatic force Fi on the ith charged
particle due to all other charges q1, q2,...., q j ,... in a many-particle system
of charged particles at rest is given by

  qi q j
Fji 
1
Fi   rˆ ji
j i
40 j  i r ji2

Note that the above summation does not include the ith charge and r̂ ji is
the unit vector along the line joining the ith and jth particles and is directed
from q j to qi .

Electric field due  The electric field due to a point charge or charge distribution at a point is
to a point charge defined in terms of the electrostatic force experienced by a test charge q
placed at that point divided by the magnitude of the test charge:

 F
E 
q

The electric field due to a charge Q at a point having position vector r is
given by 
 F 1 Q
E   rˆ
q 40 r 2

where r̂ is the unit vector pointing from the charge to the point at which
the electric field is being calculated.

Electric field due  The electric field due to a distribution of charges at the point with position

to multiple discrete vector ri is given from the principle of superposition as
charges 
 qj

F 1
E   rˆ ji
qi 40 j r  r 2

i j

where r̂ ji is the unit vector along the line joining the ith and jth particles and
is directed from q j to qi . We can write this equation as
 
E  Ej
j
173
Block 2 Electrostatics
 1 qj
where Ej  rˆ ji
40 r  r 2
i j

So, the total electric field due to a group of charges is the vector sum
of the electric fields due to individual charges of the distribution.

Electric field due  The electric field due to a continuous distribution of charge is given by,
to continuous  1 dq
charge E 
40  r 2 rˆ
distributions
The electric field due to a uniformly distributed line charge with constant
line charge density  is given by
  dL
E 
40  r 2 rˆ
C

The electric field due to a uniformly distributed surface charge with

constant surface charge density  is given by the surface integral
  dS
E 
40  r 2 rˆ
S

The electric field due to a uniformly distributed volume charge with

constant volume charge density  is given by the volume integral
  dV
E 
40  r2
rˆ
V

5.5 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. The electrostatic force exerted by two point charges on each other has
magnitude 10 N when these are at rest and placed a distance r apart.
What would the magnitude of the electrostatic force between them be if
r r
the distance between them is a) 4r, b) 100r, c) and d) ?
4 100

2. Two identical charged particles are placed at rest at a separation of 1 m.

What is the charge on them if the magnitude of the electrostatic force
exerted on each particle is 1 N?

3. Three charged particles A, B and C, each having a charge of 1.0 C, are
placed at rest on a straight line. The distance between A and B is 0.01 m.
What is the net electrostatic force exerted on particle C if it is placed a) at
a distance 0.01 m to the right of the particle B along the line AB, b) to the
left of the particle B along the line AB, at the midpoint of AB?

4. Two point charges  4q and  q are placed at rest at a distance ‘a’ from
each other. Determine the position of a charge  q placed on a straight
line joining these two charges, if it is in equilibrium.

5. What is the electric field of a particle having charge  9.0 109 C at a

point 1.0 m away from it? Determine the electrostatic force exerted on a
174 proton placed at that point.
Unit 5 Electrostatic Force and Electric Field
6. The electric field due to a charged particle at a point 0.5 m away from it
has magnitude 36 N C1. What is the magnitude of the electric charge on
the particle?

7. When a particle having charge  9 10 9 C is placed at a certain point in

an electric field, the electrostatic force exerted on it is of
magnitude 3  10 9 N and directed along the negative x-axis. What is the
electric field at this point? What would the magnitude and direction of the
electrostatic force acting on an electron placed at this point be?
8. Three particles each having charge  q are placed at the vertices of an q  2q
equilateral triangle with each side of length r. Calculate the magnitude of
the net electric field at the midpoint of any side of the triangle. a
a
9. Three particles having charge  q,  q and  2q are placed at the same
distance a from the origin as shown in Fig. 5.15. Calculate the net electric O 120
field at the origin.
a
10. Four charges  2q,  2q,  2q and  2q are placed at the vertices of a
rectangle of sides 3.0 m and 4.0 m. What is the net electric field due to q
the charges at the point of intersection of the diagonals given that
q  3.0 109 C? Fig. 5.15: Diagram for
TQ 9.
5.6 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS
Pre-test
1. Observation 1: Correct answer is (a) since the glass rubbed with silk is
positively charged. Since the object is repelled by the glass, it must have
the same charge as the glass.
Observation 2: Correct answer is (a) since the amber rubbed with fur is
negatively charged. Since both objects are attracted to it, therefore, both
must have the opposite charge to that of amber.
2. a) False. So far, no such measurements have been made for free
particles.
b) True.
c) True.
d) False. It depends on the product of their magnitudes.
e) True.
f) True.
Self-Assessment Questions
1. a) From Eq. (5.3b), the electrostatic force on charge q1 due to charge q2
 1 q1q2
at rest is given by Coulomb’s law as F21  rˆ21 where r̂21
40 r 2
21
is the unit vector along the line joining the particles and directed from
 1
q2 to q1 and r21  r . Also  8.99 109 N m2 C2 .
40
175
Block 2 Electrostatics
Substituting the values of q1, q2 and r for both cases, we get
 (8.0  C) (8.0  C)
i) F21  8.99 109 N m2 C2  rˆ21  360 N rˆ21
(0.04 m) 2
 (15 m C) (  10 m C)
ii) F21  8.99 109 N m2 C2  rˆ21
(3.0 m) 2

  1.5  105 N rˆ21

b) From Eq. (5.3b), the magnitude of the electrostatic force between the
electron and the proton is given by
1 q1 q 2 
Felec  since r21  r .
4 0 r2

Substituting the values of the magnitudes of the charges of electron

and proton, i.e., q1  q2  1.6  10 19 C and r  5.3  1011 m, we
get

(1.6  10 19 C)  (1.6  10 19 C)

Felec  8.99 109 N m2 C 2 
(5.3  10 11 m) 2

 8.2  108 N

The gravitational force between the electron and the proton is given by
m1m2
Fgrav  G
r2
Substituting the values of the masses of electron and proton, i.e.,

m1  9.1  1031 kg, m2  1.7  1027 kg, r  5.3  1011 m and

G  6.7  1011 N m2 kg 2, we get

(9.1  10 31 kg)  (1.7  10 27 kg)

Fgrav  6.7 10 11 N m2 kg 2 
(5.3  10 11 m) 2

 3.7  1047 N

Felec 8.2  10 8
Hence,   2.2  1039
 47
Fgrav 3.7  10

Thus, the electrostatic force is much stronger ( 1039 times stronger)

than the gravitational force.

2. a) Substituting for Q (with its sign) and r in Eq. (5.6a), we get

(i) For Q   5  C and r  0.30 m,
  ( 5  10 6 C)
E (r )  8.99 109 N m2 C2  rˆ  5  105 N C1 r̂
2
(0.30 m)
(ii) For Q   10  C and r  1m,
  ( 10  10 6 C)
E (r )  8.99 109 N m2 C2  rˆ   9 10 4 N C1 rˆ
2
176 (1m)
Unit 5 Electrostatic Force and Electric Field
Note that the electric field due to the negative charge is directed
 
towards it. The electric fields at the points P and R are shown in 5C P E (r )
Figs. 5.16a and b. Note that the tails of the electric fields are placed r  0.30 m
at P and R, respectively.
    (a)
b) From Eq. (5.7), the electrostatic force is given by F (r )  q E (r ). For
 
q   6  C, it is given as follows:  10 C E (r )
R
5 6 r  1m
(i) 5  10  6  10 N rˆ  3 N rˆ
(b)
(ii)  9 104  6 106 N rˆ   0.5 N rˆ up to one significant digit.

3. See Fig. 5.17. The midpoint C of the dipole axis is at equal distance d from Fig. 5.16: Diagrams for
the answers of SAQ 2a
each charge. From Eq. (5.6b), the magnitudes of the electric fields of both
(i) and (ii). The
charges at the midpoint are, respectively, diagrams are not to
 1 ( q ) 1 q  1 q scale.
Eq   and E q 
40 d 2 40 d 2 40 d 2

The directions of the electric fields at the point C due to both charges are
opposite to r̂, the unit vector along the line joining the two charges as
shown in Fig. 5.17. From Eq. (5.11), the resultant or net electric field at the d d
midpoint C due to the two charges is: q q
C
   r̂
1 2q
E  E q  Eq   rˆ
40 d 2 Fig. 5.17: Diagram for
the answer of SAQ 3.
4. Let us choose the x and y-axes as shown in Fig. 5.18 by the dashed
arrows.
x
y
(4) (3)
 4q  2q

a
a/ 2 P

 2q  4q
(1) a (2)

Fig. 5.18: Diagram for answer to SAQ 4.

Note from Fig. 5.18 that the distance of the point P from any of the four
a 2 a
charges is  , where a is the side of the square. Now the net
2 2
electric field at the point P is the vector sum of the electric fields due to all
charges at that point:
    
E  E1  E2  E3  E4 (i)
 
where E1 is the electric field due to the charge  2q, E2, the electric field

due to the charge  4q, E3 , the electric field due to the charge  2q and

E 4 , the electric field due to the charge  4q. We use Eq. (5.6a) to determine
each one of these electric fields and then take their vector sum. Note that
with the choice of axes in Fig. 5.18, the direction of the position vector r̂ of
the point P with respect to each charge can be expressed in terms of î and 177
Block 2 Electrostatics
a
ĵ or their combinations. Also r  . So, from Fig. 5.18, we can write
2
the electric field at P due to the charge 1 as
 1 ( 2q ) ˆ 1 2  2q ˆ 1 4q ˆ
E1  i  i  i ( rˆ  ˆi ) (ii)
40 (a / 2 ) 2 40 a 2 40 a2

1 4q
We write E0  so that the expressions become simpler to write.
40 a2
The electric fields at P due to the charges 2, 3, 4 are:
 1 2  4q ˆ
E2  j  2E0 ˆj, ( rˆ  ˆj) (iii)
40 a2

 1 2  ( 2q ) ˆ
E3  (  i )  E0 ˆi ( rˆ   ˆi ) (iv)
40 a2
 1 2  ( 4q ) ˆ
and E4  (  j )  2E0 ˆj ( rˆ   ˆj) (v)
40 a2

Substituting Eqs. (ii) to (v) in Eq. (i), we can write

    
E  E1  E2  E3  E4  2E0 ˆi  4E0 ˆj  2E0 (ˆi  2 ˆj) (vi)

Now for q  1.0  109 C and a  0.06 m,

1 4q 4 1.0 10 9 C
E0   8.99 109 Nm2 C 2 
40 a 2 (0.06 m) 2

 E0  1.0  10 4 N C1 and E  2.0  10 4 N C 1 ( ˆi  2 ˆj)

Terminal Questions
1. We use Eq. (5.2) for the magnitude of the electrostatic force with
1 1 q1 q2
k  . It is given that F1   10 N is the magnitude of
40 40 r 2

the electrostatic force exerted by two point charges on each other when
these are placed a distance r apart. The magnitudes of the electrostatic
force between them for various distances will be, respectively,

1 q1 q2 1 q1 q2 F 5
a) F2    1  N since
40 ( 4r )2 40 16(r )2 16 8

1 q1 q2
F1   10 N
40 r2

1 q1 q2 F1 10
b) F3    N  10 3 N
40 (100r )2 10000 10000

1 q1 q2
c) F4   16F1  160 N and
40 (r / 4)2
178
Unit 5 Electrostatic Force and Electric Field

1 q1 q2
d) F5   10000 F1  105 N
40 (r / 100 )2

2. Let the charge on the identical particles be q. We use Eq. (5.2) for the
1
magnitude of the electrostatic force with k  . It is given that the
40
charges are identical and the distance between them is 1m. Substituting
these values in Eq. (5.2), we have

1 q2
1N 
40 (1m) 2

1N (1m) 2
or q   0.33 m C
8.99 109 N m2 C 2

3. a) Refer to Fig. 5.19a. The net electrostatic force exerted on particle C is

0.01 m 0.01 m
the vector sum of the electrostatic forces exerted on it by the particles
A B C x
A and B as given by Eq. (5.4b). In terms of the unit vector î along the
x-axis, it is given by (a)

   1  (1.0  C) 2 (1.0  C) 2  0.005 m

F  FAC  FBC     ˆi x
40  (0.02 m) 2 (0.01m) 2 
  A C B
(b )
2 12 5
9
 (8.99 10 Nm C 2
10 C  10 4 m2 ) ˆi  1.1102 N ˆi
2
4 Fig. 5.19: Diagram for
the answer of TQ 3.
b) Refer to Fig. 5.19b. The net electrostatic force exerted on particle C is
the vector sum of the electrostatic forces exerted on it by the particles
A and B. In this case, the electric field due to B will be in the opposite
direction to that of A since it points away from the positive charge. In
terms of the unit vector î along the x-axis, it is given by Eq. (5.4b):

    (1 C) 2 2  
F  FAC  FBC 
1  ˆi  (1 C) ˆi   0
40  (0.005 m) 2 (0.005 m) 2 
 
 
4. Refer to Fig. 5.20. Let the charges lie along the x-axis. Let the position 1 F23 3 F13 2
of the charge 3 (   q) be at a distance x from the charge 1 (   4q)  4q q q
such that x  a. At this point the charge 2 (   q) is at a distance (a  x)
x (a  x)
from the charge 3. Therefore, the net electrostatic force exerted on the
charge 3 due to the charges 1 and 2 is given by Eq. (5.4b) as Fig. 5.20: Diagram for
the answer of TQ 4.
   1  4q  q ˆ q q 
F3  F13  F23  i  ( ˆi ) 
40  x 2 (a  x )2 


When the charge 3 is in equilibrium, the net force on it is zero. Thus,

  4q  q  
F3 
1  ˆi  q  q ( ˆi )   0
40  x2 (a  x )2 
 
179
Block 2 Electrostatics
4 1
or
2

2
 4(a  x )2  x 2  2(a  x )   x
x (a  x )

2a
For the positive sign of x, x  and for the negative sign of x, x  2a.
3

2a
Since x  a, x  is the only possible value of x. Therefore, for the
3
2a
charge 3 ( q) to be in equilibrium, it should be placed at a distance
3
from the charge  4q.

5. From Eq. (5.6a), the electric field of a particle having charge

Q   9 109 C at a point 1 m away from it is given by

  1 Q (  9 10 9 C)
E (r )  rˆ  8.99 109 N m2 C2 rˆ   81N C1 rˆ
40 r 2 (1m) 2

It is directed towards the negatively charged particle. The electrostatic

force experienced by a proton placed at that point is an attractive force
directed towards the charge Q and is given by
   
F (r )  e E (r )  (1.6 1019 ) C  (  81N C1) rˆ   1.3 1017 N r̂

up to 2 significant digits.

6. Substituting E  36 NC 1 and r  0.5 m in Eq. (5.6a), we have

 1 Q Q
E (r )   8.99 109 N m2 C2  36 N C1
40 r 2 (0.5 m) 2

 Q  1 109 C  1nC

7. From Eq. (5.7), we have

   
F ( r )  Q E (r ) (i)

where Q   9 109 C and F   3  109 N ˆi. Substituting these values
y in Eq. (i), we get
 
  F(r )  3  10 9 N ˆ
3 q E (r )   i  0.3 NC 1 ˆi
Q  9 10 9 C
r It is directed along the positive x-axis. The electrostatic force exerted on
a
an electron placed at this point is given by
q r/2 r/2 q
x    
1 P 2 F (r )  e E(r )  ( 1.6  10 19 C)  (0.3 NC 1) ˆi
Fig. 5.21: Diagram for the
answer to TQ 8.   0.48 10 19 ˆi N   5  10 20 ˆi N

8. Refer to Fig. 5.21. Let us take the x and y-axes as shown in the figure.
Then the electric fields at the midpoint P due to two charges 1 and 2 of
180
Unit 5 Electrostatic Force and Electric Field

magnitude  q along the x-axis will be equal in magnitude and opposite in

direction to each other:
  1 q ˆ   1 q ˆ
E1 (r )  i and E2 ( r )   i
40 (r / 2)2 40 (r / 2)2

The magnitude of the net electric field will be just the magnitude of the
electric field due to charge 3 on the y-axis. The distance of the charge 3
from the midpoint of the side of the triangle along the x-axis is given by

2
2 r  3
a r    r
2 2

Therefore, the magnitude of the net electric field at the midpoint of the
base of this equilateral triangle is given by
 1 q 1 4q q
E3 (r )   
40 a 2 40 3r 2
30r 2

This result holds for any side of the equilateral triangle.  2q

1 q 3

9. Refer to Fig. 5.22. Let us choose the coordinate axes so that the problem y
a a
becomes simplified. We choose the x-axis to be along the line joining the
charges 1 and 2 as shown in the figure. The net electric field at the origin 120
O
is the vector sum of the electric fields due to the charges 1, 2 and 3:
a
       
E (r )  E1 (r )  E2 (r )  E3 (r ) (i)
q 2
Let us determine the electric fields due to the three charges at the origin. x
You can see that the charges  q and  q are at the same distance (a)
from the origin. So, the origin is at the midpoint of the line joining them. Fig. 5.22: Diagram for
the answer of TQ 9.
Therefore, for our choice of the x-axis, we get
    1 2q ˆ
E1 (r )  E2 (r )  i (ii)
40 a 2

The magnitude of the electric field due to the third charge  2q is


 1 2q E3
E3 (r ) 
40 a2 y

Since the charge 3 is a negative charge, the direction of the electric field a
due to it is towards the charge. The net electric field E due to the charges
O 120
1 and 2 and the electric field E3 due to charge 3 are shown in Fig. 5.23.
Note that the tails of the vectors are placed at the point where the net 
electric field is to be determined. To determine the net electric field at the E

origin, we resolve the electric field E3 (r ) along the x and y-axes:
x
E  3 
E3 x  E3 cos120   3 and E3 y  E3 sin120  E3 (iii)
2 2 Fig. 5.23: Electric fields
for the answer of TQ 9.
Therefore, combining the results of Eqs. (ii) and (iii) with Eq. (i), the net
electric field at O is given as: 181
Block 2 Electrostatics
 
E (r ) 
1 2q ˆ 1 1 2q ˆ
40 a 2
i 
2 40 a 2
i 
3 1 2q ˆ
2 40 a 2
j 
1 q ˆ
40 a2

i  3 ˆj 
The magnitude of the net electric field is given by
 1 q 1 q
E (r )  E x2  Ey2  1 3 
40 a 2 20 a2

10. Refer to Fig. 5.24 showing the four charges A, B, C, D, viz.  2q,  2q,
 2q and  2q placed at the vertices of a rectangle of sides AB  3.0 m
y
and BC  4.0 m. The net electric field due to the charges at the point of
 2q  2q
D   C intersection of the diagonals is the vector sum of the electric fields of the
E 2 E1 respective charges at that point. Let us choose the x and y-axes as shown
 in the figure. The length of the diagonal of the rectangle is
P 4.0 m (3.0)2  ( 4.0)2 m  5.0 m . Note from Fig. 5.24 that the electric fields
 B due to the charges placed at the vertices A and C point in the same
A x
 2q 3.0 m  2q direction since the charges are unlike. So is the case for the charges
placed at the vertices B and D. The magnitudes of the electric fields due to
Fig. 5.24: Diagram for all four charges are the same since the magnitudes of the charges are
the answer of TQ 10. equal and their distances from the point P are equal. Thus, the magnitude
of the electric field due to each charge is given by

1 2q 6.0 10 9 C
E   8.99 109 N m2 C2  8.6 N C1
40 r 2
(2.5 m) 2

 
The net electric field is the resultant of the electric fields E1 and E2 shown
in Fig. 5.24 with their tails at the point P. Note that their magnitudes are:

E1  E2  2E

Note also from Fig. 5.24 that the x-components of these electric fields are
equal and opposite so they cancel out. Their y-components are equal in
magnitude and in the same direction and are given by:

BC 4
E1y  E2y  E1 sin   2E  2  8.6 N C1  13.8 N C1
AC 5

So, the magnitude of the net electric field is

E  E1y  E2y  13.8 N C1  13.8 N C1  28 N C1

up to 2 significant digits. It is directed along the y-axis.

182
Unit 6 Gauss’s Law and Applications

UNIT 6
GAUSS’S LAW AND
Gauss's law is used to find the
electric fields in symmetrical

APPLICATIONS
capacitors. The Earth is a
huge spherical capacitor that
we use all the time. How do we
do so? You will learn the
answer in this unit!

Structure
6.1 Introduction 6.6 Electric Field due to a Uniformly
Expected Learning Outcomes Charged Thin Spherical Shell
6.2 Electric Flux 6.7 Summary
6.3 Gauss’s Law 6.8 Terminal Questions
Gauss’s Law and Symmetric Charge Distributions 6.9 Solutions and Answers
6.4 Electric Field due to a Point Charge
6.5 Electric Field due to a Uniformly Charged Sphere

STUDY GUIDE
In Unit 5, you have studied the concepts of charge, electrostatic force, Coulomb’s law,
electric field and calculated the electrostatic force on charges, electric field of point charges
and continuous line charge.

In this unit, you will study Gauss’s law that simplifies the calculation of electric fields and
electrostatic forces for distributions of discrete point charges and symmetric continuous
charge distributions. You will learn how to apply Gauss’s law to a point charge and
spherically symmetric systems like uniformly charged sphere and spherical shell for which
the electric field has spherical symmetry. You have learnt about the divergence theorem in
Unit 4, which you will also use in this unit. You should revise Units 1 to 4 of this course as
you will be using them all the time to learn the concepts of this unit. Of course, you should
also know the concepts of vector algebra thoroughly. We advise you to solve the SAQs and
Terminal Questions given in this unit. You should study all sections of this unit thoroughly
and make sure you can solve the SAQs and Terminal Questions on your own.

“All the measurements in the world do not balance one theorem Carl F. Gauss
by which the science of eternal truths is actually advanced.”

183
Block 2 Electrostatics
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 5, you have revised the concept of charge and Coulomb’s law. You
have learnt the concept of electric field and calculated the electric field due to
point charges and continuous line charge. You have also learnt how to
calculate the electrostatic force on a charge kept in any given electric field.

This is what electrostatics is about: Calculating electric fields due to charges

and electrostatic forces on a charge or distribution of charges placed in an
electric field. You also saw how involved the calculation of the electric field of
a line charge was. Would you not like to learn simpler methods for doing these
calculations? This is what we do in the rest of this block. Most of this block
involves learning the tools that simplify the calculation of electric fields and
electrostatic forces.

In this unit, we describe an alternative to Coulomb’s law and the principle of

superposition to help us determine electric fields of discrete charges and
charge distributions. This is the Gauss’s law which relates electric charge
distributions and electric fields. It gives us a simpler method to determine
Carl Friedrich Gauss electric fields associated with symmetric charge distributions. If we know the
(1777 – 1855), a electric fields in any region, we can also use the law to determine the net
German mathematician charge of the charge distributions that give rise to them.
and physicist, is
referred to as the We begin our study of Gauss’s law by defining a new quantity called electric
‘greatest mathematician flux (Sec. 6.2). We then present the law in Sec. 6.3. You will learn that
since antiquity’. He Gauss’s law is particularly useful when applied to systems that possess some
made exceptional symmetry, a concept that you may know but will learn again in this unit. In
contributions in the
Sec. 6.4, we apply the law to spherically symmetric systems and determine
areas of mathematics
the electric fields due to a point charge, a uniform spherical charge distribution
such as algebra,
number theory, and a uniformly charged spherical shell.
analysis, differential
You may ask: Why is it important for you to learn these applications of
geometry, and physics
such as mechanics, Gauss’s law? One of the most important uses of these applications is in
electrostatics, magnetic calculating the electric fields in capacitors and consequently their
fields, optics, etc. He is capacitances. You would know from your school physics that capacitors are
known as one of important devices used to store electric charge and electrical energy. You will
history’s most influential learn in detail about them in Unit 11 of Block 3. The Earth is one huge
mathematicians with
spherical capacitor that we use all the time as you will learn in Sec. 6.5.
equally significant
contributions in physics. In the next unit, we continue the discussion on Gauss’s law for systems
having cylindrical and planar symmetry such as a uniform line charge, a
uniformly charged cylinder and a plane sheet of charge. You will learn some
more applications of the law and then you will be able to appreciate the power
of this law.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 define electric flux and calculate the electric flux due to an arbitrary
distribution of charges;
184  state Gauss’s law;
Unit 6 Gauss’s Law and Applications
 apply Gauss’s law to calculate the electric field due to a point charge;
 apply Gauss’s law to calculate the electric field due to a uniformly
charged sphere; and
 using Gauss’s law, determine the electric field due to a uniformly
charged spherical shell.

6.2 ELECTRIC FLUX

You have learnt the concept of flux of a vector field in Sec. 4.2.1 of Unit 4 of
The word flux has its
this course. Here we briefly explain the concept again so that you can
origins in the old
understand the concept of electric flux. You know that flux is defined for any
French word ‘flus’ and
vector field but is most easily pictured for the flow of fluids. So, we begin the the Latin word ‘fluxus’
discussion with a brief revision of the concept of flux for fluid flow. both meaning
‘flowing’ or ‘to flow’.
Imagine that a stream of water or some fluid is flowing and the velocity of the When we say that
particles in it is described by the velocity vector field. We now place a very something is in the
small flat wire loop of area dS in the stream so that it is normal (perpendicular) state of flux, we mean
to the direction of the flow (Fig. 6.1a). We choose this flat element of area to that it is changing.
be small enough so that the velocity of all fluid particles flowing through it is
constant. The volume flux of the fluid through the loop is defined as the rate
of flow of the fluid through the area (of the loop). Let us determine its value.

Suppose V is the volume of the fluid that passes through the small loop of
area dS in time t. Since its area is flat and very small, we can take the speed
v of the small amount of fluid flowing through it to be constant. So, during the
time interval t, the fluid moves a length x  vt. The volume of fluid that
flows through the loop during that time interval is then given by

V  dSx  dS v t (6.1)

So, the rate of flow of fluid through the very small area dS is given by
V
 v dS (6.2a)
t
This is just the volume flux of the fluid when the small area chosen is normal
(perpendicular) to the direction of its flow.


 dS
  v
v dS 


dS 
v
dS

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 6.1: A wire loop placed in a stream a) normal and b) parallel to the direction of the flow or the velocity

field v ; c) the same loop placed at an angle  to the direction of fluid flow. In parts (a) and (c) of
this figure, we have shown only a few lines for the fluid flow but the loop is immersed in the
stream.
185
Block 2 Electrostatics
What would the flux be if we kept the loop parallel to the direction of fluid flow
as shown in Fig. 6.1b? You can see that no fluid will now flow across the
wire loop or across the area dS. So, the volume flux will be zero in this case.

What would the flux be if we kept the loop at some angle  to the direction of
fluid flow as shown in Fig. 6.1c?

In this case, the fluid will pass through only that component of the area, which
is perpendicular to the direction of fluid flow. This is just dS  dS cos.

Therefore, substituting dS cos  for dS in Eq. (6.2a), the volume flux through
the loop kept at an angle  to the direction of the fluid flow will be
dS 
dS
v dS  v dS cos  (6.2b)

Now, we use the definition of the scalar product to express the volume flux
given by Eqs. (6.2a and b) as
 
Fig. 6.2: Area vector dS  v . dS (6.3)

dS for any surface of  
where v is the velocity field and dS, the area vector corresponding to the
area dS is directed
normal to the surface area dS of the loop (see Fig. 6.2). The area vector gives the magnitude of the
(refer to Sec. 4.3 of area and its direction gives the sense of the flux through the area. In our
Unit 4 for the sense example (Figs. 6.1a and c), the sense of the flux is from left-hand side of the
of the normal vector loop to its right-hand side. If we choose the direction of the area vector to be
to the surface). opposite to this, i.e., from right to left, the sense of the flux would also be from
the right-hand side of the loop to its left-hand side. We can choose either
direction for the area vector but once chosen, it should remain the same and
be specified.

Note that the scalar product of Eq. (6.3) reflects all three situations we have
considered: When the loop is normal to the flow,   90 and Eq. (6.3) gives
the volume flux as v dS, which is just Eq. (6.2a). If the loop is parallel to the
flow,   0 and the flux through the loop is zero. For any other value of ,
Eq. (6.3) gives the volume flux as v dS cos, which is just Eq. (6.2b).

The definition of volume flux can be extended to the flux of any vector field
including the electric field. In an electrostatic field, nothing is flowing but
we define the flux of the electric field in analogy to Eq. (6.3).

By definition, the electric flux dE of an electric field E through a small flat
surface of area dS is defined as
 
dE  E . dS (6.4)

where dS is the area vector of magnitude dS directed normal to the
surface. Its orientation is defined to be outward to the surface. Note that
electric flux is a scalar quantity.

In Eq. (6.4), we have considered a small flat surface of area dS to define

electric flux. You may ask: What is the electric flux through a surface of
186 any arbitrary shape?
Unit 6 Gauss’s Law and Applications
In that case, we divide the surface into a large number (say n) of small flat

surfaces represented by area vectors dSi , all pointing outwards from the

same side of the surface. Let E i be the electric field through the element of

surface area dSi . Since flux is a scalar quantity, the electric flux through the
surface S is just the sum of the electric flux through all such flat surfaces:
n  
E   Ei . dSi (6.5)
i 1

We then make the sizes of the flat surfaces smaller and smaller so that
n   and collectively these surface elements approach the surface S.
Then as you have learnt in Unit 4, the sum given in Eq. (6.5) approaches a
limiting value which is equal to the electric flux through the surface S. In that
limit, we can write the sum as a two-dimensional surface integral and the
electric flux is given by
   
E  Lim
n 
 Ei . dS i   E . dS (6.6a)
i S

As you have learnt in Unit 4, the subscript S under the integral sign tells us
that the area of integration is the entire surface S. If the surface is closed, we
write the surface integral and Eq. (6.6a) as follows:
 
E   E . dS (6.6b)
S

In Unit 4, you have learnt how to determine surface integrals for different
cases. From Eqs. (6.6a and b), you can see that electric flux is expressed as a
surface integral. You may now like to determine the electric flux of an electric
field through a surface using Eq. (6.6b). We take up the example of calculating
the electric flux of a point charge through a closed surface. In the process, we
shall arrive at Gauss’s law.

XAMPLE 6.1 : ELECTRIC FLUX OF A POINT CHARGE

Determine the electric flux for the electric field generated by a point charge
q through a closed surface S of a sphere of radius R enclosing the charge
such that the charge is placed at the centre of the sphere.

SOLUTION  We use Eq. (6.6b) to determine the electric flux through the
surface of a sphere (of radius R) enclosing the charge q. From Eq. (6.6b),
the electric flux through a closed surface is given by
 
E  
E . dS
S
where S is the surface of a sphere of radius R enclosing the charge q,
which is kept at its centre. The electric field of the charge q at a point on
the surface of the sphere is given from Eq. (5.6a) as
 1 q
E  rˆ
40 R 2
187
Block 2 Electrostatics

E where r̂ is the unit vector along the radial direction. Now, for a sphere, the

direction of the area vector dS is along the outward normal to its surface at

dS all points on the surface. From Fig. 6.3 (showing one such point), you can
see that it is along the vector r̂. Thus, we have
r̂  r̂   
R
q dS  dS rˆ and E . dS  E dS rˆ .rˆ  E dS

S The electric flux of the point charge through the sphere’s surface is then

  q  q 
Fig. 6.3: Calculation of
    4 R 2  q
the electric flux through  E . dS 
40R 2  dS  4 R 
 0
2
 0
(6.7)
a spherical surface S
enclosing charge q.

Did you note in Example 6.1 that the radius of the sphere cancels out? This is
1
because while the field decreases as , the surface area increases as r 2 .
2
r
So, their product is constant. REMEMBER: This result arises because of the
inverse square nature of the electrostatic force field and the electric
field.

Also note that we have obtained Eq. (6.7) in Example 6.1 for the electric flux
of a point charge across a spherical surface enclosing the charge. However,
it is true for a surface of any shape enclosing a charge. This is what Gauss’s
law is about. So you will study it in greater detail in the next section. But
before that, you may like to attempt an SAQ to determine electric flux for
y
another simple situation.
Top face
Right
face SAQ 1 - Electric flux

x A cube of side 1.0 m is kept in an electric field (in units of N C1) given by
z E  8.0 x ˆi  5.0 ˆj as shown in Fig. 6.4. Determine the electric flux through
the right and top faces of the cube.
x  1.0 m x  2.0 m

You should always remember the following about electric flux.

Fig. 6.4: Diagram for
SAQ 1.
 Electric flux through a surface (of area S) represents the
 
summation of electric flux elements (E . dS) over the entire
surface.

 Each electric flux element represents the product of a small flat

element of area on the surface with the component of the electric
field along the normal to that area element.

 This product is nothing but the scalar product of the electric field
vector and the area element vector.

 Electric flux does not represent flow or change the way volume
flux does.
188
Unit 6 Gauss’s Law and Applications
Let us now study Gauss’s law.

6.3 GAUSS’S LAW

In Example 6.1, we have enclosed a point charge in a spherical surface and
arrived at Eq. (6.7), which relates the electric flux through a spherical surface
to the point charge q enclosed by it. This is just Gauss’s law for a point
charge. However, we have enclosed the point charge in a spherical surface,
which is a special case. Gauss’s law applies to any arbitrary surface
enclosing a charge or charge distribution. Any imaginary surface enclosing
a charge or a charge distribution is called a Gaussian surface. We usually
choose the Gaussian surface so that our calculations become easier.

Therefore, in this section, we first generalise Eq. (6.7) for any arbitrary surface
enclosing the point charge and arrive at a formal statement of Gauss’s law.
So, let us find out whether the same equation [Eq. (6.7)] applies to any
arbitrary surface enclosing a point charge.

Consider the electric field of a positive point charge in free space. Imagine that
the charge is enclosed in a closed Gaussian surface S of an arbitrary
shape (Fig. 6.5).

y dS
 
 E (r )

P
q x
O

Fig. 6.5: Gauss’s law for a point charge enclosed by an arbitrary surface.

Note from Fig. 6.5 that we have chosen the origin of the coordinate system to
be at the location of the charge. Let P be a point on the Gaussian surface,
 
having position vector r  r r̂. We choose a small element of area dS centred
at the point P on the Gaussian surface. As you know from Eq. (5.6a), the
electric field at the point P is given by
 
1 q 1 q r
E  ˆr  (6.8)
40 r 2 40 r 2 r

Then from Eq. (6.4), the element of electric flux passing through dS is given
by
  1 q  
dE  E . dS  r . dS (6.9)
40 r 3
 
Now, you know that if  is the angle between r and dS, then
 
r . dS  r dS cos  (6.10a)

You also know from vector algebra that dS cos  is the projection of dS along

r . From Sec. 4.3.5 of Unit 4, you know that the quantity
189
Block 2 Electrostatics
 dS cos  
    d (6.10b)
dS  r2 

P is defined as the solid angle (d) subtended by the area dS at O, the location
d
of the charge (Fig. 6.6). Then using Eq. (6.10b), we can write Eq. (6.9) as
  q r dS cos  q
dE  E . dS   d (6.11a)
O 40 r 3 40

Fig. 6.6: The solid angle The total electric flux through the surface S is determined by integrating over
d subtended by an area the entire closed surface as follows:
element dS at a point O.
  q
Recall Sec. 4.3.5 of
Unit 4 for the definition
E  
E . dS 
40
d  (6.11b)
S S
of solid angle.
Now since the surface S surrounds the point O and the total solid angle
around any point is 4 (see Sec. 4.3.5 of Unit 4), we have

 d  4 (6.11c)
S

So, we can write Eq. (6.11b) as

  q
E   E . dS 
0
(6.12)
S

Eq. (6.12) is the same as Eq. (6.7) for a spherical surface. Let us see whether
we can extend Eq. (6.12) to a distribution of charges. Suppose that instead of
a single charge at the centre of a sphere, many charges are situated in some
region of space. From the principle of superposition [Eq. (5.11)], you know that
the net electric field is the vector sum of all individual electric fields:
 
E  Ej (6.13)
j

By definition [Eq. (6.6b)], the electric flux through a closed surface that
encloses all these charges is given by

    
E   E . dS   E . dS   1
 
 j    
qj (6.14)
S j S  0 j


where we have substituted E from Eq. (6.13) and used Eq. (6.12) for
individual charges, i.e., we have written
  qj
 E j . dS 
0
(6.15a)
S

Let us write the sum of all charges enclosed by the surface as Qencl , i.e.,
Qencl is the total or net charge enclosed by the surface S:

Qencl   q j  (6.15b)
j
190
Unit 6 Gauss’s Law and Applications
Then, we can write Eq. (6.14) as follows:
  Qencl
 E . dS 
0
(6.16)
S

Eq. (6.16) is the quantitative statement of Gauss’s law. Let us now give a
formal statement of Gauss’s law.

GAUSS’S LAW

Gauss’s law states that the net electric flux through any imaginary closed
surface S (called the Gaussian surface) is directly proportional to the net
Q
charge (Qencl ) enclosed by the surface. In SI units, it is equal to encl .
0
The net charge is the algebraic sum (sum with sign of the charge included)
of all charges enclosed within the Gaussian surface.

Mathematically, we write the law as 

  Qencl
 E . dS 
0
(6.16)
S
(a)

What Eq. (6.16) tells us is that the flux of the electric field through any surface
would be the same regardless of its shape. It is proportional to the charge

enclosed by it. This point is easier to visualise for a point charge if you picture
its electric field in terms of the field lines passing through a surface. A surface
of any shape enclosing the charge would have the same number of field lines
passing through as that of the sphere’s surface (Fig. 6.7). So the electric flux
(b)
q
through any surface enclosing charge q is .
0
Fig. 6.7: The same
Eq. (6.16) is the integral form of Gauss’s law. We can write Gauss’s law in number of electric field
the differential form using the divergence theorem, which you have studied lines will pass through
in Unit 4. For this, we write the charge enclosed by a surface in terms of the surfaces of different
volume charge density  and substitute it in Eq. (6.16). Then we get shapes. Two Gaussian
surfaces, one spherical
Qencl    dV (6.17a) and the other of
arbitrary shape, are
V
shown here for positive
  1 and negative charges.
And  E . dS 
0   dV (6.17b)
S V

Now you may recall the divergence theorem from Unit 4 given as
   
 E . dS    .E dV (6.17c)
S V
 
We substitute the value of  E . dS from Eq. (6.17c) in the left hand side of
S
Eq. (6.17b).
191
Block 2 Electrostatics
Then Eq. (6.17b) becomes
  1
  .E dV 
0   dV (6.17d)
V V

Since Eq. (6.17d) holds for any volume, the integrands must be equal and we
have:
  1
 .E   (6.18)
0

Eq. (6.18) gives Gauss’s law in its differential form.

It is easier to apply Gauss’s law in its differential form. However, note that we
have expressed it only for volume charge density. Since the integral
form of Gauss’s law can be applied to point, line, surface and volume
charges, it has wider use.

In the next section, we consider some applications of Gauss’s law to

spherically symmetric systems. But before that you may like to remember the
following aspects of Gauss’s law and then try an SAQ to check your
understanding.

 In Eq. (6.16), Qencl is the net charge enclosed by the surface taking
into account the algebraic sign of the charges (in case of many
charges). So, if a surface encloses equal and opposite charges,
the net electric flux through it is zero.

 From the statement of Gauss’s law, it is clear that the charges lying
outside the closed surface are not included in Qencl . If the closed
surface does not enclose any net charge, or if all charges lie
outside the closed surface, then the electric flux through the
surface is zero. This implies that the electric field through such a
surface is zero.

 We can calculate the net charge enclosed inside any closed

surface using this law if we know the net electric flux through the
surface enclosing the charges.

 The form and location of the charges inside the closed surface do
not matter in the calculations. What matters is the total charge
enclosed by the closed surface and its sign. This very fact makes
the calculation of electric fields using the Gauss’s law far easier in
comparison with Coulomb’s law.

 Gauss’s law essentially follows from Coulomb’s law and the principle of
superposition. It contains no additional information that was not already
present in Coulomb’s law. The law follows from the inverse square
nature of the electrostatic force. Without that, the cancellation of r 2
would not take place. Then the total flux would also depend on the
surface chosen and not only upon the charge enclosed.
192
Unit 6 Gauss’s Law and Applications

SAQ 2 - Gauss’s law

a) Can we apply Gauss’s law to the surfaces shown in Figs. 6.1a, b and c?

b) A point charge is enclosed by a spherical Gaussian surface. Would the

electric flux through the surface change

i) If the Gaussian surface is chosen to be a closed cylinder or a cube?

ii) If the sphere is replaced by a cube that has one-tenth of its volume?
iii) If the charge is located at some other point within the sphere instead
of its centre?
iv) If the charge is moved outside the Gaussian surface?
v) If another charge is placed inside the Gaussian surface?
vi) If another charge is placed outside the Gaussian surface? S1
P
c) The electric flux through a closed spherical Gaussian surface of radius
0.5 m surrounding a charged particle is equal to 500 Nm2 C1. q1
Determine the value of the charge on the particle. If the radius of the
surface were to be halved, what would the value of the electric flux q3
through it be? q2

d) Determine the net electric flux through two overlapping closed surfaces S2
S1 and S2 shown in Fig. 6.8, given that the values of the charges on
the three particles are q1   3.1 nC, q2   5.9 nC and q3   3.1 nC. Fig. 6.8: Diagram for
The particle P enclosed by the surface S1 carries no charge. SAQ 2d.

You may be wondering: Why do we need another method for calculating

electric fields when we already have Coulomb’s law? This is because we
can use Gauss’s law to calculate the electric fields due to symmetric charge
distributions in a much simpler way. You will discover in the next section and
the next unit that Gauss’s law is a powerful tool for determining electric fields
of symmetric continuous charge distributions. Let us explain this point further.

6.3.1 Gauss’s Law and Symmetric Charge Distributions

Let us first explain: What are symmetric charge distributions?

Symmetric charge distributions are arrangements of charges that remain

unchanged (or invariant) or look the same after a transformation.

These charge distributions could be translated along some axis, reflected or

rotated about some axis and would still appear the same.

Symmetry in physics essentially means that a system or an object

remains unchanged (or invariant) under some transformation. You may
already know of several examples of symmetric objects, e.g., a straight line,
square, plane, sphere, cylinder, etc.

Due to the symmetries of charge distributions, the calculations of electric flux

and electric fields due to them become far easier.
193
Block 2 Electrostatics
We will be dealing with three kinds of symmetry while applying Gauss’s law:

1. Spherical symmetry
2. Cylindrical symmetry
3. Planar symmetry

We will talk about each of these symmetries when we apply Gauss’s law to
symmetric charge distributions in this unit and the next unit.

In the next three sections of this unit, you will learn how to apply Gauss’s law.
We will determine the electric field due to a point charge. We will also
determine the electric fields due to spherically symmetric charge
distributions such as a uniformly charged sphere and a spherical shell carrying
uniform charge using Gauss’s law. In the next unit, we will apply Gauss’s law
to infinitely long line of uniform charge, which has cylindrical symmetry and a
plane sheet of charge having planar symmetry. So we will explain both these
symmetries in the next unit.

Here we answer the question: What is a spherically symmetric charge

distribution?

A charge distribution is said to be spherically symmetric if it remains

invariant (the same)

 when it is rotated around any axis passing through its centre. It is said
to possess rotational symmetry about that axis.
 when it is reflected across any plane passing through its centre. This
is the reflection symmetry.

For such spherically symmetric charge distributions, we choose a spherical

Gaussian surface. For a point charge, the centre of the Gaussian surface lies
at the position of the charge. For a spherical charge distribution or a spherical
shell, the Gaussian surfaces are concentric with them.
P
Q The electric field of a spherically symmetric charge distribution is in the radial
direction. It points outward from the centre of the sphere for positive charge
and inward for negative charge. The magnitude of the electric field depends
only on the distance r from the centre of the sphere. You may ask: Why is it
O Q
so? Let us answer this question for both the direction and the magnitude of
the electric field due to a spherically symmetric charge distribution.

Let us first answer the question: Why is the electric field due to a
spherically symmetric charge distribution directed radially i.e., it either
Fig. 6.9: If the electric points outward from the centre of the sphere, or inward along the radius
field is not radially of the sphere?
directed, it will not
remain the same under Suppose the electric field at some point P outside the sphere is not directed
rotation or any other radially, i.e., along the radius of the sphere. Suppose it points in some other
symmetry
direction, say in the direction of a point Q on the sphere’s surface along the
transformation of the
sphere. line PQ (see Fig. 6.9). Now suppose we rotate the sphere around the sphere's
axis that passes through point P by 180. The point Q shifts to position Q on

194
the sphere. Note that the sphere remains exactly the same and the point P
Unit 6 Gauss’s Law and Applications
would also be in the same place. But the electric field would now point in a
different direction  in the direction of Q along the line PQ.

This is a contradiction because you know that the electric field at the same
point due to the same charge distribution has to be in the same
direction; it cannot be in two different directions. When will the electric field at
any point be in the same direction under any symmetry operation performed
on the spherical charge distribution? This will happen only if the electric field
is directed along the axis of rotation of the sphere passing through that
point. This means that it must point along the axis of rotation (or the radius) of
the sphere, i.e., in the radial direction.

Let us now answer the question: Why does the magnitude of the electric
field due to a symmetric charge distribution at any point depend only on
its distance r from the centre of symmetry?

Study Fig. 6.10. Suppose we have to determine the electric field at a point P
at a distance r from the sphere. Consider a spherical surface S of radius r Q P
passing through that point, concentric with the spherical charge distribution. r
Now, consider any two points P and Q on the surface S. Note that these two O
points have the same radial coordinate but different angular coordinates.
S
Let us now ask: What would happen if the magnitude of the electric field
depended on the angular coordinates of the points P and Q? If this were
so, the magnitude of the electric field due to the spherical charge distribution Fig. 6.10: The magnitude
would be different at these two points. of the electric field at any
point P on the spherical
But this is a contradiction because due to spherical symmetry, the surface S depends only
spherical charge distribution looks the same for all points on S and on the radius r of the
surface, i.e., the radial
hence for both these points. Therefore, for the same charge distribution,
coordinate of P. Due to
the magnitude of the electric field cannot be different for different points spherical symmetry, it is
on S. It has to be the same for all points on the spherical surface S, i.e., all independent of the
points at the same distance r from the centre of the charge distribution. angular coordinates of
the point.
Hence, the magnitude of the electric field at any point on the spherical
surface S (of a fixed radius) cannot depend on the angular coordinates of
that point. It will only depend on the radius of the spherical surface, i.e., the
radial coordinate of the point, which is just the distance of the point from the
centre of the charge distribution. Therefore, we have

E (r )  E (r ) for a spherically symmetric charge distribution
So, all points on the spherical surface S of radius r are equivalent as far as the
magnitude of the electric field is concerned. You must always remember the
following for any spherically symmetric charge distribution.

 The electric field due to the spherical charge distribution is directed

radially.

 The magnitude of the electric field at any point depends only on the
distance r of the point from the centre of the charge distribution.
195
Block 2 Electrostatics
Let us now apply Gauss’s law to determine the electric field due to a point
charge.

6.4 ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A POINT CHARGE

Using Gauss’s law, let us determine the electric field due to a positive point
charge q at point P situated at a distance r from the charge.

We use Gauss’s law given by Eq. (6.16) taking Qencl  q.

We draw a spherical Gaussian surface of radius r passing through the point P

P with the charge at the centre of the sphere (Fig. 6.11). Now, you have learnt in
Q
r
Sec. 6.3.1 that for spherical symmetry, the electric field points radially
outwards for a positive charge, i.e., the direction of the electric field is normal
q 
to the sphere’s surface. The area vector dS for any surface area element of

S the sphere is also normal to its surface. So, it is parallel to the electric field E
 
and E . dS  E dS. Then Gauss’s law becomes
  q
Fig. 6.11: Spherical  E . dS   E dS 
Gaussian surface S for S S 0
determining electric field
due to a positive point Due to spherical symmetry, the magnitude of the electric field due to the
charge. charge would be the same for all points on the spherical surface and we can
take it to be constant for S. So, we can take E out of the integral and write

q
 E dS  E  dS 
S S 0

So, the integral is just the area of the spherical surface, i.e., it is 4r 2. Thus,

q
E 4r 2 
0

1 q
or E 
40 r 2

 1 q
and E  rˆ (6.19)
40 r 2

Did you notice that Eq. (6.19) is the same as Eq. (5.6a) of Unit 5 that was
obtained from Coulomb’s law? This means that Gauss’s law and Coulomb’s
law give us the same result for the electric field due to a point charge. Gauss’s
law is equally true for a distribution of charges. You have seen it in arriving at
Eq. (6.16).

The result for the electric field due to a charge distribution will be the same
whether we use Gauss’s law or Coulomb’s law to calculate it. The only
difference between the two laws is this: It is easier to use Coulomb’s law for a
charge distribution having many discrete point charges. But it is far easier to
use Gauss’s law if the charge distributions are continuous and symmetric. You
have learnt this in this section for a point charge and will learn in the next two
196
Unit 6 Gauss’s Law and Applications
sections and next unit for other charge distributions. Otherwise, these two laws
are not independent laws but the same law expressed in different ways.

6.5 ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A UNIFORMLY

CHARGED SPHERE
Let us now apply Gauss’s law to a spherical charge distribution having uniform
volume charge density. You can verify that a charged sphere possesses
spherical symmetry. It remains invariant (the same)

 when it is rotated around any axis passing through its centre; and

 when it is reflected across any plane passing through its centre.

The volume charge density (charge per unit volume) of a spherically

symmetric charge distribution such as the charged sphere is the same at all
points situated at the distance r from its centre. At any point, it depends only
on the distance of that point from the centre of the sphere and not on the
direction. Thus, the volume charge density  of a spherically symmetric
charge distribution is a function of only r.

You have learnt in Sec. 6.3.1 that the magnitude of the electric field due to
a spherically symmetric charge distribution at any point depends only on r.
The direction of the electric field is radially outward for positive charge
distribution and radially inward for a negative charge distribution. Let us now
apply Gauss’s law to determine the electric field due to a uniformly charged
P
sphere.
R r
Consider a non-conducting charged sphere of radius R carrying total positive Q
charge Q (Fig. 6.12). It is uniformly charged, which means that its volume
charge density  is constant. Let us determine the electric field due to this S
charge distribution at a point P outside it, at a distance r from the centre of the
sphere.
Fig. 6.12: Determining
We draw a spherical Gaussian surface S of radius r through the point P. Since the electric field due
the point P lies outside the sphere, r  R and Qencl  Q. From Gauss’s law to a uniformly charged
[Eq. (6.16)], we have sphere of radius R
carrying net charge Q
  Q at a point P outside the
 E . dS 
0
(6.20) sphere.
S

Due to spherical symmetry, the magnitude of the electric field is the same on
all points on the Gaussian surface. So we can take it to be constant for this
Gaussian surface. The direction of the electric field
 is radially
 outwards
 for the
positive charge, i.e., in the same direction as dS. So, E and dS are parallel
and
 
E . dS  E dS (6.21a)

Since E (the magnitude of the electric field on the Gaussian surface) is

constant, we can pull it out of the surface integral.
197
Block 2 Electrostatics
Therefore, Eq. (6.21a) becomes
  2 Q
 . dS  E  dS  E 4  r 
E (6.21b)
S S 0

1 Q
or E  for r  R (6.21c)
4  0 r 2

The electric field is given by

 1 Q
E  rˆ for r  R (6.22)
4  0 r 2

Notice that we have included the points lying on the surface of the spherical
charge distribution in the result because the Gaussian sphere of radius R
would enclose the entire charge. Did you also notice that the electric field
given by Eq. (6.22) is the same as that due to a point charge [given by
Eq. (6.19)]? It is as if the entire charge within the spherical surface is
concentrated at the centre of the sphere. Note that this result is a
consequence of spherical symmetry. So, a uniformly charged sphere would
exert the same force on a charge placed anywhere outside it as an equivalent
single charge would.

The electric field due to a uniformly charged sphere and the

electrostatic force exerted by it on a charge situated outside the
sphere are the same as the electric field and electrostatic force due
to a point charge (equal to the charge of the sphere) situated at its
centre.

Let us now determine the electric field at a point inside a spherical charge
distribution carrying net charge Q , i.e., at points for which r  R (see
Fig. 6.13).

For this, we draw a spherical Gaussian surface of radius r  R. We apply

Eq. (6.20), in which Q has now to be replaced by the charge (q) enclosed by
the Gaussian sphere of radius r.
P
R
r What is the value of the charge enclosed by the Gaussian sphere of radius r?
S
You know that the volume charge density is uniform for the charged sphere of
Q
radius R, i.e.,  is constant. The volume of the spherical charge distribution is
4 3
R . Since the volume charge density  (charge per unit volume) is
3
Fig. 6.13: Determining 4 3
constant, for the sphere of volume R carrying charge Q, it is given by
the electric field of a 3
uniformly charged
Q
sphere of radius R   (6.23a)
carrying net charge Q at 4 3
R
a point P inside the 3
sphere.
4 3
Therefore, the charge enclosed by the Gaussian sphere of volume r will
3
be the product of its volume with the volume charge density:
198
Unit 6 Gauss’s Law and Applications

4 3 Q  4 3  r3
q   r  r  Q (6.23b)
3 4 3  3 
 R3
R
3
 
Using Eq. (6.23b) for q and the result  E . dS  E  dS  E 4  r 2 from
S S
Eq. (6.21b) in Eq. (6.16), we have

q Q r3
E 4r 2  
0 0 R 3

Q r
or E  for r  R (6.24a)
4  0 R 3

The electric field at a point inside the uniformly charged sphere is given by
 Q r
E  rˆ for r  R (6.24b)
4  0 R 3
Q r
Note from Eqs. (6.24a) and (6.22) that the electric field inside the spherical E E , rR
charge distribution increases linearly with distance from its centre (E  r ). 4  0 R 3

1
However, for points outside the sphere, the electric field falls off as 2 . We Q 1
r E , rR
4  0 r 2
show this behaviour of the electric field in Fig. 6.14.

We have said in the introduction that these results for the electric field due to
a spherical charge distribution will be of use when you determine the
R r
capacitance of a spherical capacitor. As we have said on the first page of this
unit, the Earth is one huge spherical capacitor that we use all the time. The
R
Earth’s capacitance is so large ( 0.0007 F) that we can dump charge in it or
take it out without changing its electric field much. That is why, we ‘ground’ Fig. 6.14: The behaviour
or ‘earth’ the electrical circuits in our homes and all electrical appliances and of the electric field due
instruments. That is also why we connect the lightning rods in buildings to to a uniformly charged
the Earth so that most excess charge flows into it without hurting people. sphere of radius R.

Another example of spherical charge distributions is an isolated atom of inert

gases. Since the atom is neutral, it carries no net charge and from Gauss’s
law, the electric field outside it is zero. Even when the atoms of an inert gas
are in the neighbourhood of other atoms in it, they depart only slightly from
spherical symmetry, and the electric fields near them remain small. So, we
can say that the feeble chemical activity of inert gases is related to their
spherically symmetric charge distributions. In the next section, you will learn
how to apply Gauss’s law to determine the electric field due to a spherical
shell. Before that, you should solve an SAQ.

SAQ 3 - Applying Gauss’s law to charged sphere

The electric field due to a uniformly charged sphere of radius 0.1 m has the
magnitude 9.0 N C1 at a distance of 0.3 m from the centre. What is the net
charge on the sphere? What is the volume charge density of the charge
distribution?
199
Block 2 Electrostatics
6.6 ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A UNIFORMLY
CHARGED THIN SPHERICAL SHELL
As a first step, do convince yourself that a thin spherical shell possesses
spherical symmetry, i.e., it remains the same under any rotation about its axis
and any reflection about a plane passing through its centre and axis of
rotation. You can rotate or reflect a hollow sphere with a thin surface (such as
a hollow ball) to verify the spherical symmetry of a spherical shell.

Now, consider a non-conducting thin spherical shell of radius R carrying a


E total positive charge Q that is distributed uniformly over its surface (Fig. 6.15).
S1 Let us determine the electric field due to this shell at a point lying outside it.
P

dS For a point P lying outside the shell, we draw a spherical Gaussian surface S1
R Q through the point and concentric with the spherical shell. You can see that the
Gaussian surface lies outside the shell. Let us determine the electric field at
the point P (see Fig. 6.15).

Due to the spherical symmetry of the charged spherical shell, its electric field
has the same magnitude at every point on any spherical Gaussian surface
 with Qencl  Q to
and is directed radially. We apply Gauss’s law [Eq. (6.16)]
Fig. 6.15: A thin the spherical surface
 S1 and note
 that the electric field E is in the same
uniformly charged direction as dS for S1 so that E and dS are parallel. Therefore,
spherical shell of
 
radius R carrying a net E . dS  E dS (6.25a)
charge Q. The
cross-section of the
and since E (the magnitude of the electric field on the Gaussian surface) is
Gaussian surface S1 is
shown for a point lying
constant, we can pull it out of the surface integral. Therefore, Eq. (6.16)
outside the shell. It is becomes
concentric with the
  Q
shell.
 E . dS 
 E dS  E 4  r 2 
0
(6.25b)
S S

1 Q
or E  for r  R (6.25c)
4  0 r 2

The electric field at any point lying outside the spherical shell of radius R is
given by
 1 Q
E  rˆ (spherical shell, for r  R) (6.26)
4  0 r 2

Note that the electric field given by Eq. (6.26) is the same as that due to a
point charge [given by Eq. (6.19)].

For the electric field at a point lying outside the spherical shell, it is as if
the entire charge Q of the spherical shell were replaced by a single equal
charge placed at the centre of the shell.

Thus, a uniformly charged spherical shell would exert the same force on a
charge placed anywhere outside the shell as a single equal charge would.
200
Unit 6 Gauss’s Law and Applications
So always remember,

The electric field due to a spherical shell with a uniform charge

distribution and the electrostatic force exerted by it on a charge
situated outside the shell are the same as due to a single charge
(equal to the charge of the shell) situated at its centre.

What is the electric field at a point inside the shell, i.e., at a point lying
anywhere in the empty interior part of the shell?
Q
R
For a point lying inside the shell, we draw a spherical Gaussian surface P

S2 concentric with the spherical shell, lying in the empty interior of the shell S2
(see Fig. 6.16). Since this Gaussian surface encloses no net charge, from
Gauss’s law, the electric field is zero at all points inside the shell:
 
E  0 (spherical shell, for r  R) (6.27)
Fig. 6.16: The cross-
So, always remember, when a charge is enclosed by a uniformly charged section of a Gaussian
spherical shell so that the charge lies inside the shell, no electrostatic surface S2 enclosing
force is exerted on the charge by the shell. the empty interior of
the thin uniformly
Let us apply what you have learnt in this section to an example of two charged spherical shell
concentric thin spherical shells. of radius R carrying a
net charge Q.

XAMPLE 6.2 : TWO CONCENTRIC THIN SPHERICAL SHELLS

Two concentric thin spherical shells of radii R1 and R2 (with R2  R1 )
carry uniformly distributed charges q1 and q2, respectively (Fig. 6.17). Use
R2
Gauss’s law to determine the electric fields at the points
R1
a) r  R1, q1

b) R2  r  R1 and q2

c) r  R2. Fig. 6.17: Diagram for

Example 6.2.
SOLUTION  We use Gauss’s law along with the results obtained for a
thin spherical shell.

a) For the point r  R1, that is, any point A lying inside the inner
A
spherical shell, we can draw the spherical Gaussian surface through it
(Fig. 6.18). r  R1 R1

You can see that the charge enclosed by that Gaussian surface is
zero. From Eq. (6.27) obtained using Gauss’s law for a point inside the Fig. 6.18: The electric
thin spherical shell, we get the result that the electric field for field at a point inside
r  R1 is zero: the inner shell is
  zero since the
E  0 (inside the inner spherical shell, for r  R1 ) charge enclosed by
it is zero.
201
Block 2 Electrostatics

b) For the point R1  r  R2, that is, the point lying between the two
R1  r  R2 concentric shells, the net charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface of
radius r is just the charge q1 on the inner spherical shell
(Fig. 6.19a). Therefore, from Eq. (6.26), the electric field at any point
R2 B
between the two thin concentric shells is
R1
q1  1 q1
E  rˆ (for R1  r  R2 )
4  0 r 2
q2
(a) c) For the point r  R2, that is, the point lying outside the outer
spherical shell (Fig. 6.19b), the net charge enclosed by the Gaussian
surface of radius r is the sum of the charges q1 and q2. Therefore,
from Eq. (6.26), the electric field at any point outside the outer
R2
spherical shell is
q1 R1
 1 (q1  q2 )
E  rˆ (for r  R2 )
q2 4  0 r2
C
r  R2 What would your answers be if the charges on the inner shell and outer shell
(b) were equal to  q ? To know this, answer the following SAQ!

Fig. 6.19: Diagram for

parts (b) and (c) of SAQ 4 - Uniformly charged thin spherical shell
Example 6.2.
Each of two concentric thin spherical shells of radii R1 and R2 (with
R2  R1 ) carries uniformly distributed charge +q. Use Gauss’s law to
determine the electric fields due to the shells at the points a) r  R1,
b) R2  r  R1 and c) r  R2.

With this discussion on the applications of Gauss’s law to spherically

symmetric charge distributions, we end this unit. In the next unit, we continue
our study of the applications of Gauss’s law to charge distributions possessing
cylindrical and planar symmetry. Let us now summarise what you have learnt
in this unit.

6.7 SUMMARY

Concept Description

Electric flux  The electric flux through a surface (of area S) represents the sum of
 
electric flux elements (E . dSi ) over the entire surface. Each flux element
represents the product of a small flat element of area on the surface and the
component of the electric field along the normal to that area element.
This product is nothing but the scalar product of the electric field vector and
the area element
 vector. Mathematically, electric flux or the flux of an
electric field E through a surface of area S is defined as
 
E   E . dS
202 S
Unit 6 Gauss’s Law and Applications
Remember, electric flux does not represent flow or change of any
entity.

Gauss’s law  Gauss’s law states that the net electric flux through any imaginary closed
surface S of arbitrary shape (called the Gaussian surface) is directly
proportional to the net charge (Qencl ) enclosed by the surface. In SI units, it
Q
is equal to encl . The net charge is the algebraic sum (sum with sign of the
0
charge included) of all charges enclosed within the Gaussian surface.
  Qencl
Mathematically, the law in its integral form is  E . dS 
0
S
  
The differential form of Gauss’s law is  .E 
0

where  is the volume charge density of the charge distribution.

Applications of  Using Gauss’s law, we can determine the electric field due to a point
Gauss’s law to charge, distribution of discrete charges and continuous charge distributions
spherically
enclosed by arbitrary surfaces. In this unit, we have considered spherically
symmetric
systems
symmetric charge distributions.

A charge distribution is said to be spherically symmetric if it remains

invariant (the same)

 when it is rotated around any axis passing through its centre. It is

said to possess rotational symmetry about that axis.

 when it is reflected across any plane passing through its centre. This
is the reflection symmetry.

Examples are a point charge, a uniformly charged sphere and a uniformly

charged spherical shell.

The magnitude of the electric field of a spherically symmetric charge

distribution at any point depends only on r, the distance of the point from the
centre of symmetry. The direction of the electric field is radially outward for
positive charge distribution and radially inward for a negative charge
distribution.

Point charge  The electric field of a point charge q at a distance r from it is given by

 1 q
E  rˆ
40 r 2

Uniformly charged  The electric field due to a uniformly charged sphere of radius R
sphere carrying charge Q at a point located outside the sphere at a distance r is
given by
 1 Q
E  rˆ for r  R
4  0 r 2
203
Block 2 Electrostatics
For a point inside the sphere, it is given by
 Q r
E  rˆ for r  R
4  0 R 3

Uniformly charged  The electric field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell of
thin spherical
radius R carrying charge Q at any point lying outside the shell at a
shell
distance r from its centre is given by
 1 Q
E  rˆ (spherical shell, for r  R)
4  0 r 2

At all points lying anywhere in the empty interior part of the shell, the
electric field is zero:
 
E  0 (spherical shell, for r  R)

6.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS


1. Calculate the flux of the electric field E  100 NC 1 ˆi through the surfaces
of area 1.0 m2 situated in the xy, xz and yz planes, respectively.

2. A particle carrying a charge of 2.7 10 9 C is enclosed in a cubical

Gaussian surface of side 0.5 m. Calculate the electric flux through the
surface of the cube and any one of its faces.
3. Consider a system of four charges: 3q, q,  3q and  q. Draw a Gaussian
surface enclosing at least two charges of the system so that the net
 4q   2q   2q 
electric flux through it is a) zero, b)   , c)    and d)   .
 0   0   0 

4. The electric field in some region of space is given by E  cr r̂, where c is a
constant. Use the differential form of Gauss’s law to calculate the volume
charge density, which gives rise to this electric field. Obtain the total
charge contained in a sphere of radius R, centred at the origin in this
region of space.
5. Suppose that a Gaussian surface encloses zero net charge. (a) Does
Gauss’s law require that the electric field be zero for all points on the
surface? (b) If the electric field is zero everywhere on the Gaussian
surface, does Gauss’s law require that the net charge inside the surface
B be zero?
A
6. Is Gauss’s law useful in calculating the electric field due to three equal
charges placed at the corners of an equilateral triangle? Explain.
q C 7. A charge q is placed at a corner of a cube as shown in Fig. 6.20.
D Determine the flux of the electric field of the charge through the right face
(ABCD) of the cube? (Hint: Solving this problem requires a clever choice
Fig. 6.20: Diagram of the Gaussian surface.)
for TQ 7.
8. a) The electric flux due to a point charge passing through a spherical
Gaussian surface of radius 0.10 m centred on the charge is
204
Unit 6 Gauss’s Law and Applications

 900 Nm 2 C1 . What is the value of the point charge? What is the
electric field due to the point charge at a point on the Gaussian
surface? What would the electric flux through the Gaussian surface be
if its radius were increased to 0.30 m?
b) The magnitude of the electric field due to a non-conducting charged
sphere of radius 0.30 m at a distance of 0.10 m from its centre is
3.0  103 NC 1. What is the net charge on the sphere?

9. A non-conducting sphere of radius R carrying net positive charge Q is

enclosed by a concentric non-conducting thin spherical shell of radius r
carrying net negative charge q. Determine the electric field (a) inside the
sphere, (b) between the sphere and the shell, and (c) outside the shell.
10. A charged non-conducting spherical shell having inner radius 3.0 m and
outer radius10 m carries a charge of magnitude 9.0 nC distributed
uniformly over its volume. Determine the electric field due to it at a
distance of 6.0 m from its centre.

6.9 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS

Self-Assessment Questions
1. We can determine the electric flux through the faces of the cube by using
 
Eq. (6.6a), i.e., by integrating the scalar product E . dS over the right and
top faces of the cube. Refer to Fig. 6.21. For the choice of the coordinate

axes, the area vector for the right face is dS  dS ˆi and for the top face, it

is dS  dS ĵ. So, the electric flux through the right face of the cube is
given as:
 
E   E . dS   (8.0 x ˆi  5.0 ˆj) . dS ˆi
S S

  (8.0 x ) ˆi . ˆi dS  (8.0)  ( x ) dS ( ˆi . ˆi  1, ˆi . ˆj  0)
S S
y
Now, on the right face of the cube, x is constant and has the value 
dS  dSˆj
x = 2.0 m. Therefore, for the right face, we get

E  (8.0)  ( 2.0) dS  (16.0)  dS 

dS  dSˆi
S S
x
Now the integral  dS is equal to the area of the right face of the cube, z
S
2 x  1.0 m x  2.0 m
which is just 1.0 m . Therefore, the electric flux through the right face of
the cube is Fig. 6.21: Diagram for the
1 2
E  (16.0) NC m answer of SAQ 1.

Now, we follow the same steps for the top face of the cube as we followed

for the right face of the cube. Since for the top face, dS  dS ˆj and
ˆj . ˆj  1, ˆi . ˆj  0, the electric flux through the top face of the cube is
given as:
205
Block 2 Electrostatics
 
E   E . dS   (8.0 x ˆi  5.0 ˆj) . dS ˆj   (5.0) dS  (5.0)  dS
S S S S
Now the integral  dS is equal to the area of the top face of the cube,
S
2
which is just 1.0 m . Therefore, the electric flux through the top face of the
cube is E  (5.0) NC 1 m2 .

2. a) We cannot apply Gauss’s law to the surfaces shown in Figs. 6.1a, b

and c as these are open surfaces (these do not define an enclosed
volume) and Gauss’s law can be applied to only closed surfaces.

b) i) No, the electric flux through the surface would not change as the
Gaussian surface can be of any shape and the electric flux is equal
to only the net charge enclosed by it.
ii) No, since the net charge enclosed by the surface is the same.
iii) No, because the location of the charge within the surface does not
matter.
iv) Yes, because the net charge enclosed by the surface would
change.
v) Yes, because the net charge enclosed by the surface would
change.
vi) No, since the net charge enclosed by the surface is the same.

c) From Eq. (6.12), the value of the charge on the particle is given by

qencl  0 E  (8.85 1012 C2N1 m2 )  500 N m2 C1  4.42 109 C

The electric flux through the surface would not change since the
S1 net charge enclosed by it remains the same.
P
d) Refer to Fig. 6.22. The net charge enclosed by the surface S1 is
q1
q1   3.1 nC . Since the particle P enclosed by the surface S1 carries
no charge, it makes no contribution to the electric flux. The remaining
q3 charges are outside the surface. Therefore, from Eq. (6.12),
q2
q q1 3.110 9 C
S2  E  encl    350 N m2 C1
0 0 12 2 1  2
8.85 10 C N m

Fig. 6.22: Diagram for the The net charge enclosed by the surface S2 is
answer of SAQ 2d.
q1  q2  q3   3.1 nC  ( 5.9 nC)  ( 3.1nC)   5.9 nC

Therefore, from Eq. (6.12),

qencl  5.9 10 9 C

E     6.7 10 2 Nm2 C1
0 12 2 1  2
8.85 10 C N m

3. We use Eq. (6.22) for the electric field of a uniformly charged sphere
since the point lies outside the sphere and take the magnitude only.
Therefore, the net charge on the sphere is
206
Unit 6 Gauss’s Law and Applications

(9.0 N C1)  (0.3 m) 2

Q  E ( 4  0r 2 )   0.09 nC  0.1nC
8.99 109 C2Nm2
Since the sphere is uniformly charged, its volume charge density is given
by Eq. (6.23a):
Q 0.09 10 9 C
    2.110 8 C m3
4 3 4
R (0.1m) 3
3 3
R2
4. Refer to Fig. 6.23. We follow the steps in Example 6.2 with q1  q2   q.
q R1
a) For the point r  R1, the net charge enclosed by a spherical Gaussian
surface passing through r, (i.e., a point inside the inner shell) is zero. q
Hence, for r  R1,
 
E  0 Fig. 6.23: Diagram for
the answer of SAQ 4.
b) For R2  r  R1, (i.e., a point lying between the two concentric
shells), the net charge enclosed by a spherical Gaussian surface
passing through r is just  q and hence, for R2  r  R1,
 1 q
E  rˆ
40 r 2

c) For r  R2, (i.e., a point lying outside the outer shell), the net charge
enclosed by a spherical Gaussian surface passing through r is
y
 q  q   2q and hence, for r  R2, xy plane
 1 2q yz plane
E  rˆ
40 r 2
Terminal Questions ĵ
x
k̂ O î
1. Refer to Fig. 6.24. A surface of area S in the xy plane is represented by
the vector S k̂ since k̂ is the unit vector perpendicular to the xy plane. xz plane
 z
Therefore, the flux of the electric field E  100 NC 1 ˆi through a surface
of area S  1.0 m2 situated in the xy plane is Fig. 6.24: Area vectors for
the answer of TQ 1.

E  E . Skˆ  100 NC 1 ˆi . (1.0 m2 ) kˆ  100 NC 1 m2 (ˆi . kˆ )  0

The area vector in the xz plane is given by S ĵ and for S  1.0 m2, the flux

of the electric field E  100 NC 1 ˆi through the xz plane is

E  E . S ˆj  100 NC 1 ˆi . (1.0 m2 ) ˆj  100 NC 1 m2 (ˆi . ˆj)  0

In the yz plane, the area vector is given by S î and for S  1.0 m2, the flux

of the electric field E  100 NC 1 ˆi through the yz plane is

E  E . S ˆi  100 NC 1 ˆi . (1.0 m2 ) ˆi  100 NC 1 m2 (ˆi . ˆi )  100 NC 1 m2

2. Let us choose the surface of the cube as the Gaussian surface. From
Gauss’s law [Eq. (6.16)], the electric flux through this surface is

q 2.7 10 9 C
E    3.0 102 N C1 m2
0 12 2 1  2
8.85 10 C N m
207
Block 2 Electrostatics
Since the cube has 6 faces, the electric flux through any one of the cube’s
faces is
 3q q  q  3q E q 3.0 10 2 N C1 m2
E      50 N C1 m2
6 6 0 6
(a)
q
3. Refer to Figs. 6.25a to e. We use Eq. (6.16):  E 
0
 3q  q q  3q a) For the net electric flux through the Gaussian surface to be zero, the
net electric charge enclosed by it should be zero. In Figs. 6.24a and b,
the two Gaussian surfaces shown enclose the charges so that the net
(b) charge within each one of them and hence the electric flux through
them is zero. You can draw a third one too enclosing only the charges
 q and  q.
 3q q q  3q
b) For the net electric flux through the Gaussian surface to be ( 4q / 0 ),
(c)
the net electric charge enclosed by it should be  4q. In Fig. 6.24c, the
Gaussian surface encloses the charges  3q and  q so that the net
charge within it is  4q and the net electric flux through it is ( 4q / 0 ).
c) For the net electric flux through the Gaussian surface to be (  2q / 0 ),
 3q q q  3q
the net electric charge enclosed by it should be  2q. In Fig. 6.24d, the
Gaussian surface encloses the charges  3q and  q so that the net
(d)
charge within it is  2q and the net electric flux through it is ( 2q / 0 ).
d) For the net electric flux through the Gaussian surface to be (  2q / 0 ),
q q  3q the net electric charge enclosed by it should be  2q. In Fig. 6.24e, the
 3q
Gaussian surface encloses the charges  3q and  q so that the net
charge within it is  2q and the net electric flux through it is ( 2q / 0 ).
(e)
4. We use Eq. (6.18) to calculate the volume charge density  and write
    
Fig. 6.25: Diagram for the   r
  0  .E  0  . (cr rˆ )  0  . (c r )  rˆ  
answer of TQ 3.  r

In Unit 2, you have learnt how to calculate the divergence of a vector field.
      
   0  .(c r )  0 c  . r  0 c ( ˆi  ˆj  kˆ ).( x ˆi  y ˆj  z kˆ )
x y z
x y z
 0 c (   )  3 0 c
x y z

In this region of space, the total charge contained in a sphere of radius R,

centred at the origin is just the volume integral Q  
 dV . Since  is
V
constant and the volume integral equals the volume of the sphere of
radius R, we have
4 3
Q  
3 0 c dV  3 0 c
3
R  4  0 c R 3
V

5. a) When the Gaussian surface encloses zero net charge, Gauss’s law
 
yields E . dS  0. However, this does not mean that the electric field is
  
zero for all points on the surface. E . dS can be zero even when E and

dS are perpendicular to each other.
208
Unit 6 Gauss’s Law and Applications
b) If the electric field is zero everywhere on the Gaussian surface, Gauss’s
law requires that there should be no net charge inside the surface, i.e.,
the net charge should be zero.
6. Gauss’s law is not useful in calculating the electric field due to three equal
charges placed at the corners of an equilateral triangle because it is not
possible to find a closed surface of appropriate symmetry over which the
electric field can be taken to be constant and its direction can be taken to
be either parallel or normal to the surface to evaluate the surface integral.
7. The electric flux through the shaded right face (ABCD) of the cube having
area, say S , is
 
S   
E . dS
S
To determine S , the trick is to choose an appropriate Gaussian surface
that encloses the charge q. We can put together 8 cubes of the same size
as the original cube in the problem to construct the Gaussian surface as
shown in Fig. 6.26. It includes the right face ABCD of the original cube and
encloses the charge q. Note that the area of the Gaussian surface is 24
times the area of the right face ABCD. So, now we can apply Gauss’s law
to this problem.
B
Gaussian surface
A

q C
D

Fig. 6.26: Diagram for answer to TQ 7.

  Q
From Gauss’s law, we have  E . dS  encl where S is the surface area of
S 0
the Gaussian surface enclosing the charge. Since the area of the
Gaussian surface is 24 times the area S  of ABCD, we have
    q   q
 
E . dS  24  E . dS 
0
or 
E . dS 
24 0
S S S
Thus, the electric flux through the right face (ABCD) of the cube is
q
S  
24 0
8. a) We use Eq. (6.12) to determine the value of the point charge:
q  0 E  (8.85 1012 C2N1 m2 )( 900 Nm 2C1)   7.96 nC
From Eq. (6.19), the electric field of q at a distance of 0.10 m from it is
  7.96 10 9 C
E  (8.99 109 C2Nm2 ) rˆ  (  7.2 103 N C1) r̂
2
(0.10 m)
The electric flux through the Gaussian sphere of radius 0.30 m would remain
the same as the charge enclosed by it is the same. It will be  900 Nm 2C1.
209
Block 2 Electrostatics
b) We use Eq. (6.24b) for the magnitude E to determine the net charge
on the sphere since the point at which the electric field is given lies
R3
inside the sphere. From Eq. (6.24b) for E, we have Q  40 E.
r
Upon substituting the numerical values given in the problem, we get

1 (0.30 m) 3
Q   (3.0 103 N C1)  90 nC
9 2 2
(8.99 10 C Nm ) (0.10 m)

r  9. a) Since the electric field inside the shell is zero, from Eq. (6.24b), the net
r
electric field at a point r  inside the sphere (see Fig. 6.27) is given as:
 Q r
r 
E  rˆ
4  0 R 3
r R
Q b) At a point r  between the sphere and the shell, the total charge
enclosed by a spherical Gaussian surface passing through r  is the
q charge Q on the sphere and the electric field is given by Eq. (6.22):
 1 Q
Fig. 6.27: Diagram for the E  rˆ
4  0 r 2
answer of TQ 9.
c) At a point r  outside the shell, the total charge enclosed by a spherical
Gaussian surface passing through the point is the charge Q on the
sphere and the charge  q on the spherical shell. The electric field is
given by Eq. (6.22) or Eq. (6.26) where the net charge enclosed by the
Gaussian surface passing through r  is (Q  q ) :
 1 (Q  q )
E  rˆ
4  0 r 2

10. We have to first determine the volume charge density of the spherical
Q
10 m shell:   . For this, we need to calculate the volume of the spherical
V
4
r  6.0 m shell, which is V  (10 m) 3  (3.0 m) 3   4077 m3
3
Q 3.0 m
Q 9.0 nC
    2.2 10 12 Cm 3
V 4077 m3
To determine the electric field at the point 6.0 m away from the centre, we
draw a spherical Gaussian surface of radius 6.0 m passing through the
Fig. 6.28: Diagram for the
point (Fig. 6.28). Let us first calculate the total charge Q enclosed by the
answer of TQ 10 (not to
scale).
Gaussian surface of radius 6.0 m. The volume of the part of the spherical
shell that contains the charge Q is

V 
4
3
 
(6.0 m) 3  (3.0 m) 3  792 m3

 Q  V   2.21012 Cm 3  792 m3  1.7 nC

From Gauss’s law, we have

Q Q
E  E ( 4R 2 )   E  or
0 40R 2
  1.7 nC 
E  (8.99 109 C2Nm2 )   rˆ  0.42 NC 1 rˆ
 (6.0 m) 2 
210
 
Unit 7 Applications of Gauss’s Law

UNIT 7
How can sitting inside a closed APPLICATIONS OF
GAUSS’S LAW
conducting surface such as a
car prevent you from being
struck by lightning? Find the
answer in this unit!

Structure
7.1 Introduction 7.3 Electric Field due to an Infinite
Expected Learning Outcomes Uniformly Charged Plane Sheet
7.2 Electric Field Due to Cylindrically Symmetric 7.4 Charged Isolated Conductor
Charge Distributions 7.5 Summary
Gauss‟s Law and Cylindrically Symmetric Charge 7.6 Terminal Questions
Distributions 7.7 Solutions and Answers
Infinite Uniform Line Charge
Uniformly Charged Infinite Cylinder

STUDY GUIDE
In Unit 6, you have studied the concept of electric flux and Gauss‟s law. You have learnt
how to apply Gauss‟s law to discrete point charges and continuous charge distributions that
are spherically symmetric such as a uniformly charged sphere and thin spherical shell. In
this unit, you will learn applications of Gauss‟s law to some more continuous charge
distributions having cylindrical and planar symmetry such as a uniform infinite line charge
and a plane sheet of charge. You will determine the electric fields due to a uniformly
charged infinite wire, a uniform cylindrical charge distribution and an infinite sheet of charge.
You will also learn of its application to an isolated charged conductor.

You will learn how to choose appropriate Gaussian surfaces to solve the surface integrals
involved in each case. Revise the divergence theorem that you have learnt in Unit 4. You
should also revise the methods of solving surface and volume integrals to be able to master
the concepts of this unit. Try to solve the Examples, SAQs and Terminal questions given in
this unit on your own.

“It is not knowledge, but the act of learning, not possession but Carl F. Gauss
the act of getting there, which grants the greatest enjoyment.”

211
Block 2 Electrostatics
7.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 6, you have learnt the concept of electric flux and studied Gauss‟s law.
You have also learnt how to apply Gauss‟s law to obtain the electric flux and
electric field due to discrete charges. You have applied the law to continuous
charge distributions that are spherically symmetric and uniformly charged
such as a uniformly charged sphere and thin spherical shell. You have learnt
that the Gaussian surface for such charge distributions is spherical and
concentric with them. It also passes through the point at which the electric
field is to be determined.

In this unit, you will first learn how to apply Gauss‟s law to charge distributions
having cylindrical symmetry such as uniform line charge and uniformly
charged cylinder (Sec. 7.2). You will begin by learning the concept of
cylindrical symmetry. Then we will explain why Gauss‟s law is useful for
determining the electric fields due to cylindrically symmetric charge
distributions. With this understanding, you can learn how to apply Gauss‟s law
to determine the electric fields due to an infinite uniform line charge and
infinite uniformly charged cylinder.

In Sec. 7.3, you will learn how to apply Gauss‟s law to calculate the electric
field due to an infinite uniformly charged sheet that possesses planar
symmetry. Once again, we will explain what planar symmetry is and how
Gauss‟s law is useful for determining the electric fields due to charge
distributions having planar symmetry.

The applications of Gauss‟s law described in Secs. 7.2 and 7.3 find use in
computing the capacitance of coaxial capacitors and parallel plate capacitors
as you will learn in Unit 11 of the next block. As you may know, such
capacitors are very commonly used around us, for example, in electronic
appliances like the TV and computers, and power storage systems, etc.
Finally, in Sec. 7.4, we apply Gauss‟s law to an isolated charged solid
conductor and a conductor with a cavity. This too has many interesting
applications in real life. One of these is shown in the picture on the first page
of this unit.
In the next two units, we introduce the concept of electric potential and its
relation with the electric field. You will learn another way of calculating electric
fields and electrostatic forces using the concept of electric potential.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 apply Gauss‟s law to determine the electric field due to cylindrically

symmetric charge distributions such as a uniform infinite line charge and
an infinite uniformly charged cylinder;
 determine the electric field due to an infinite uniform plane sheet of
charge using Gauss‟s law; and
 use Gauss‟s law to explain why the electric field inside an isolated
charged conductor is zero and why the charge on it is distributed entirely
212 on its surface.
Unit 7 Applications of Gauss’s Law

7.2 ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO CYLINDRICALLY

SYMMETRIC CHARGE DISTRIBUTIONS
We have said in the introduction of this unit that in this section we will
determine the electric field due to charge distributions that possess cylindrical
symmetry such as a line charge and a charged cylinder. You may like to ask:

 What is cylindrical symmetry?

 How is Gauss’s law useful for a charge distribution that possesses

cylindrical symmetry?

Let us begin our discussion by answering these two questions.

7.2.1 Gauss’s Law and Cylindrically Symmetric Charge

Distributions

Let us answer the first question and define cylindrical symmetry.

A C
A charge distribution (or any object) is said to possess cylindrical symmetry
if it remains unchanged (or is invariant) when it is
R S
 moved along its axis (AB in Fig. 7.1a and CD in Fig. 7.1b), that is, the line P Q
running through its core (translational symmetry);

 rotated around its axis (rotational symmetry);

B D
 rotated by 180° around any axis perpendicular to its axis, (PQ in Fig. 7.1a
(a) (b)
and RS in Fig. 7.1b), (180° rotational symmetry);

 reflected across any plane passing through its axis (reflection symmetry); Fig. 7.1: a) The axis AB
(dotted line) of a cylinder;
 reflected across any plane perpendicular to its axis (reflection symmetry). b) for a line or a wire, the
axis CD lies on the
Try to apply the above transformations to any cylindrical object around you line/wire itself.
such as a can or a water pipe. Verify that it possesses cylindrical symmetry
before studying further. An infinite line or wire (like the axis of an infinite
cylinder) also possesses cylindrical symmetry (Fig. 7.1b).

Let us now answer the second question and explain how Gauss’s law is
useful for determining the electric field due to a cylindrically symmetric charge
distribution.

While studying Secs. 6.4 to 6.6 of Unit 6, you would have noted that due to the
choice of the spherical Gaussian surface enclosing the charge distribution, the
calculations became very simple for two reasons:

 the electric field was directed parallel to the area vector for a surface
 
element on the Gaussian surface so that E. dS  E dS; and

 the magnitude E of the electric field was the same at all points on the
Gaussian surface so that it could be treated as constant and taken out of
the surface integral.
213
Block 2 Electrostatics


Let us now ask: What is the direction of the electric field at any point due to
++
E a cylindrical charge distribution?
++
+ + Electric field Consider Fig. 7.2a showing a small section of an infinite cylinder carrying
perpendicular positive charge (it could also be a charged infinite wire). The direction of the
++
to the
++ electric field of the charge distribution is perpendicular to its axis, and the
cylinder‟s axis
++ electric field is directed radially outward from the axis for positively charged
(a) cylinder (Fig. 7.2a). For a negative cylindrical charge distribution, it will be
Top directed radially inward and perpendicular to its axis. You may ask: Why?
++ To answer this question, suppose that the electric field due to the cylindrical
++ Electric charge distribution at some point P is directed in some other direction as
field in
++
P some
shown in Fig. 7.2b. Note that we have arbitrarily labelled one end of this
++
other
section of the cylinder as „top‟ and the other one as „bottom‟ just to show what
++
direction happens when it is reflected.
++
Bottom
Now let us reflect this cylindrical charge distribution about a horizontal line
(b) perpendicular to its axis and passing through P. So the „top‟ of the section is
now its „bottom‟ and the „bottom‟, its „top‟ (Fig. 7.2c).
Bottom
++
What is the direction of the electric field after the cylindrical charge distribution
is reflected? After reflection, the direction of the electric field becomes as
++
P shown in Fig. 7.2c because the electric field is also reflected in the same
++
manner.
++
Electric
++ Now compare Figs. 7.2b and 7.2c by putting them alongside each other as in
field after
++ reflection Fig. 7.2d. What do you find? You can see that the charge distribution remains
Top the same after reflection but the electric fields are different. (The labels „top‟
(c) and „bottom‟ were only for our convenience. Otherwise, we cannot tell the
difference.)
++ ++
++ ++ This is a contradiction: How can there be different electric fields at the
++ ++ same point for the same charge distribution? If the charge distribution
++ ++ remains unchanged, the electric field also has to be the same. If it is not so,
+ + + + there must be some mistake.
++ ++
Now we ask: What is the direction of the electric field that will not lead to
(d)
such a contradiction? From Fig. 7.2d, you can see that if the electric field
Fig. 7.2: a) The direction
 (shown by dotted arrows) were in the direction perpendicular to the cylindrical
of electric field E due to axis, it would remain the same under this symmetry operation.
a section of an infinite
charged cylinder is You can check it for all other symmetry operations on the cylinder. This is how
perpendicular to its axis; we conclude from symmetry considerations that the direction of the electric
b) electric field in some field due to a cylindrical charge distribution at a point can only be
other direction; perpendicular to its axis.
c) reflected electric field;
d) the directions of It points outward, for a positive charge distribution and inward, for a
electric fields are different negative charge distribution.
at the same point for the
same charge distribution, Now you may like to know: What does the magnitude of the electric field of
which is not possible. a charge distribution having cylindrical symmetry depend on?
So, E can only be in the
direction shown by The answer is: It depends only on the perpendicular distance, say r, of the
dotted arrows. point from the cylinder‟s axis. Why is it so?
214
Unit 7 Applications of Gauss’s Law
Suppose the magnitude of the electric field due to the cylindrical charge
distribution at any point varied with the angular coordinates of the point.
Then it would have different values at different points, say, P and Q situated at
the same perpendicular distance from the axis (i.e., on the dotted cylindrical
surface of the same radius r in Fig. 7.3). But this is a contradiction. This is ++
Q r
because due to cylindrical symmetry, the charged cylinder will look the same ++
P
from all points on the cylindrical surface of radius r (Fig. 7.3). So, ++ r
++
The magnitude of the electric field cannot have different values at
+ +
different points on a given cylindrical surface for the same cylindrical
++
charge distribution.
Therefore, at any point, it will depend only on the perpendicular distance of the
Fig. 7.3: The magnitude
point from the axis of the cylindrical charge distribution. of the electric field due
To conclude, due to cylindrical symmetry, the magnitude of the electric field to a cylindrical charge
distribution at any point
due to a cylindrical charge distribution at any point depends only on the
depends on its
perpendicular distance of the point from the cylindrical axis. So, all points on perpendicular distance
the cylindrical surface of a given radius are equivalent as far as the magnitude r from the axis of
of the electric field of any cylindrical charge distribution is concerned: it could symmetry. If it were not
be a line charge, charged wire or charged solid/hollow cylinder. so, the magnitude of
the electric field would
Then we can treat the magnitude of the electric field of such systems at a be different at different
given cylindrical surface as constant and take it out of the surface integral. points, (e.g., P and Q)
You will appreciate this point better in the next section. on the same surface for
the same charge
To sum up, you must always remember the following for any charge distribution, which is
distribution having cylindrical symmetry: incorrect.

 The electric field due to a charge distribution having cylindrical

symmetry is directed perpendicular to its axis of symmetry.

 The magnitude of the electric field at any point depends only on

its perpendicular distance from the axis of symmetry.

So now can you quickly say what kind of Gaussian surface we should choose
for a cylindrically symmetric charge distribution such as a line charge? The
Gaussian surface should indeed be cylindrical. Why so?
As you have learnt just now, for a cylindrical Gaussian surface coaxial with the
cylindrical charge distribution (charged line or cylinder), the electric field is P
normal to the surface at all points on it. You know that for any area element 
 dS
centred at a point on the Gaussian surface, the area vector dS is directed

normal to the surface (Fig. 7.4). So, the electric field E at any point due to the
cylindrically symmetric charge distribution will be parallel to the area vector
 Fig. 7.4: Area vector
dS and, therefore 
dS for an element of
 
E. dS  E dS (7.1) area centred at any
point P on a
You have also learnt that the magnitude of the electric field at any point is the cylindrical Gaussian
same everywhere on the cylindrical Gaussian surface passing through that surface is normal to
the surface.
point. So we can treat it as constant for that surface and take it out of the
surface integral.
215
Block 2 Electrostatics
With this understanding of cylindrical symmetry of charge distributions, we can
apply Gauss‟s law to a uniform infinite line charge.

7.2.2 Infinite Uniform Line Charge

Recall that you have calculated the electric field for an infinite line charge
using Coulomb‟s law in Example 5.7 of Unit 5. You have learnt how to solve
the lengthy integral involved in the calculation. Let us now apply Gauss‟s law
to a similar problem. Consider an infinitely long wire carrying uniform linear
charge density . Let us determine the electric field at a distance r from the
wire using Gauss‟s law.

Before studying further, you may like to quickly verify that the infinite line
charge distribution has cylindrical symmetry by carrying out the symmetry
operations on a wire. Let us now draw a Gaussian surface, i.e., the surface of
a right circular cylinder of radius r and length L coaxial with the wire (Fig. 7.5).

E 
E

S dS

dS
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Fig. 7.5: Applying Gauss’s law to an infinite uniformly charged wire carrying
positive charge. The Gaussian surface is cylindrical having length L
and radius r. It encloses a section of the charged wire.

What is the magnitude of the electric field at any point on the cylindrical
Gaussian surface? You have learnt in Sec. 7.2.1 that due to cylindrical
symmetry, it would be the same everywhere on the surface of the cylinder as it
depends only on the perpendicular distance of the point from the wire‟s axis.
As you can see in Fig. 7.5, this distance is just the radius (r) of the cylinder.
So, it is the same for all points on the cylindrical surface of radius r and can be
treated as constant for that particular surface.

For a cylindrical surface, the direction of the electric field is normal to the
surface at all points as shown in Fig. 7.5. For positively charged wire, the
electric field is directed radially outwards from the wire‟s axis. If the charge on
the wire were negative, the electric field would point inwards towards the
 
wire‟s axis. Thus, E and dS are parallel to each other for each area element
on the curved part of the cylinder‟s surface:
 
E. dS  E dS (7.2a)

The electric flux at all points through both circular ends of the cylinder is zero
 
because E and dS are perpendicular to each other on these ends (Fig. 7.5).
 
Therefore, the product E . dS is finite only for the curved part of the cylindrical
surface.
216
Unit 7 Applications of Gauss’s Law
Thus, from Gauss‟s law, we have

  Qencl
 E . dS   E dS  E  dS dS  E 2rL 
0
(7.2b)
S S S

where we have taken E out of the integral as it is constant on this Gaussian

surface S. In Eq. (7.2b), we have also used the result that the area of the
curved surface of a cylinder of radius r and length L is 2rL . So from
Eq. (7.2b), we have

Qencl
E 2rL 
0

Qencl
or E  (7.2c)
20 r L

For the uniform line charge density , the charge enclosed by the cylinder of
length L is given by
L L
Qencl   
 dl    dl    L, since  is constant (7.2d)
0 0

Substituting Eq. (7.2d) in Eq. (7.2c), we get

Qencl L
E 
20 r L 20 r L
Note that the electric
field in Eq. (7.3)

or E (7.3) does not depend on
20 r the length of the
cylindrical Gaussian
The electric field is directed perpendicular to the line charge or charged surface.
wire. This is the same result as the one we got in Example 5.7 after a very
lengthy calculation! So, you see that for a symmetrical distribution of charges,
the calculation of electric field becomes quite simple if we use Gauss‟s law.

You should, however, note that Gauss’s law is always true, no matter what
the distribution of charges. But it is very useful for symmetric charge In applying Gauss‟s law,
distributions since its application makes the calculation much simpler. the choice of the
Gaussian surface is
You may like to know: Why do charge distributions have to be symmetric very important for
for Gauss’s law to be applied to determine electric fields? simplifying calculations.
This is especially true
Recall what you have learnt so far and you will be able to arrive at the answer: for symmetric charge
The symmetry of the distribution helps us determine the surfaces over which distributions as you
the magnitude of the electric field is constant (i.e., the distance r is constant). have learnt in Unit 6.
You will appreciate this
Also we know the direction of the electric field for a given type of symmetry.
point time and again in
this unit.
Then the trick is to choose the Gaussian surface to be the surface over
which the magnitude of the electric field is constant. Also, the direction
of the electric field should be parallel/perpendicular to the area vector at
all points on the surface. 217
Block 2 Electrostatics
You must note that this is true for all applications of Gauss‟s law that you have
studied so far, such as the charged sphere and the spherical shell in Unit 6
and the infinite charged wire in this section. For example, in this unit, for the
infinite line charge, you have seen that the magnitude of the electric field is the
same at all points of the curved
 part of the cylindrical surface as its radius is
constant. The direction of E is normal to the curved part  of the surface
 and
therefore, in the same
 direction as the area element dS. Since E is
perpendicular to dS on the cylinder‟s ends, for all points on the circular ends
of the cylinder, [Link]  0. This has made the calculation of electric field quite
simple. Of course, it is also simple because the line charge density is uniform,
i.e., constant.
Suppose, we had chosen some other  shape for the Gaussian surface, then
Gauss‟s law would still apply but E may not have been in the same direction

as dS and its magnitude may not have been constant over the surface. Then
we could not have taken E out of the integral. That would have made the
calculation difficult. So, symmetry is important for such applications of
Gauss’s law. You must have appreciated this point by now having studied
charge distributions possessing spherical and cylindrical symmetry. We end
this section with an SAQ for you.

SAQ 1 – Applying Gauss’s law to line charge

The electric field due to an infinite line charge has magnitude 9.0  103 NC 1
at a distance of 1.0 m. Calculate the linear charge density.

Let us now determine the electric field due to an infinite uniformly charged
cylinder using the same symmetry considerations as for the wire at points both
outside and inside the cylinder. Such calculations of electric fields for a
cylindrical charge distribution are required for determining the capacitance of
S R capacitors having cylindrical geometry.

7.2.3 Uniformly Charged Infinite Cylinder

L  
E Consider an infinitely long charged solid cylinder of radius R, which has
r P uniform volume charge density . Let us determine the electric field due to this
charge distribution at a point outside the cylinder.
We use Gauss‟s law to obtain the electric field for the uniformly charged
infinite cylinder at a point P lying outside it at a distance r from its axis.
Study Fig. 7.6 showing a section of the infinite cylinder by a solid line. You can
Fig. 7.6: Electric field at a verify that the charge distribution is cylindrically symmetric. For a point P
point P lying outside a outside the cylinder, we draw a cylindrical Gaussian surface of length L and
uniformly charged radius r, passing through P. Recall that we have drawn a similar surface for
infinite cylinder. The the infinitely long wire in Fig. 7.5. We now follow the same steps and
cylindrical Gaussian
argument as in Sec. 7.2.1 to determine the electric field due to a uniformly
surface is of length L and
radius r  R.
charged infinitely long cylinder for r  R.

Once again we note that for the curved part of the cylindrical Gaussian
surface, the direction of the electric field is normal to the surface at all points.
218
Also, the electric field is directed radially outwards from the positively charged
Unit 7 Applications of Gauss’s Law
 
cylinder‟s axis. Therefore, E and dS are parallel to each other for each area
 
element on the curved part of the Gaussian surface and E . dS  E dS. As in
Sec. 7.2.2, you can see that the electric flux through both circular ends of the
 
cylindrical Gaussian surface is zero because E and dS are perpendicular to
each other at all points on these ends. Therefore, from Gauss‟s law, we have
  Qencl
 E . dS   E dS  E  dS dS  E 2rL 
0
(7.4a)
S S S

Here, since E is the same on all points of the Gaussian surface S, we have
taken it to be constant for the surface and have taken it out of the integral. In
Eq. (7.4a), we have also used the result that the total surface area of a
cylinder of radius r and length L is 2rL. So from Eq. (7.4a), we have

Qencl
E  for r  R (7.4b)
20 r L

We now have to determine Qencl in Eq. (7.4b), which is the net charge
enclosed by the cylindrical Gaussian surface, given that  is constant. It is just
the charge on the cylinder of length L and radius R (because the charge
distribution of the infinite cylinder is zero beyond its radius R). By definition, it
is given by the following volume integral:

Qencl    dV (7.5a)

V

Since  is uniform (constant), we can take it out of the integral and write

Qencl    dV   R 2 L (7.5b)

V

where the volume integral is just the volume of the cylinder of length L and
radius R. Therefore,

 R 2 L
E for r  R (7.5c)
20 r L

or
  R2
E rˆ for r  R (7.6)
20 r

where r̂ is the unit vector in the radial direction pointing outward from the
cylinder‟s axis. Notice from Eq. (7.6) that the electric field of a cylindrical
charge distribution at points lying outside it decreases as the distance from the
axis increases.

Let us now ask: What is the electric field of an infinite uniformly charged
cylinder at a point inside it?

You will learn the answer in Example 7.1.

219
Block 2 Electrostatics

XAMPLE 7.1 : ELECTRIC FIELD INSIDE A CYLINDER

An infinitely long uniformly charged cylinder of radius R has positive volume

charge density . Determine the electric field at a point inside the cylinder.

SOLUTION  We use Gauss‟s law to obtain the electric field at a point P

inside the cylinder at a distance r from its axis.

P E Since the charge distribution is cylindrically symmetric, we draw a
L
r cylindrical Gaussian surface of length L and radius r passing through P
(Fig. 7.7). For any point inside the cylinder, r  R and the Gaussian
surface lies inside the cylinder. From symmetry considerations that you
R
have learnt in Sec. 7.2.1 for cylindrical charge distributions, you know that
the electric flux has contribution only from the curved surface of the
Fig. 7.7: Electric field
Gaussian cylinder and not its ends. Hence, from Gauss‟s law, we have
inside an infinite
uniformly charged   Qencl
cylinder. The  E . dS  E 2 r L 
0
for r  R (i)
Gaussian surface is a S
cylindrical surface of
The charge enclosed by this Gaussian surface is
length L and radius
r  R. Qencl    dV
V

where the volume is just the volume of the cylinder of length L and radius r.
Therefore,
Qencl   r 2 L

Qencl  r 2 L
and from Eq. (i), E 2 r L  
0 0

r
 E  for r  R
20

 r
and E  rˆ for r  R (7.7)
20

where r̂ is the unit vector in the radial direction pointing outward from the
cylinder‟s axis.

So, inside the cylindrical charge distribution, the electric field increases
linearly with an increase in the distance from the axis.

For an infinite uniformly charged cylinder, always remember the following:

 The electric field of an infinite uniformly charged cylinder at points

outside it decreases with an increase in distance from its axis.

 The electric field inside an infinite uniformly charged cylinder

increases linearly with an increase in distance from its axis.
220

Unit 7 Applications of Gauss’s Law
In the next section, we will apply Gauss‟s law to a charge distribution having
planar symmetry. Examples of such charge distributions are uniform two-
dimensional sheets of charge, thin plate carrying charge or uniform slabs of
charge as well as combinations of such sheets or slabs like the ones used in
parallel plate capacitors. But before you study further, try an SAQ to revise Top
Electric
what you have learnt in this section. + field
+
SAQ 2 – Applying Gauss’s law to a solid charged cylinder +
P
+
A long non-conducting solid cylinder of radius 0.60 m carries a uniform volume
+
charge density  4.8  C m3 . Calculate the magnitude of the electric field at a
+
distance of (a) 0.40 m and (b) 1.0 m from the axis of the cylinder.
Bottom
(a)
7.3 ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO AN INFINITE
Bottom
UNIFORMLY CHARGED PLANE SHEET
+
In this section, we apply Gauss‟s law to an infinite uniformly charged plane +
sheet carrying a constant surface charge density . A large plastic sheet +
P
uniformly charged on one side is an example of a non-conducting sheet of +
charge. An aluminium foil is an example of a conducting sheet. + Electric
+ field after
What kind of symmetry does an infinite sheet (planar charge
Top reflection
distribution) possess? It remains the same if it is
(b)
 translated parallel to itself,
 rotated about any axis perpendicular to its plane, and + +
+ +
 reflected about any axis lying in its plane or perpendicular to its plane.
+ +
It follows from the symmetry considerations for a sheet of charge that the + +
electric field due to it is everywhere perpendicular to the plane of the sheet. It + +
+
 
is directed outward from the sheet, if positively charged and inward, if E + E
negatively charged. You may like to know: Why is the electric field (c)
perpendicular to the plane everywhere?
Fig. 7.8: a) and b) If the
To answer this question, we follow the same line of argument as we have electric field at any point
due to a sheet of charge
done for all symmetric charge distributions so far.
is not perpendicular to
Refer to Fig. 7.8a, which shows the side view of a small section of the infinite its plane everywhere, it
will have different values
sheet of charge. Suppose that the electric field of the sheet at some point P
at the same point for the
were directed in some other direction as shown in Fig. 7.8a. Note that we same charge distribution
have arbitrarily labelled one end of this section of the infinite sheet as „top‟ and under reflection, which
the other one as „bottom‟ just to show what happens when the sheet is is a contradiction; c) this
reflected. contradiction does not
exist if the electric field
Let us now reflect this sheet of charge about a horizontal line perpendicular to (shown by the dotted
its plane and passing through P. So the „top‟ of the sheet is now the „bottom‟ arrows) at any point due
to the sheet of charge is
of the sheet and the „bottom‟, its „top‟ (Fig. 7.8b). What is the direction of the
perpendicular to its
electric field after the sheet is reflected? After reflection, the direction of the plane everywhere.
electric field at P becomes as shown in Fig. 7.8b because the electric field is
also reflected in the same manner. 221
Block 2 Electrostatics
But you can compare Figs. 7.8a and b by putting them alongside each other
as in Fig. 7.8c. What do you find? You can see that the charge distribution
remains the same after reflection. As before, we have labelled „top‟ and
„bottom‟ on the sheet for our convenience. Otherwise, we cannot tell the
difference. In this case, we find again that the electric fields before and after
reflection are different at the same point. This is a contradiction: How can
there be different electric fields at a given point for the same charge
distribution? If the charge distribution remains unchanged, the electric
field at the point P cannot be different; it has to be the same. Since it is
not so, the direction of the electric field in Fig. 7.8a is incorrect.

Again we ask: What is the direction of the electric field that does not lead
to such a contradiction? From Fig. 7.8c, you can see that the electric field
remains the same under reflection only if it is directed perpendicular to the
sheet of charge. It is shown by dotted arrows in Fig. 7.8c. You can verify that
this is indeed the electric field direction for all other symmetry operations on
the sheet. This is how we conclude that from symmetry of the sheet of charge,
the direction of the electric field can only be perpendicular to its plane.

Let us now determine the electric field due to the infinite uniformly charged
sheet at a distance r from it. Let its surface charge density be . Here we
assume that the thickness of the sheet is much less than r. Now to use
Gauss‟s law meaningfully, we need to choose a Gaussian surface that
exploits the fact that the electric field is directed normal to the charged sheet.
What is that Gaussian surface? We choose a closed cylindrical Gaussian
surface perpendicular to the sheet with each end of the cylinder located at an
equal distance (r) from the sheet. So, the length of the Gaussian cylindrical
surface is 2r (see Fig. 7.9a). Such a Gaussian surface is also called the
Gaussian ‘pillbox’. In Fig. 7.9b, we show the side view of the sheet and the
pillbox. Let the area of cross-section of the Gaussian pillbox (i.e., the area of
its ends) be S.

+
+ + +
+ + 
+
+ + + dS
+ + +  +
+
+
+
+ dS+ + +
+ + + + 
+ 
+ + + + dS
+ + + + + +  dS +
+ + + + dS  2r 
+ + +
S+ r + + + E E
+ + r+ +  +
+ +
+ + S + E
+ + + +
+ + + + +  + 
+ + dS + + +
+ + + dS
+ +
+ +
+ +
+
+
+
(a) (b)

Fig. 7.9: a) A sheet of positive

 charge and the Gaussian pillbox for which the
electric field E and area vector dS are parallel at the ends and
perpendicular to each other on the curved part of the surface; b) the
sheet in its side view showing the electric field vectors and area
vectors for the pillbox.
222
Unit 7 Applications of Gauss’s Law
Since the charge is positive, the electric field is directed away from the sheet
and is perpendicular to the sheet. This means that for the curved part of the
cylindrical Gaussian surface, the electric field vector is perpendicular to the
area vector at all points (see Fig. 7.9b). Thus,
 
E . dS  0 for all points on the curved part of the cylindrical surface

The electric field vectors point in an outward direction from the two ends of the
Gaussian pillbox, i.e., in the same direction as the area vectors for the ends.
So, the contribution to the electric flux is only from the ends of the Gaussian
pillbox and
 
E . dS  E dS for all points on one end of the cylindrical surface

Since there are two ends on the Gaussian pillbox, we need to consider the
surfaces of both ends while applying Gauss‟s law and divide the surface
integral into three parts corresponding to the two ends and the curved part.
Then Gauss‟s law gives us
      Qencl
 [Link]   E.d S   [Link]  0  E S  E S 
0
(7.8a)
S Curved Both ends
part

Qencl
or E  (7.8b)
20 S

Now, we need to express the charge on the sheet enclosed by the Gaussian
cylinder in terms of the uniform surface charge density . This is just the
charge enclosed by the area of the sheet equal to the cylinder‟s cross-section,
i.e., the area S. Since  is uniform (i.e., constant), it is equal to the ratio of the
charge on a given surface to its area. Therefore, for the charge Qencl
enclosed by the area S, it is
Qencl
   Qencl   S (7.9)
S
Substituting the value of Qencl from Eq. (7.9) in Eq. (7.8b), we get

E (7.10)
20

where the direction of the electric field is perpendicular to the sheet.

Eq. (7.10) holds for both non-conducting and conducting sheets of
charge provided the layer of charge on the sheet is very thin (or its
thickness is very small compared to the distance at which the electric
field is being calculated). It also holds for very large sheets of charge at
points far from the edges of the sheet and at distances much larger than the
thickness of the sheet or the layer of charge on the sheet. Eq. (7.10) tells us
that

The electric field due to an infinite (or very large) uniformly

charged sheet has the same value at all points lying outside it
and points in a direction perpendicular to the sheet.
223
Block 2 Electrostatics
Let us apply Gauss‟s law to two infinite or large sheets of charge in the
following example.

XAMPLE 7.2 : TWO INFINITE SHEETS OF CHARGE

Two thin infinite non-conducting charged sheets are kept parallel to each
other as shown in Fig. 7.10a. The surface charge density of the negatively
charged left sheet is 1 and that of the right sheet carrying a positive
charge is 2. Determine the net electric field in the region (1) to the left of
the sheets, (2) between the sheets and (3) to the right of the sheets.

SOLUTION  We apply Gauss‟s law to both sheets using the result

obtained for an infinite uniformly charged sheet. We use the fact that the
charges are fixed and obtain the electric field due to each sheet as if it
were isolated. Then we apply the principle of superposition to obtain the
net electric field.

Remember that from Eq. (7.10), the magnitude of the electric field at any
point does not depend on the distance of the point from the sheet. It
depends only on the surface charge density. The directions of the electric
fields depend on the sign of the charge carried by them. The magnitudes of
the electric field due to the negatively and positively charged sheets having
surface charge densities 1 and 2, respectively, are given by
1 2
E  and E 
20 20
1  + 2  1   
+ 2 1  + 2
E( ) E( ) E( )
 +

î
+  +
 +

 
  +  +
 
 + E( )  E( ) + E( ) E1  E2 E3
+
 +
 +  +
(1)  (2) + (3)
(1)  (2) + (3) (1)  (2) + (3)
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 7.10: Diagram for Example 7.2.

Fig. 7.10b shows the directions of the electric fields in each region. Note
that the electric field due to the positively charged sheet points away from it
in each of the three regions. The electric field due to the negatively
charged sheet points towards it in each region. Let us denote the unit
vector to the right of the sheets by î (Fig. 7.10c). Then the resultant electric
field in each of these regions (Fig. 7.10c) is given by
   1
a) Region (1): E1  E  E  (E ) (  ˆi )  (E ) ˆi  (1  2 ) ˆi
20
   1
b) Region (2): E2  E  E  (E  E ) (  ˆi )   (1  2 ) ˆi
20
   1
c) Region (3): E3  E  E  (E ) ˆi  (E ) (  ˆi )  (2  1) ˆi
20
224
Unit 7 Applications of Gauss’s Law
You will realise the importance of these calculations when you determine the
electric fields of parallel plate capacitors in the next block and learn how useful
capacitors are in our daily lives. You may now like to attempt an SAQ.

SAQ 3 – Uniformly charged thin sheets

Suppose in Example 7.2, the surface charge density of the negatively charged
sheet is 1  9.0  10 9 Cm 2 and that of the positively charged sheet is
2  6.0  109 Cm 2 . Determine the magnitudes and directions of the
electric fields in the three regions. What would the net electric fields in the
three regions be if the two sheets were interchanged?

While studying Unit 6 and Unit 7 so far, you must have realised that the
symmetry of the charge distribution plays an important role in applications of
Gauss‟s law. As you have learnt, the calculation of the surface integral in
Gauss‟s law is greatly simplified for symmetric charge distributions. You have
learnt about three kinds of symmetry for which application of Gauss‟s law is
particularly useful. These are: spherical symmetry, cylindrical symmetry
and planar symmetry. Let us revise the method of applying Gauss‟s law for
each one of these.

APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS’S LAW

1. For a spherically symmetric charge distribution, you should draw

a concentric Gaussian sphere. This means that the centre of the
Gaussian sphere should be on the point charge or the centre of the
charged sphere or spherical shell. Also the point on which the electric
field is to be determined should be on the surface of the Gaussian
sphere. Then the electric field is normal to the Gaussian spherical
   
surface, E  dS so that E . dS  E dS and E is constant on the surface.

2. For a cylindrically symmetric charge distribution, you should draw

a coaxial cylindrical Gaussian surface. This means that the axis of
the cylindrical Gaussian surface should be the same as that of the
charge distribution (charged wire or charged cylinder). Also the point on
which the electric field is to be determined should lie on the Gaussian
surface. Then the electric field is normal to the curved part of the
   
Gaussian cylindrical surface ( E  dS so that E . dS  E dS ) and parallel
   
to the flat ends of the Gaussian cylinder ( E  dS so that E . dS  0 ).
Also, E is constant on the Gaussian surface.

3. For a planar charge distribution, you should draw a Gaussian

pillbox with its axis perpendicular to the plane of the charge
distribution. Then the electric field is perpendicular to the curved
   
surface of the Gaussian pill box ( E  dS so that E . dS  0 ) and
 
parallel to the flat ends of the Gaussian pill box ( E  dS so that
 
E . dS  E dS ). Also E is constant on the Gaussian surface.
225
Block 2 Electrostatics
So far, we have applied Gauss‟s law to non-conducting charged distributions.
Does the law give different results for charged conductors? In the last section
of this unit, we will apply Gauss‟s law to isolated charged conductors. This
application of Gauss‟s law is quite important in our daily lives. This is
especially so when we are caught in a thunderstorm. It will help you
understand what you should do when you are travelling in a vehicle and are
caught in a thunderstorm accompanied by lightning.

7.4 CHARGED ISOLATED CONDUCTOR

We can use Gauss‟s law to verify the following property of charged isolated
conductors:
Solid conductor
carrying charge q “If any excess unbalanced, static charges are placed on a conductor,
they must reside on the surface of the conductor. The excess
amount of charge moves to the surface of the conductor. When the
Gaussian
charges stop moving, none of the charges will remain within the
surface body of the conductor.”
Let us use Gauss‟s law to explain how this is possible.
Consider the cross-section of an insulated solid metallic conductor such as
Conductor‟s the one shown in Fig. 7.11 carrying an excess charge q. We choose the
surface
Gaussian surface to lie just inside the actual surface of the conductor. The
Fig. 7.11: An isolated dashed line in Fig. 7.11 shows the Gaussian surface.
charged solid metallic Once the excess charge stops moving, the electric field inside the
conductor carrying
charged conductor must become zero. Why is this so? We can see why
excess charge q and
the Gaussian surface this is so without a formal calculation. Suppose that this were not true and that
just inside it. there was an electric field inside conductor. Then a force would be exerted by
the electric field on the charges inside the conductor that are always present in
it and are free to move (e.g., electrons in this case).
Thus, internal currents would be set up and would always exist within a
conductor because charge would flow from one point to another under the
action of this force. But no such perpetual currents are observed in any
isolated charged conductor. So, the only conclusion is that the internal electric
field of an isolated charged conductor is zero. Its interior is always free of
electric fields.
For the time when the conductor is being charged, internal electric fields do
exist inside it. But once the charging stops and the conductor is isolated, the
excess charge is quickly distributed in a way that the net electric field is zero
everywhere inside the conductor.
Now since the electric field is zero inside the conductor, it must be zero for all
points on the Gaussian surface because that surface, though close to the
surface of the conductor, lies inside it. This means that the electric flux
through the Gaussian surface is zero. Then according to Gauss‟s law, the net
charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is also zero. So, if the excess
charge is not inside the Gaussian surface, it must lie outside it. This means
that it must lie on the actual surface of the isolated conductor.

226
So, always remember that
Unit 7 Applications of Gauss’s Law

The net electric field is zero everywhere inside the conductor. If a net
charge does reside on an isolated conducting body/object, it can be
distributed only over the surface layer of that conductor.

You may like to know: What is the electric field at any point lying outside a
conductor carrying a net charge on its outer surface?

The results for the electric fields for all conducting symmetric charge
distributions at a point outside the conductor will be the same as the
results obtained for the corresponding non-conducting charge
distributions. So, the electric fields due to various symmetric conducting
and non-conducting charge distributions (at any point lying outside
them) are same and are given in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1: Electric fields due to conducting and non-conducting charge
distributions at points lying outside them.

Conducting and non-conducting Electric field at a point lying outside

charge distribution the charge distribution
Uniform spherical charge  1 Q
E  rˆ r  R
distribution of radius R carrying 4  0 r 2
net positive charge Q
Uniformly charged thin spherical  1 Q
E  rˆ r  R
shell of radius R carrying net 4  0 r 2
charge Q
Infinite line of charge having 
E 
uniform line charge density  2 0 r
directed perpendicular to the line
charge
Infinite cylindrical charge  R2
distribution of radius R having E rˆ r  R
2 0 r
uniform volume charge density 
Infinite thin sheet of charge 
E 
having uniform surface charge 2 0
density  directed perpendicular to the sheet

SAQ 4 – Charged isolated conductor

An isolated conducting sphere of radius 1.0 m carries a uniform surface

charge density 2.7  C m2 . What is the net charge on the sphere? Calculate
the net electric flux leaving the surface of the sphere. What is the electric field
due to the conductor at a point 3.0 m from its centre?

We now consider an example for determining the electric field due to two
concentric conductors in different regions around them. Such problems are
useful in determining the electric fields due to various geometries in
capacitors. 227
Block 2 Electrostatics

XAMPLE 7.3 : CONCENTRIC SPHERE AND SHELL

Q2
r2
A solid conducting sphere is concentric with a thin conducting spherical
Q1 shell as shown in Fig. 7.12a. The sphere of radius r1 carries charge Q1
r1 and the spherical shell of radius r2 carries charge Q2 with r1  r2 .
Determine the electric fields at a distance r from the centre of the sphere
for (a) r  r1 , (b) r1  r  r2 and (c) r  r2 . d) What will happen if the
(a) sphere and the shell are connected with a wire? e) What will the electric
fields be for r  r2 and r  r2 after this?
r2 Q2
r Q1 SOLUTION  We apply Gauss‟s law to both conducting sphere and
r1 conducting shell using the result obtained for a conductor in this section.

Remember that the electric field at any point inside a conductor is zero.
(b) a) The points corresponding to r  r1 lie inside the conducting sphere.
Therefore, the electric field at all such points is zero.

r r2 Q2 b) For the points r1  r  r2 , we draw a spherical Gaussian surface of

Q1 radius r at any point between the conducting sphere and the
r1 conducting shell (see Fig. 7.12b). The net charge enclosed by it is just
the charge on the conducting sphere, i.e., Q1. Therefore, from
Eq. (6.22), the electric field is given as

 1 Q1
(c) E  rˆ for r1  r  r2
40 r 2
Fig. 7.12: Diagram for
Example 7.3. c) For the points r  r2, we draw a spherical Gaussian surface of radius
r (  r2 ) lying outside the conducting shell (Fig. 7.12c). The surface
encloses a net charge (Q1  Q2 ). Therefore, from Eq. (6.22), the
electric field is given as

 1 (Q1  Q2 )
E  rˆ for r  r2
40 r2

Remember, you have d) When the conducting sphere and the conducting shell are connected
to take the algebraic with a wire, charges flow in the system until equilibrium is reached. At
sum of charges to equilibrium, there is no charge inside both the conductors and the
determine the net
system behaves like a single conductor. So there is no charge on either
charge. So, while
solving problems,
the inner sphere or the inner surface of the shell. The net charge
always take into
(Q1  Q2 ) resides on the outer surface of the spherical shell.
account the signs of
the charges.
e) The electric field for r  r2 will be zero since the point lies inside a
conductor.

If we draw a spherical Gaussian surface for r  r2, it encloses the net

charge (Q1  Q2 ). Therefore, we have

 1 (Q1  Q2 )
E  rˆ for r  r2
40 r2
228
Unit 7 Applications of Gauss’s Law
You may quickly like to apply the results of Example 7.3 for practice. Attempt
the following SAQ.

SAQ 5 – Charged conductors

Suppose in Example 7.3, Q1  Q and Q2   2Q. What will the electric fields
be for (a) r  r1 , (b) r1  r  r2 and (c) r  r2, if all other parameters are the
same?

Now suppose we create a cavity inside the conductor. Will the results for
charged isolated conductors still hold? We explain what happens in this case
in the following example.

XAMPLE 7.4 : AN ISOLATED CONDUCTOR WITH A CAVITY Gaussian

surface
A cavity is created inside an isolated conductor. Explain why any excess
charge placed on the conductor will reside on its outer surface.

SOLUTION  We use Gauss‟s law to give the explanation.

Consider Fig. 7.13, which shows an isolated conductor with a cavity inside
it. Now, you have learnt that there are no unbalanced charges inside the
solid conductor. Therefore, we can assume reasonably that when we Metallic
surface
scoop out some of the material, leaving a hollow cavity, we do not change
the charge distribution or the electric fields that existed in the solid Fig. 7.13: An isolated
conductor. charged conductor
having a cavity within it.
Once again, we draw the Gaussian surface so that it is inside the The Gaussian surface
conductor and surrounds the cavity wall very close to it as shown in lies within the
Fig.
 7.13.Since the net electric field inside the conductor is zero conductor outside the
(Enet  0), the electric flux through this surface must also be zero. cavity and very close to
the cavity’s surface.
Therefore, from Gauss‟s law, this surface cannot enclose any net charge.
Thus, we can say that there is no net charge on the cavity wall. All excess
charge remains on the outer surface of the isolated conductor.

The results obtained in this section have many practical applications. We can
now answer the question: What should we do when we get caught in a
thunderstorm while travelling in a vehicle? From what you have studied in this
section, you can answer the question as follows:

We should shut all windows and doors of the vehicle and keep ourselves
insulated from all electronic gadgets present in it. If lightning strikes the
vehicle, the entire charge will be distributed on its outer metallic surface. Its
effects inside of the conductor (vehicle) will be substantially reduced: We will
not be struck by lightning if we are sitting in a closed vehicle or any other
closed space that is made of conducting material. On the other hand, if we
were inside a non-conducting material like a wooden crate, lightning would
pass right through it and we would be struck by it. The crate could also catch
fire. 229
Block 2 Electrostatics
The fact that the electric field inside an isolated conductor with a cavity is zero
has an interesting application in experimental physics called the Faraday
cage. It is used in experiments which involve the measurement of very low
power electrical signals generated, e.g., in computer chips or in neurons of
animals. You can read about it at [Link]
This is also the reason why your mobile phones, radio receivers, etc. will not
work inside metal cages or metallic buildings.
With this we complete the discussion on Gauss‟s law and its applications. Let
us now summarise the contents of this unit.

7.5 SUMMARY

Concept Description

Infinite line  From Gauss‟s law, the electric field due to conducting and non-conducting
charge infinite line or wire of charge with uniform line charge density  is
directed perpendicular to the line of charge and its magnitude is given by


E  at any point r
20 r

Infinite  The electric field due to a non-conducting infinite solid cylinder of

non-conducting radius R with uniform volume charge density  is given by
cylindrical
charge  R2
distribution E rˆ for r  R
2 0 r

 r
E  rˆ for r  R
20

Infinite  The electric field due to a non-conducting infinite sheet of charge with
non-conducting uniform surface charge density  at any point is given by
sheet of charge

E 
20

and points in a direction perpendicular to the sheet.

Charged isolated  If any excess unbalanced, static charges are placed on an isolated
conductor conductor, they must reside on the surface of the conductor. It follows that
without and with
if a net charge does reside on an isolated conducting body/object, it
a cavity
can be distributed only over the surface layer of that conductor. In an
isolated conductor having a cavity, all excess charge placed on the
conductor will reside only on its outer surface.
Electric field due  The electric field at points lying inside an isolated charged conductor is
to charged zero.
isolated conductor
at points lying The electric field at a point lying outside an isolated charged conductor is
inside and outside
the same as that of a non-conductor of the same geometry/symmetry (see
the conductor
Table 7.1).
230
Unit 7 Applications of Gauss’s Law
Electric field due  The electric field due to
to charged
isolated conductor  a uniform conducting spherical charge distribution (of radius R and
at points lying carrying charge Q) at a point at a distance r from its centre is
inside and outside  1 Q
the conductor E  rˆ r  R
4  0 r 2

 a thin uniform conducting spherical shell (of radius R and carrying

charge Q) at a point at a distance r from its centre is
 1 Q
E  rˆ r  R
4  0 r 2

 an infinite conducting wire carrying uniform linear charge density  at

r is

E directed perpendicular to the line of charge
20 r

 an infinite conducting solid cylinder having radius R and uniform

volume charge density  at a point at a distance r is
R2
E in the radial direction for r  R
20 r

 an infinite conducting thin sheet of charge carrying uniform surface

charge density is

E directed perpendicular to the sheet.
2 0

7.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. What is the magnitude of the electric field at a distance of 2.0 m from an
infinitely charged wire given that the linear charge density is 3.6  C m 1?

2. A solid metal wire of length 1000 m and diameter 1.0 cm carries a net
charge q  5.0  C, which is distributed uniformly in it. Determine the
electric field at a distance of a) 5.0 cm and b) 0.50 cm, respectively, from
the wire‟s axis. Assume that the point where the electric field is to be
determined is far from the ends of the wire.

3. A thin metal wire of length 30 m and diameter 0.04 cm carries a net

charge 6.0  C distributed uniformly over its surface. Calculate the electric
field at the points at the distances of (a) 0.01 cm and (b) 0.09 cm from its Solid
axis. Assume that these points lie far away from the ends of the wire. copper
wire
4. A Gaussian surface of cylindrical shape (of radius 1.0 m and height 20 m)
encloses a few positive charges. Assuming that the electric field due to Braided
these charges is normal to the Gaussian surface and has magnitude wire
Plastic
900 NC 1, calculate the volume charge density of the charge distribution.
sheath
covering

5. A coaxial cable consists of a thin inner solid copper wire and an outer Fig. 7.14: Diagram for
sheath of braided copper wire (see Fig. 7.14). The linear charge density of TQ 5.
the inner wire is  and that of the outer wire is . Determine the electric 231
Block 2 Electrostatics
fields at a point (a) in the region inside the inner wire, (b) in the region
between the wires and (c) in the region outside the coaxial cable.
6. A flat sheet of charge of surface area A has uniform surface charge
density . An electrostatic force of magnitude 3.6 10 12 N pointing in a
perpendicular direction away from the sheet, is exerted on an electron at a
distance of 0.03 m from its centre. Calculate the net charge on the sheet
I for A  2.56 m2 .
7. Two identical infinite non-conducting sheets having equal positive surface
II charge densities  are kept parallel to each other as shown in Fig. 7.15.
Determine the electric field at a point in (a) region I above the sheets,
III (b) region II between the sheets and (c) region III below the sheets.

Fig. 7.15: Diagram for 8. A very long conducting thin solid cylinder of length L carrying a net charge
TQ 7.  q is enclosed in a thin conducting cylindrical hollow tube of the same
length. The tube carries a net charge  2q. Determine the electric fields at
(a) a point lying outside the conducting tube; and
(b) a point lying in the region between the solid cylinder and the tube.
In both cases, the point lies far away from the edges of the conductors.
9. The net charge on an isolated conductor is q1  15  C . A charge
q2  5.0 C is later placed inside a cavity in the conductor. Determine the
charge on the wall of the cavity. What is the charge on the outer surface of
the conductor after q2 is placed inside the cavity?
10. A concentric spherical cavity of radius 3.0 m is created in a conducting
sphere of radius 6.0 m. A point charge Q is kept at the centre of the
sphere/cavity. The net charge on the conducting sphere is  9.0 nC. The
electric field at a point 2.0 m away from the centre of the sphere is
7.2 N C1 and points radially inward.

a) What is the value of the charge Q?

b) What is the charge on the wall of the cavity, i.e., the inner surface of
the sphere?
c) Calculate the value of the charge on the sphere‟s outer surface.
d) Determine the electric field at a point 4.0 m away from the centre of the
sphere.

7.7 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS

Self-Assessment Questions

1. From Eq. (7.3), the linear charge density is   20 r E. Substituting the
numerical values of r and E along with the constants, we get
  2  8.85 1012 C2N1 m2  (1.0 m)  9.0  103 NC 1  5.0  107 C m1

2. a) The point at a distance of 0.40 m from the cylinder‟s axis lies inside it.
Therefore, we use Eq. (7.7) to calculate the magnitude of the electric
232 field:
Unit 7 Applications of Gauss’s Law

r 4.8  Cm 3  0.40 m
E    1.1105 N C1
20 2  8.85 10 12 C2N1 m2

b) The point at a distance of 1.0 m from the cylinder‟s axis lies outside it.
Therefore, we use Eq. (7.6) to calculate the magnitude of the electric
field:

R 2 4.8  Cm 3  (0.60 m) 2
E    9.8 10 4 N C1
20r 2  8.85 10 12 C2N1 m2  (1.0 m)

3. As explained in Example 7.2, for 1  9.0  10 9 Cm 2 and

2  6.0  109 Cm 2, the magnitudes and directions of the electric fields
in the three regions are given by

 1 (9.0  6.0) 10 9 C m2

Region (1): E1  (1  2 ) ˆi  î
20 2  8.85 10 12 C2N1 m2

 1.7 102 N C1 î

 1 (9.0  6.0) 10 9 C m2

Region (2): E2   (1  2 ) ˆi   î
20 2  8.85 10 12 C2N1 m2

  8.5 102 N C1 î

 1 (6.0  9.0) 10 9 C m2

Region (3): E3  (2  1) ˆi  î
20 2  8.85 10 12 C2N1 m2

  1.7 102 N C1 î

Refer to Fig. 7.16. If the two sheets are interchanged, then we have
negative 1  9.0  109 C m2 and positive 2  6.0  109 C m2 .

2 1      î 2 1
+  E( ) 2 + E( )  1 E( ) + 
+  +  + 
  
+  E( ) + E( )   +   
E( )
+  +  E1 + E2  E3
+  +  + 
(1) + (2)  (3) (1) + (2)  (3) (1) + (2)  (3)

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 7.16: Diagram for answer of SAQ 3. Part (c) is not to scale.

From Fig. 7.16b, the magnitudes and directions of the electric fields in the
three regions are now given by
   1 1
E1  E  E  (E ) (  ˆi )  (E ) ˆi  [2 (  ˆi )  1 ˆi ]  (1  2 ) ˆi
20 20
 1.7 102 NC 1 î
   1
E2  E  E  E ˆi  E ˆi  (1  2 ) ˆi  8.5 102 NC 1 î
20
233
Block 2 Electrostatics
   1
E3  E  E  (E )ˆi  (E ) (  ˆi )  (2  1) ˆi   1.7 102 NC 1 î
20

Of course, when you solve this problem, you have to start from the
beginning and follow all steps given in Example 7.2.

4. The net charge on the sphere is Q   S, where S  4 R 2 is the area of

the surface of the sphere of radius R. Therefore,

Q   4 R 2  4  2.7  Cm 2 (1.0 m) 2  34  C

From Gauss‟s law [Eq. (7.4a)], the net electric flux leaving the surface of
the sphere is
Q 34  C
E    3.8 106 N m2C1
0 12 2 1  2
8.85 10 C N m

Since the point lies outside the sphere, the electric field due to the
conductor at a point 3.0 m from its centre is
 1 Q 34  C
E  rˆ  (8.99 109 C2N m2 )  rˆ  3.4 10 4 NC 1 rˆ
4  0 r 2
(3.0 m) 2

5. Substituting Q1  Q and Q2   2Q in the results of Example 7.3, we get

 
a) For r  r1 , E  0
 1 Q1 1 Q
b) For r1  r  r2, E  rˆ  rˆ, and
40 r 2 40 r 2
 1 (Q1  Q2 ) 1 (Q  2Q) 1 Q
c) For r  r2, E  rˆ  rˆ   rˆ
40 r 2 40 r 2 40 r 2

Terminal Questions
1. From Eq. (7.3), the magnitude of the electric field is

 3.6  Cm 1
E   2  (8.99 109 C2Nm2 )  3.2 10 4 N C1
20r 2.0 m

2. Although the wire is not infinite, for points close to it and sufficiently far
from its ends, we can approximate it as one. This is because at such
points we can neglect the contribution of the electric fields due to distant
charges.

a) We use Eq. (7.4b) to calculate the electric field at a point 5.0 cm from
the wire‟s axis, since it lies outside the wire and get
Qencl 5.0  C
E  2  (8.99 109 C2Nm2 )
20r L 5.0 10 3 m 1000 m

 1.8 10 4 N C1

b) The metal wire is a conductor. Therefore,

 the
 electric field at the point
0.50 cm from the wire‟s axis is zero, E  0 since the point lies inside

234 the conductor.

 Unit 7 Applications of Gauss’s Law
3. The thin metal wire in the problem cannot strictly be taken as an infinite
line charge. But for points close to the wire and sufficiently far from its
ends, the contribution of the electric fields from distant charges can be
taken to be negligible. Therefore, we can approximate the electric field of
the wire to that of an infinite line charge. (a) Since the metal wire is a
conductor, the electric field at the
 point 0.01 cm from the wire‟s axis, which
lies inside it, will be zero: E  0. (b) The electric field at the point outside
the wire at a distance of 0.09 cm from its axis is given by Eq. (7.2c) and
we get
Qencl 6.0  C
E   2  (8.99 109 C2Nm2 )  4.0 106 N C1
20r L 2
0.09 10 m 30 m

4. We are given the electric field and the radius and height of the cylindrical
Gaussian surface and we have to determine the volume charge density of
the charge distribution enclosed by it. Since the surface area of the
cylinder is 2 r h, the electric flux through the Gaussian surface is
Qencl
E  E S  E  (2r h) 
0
or Qencl  20r hE

The volume charge density  of the charge distribution is the net charge
enclosed per unit volume.

Qencl 20r h E 2 E 2  8.85 10 12 C2N1 m2  900 NC 1

    0 
V r 2 h r 1.0 m

 1.6 108 C m3

5. a) The electric field at a point inside

 the
 inner copper wire (region I) is
zero since it is a conductor: E  0 .
+ + Region
b) Refer to Fig. 7.17. We take the Gaussian surface to be a coaxial + I
+ +
cylindrical surface of radius r and length L lying in the region II +  +
between the wires. Note that the net charge enclosed by the Gaussian + +
+ Region
surface is Qencl    L, where   is the linear charge density of the +
+ +
II
inner wire. From Gauss‟s law given by Eq. (7.4a), Region
  III
Qencl L
 E . dS   E dS  E  dS  E 2r L 
0

0 Fig. 7.17: Diagram for
S S S
the answer of TQ 5.
 
So, we have E   rˆ
20r

where r̂ is the unit vector perpendicular to the cylindrical axis pointing

away from the axis. So, the electric field in region II is directed radially
inward.
c) For the point that lies outside the cable, the electric field is zero. This is
because the two wires have equal and opposite linear charge densities
and the net charge
  enclosed by a Gaussian surface outside both wires
will be zero: E  0. 235
Block 2 Electrostatics
6. The sheet is effectively infinite for the point at a distance of 0.03 m from its
centre assuming that the point lies far from its edges. Let the net charge
on the sheet be q. The electric field due to the sheet is given by Eq. (7.10):
 q
E  directed perpendicular to the sheet, where  
2 0 A
The magnitude of the electrostatic force on an electron is given by
  eq
F   eE or F  e 
2 0 20 A

since the surface charge density is charge per unit area and A is the area
of the sheet. Thus,
20 A F 2  8.85 10 12 C2N1 m2  2.56 m2  3.6 10 12 N
q    1.0 m C
e  1.6 10 19 C
The negative sign shows that the charge on the sheet is negative. This is
expected because the electrostatic force between the sheet and the
electron is negative, i.e., the electron is repelled by the sheet.
 
7. Let E1 be the electric field due to sheet 1 and E2 be the electric field due
to sheet 2 at some point in each of the three regions. The magnitudes of
the electric fields due to the sheets will be equal since their surface charge
densities are equal. Let us denote the magnitudes by E. Then from
  Eq. (7.10),
ĵ
E1 E 2 
E 
I 20
Sheet 1
 Since both sheets are charged positively, the electric fields due to them
II  E2 would be directed away from them in each region. The electric fields due
Sheet 2 E1
to the sheets in the three regions are shown in Fig. 7.18. Now we can
III determine the net electric field at any given point in each region as follows:
 
E1 E a) Region I above the sheets: The electric fields due to the sheets are in
2
the same direction, say, ĵ, as both sheets are positively charged.
Fig. 7.18: Diagram for Therefore, the net electric field at a point in region I is
answer of TQ 7.     ˆ  ˆ
E  E1  E2  2  j  j
20 0
b) Region II between the sheets: The electric field due to sheet 1 is
directed opposite to the electric field due to sheet 2. Therefore, the net
electric field at a point in region II is
     ˆ 
E  E1  E2  (  ˆj)  j 0
20 20

c) Region III below the sheets: The electric fields are again in the same
direction, but opposite to ĵ. Therefore, the net electric field at a point in
region III is
     ˆ
E  E1  E2  2  (  ˆj)   j
20 0

8. We use Gauss‟s law given by Eq. (7.4a) to determine the electric fields in
the two regions for conducting cylindrical charge distributions.
236
 Unit 7 Applications of Gauss’s Law
a) For a point lying outside the conducting tube, the net charge enclosed
by a Gaussian cylindrical surface of radius r and length L passing
through the point is the algebraic sum of the total charge on the solid
cylinder and the cylindrical tube, i.e.,  3q. Therefore, from Eq. (7.4a),
we get
  Qencl  3q
 E . dS   E dS  E  dS  E 2r L 
0

0
S S S

3q
or E  directed radially outward
20r L

b) For a point lying in the region between the solid cylinder and the tube,
the net charge enclosed by a Gaussian cylindrical surface of radius r
and length L passing through the point is just the charge on the solid
q1
cylinder, i.e.,  q. Therefore, from Eq. (7.4a), we get S

  Qencl q
 E . dS   E dS  E  dS  E 2r L 
0

0
S S S
q2
q
or E  directed radially outward
20r L

9. Refer to Fig. 7.19. The net charge on the conductor is q1  15  C . Q

Suppose the charge on the wall of the cavity is Q. Let S be the Gaussian
Fig. 7.19: Diagram for
surface enclosing the cavity. The electric flux S through S is zero since
the answer of TQ 9.
the electric field inside the conductor is zero. Since the charge
q2  5.0 C is placed inside the cavity in the conductor, the net charge
enclosed by the Gaussian surface is the algebraic sum of the charge Q on
the cavity wall (which is also the inner surface of the conductor) and q2.
So, from Gauss‟s law,
Qencl Q  q2
S    0
0 0

 Q  q2  0  Q   q2   5.0  C S
Q
Let the net charge on the outer surface of the conductor be q  after the
charge q2  5.0 C is placed inside the cavity. From conservation of
charge, the net charge on the conducting sphere is equal to the algebraic
(a)
sum of the charge on its inner surface and the charge on its outer surface.
Therefore, we have
S
q1  Q  q

So, the charge on the outer surface of the conductor is Q

q  15 C  ( 5.0  C)  20  C

10. a) It is given that the electric field at a point 2.0 m away from the centre of (b)
the sphere/cavity points inward. Refer to Fig. 7.20a. We draw a
Fig. 7.20: Diagram for
spherical Gaussian surface S of radius 2.0 m. So, its surface area is the answer of TQ 10.
4 (2.0 m) 2 and the net charge enclosed by it is Q. Thus, from Gauss‟s
law, we have
237
Block 2 Electrostatics
Q Q
S   E S  encl   Q   0 E S   4 0 (2.0 m) 2 E
0 0
or

Q   4 (8.85 1012 C2N1 m2 )(7.2 NC1) (2.0 m) 2   3.2 nC

b) We follow the same steps as in the solution of TQ 9. The Gaussian

surface S  lies inside the conductor and surrounds the cavity as
shown in Fig. 7.20b. The net charge enclosed by S  is the algebraic
sum of the charge Q and the charge on the wall of the cavity, say q.
Since the electric field inside the conductor is zero, from Gauss‟s law,
the net charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is zero. Therefore,
Qq 0  q   Q  3.2 n C

c) From conservation of charge, the total charge on the conducting

sphere is equal to the algebraic sum of the charge q on its inner
surface (i.e., the wall of the cavity) and the charge on its outer surface.
Therefore, if the charge on the outer surface of the sphere is q , then
we have

Net charge on the sphere   9.0 nC  q  q

or q   9.0 nC  3.2 nC  5.8 nC

d) Since the point at a distance of 4.0 m from the centre lies inside the
conducting sphere, the electric field at that point is zero.

238
Unit 8 Electric Potential

UNIT 8
Electric potential and potential

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
differences abound in nature ranging
from several hundred million volts in
a typical lightning bolt to about 90 mV
in heart cell membranes. (Picture source:
Wikimedia Commons)

Structure
8.1 Introduction 8.4 Relation between Electric Field and Electric
Expected Learning Outcomes Potential
8.2 Work done in Moving a Charge 8.5 Electric Potential due to an Electric Dipole
Line Integral of Electric Field 8.6 Dipole in an Electric Field
Electrostatic Potential Energy 8.7 Summary
8.3 Electric Potential due to Point Charges 8.8 Terminal Questions
Electric Potential due to a Point Charge 8.9 Solutions and Answers
Electric Potential due to a System of
Discrete Charges

STUDY GUIDE
In this unit, you will study electric potential which is a concept closely related to electrostatic
force and electric field. It is a very useful concept for studying the behaviour of charged
objects in an electric field. You know that the electrostatic force and electric field are vector
quantities. The electric potential, however, is a scalar quantity. Since electric potential is a
scalar quantity, the calculation of electric potential at a point in space due to a charge or a
system of charges is much easier than that of an electric field – a vector quantity. To
understand the contents of this unit better, you should refresh vector algebra given in Block 1
and the concepts of conservative force and potential energy from Block 2 of the 1st semester
course entitled Mechanics (BPHCT-131). You should also revise the vector calculus given in
Block 1 of this course. In particular, you should refresh the concept of gradient of a scalar
field, integration of a vector function, line integral of scalar and vector fields discussed in
Block 1 of this course. We advise you to work through the steps of mathematical derivations
as you study the unit. You should also try to solve SAQs and TQs yourself to check your
understanding of the concepts discussed in the unit.

“You must be ready to give up even the most attractive ideas Alessandro
when experiment shows them to be wrong.” Volta

239
Block 2 Electrostatics
8.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 5 of this block, you have learnt Coulomb’s law which enables us to
calculate the electrostatic force between any two charges. You have also
learnt the concept of electric field which makes the computation of
electrostatic force far easier and convenient than using Coulomb’s law. In
Units 6 and 7, you have learnt how to calculate electric field directly or by
using Gauss’s law.

In most problems in electrostatics, our aim is to calculate the electric field.

Since electric field is a vector quantity, its determination requires calculation of
each of its scalar components. Many a time, to make this calculation easier,
we first calculate a scalar quantity known as the electric potential V, from
which electric field can be determined using a simple relation. Since electric
potential is a scalar quantity, its calculation in most cases is not as difficult as
the calculation of electric field.

The concept of electric potential is also important because it is closely linked

to the work done by the electrostatic force due to charged particles and their
potential energies. To explain the concept of electric potential, we draw
analogy from mechanics (Unit 10, BPHCT-131). In that unit, you studied
gravitational potential energy, which arises from the work done in moving an
object from one point to another against gravitational force. You have learnt in
Unit 5 of this course that the gravitational force between charges is very small
(compared to the electrostatic force). So, the gravitational potential energy of
a charge is negligible. In the same way, when a charge is moved from one
point to another against electrostatic force (or field), work needs to be done
which is stored as electrostatic potential energy of the charge. And, the
electric potential at a point in an electric field is defined as electrostatic
potential energy per unit charge at that point.

We begin this unit by determining the work done in moving a charge from one
point to another in an electric field in Sec. 8.2. In doing so, you will learn how

to calculate the line integral of electric field E. In Sec. 8.3, we shall define a
scalar quantity called electric potential in terms of the line integral of electric
field and calculate its value at a point due to an isolated charge as well as due
to a system of charges. In Sec. 8.4, you will learn how to calculate electric
field at a point if the value of electric potential at that point is known.

You have learnt the concept of electric dipole in Unit 5. You know that it is a
unique configuration of two charges which is of immense practical utility in
physics. Therefore, in Sec. 8.5 of this unit, we shall explain how to determine
electric potential due to electric dipole at a given point. In Sec. 8.6, we discuss
the effect of electric field on an electric dipole and explain the conditions under
which electrostatic potential energy can be stored in an electric dipole.

In the next unit, you will learn how to calculate electric potential due to
continuous charge distributions.
240
Unit 8 Electric Potential
Expected Learning Outcomes
After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 calculate the work done in moving a charge from one point to another in
an electric field;

 define electric potential as line integral of an electric field;

 determine the electric potential at a point due to a single charge and a

system of charges;

 establish the relation between electric potential and electric field;

 calculate electric field at a point knowing the electric potential;

 determine the electric potential due to an electric dipole at a given point;

and

 determine the torque experienced by an electric dipole in a uniform

electric field.

8.2 WORK DONE IN MOVING A CHARGE

The concept of electric potential is closely linked to (a) the work done by
electrostatic force in moving a charge from one point to another in an electric
field, and (b) the relation between work done and potential energy. For the
gravitational force, you have learnt how to determine the work done in moving
an object from one point to another in Example 9.8 of Unit 9 of the course on
Mechanics (BPHCT-131). You have also learnt in Unit 10 that the gravitational
force is a conservative force which enables us to define the gravitational
potential energy. On similar lines, we shall determine the work done by the
electrostatic force in moving a charge from one point to another in an electric
field. We shall also show that the electrostatic force is conservative and
thereby define electrostatic potential energy and electric potential.

From Sec. 5.3 of Unit 5, you know that a single charge, say Q, sets up an

electric field in the region surrounding it. The electric field E due to the charge
at a point is defined as the electrostatic force experienced by a unit positive
test charge placed at that point. If, instead of a unit positive charge, we place a

charge q at that point, then electrostatic force F experienced by the charge q

in the electric field E is given by
 
F  qE (8.1a)

where the electric field E is given by Eq. (5.6a) of Unit 5:
 1 Q
E rˆ (8.1b)
40 r 2

where r̂ is a unit vector in the radial direction away from charge Q. 241
Block 2 Electrostatics
Now, let us suppose that the charge q is moving from point a to b along an
arbitrary path as shown in Fig. 8.1.

Fig. 8.1: The charge q moves from point a to point b along an arbitrary path in

electric field E of charge Q (not shown in the figure).

From Sec. 3.3 of Unit 3, you may recall that the work W, done in moving the
charge q from point a to b is given by the line integral [Eq. (3.18b)]:
b   b 
W   
F.d l  q E.d l (8.2)
a a
Now, what happens if instead of the charge q, we move only a unit positive
charge between a and b? You can see that in this case, the work W , done is
obtained simply by dividing W by q, i.e.,
b 
W
W '
q 
 E.d l (8.3)
a

We will be solving the line integrals of Eqs. (8.2) and (8.3) and obtain W  for a
given charge. We will thus arrive at some interesting results. But, before
proceeding further, we would like you to solve an SAQ.

SAQ 1 - Work done in moving a charge

Calculate the work done in moving a unit positive charge through a distance l
in a uniform electric field parallel to the field direction.

Let us now evaluate the line integral of the electric field.

8.2.1 Line Integral of Electric Field

Let us consider the electric field due to a charge Q as shown in Fig. 8.2a. Let
there be two points a and b at distances ra and rb from the charge Q as
shown in Fig. 8.2a. Let us determine the line integral given by Eq. (8.3) for an
arbitrary path between points a and b. Note that the path from a to b is a
continuous curve. Let us evaluate Eq. (8.3), i.e., the work done in moving a
unit positive charge from a to b. Suppose the unit charge moves from a to a
(which is an arc of a circle) and then from a to b as shown in Fig. 8.2a. Then
we can write [(recall Eq. (3.33), Unit 3, Block 1 of this course]:
  a   b  
b

  
W   E.d l  E.d l  E.d l (8.4)
a a a
242
Unit 8 Electric Potential

The dot or scalar product

Fig. 8.2: Work done in moving a unit positive charge from point a to point b  
of two vectors a and b
along the path shown as continuous curve.
is defined as
   
The first line integral on the right-hand side of Eq. (8.4) represents the work a.b  a b cos 
done in moving the unit charge from a to a  along the arc of a circle of radius
say, ra . The second integral represents the work done in moving the same where  is the angle
 between vectors
charge from a  to b along a straight line.
 The integrand E.d l of the first line 
a and b.
integral is equal to zero as E and d l are perpendicular to each other (see
Fig.8.2b).
 The integrand
 E.d l of the second line integral in Eq. (8.4) is equal
to E d l as both E and d l are parallel to each other along the path ab (see
Fig. 8.2c). Can you tell why it is so? This is because, in the case of first
integral,  is 90 and hence cos   0 and in the second integral,  is zero and
hence cos   1 (see the margin remark). Note that when we
 integrate over r, the limits
Let us now determine the second integral of Eq. (8.4). Using Eq. (8.1b) for E, of integration are from
  
replacing d l by d r (since the path from a to b is radial), and writing dr  rˆdr ra to r b .

(where r̂ is a unit vector in the radial direction away from charge Q), we can
write Eq. (8.4) as:

b   rb   rb Q rˆ.rˆ rb
Q dr Q 1 1
W  0   
E.d l  E .d r  4  0 r 2
(dr )   4  0 r 2
 
4 0  ra rb 
One of the characteristics
a r a ra r
a of a conservative force is
that the work done by this
since ra  ra . force in moving a particle
from one point to another
Therefore, Eq. (8.4) becomes is independent of the path
chosen to move the
b   particle between the two
Q 1 1

W   E.d l  
40  ra rb 
(8.5) points. The converse of
a this statement is also true:
if the work done by a
for the path shown in Fig. 8.3a between points a and b. force in moving a particle
from one point to another
Now, you may recall from Sec. 3.4.1 of Unit 3, Block 1 of this course that is independent of the
path, the force is a
a scalar potential can be associated with a conservative vector field.
conservative force.
Since our aim here is to define an electric potential associated with electric
field, we should establish that it is a conservative vector field. To do so, we This characteristic is
exhibited by gravitational
examine if the electric field of a charge is conservative.
force (for a particle) as
well as by electrostatic
From Eq. (8.5), we note that the work done in moving a unit positive charge force (for a charged
between any two points in the electric field of charge Q depends only on the particle).
distance of those points from charge Q and is independent of the path we
243
Block 2 Electrostatics
choose to move the unit charge from one point to the other. So, the line
integral of the electric field is independent of the path. Therefore, the
electric field is a conservative vector field.

The electric field of a stationary charge is conservative.

8.2.2 Electrostatic Potential Energy

Recall from Sec. 10.3 of Unit 10, Block 2 of the Semester 1 course entitled
Mechanics (BPHCT-131) that gravitational force is conservative. You have
learnt that we can define potential energy of an object moving under the
influence of a conservative force. For example, you have learnt that the
change in gravitational potential energy, U in moving an object from point a
to point b is equal to the negative of the work done by the gravitational force in
moving it from point a to b, that is,

(U )ba   Wab

Now, you have learnt in Sec. 8.2.1 of Unit 8 that the electric field is a
conservative vector field. Thus, we can say that the electrostatic force is a
conservative force. So, we can also define electrostatic potential energy in the
same way as we defined gravitational potential energy.

Thus, we can say that the change in electrostatic potential energy of a charge
q in moving it from point a to b in an electric field of a charge Q is equal to the
negative of the work done by the electrostatic force in moving the charge from
point a to point b. If Ua and U b are the initial and final electrostatic potential
energy, respectively, of charge q, then we can write

U  (Ub  Ua )   Wab (8.6)

where, Wab is the work done by the electrostatic force in moving the positive

charge q from point a to point b in the electric field E due to charge Q. Now,
from Eqs. (8.3) and (8.5), we can write:

Qq 1 1
Wab  qW   r  r  (8.7)
40 a b

where W  is the work done in moving a unit positive charge from point a to
point b. So, from Eqs. (8.6) and (8.7), we can write

Qq  1 1  Qq  1 1 
U  (Ub  Ua )         (8.8)
40  ra rb  40  rb ra 

Eq. (8.8) gives the change in electrostatic potential energy of a positive charge
q when it is moved from point a to b in the electric field due to charge Q. To fix
these ideas, you may like to go through the following example.
244
Unit 8 Electric Potential

XAMPLE 8.1 : ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL ENERGY


The magnitude of a uniform electric field E along the positive x-axis is
120 NC1. Calculate the change in electrostatic potential energy
 of a proton
moving along a path parallel but opposite to the direction of E through a
distance 25 m.

SOLUTION  We know that the work done by a constant force F in

moving a particle through a displacement d is given as
 
W  F.d
In theinstant
 case,
 the electrostatic force on charge q due to an electric
field E is F  qE. Thus, the work done on the proton is
 
W  qE.d  qEd cos 
 
where  is the angle between E and d. Now, the displacement of proton is

parallel and opposite to the direction of E, i.e.   180. Thus, we have
19 1
W  qEd cos180  (1.6  10 C)  (120 NC )  (25 m)  cos180

  4.8  10 16 J
If U i and U f are the initial and final electrostatic potential energy of the
proton, we can write

U  Uf  Ui   W  4.8  1016 J

So, we discover that the electrostatic potential energy of proton increases

(as Ui  Uf ) when it moves opposite to the direction of electric field.

Before proceeding further, you should answer an SAQ.

SAQ 2 - Electrostatic potential energy

In a region, the uniform electric field is 200 ˆi NC 1. Calculate the work done in
moving i) an electron, ii) a proton through a distance 30 m along the field
direction. What will be the change in electrostatic potential energy of these
charged particles?

With this understanding of work done by electrostatic force in moving a charge

and the related concept of electrostatic potential energy, you can learn about
electric potential.

8.3 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO POINT

CHARGES
In Unit 5 of this Block, you have learnt that the electric field, defined as
electrostatic force per unit charge, is a very useful concept for determining the
forces experienced by a charge or a group of charges of any sign and
magnitude. Now, let us ask ourselves: Can we define a simpler concept
which enables us to determine the electrostatic force and electric field
245
Block 2 Electrostatics
due to a charge or a system of charges? The answer is, yes, we can. The
electric potential is such a concept. Let us elaborate it with the help of the
relation between work done and electrostatic potential energy discussed in
Sec. 8.2.2.

8.3.1 Electric Potential due to a Point Charge

Let us first define electric potential. The electric potential is defined as
electrostatic potential energy per unit charge, that is,

U
V (8.9)
q

where V is electric potential at a given point in the electric field and U is the
electrostatic potential energy of charge q at that point. You know that the
difference in electrostatic potential energy of charge q, when it is moved from
point a to b in the electric field of charge Q is given by Eq. (8.8). Thus, on the
basis of the definition of electric potential given above, we can write the
difference in electric potential between points a and b as

U
V 
q

U b  Ua Q 1 1
or Vb  Va    (8.10)
q 40  rb ra 

You know that U is related to the work done by the electrostatic force in
moving charge q from point a to b through Eq. (8.6). Also, the work done per
unit charge is related to the electric field by Eq. (8.3). Thus, on the basis of
Eqs. (8.6) and (8.3), we can write Eq. (8.10) in terms of the line integral of
electric field E as
b 
Wab
Vb  Va  
q 
  E.d l (8.11)
a

Further, from Eq. (8.10) we note that the difference in electric potential is a
 Q   Q 
difference between two numbers (or scalars):   and  .
 40 rb   40 ra 

Let us now see what happens if we assume that initial point a is at infinity (that
is, ra  ) and the electric potential at infinity is zero, that is, Va  0. Then, we
can write Eq. (8.10) as
Q
Vb  (8.12)
40rb
Eq. (8.12) gives the electric potential at point b at a distance rb from a point
charge Q. Further, for the condition that point a is located at infinity, i.e.,
ra   and Va  0, Eq. (8.11), which defines electric potential at point b at a

distance rb in terms of line integral of E, reduces to
rb
 

Vb   E.d l

(8.13)
246
Unit 8 Electric Potential

Note that Eqs. (8.12) and (8.13) are equivalent definitions of electric potential.
Eq. (8.12) signifies that electric potential is a scalar quantity. Eq. (8.13) helps
us understand what we mean when we say that the electric potential at a point
in an electric field has some finite value. The RHS of Eq. (8.13) tells us that
the electric potential at any point b at a distance rb is the work done in
bringing a unit positive charge from infinity up to that point (see Fig. 8.3). The
SI unit for electric potential is the joule / coulomb (JC1). This combination Fig. 8.3: Work done in
moving a unit positive
occurs so often that a special unit, the volt (abbreviation V named after
charge from point a (at
Alessandro Volta), is used to represent the unit of electric potential. infinity) to point b in
the electric field of
charge Q.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A POINT CHARGE

Electric potential associated with electric field E due to a charge Q at a
point at distance r from it is defined as
Q
V (8.14)
4 0 r

Electric potential V associated with the electric field E due to a point
charge Q at a distance r from it is given in terms of line integral as
r  


V   E.d l (8.15)


From Eq. (8.14), we note that in the electric field of a positive charge Q, the
potential at a point at distance r is positive; while for a negative charge, it is
negative. Now, let us pause for a moment and ask ourselves: What is the
physical meaning of this statement?

Note that in the electric field due to a positive charge, work is done on the
unit positive test charge to move it from infinity to the given point against the
repulsive force between the positive charge and the test charge. This work
done by an external agent increases the electrostatic potential energy of the
system and hence electric potential due to a positive charge at some finite
distance is positive. On the other hand, in the electric field due to a negative
charge, the work is done by the electric field in bringing the unit positive
charge from infinity and the electrostatic potential energy of the system
decreases. Therefore, the electric potential due to a negative charge at some
finite distance is negative.

It is, therefore, clear that, when work is done against the force field (in this
case electric field), potential energy of the system increases. This can be
easily understood by considering an example in the case of gravitational field.
When a body of finite mass is raised to a height against the force of gravity
acting downwards, then the potential energy of the body increases. Here,
work is done against gravity. And when work is done by the force of gravity as
in case of free fall of a body, the potential energy decreases. The difference in
potential energy gets converted into kinetic energy of the freely falling object.
247
Block 2 Electrostatics

A positive point charge produces positive electric potential and a

negative point charge produces negative electric potential.

So far, you have learnt the concept of work done in moving a charge in an
electric field, electrostatic potential energy and electric potential and how
these concepts are related to each other.
Now, to concretise these ideas, you should go through the following example.

XAMPLE 8.2 : ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A POINT

CHARGE

A particle of charge 5.0 C is located on the x-axis at the point x  6.0 cm.
Calculate the electric potential due to this charge at the origin, x  0. Also
calculate the work done in moving a charge  6.0 C from infinity to the
origin keeping the first charge fixed.
In electrostatics, we
associate three quantities SOLUTION  From Eq. (8.14), we write the electric potential as
with a static electric 1 Q
charge. The magnitude V 
40 r
of the electrostatic force
on a test charge q at a Substituting the values of Q  5.0  106 C , r  6.0  10 2 m and
distance r from the point
(1/ 4  0 )  9.0  10 9 Nm 2 C 2 we have
charge Q is given as
5.0  10 6 C
1 Qq V  (9.0  109 Nm 2C 2 )   7.48  105 V
F  6.0  10  2 m
40 r 2
Further, to calculate the work done in moving the charge  6.0 C from
The magnitude of the infinity to the origin, we use Eq. (8.11) with the understanding that potential
electric field at a point at infinity is zero:
distance r is given as
V  W / q  W  qV  (6.0  10 6 C)  (7.48  105 V)   4.48 J
1 Q
E
40 r 2
Potential Difference and Zero Potential
The electric potential at
The way we have defined the electric potential at a point by Eq. (8.14) may
distance r from the point
charge Q is given as
give you an impression that it is an absolute quantity. It is, however, not true
because we have arbitrarily chosen a reference point at infinity and
1 Q assumed that the electric potential at infinity is zero. The more
V 
40 r fundamental quantity is the potential difference as given by Eq. (8.10) and
Eq. (8.11) which refers to the change in electrostatic potential energy or the
Note the nature of
work done when a unit positive charge is moved from one point to another in
dependence of these
quantities on the distance
an electric field. To determine the potential difference between any two points
r, point charge Q and test in an electric field, we do not need any reference point.
charge q.
Potential difference is a very important concept in the field of electrostatics
and current electricity. Its knowledge helps us in determining the exact value
of the current which flows between any two points in an electric circuit,
provided the (electric) resistance between the two points is known.
Though potential difference is a more fundamental concept than
absolute potential, it is of immense practical importance to define a
248
Unit 8 Electric Potential
reference point where the value of potential can be taken to be zero.
Such a reference point with zero potential enables us to assign an absolute
value of electric potential to a point in electric field. We did that by choosing
the reference point at infinity with zero potential and defined electric potential
at a point by Eq. (8.14).

You should, however, remember that the choice of the reference point
with zero potential is arbitrary and it is done in such a manner which
makes the mathematical treatment of the problem simpler. For example,
in most of the problems involving electric potential in electrical circuits, the
potential of the Earth is taken as reference point with zero potential. This
choice of reference potential is guided by the fact that the potential of the
Earth remains constant even if it gains or loses electricity. This choice of
reference with zero potential for electric situations is similar to our choice of
sea level as reference point for describing the height of a place or a mountain
on the Earth.

Before studying further, try to solve the following SAQ.

SAQ 3 - Calculating electric potential, potential difference and

work done
a) Refer to Fig. 8.4 which shows two points X and Y located at distances 8 m Fig. 8.4: Diagram for
and 12 m, respectively, from a point charge  7C. (i) Calculate the SAQ 3a.
electric potential at points X and Y and the potential difference between
points X and Y. (ii) Suppose that the point charge  7C is replaced by a
point charge  7C. Calculate the electric potential at points X and Y and
the potential difference between X and Y. (iii) If the point charge  7C is
fixed at its position, calculate the work done in moving a charge  3C
from infinity to the point X.

b) The radius of a gold nucleus is 6.6  1015 m and the atomic number, Z of
gold is 79. Assuming that the nucleus acts as a point charge, and
electronic charge e  1.6  10 19 C, calculate the electric potential at the
surface of a gold nucleus.

From Eq. (8.14), you know how to determine electric potential due to an
isolated charge at a point located at distance r from the charge. Now, suppose
that we have many discrete changes located at different points in space. How
do we determine electric potential at some given point due to this system of
discrete charges? You will learn it now.

8.3.2 Electric Potential due to a System of Discrete

Charges
From Unit 5 of this course, you know that electric field obeys superposition

principle which enables us to calculate E at a given point due to a system of
discrete charges. The superposition principle for electric fields implies that
(a) the electric field at a given point due to any one charge of the system is
249
Block 2 Electrostatics
unaffected by the presence of the remaining charges, and (b) the net value of

E at a given point is the vector sum of the fields due to individual charges of
the system, at that point.

You may, therefore, ask: Can we use the superposition principle to

determine the value of electric potential due to a system of charges? The
answer is: Yes, we can. Since electric potential is a scalar quantity, its value at
a given point is the algebraic sum of the electric potential due to individual
charges of the system. Thus, using the superposition
 principle forelectric
potential is much simpler than using it for E because, in case of E, we have
to deal with vector sum of the fields due to individual charges.

Suppose we have a system of charges q1, q2,... , qN located at distances

r1, r2,..., rN , respectively, from the point P. So, according to the superposition
principle, the potential at point P can be written as the algebraic sum of the
potential at P due to q1, q2,..., qN :

q1 q2 qN
VP    ... 
4 0r1 4 0r2 4 0rN

Note that here each individual charge is acting as if the other charges are not
present. The above expression may be written in a summation form as:

N

1 qi
VP  (8.16)
4  0 i 1 r i

As a caution, you may keep in mind that the sum given in Eq. (8.16) is an
algebraic sum and not a vector sum as the potential at a point is a scalar
quantity. To get a feel for the value of potential due to a system of discrete
charges, go through the following example.

XAMPLE 8.3 : ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO MANY

DISCRETE CHARGES

Three point charges are placed on the x-axis: 2C at x  20 cm,  3C at
x  30 cm,  4C at x  40 cm. Calculate the electric potential at x  0.

SOLUTION  To calculate the electric potential at a point due to many

discrete charges, we use Eq. (8.16):
3

1 qi
V 
4   0 i 1 r i

On substituting the numerical values of qi and ri , we get

 2  10 6 C 3  10 6 C 4  10 6 C 
V  9  109 Nm 2 C 2    
 0.20 m 0.30 m 0.40 m 
250
Unit 8 Electric Potential

 9  10 9 Nm 2 C 2  [10 5 m 1  10 5 m 1  10 5 m 1]

or V   9  10 4 Nm C1   9  10 4 V

Note that each of the three charges are placed at different points on the
same line (x-axis). But, the electric potential at a given point ( x  0) on the
same line due to one charge is not affected by the presence of the other
two charges.

Before proceeding further, answer an SAQ.

SAQ 4 - Electric potential due to many charges

Two point charges  q and  2q are placed along a straight line at a distance
of 9 m from each other. Determine the distance of a point, from the charge
 q, between the two charges where the electric potential is zero.

On
 the basis of the discussion so far, you have learnt that the electric field
E at a point in space gives us the magnitude and direction of electrostatic
force and electric potential gives the work done by the electrostatic force in
moving a unit positive charge from one point to another. So, if we have a
relation which enables us to compute electric field at a point if the potential at
that point is known, solving problems of electrostatics becomes far easier. It is
far easier to use the concept of electric potential since it is a scalar. You will
agree that working with vectors is more complicated than working with scalars.
Let us now learn the relation between electric field and electric potential.

8.4 RELATION BETWEEN ELECTRIC FIELD AND

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
You know from Eq. (8.11) that the difference in electric potential,
Vba ( Vb  Va ) between two points b and a in the electric field E of charge Q
is equal to the negative of the line integral of E between the same two points:

b 


Vba  Vb  Va   E.d l
a

If the separation d l between the two points a and b is small, we can write the
potential difference dV between any two points as
 
dV   E.d l (8.17)

or dV  E cos  d l

dV
or  E cos    (8.18)
dl

The presence of cos  term in Eq. (8.18) indicates that the electric field is not
a simple derivative of the potential function V; rather, it is some special kind of
251
Block 2 Electrostatics
derivative of the potential. We call it directional derivative about which you
studied in Unit 1, Block 1 of this course.

As you have studied in Sec. 1.3, Unit 1, Block 1 of this course, the rates of
change of scalar fields such as temperature and potential in different
directions can be expressed by using the gradient operator. From Eq. (1.8),
you know that the difference df in the value of a scalar function f between two

points separated by d r is given as
 
df  (V ) .dr

Since electric potential is a scalar function, we can use the above general
relation and write
 the electric potential difference between two points
separated by d l as
 
dV  (V ) .d l (8.19)

So, comparing Eqs. (8.17) and (8.19), we can write

   V ˆ V ˆ V 
E  V   ˆi j k  (8.20)
 x y z 

The components of E along x, y and z directions are

V V V
Ex   , Ey   , Ez   (8.21)
x y z

Thus, we find that the electric field E is the negative of the gradient of the
electric potential V at any point.

Eq. (8.20) or Eq. (8.21) enables us to calculate the electric field at a point if we
know the value of electric potential at that point. To understand this method,
go through the following example.

XAMPLE 8.4 : ELECTRIC FIELD FROM ELECTRIC

POTENTIAL

The electric potential at a point is given by the relation V  Ax  By  Cz


where A, B and C are constants. Determine the electric field E at that point.

SOLUTION  From Eq. (8.20), we have

    ˆ  ˆ  
E  V    ˆi j  k V
 x y z 

Substituting the value of V, we get

   ˆ  ˆ  
E    ˆi j  k  ( Ax  By  Cz)
 x y z 

 E   [ A ˆi  Bˆj  Ckˆ ]

252
Unit 8 Electric Potential
Now apply this method yourself to solve SAQ 5.

SAQ 5 - Electric field from electric potential

The electric potential at any point is given by V  x( y 2  4x 2 ). Calculate the


electric field E at that point.

In Unit 5 of this block, you have learnt how to calculate electric field due to
multiple discrete charges and, especially the electric dipole. In the following
section, you will learn how to determine the electric potential due to an electric
dipole.

8.5 POTENTIAL DUE TO AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE

In Unit 5, you have learnt about the electric dipole. You know that it is a pair of

equal and opposite charges,  q, separated by some distance, 2a. Then 2a
is a vector along the axis of the dipole, drawn from the negative to the
positive charge (Fig. 8.5).

Let us now determine the electric potential due to a dipole. We shall use polar
coordinates for mathematical convenience. Refer to Fig. 8.5 which shows
point P at a distance r from the midpoint C of the dipole AB. The line joining P
and C makes an angle  with the dipole axis. So, the polar coordinates of
point P are r and  with the origin at C, the midpoint of dipole. We now
determine the electric potential at P due to the two charges  q and  q of the
dipole.

Fig. 8.5: An electric dipole AB of length 2a and point P at a distance r from the
mid-point C of the dipole.

Study Fig. 8.5. Note that the distances of point P from  q and  q are AP
and BP, respectively. Also note we have drawn perpendiculars from B to S
and A to T. Thus, under the condition that point P is far away from the dipole
so that r  2a, you can see from the figure that
BP  SP  PC  CS  r  a cos 

and AP  TP  TC  CP  r  a cos 
253
Block 2 Electrostatics
Thus, using the superposition principle [Eq. (8.16)], we can write the potential
at P due to charges q and q of the dipole as:

q  1 1  2q a cos 
V   (r  a cos )  (r  a cos )   4   (r 2  a 2 cos 2 ) (8.22)
4  0   0

Now, let us suppose that r is a vector from C to P and the unit vector along
  
r is r̂. Also, you know [Eq. (5.11)] that the dipole moment, p  2q a. Since
 
p.rˆ  2q a.rˆ  2qa cos , we can write Eq. (8.22) for V as

p . rˆ
V (8.23)
40 (r 2  a 2 cos2 )

When point P is far away from the dipole, r 2 is large compared to a 2 cos2 .
So, we can neglect a2 cos2  in the denominator in comparison to r 2 , and
write Eq. (8.23) as

p . rˆ p cos 
V  (8.24)
4  0 r 2 4  0 r 2

Eq. (8.24) gives the general expression for the electric potential due to dipole
at a distance r from its mid point.

On the basis of Eq. (8.24), you can conclude that:

 The electric potential due to dipole varies with r as 1 / r 2 whereas

the potential due to point charge varies as 1 / r . The comparison
of these variations shows that the potential decreases more
rapidly with r for a dipole than for a point charge.

 The electric potential due to dipole is zero for all points which lie
on the perpendicular bisector of the dipole axis because, for any
such point,  = 90 and cos = 0. Hence, no work is done in
moving a test charge along the perpendicular bisector.

We will now determine the electric field of a dipole from its electric potential.
But before studying further, you may like to solve an SAQ.

SAQ 6 - Electric potential due to an electric dipole

A straight line from the centre of an electric dipole and along the axis of the
dipole first passes through point P1 and then through point P2. The distances
of points P1 and P2 from the centre of the dipole are 40 cm and 60 cm,
respectively. The dipole length is much smaller than 40 cm. If the potential at
point P1 is 60 V, calculate the potential at point P2 .

To determine the electric field from electric potential, we will use the relation
given by Eq. (8.20). However, since we have used polar coordinates to specify
the location of point P, we must use the expression for the del operator in
254
Unit 8 Electric Potential

Eq. (8.20) in polar coordinates. In polar coordinates, the operator  is given
as
  1 
  rˆ  ˆ
r r 

Thus, Eq. (8.20) can be expressed in polar coordinates as

    ̂  
E  V   r̂  V
 r r  

Now, substituting the value of V from Eq. (8.24), we can write

   ˆ    p cos      p cos   ˆ   p cos  

E   rˆ      rˆ     
 r r    40r   r  40r 2  r   40r 2 
2


1 p
4  0 r 3
 
rˆ(2 cos )  ˆ sin  (8.25)

From Eq. (8.25), we can write the radial (E r ) and tangential (E  ) components

of electric field E at point P (see Fig. 8.5) as
1 2p cos 
Er  (8.26)
4  0 r3

1 p sin 
E  (8.27)
4  0 r 3

The radial and tangential components of the electric field E at point P are
shown in Fig. 8.5. From the figure, note that the resultant electric field E at
point P is directed along PR and it makes an angle  with the (extended) line
CP, i.e. the direction of the radial component E r .

Thus, the magnitude of the electric field is given as

 p p
E  E r2  E 2  4 cos2   sin2   3 cos2   1
4 0 r 3 4 0 r 3
(8.28)

To determine the direction of the resultant field E, we make use of Eqs. (8.26)
and (8.27) and note from the geometry of Fig. 8.5:

E sin  1
tan     tan  (8.29)
Er 2 cos  2

The advantage of using polar coordinates for obtaining expressions for

potential and hence electric field at a point due to dipole can be understood on
the basis of Eqs. (8.26) and (8.27). Refer to Fig. 8.5. If we take  = 0, then the
point P will shift to a point along the axis of the dipole. For any such point,
Eqs. (8.26) and (8.27) show that only the radial component will be present; the
tangential component, E  will be zero because of the sin  term. So, the
magnitude of the electric field due to the dipole at a point along its axis can be
written as
255
Block 2 Electrostatics
 1 2p
E 
4 0 r 3

And, Eq. (8.29) indicates that direction of the electric field will be along the
axis of the dipole because, for  = 0,  = 0 and  is the angle between the
resultant electric field and the dipole axis. Thus, the electric field due to dipole
at a point along its axis at a distance r from the mid point of dipole, such that
r >> a, is given as
 
1 2p
E (8.30)
4 0 r 3
Fig. 8.6: Direction of
electric field at a point Eq. (8.30) is the same as Eq. (i) of Example 5.4, Unit 5 obtained for electric
on the perpendicular field due to dipole at a point along its axis.
bisector of dipole.
For    / 2, point P will be a point on the perpendicular bisector of the dipole
axis (Fig. 8.6). In this case, the radial component of electric field will be zero
as cos   0 in Eq. (8.26). Thus, the magnitude of the electric field at such a
point will have contribution only from the tangential compound, E  . Thus, we
can write Eq. (8.28):
 1 p
E  E2  (8.31)
4 0 r 3

We cannot use Eq. (8.29) for determining the direction of E at a point on the
bisector of the dipole because, tan   tan(  / 2) is not defined. We can,
however, make use of the fact that the value of potential at every point on the
bisector is zero [see Eq. (8.24)]. This means that no work is done in moving a
charge along the bisector of a dipole.
 Further,
 the
 work
 done in moving a unit

charge by distance d l is given as E.d l . Thus, E.d l  0 implies that field E is
perpendicular to d l , the direction of the perpendicular bisector. Now, to

determine whether E is along or opposite to p, refer to Fig. 8.6 which shows
 due to the dipole at point P. The components E q sin  and
the electric field
E q sin  of E  q and E q respectively will cancel each other. However, the
component E q cos  and E q cos  will add up along PD, a direction
perpendicular to the bisector and opposite to the direction of dipole moment

p. Thus, the electric field due to the dipole at any point on its perpendicular

bisector is anti-parallel to p. Thus, we can write
 
1 p
E (8.32)
4 0 r 3

Eq. (8.32) is same as Eq. (i) of Example 5.5, Unit 5 obtained by computing
electric fields due to dipole at a point on its bisector.
We mentioned in the beginning of this section that understanding the
behaviour of an electric dipole under the influence of an external electric field
is very useful in analysing the effect of electric field on dielectric materials.
So, let us now study the effect of electric field on a dipole.

8.6 DIPOLE IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD


Let us consider a dipole of length 2a in a uniform external electric field E as
256 shown in Fig. 8.7. A uniform electric field means that its magnitude and
Unit 8 Electric Potential
 
direction are the same everywhere. Let the dipole moment vector p (  2qa)

makes an angle  with the electric field, E.


Fig. 8.7: Torque experienced by a dipole placed in a uniform electric field E.

Due to the external
 electric field E , the charge +q of the dipole experiences a
force F  qE while the charge q experiences an equal and opposite force
  
F  qE. Since the field is uniform, the net force F on the dipole is zero, i.e.,
     
Fnet  F  F  qE  qE  0 (8.33)

As the net force on the dipole is zero, the centre of mass of the dipole is not
accelerated, that is, there is no effect on its translational motion.

You may, therefore, ask: Does it mean that the external electric field has no
effect on the dipole? No, it is not so. The dipole still experiences a turning
effect due to the torque about its centre of mass C. This turning effect arises
because the two equal and opposite forces, which cancel each other as free
vectors, are acting at different points. That is, the forces experienced by
charges  q and  q of the dipole do not have same line of action and hence
they provide a turning effect.

From Fig. 8.7, note that the centre of mass C of the dipole is at a distance a
from each charge of the dipole. Thus, we can write the magnitude of net

torque  as
  qEa sin   qEa sin   2qaE sin   pE sin 

The above expression can be written in vector form as

  
  pE (8.34)

You know that the unit of torque is Newton metre (N m). The direction of the
st
torque is obtained from right-hand rule (refer Sec. 12.3, Unit
 12 of 1 semester

course BPHCT-131) and is along  k if the electric field E and dipole are in
the xy-plane.
Under the action of the torque, the dipole tend to align
 itself along the field
 
direction with dipole
 moment vector p parallel to E vector. So, when p is
aligned along E, the torque on the dipole is zero because for   0, sin   0.

The system (that
 is, the dipole) is in stable equilibrium when p is
aligned with E.
From Fig.
 8.7, we note that the torque acting on the dipole tends to align it
along E. So, the rotation of the dipole is in the clockwise direction.
257
Block 2 Electrostatics
Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole

Now, let us ask ourselves: What will happen to the potential energy of the
dipole if it is rotated from its stable position?
 Whenever the dipole is rotated

from its stable configuration ( p parallel to E ) external work must be done. This
external work is stored as potential energy of the dipole.

To obtain an expression for the potential energy of a dipole we need to

calculate the work done by the electric field to rotate the dipole from some
initial value of  to final value of . The work done, in terms of torque and
angular displacement d is

dW   d

  pE sin  d (8.35)

The negative sign in Eq. (8.35)

 indicates that the torque opposes any increase
in . Thus, the work done by E to rotate the dipole from an angle  0 to  is


W   dW
0


  ( pE sin ) d
0

 pE (cos   cos  0 ) (8.36)

The change in potential energy U of the dipole is the negative of the work
done by the electric field. Thus, we have

U  Uf  Ui  W  pE (cos   cos 0 ) (8.37)

Note that Ui   pE cos0 is the potential energy at the initial or reference

orientation of the dipole. As in the case of point charge for which we define
potential energy to be zero
 at infinity, we need to define the orientation of
dipole with respect to E for which we can consider its potential energy
 to be
zero. It turns out that when the dipole is aligned perpendicular to E, that is,
when    / 2 in Fig. 8.7, potential energy of the dipole can be taken to be
zero.

Thus, the initial potential energy U i  0. So, we can write Eq. (8.37) as

U   pE cos 
 
or U   p.E (8.38)

Eq. (8.38) gives the potential energy of a dipole in a uniform electric field. It
shows that the potential energy is minimum (most negative) when the dipole is
aligned along the field direction (i.e.,   0), and is maximum (most positive)
when it is aligned opposite to the field direction (i.e.,   180).

Let us now sum up what we have learnt in this unit.

258
Unit 8 Electric Potential

8.7 SUMMARY

Concept Description

Work done and  The work W  done by the electric field E in moving  a unit positive charge
line integral from point a to b, is equal to the line integral of E :
b 


W   E.d l
a

Path  The work done, that is, the line integral of E, in moving a unit positive charge
independence
from one point to another in an electric field is independent of the path
between the two points.

Electrostatic  The difference in electrostatic potential energy of a charge between two

potential energy points a and b in an electric field is equal to the negative of the work done by
the field in moving the charge from a to b:
U  Ub  Ua  Wab 

Electric potential  The negative of the work W  done by the electric field in carrying a unit
as line integral positive charge from infinity to some point at distance r from the charge giving
rise to the field is defined as the electric potential V at that point:
r  


V   W    E.d l


Electric potential  The electric potential V at a point at a distance r from a point charge Q is
given as:
Q
V 
4  0 r

Relation
 between  The electric field E at a point is the negative gradient of the electric potential
V and E V at that point:
 
E  V
Electric potential  The electric potential at any point P, at a distance r from the midpoint of the
due to dipole dipole, on a line which makes an angle  with the axis of the dipole is given
by:

p . rˆ p cos 
V 
4  0 r 2 4  0 r 2
where r̂ is a unit vector from the centre of dipole to the point P where
 
potential is to be determined and p (  2qa) is the dipole moment vector.

Torque on a dipole  Electric dipole in a uniform electric field experiences a turning effect. The

in electric field torque  experienced by the dipole is given by:
  
  pE
Electrostatic  The electrostatic potential energy of an electric dipole in an electric field is
potential energy of   
given by U   p . E . Its value is minimum when dipole moment vector p is
the dipole  
parallel to electric field E and maximum when dipole moment vector p is

anti-parallel to E.
259
Block 2 Electrostatics
8.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Show that the line integral of the electric field E over a closed path is
equal to zero.

2. Showthat, in a pair of oppositely charged plane parallel plates, the electric

field E is equal to the potential difference between the plates divided by
their separation. You may assume that the electric field is confined
between the plates as shown in Fig. 8.8.

3. Calculate the electric potential at two points A and B at distances of 10 cm

Fig. 8.8: Diagram for and 50 cm from a charge 2.0 C as shown in Fig. 8.9. Also calculate the
TQ 2. work done in bringing a charge of 0.05 C from point B to A.

4. Calculate the potential difference between points A and B assuming that a

test charge q0 is moved without acceleration from A to B along the path
shown in Fig. 8.10.

5. Mark the following statements as True or False:

a) If the electric field is zero in some region of space, the electric potential
Fig. 8.9: Diagram must also be zero in that region.
for TQ 3.
b) If the electric potential is zero at a point, the electric field must also be
zero at that point.
c) The value of potential can be chosen to be zero at any convenient
point.
d) Electric field at a point is negative of the gradient of electric potential at
that point.
e) The electric field and potential due to an electric dipole decrease much
faster with distance as compared to a point charge.

Fig. 8.10: Diagram

6. A uniform electric field of 3  103 NC 1 is in the positive x-direction. A
for TQ 4. positive point charge 2 C is released from rest at the origin.

a) Calculate the potential difference V (5 m) – V (0).

b) What is the change in electrostatic potential energy of the charge
when it is moved from x  0 to x  5 m?
c) Calculate the kinetic energy of the charge when it is at x  5 m.
d) Calculate the value of the potential V(x) if electric potential is chosen
to be zero at i) x  0 and ii) x  1 m.

7. A uniform electric field is in the negative x-direction. Two points a and b

are at x  3 m and x  7 m, respectively.

a) Is the potential difference Vb  Va positive or negative?

b) If the value of the potential difference of (Vb  Va ) is 10 4 V, calculate
the magnitude of the electric field.

8. How much work needs to be done to transport an electron from the

positive terminal of a 12 V battery to its negative terminal?
260
Unit 8 Electric Potential

8.9 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS

Self-Assessment Questions
 
1. Let the electric field be E and d l be the element of path length. Since
 
both E and d l are parallel, the angle  between the two vectors is zero.
Thus, using Eq. (8.3), we write the work done in moving a unit positive
charge as
 
 
W   E. d l   E(cos) dl   E(cos0 ) dl  Edl  El

2. The work done by a constant
 force F in moving a particle through
 
displacement l is W  F. l  Fl cos  where  is the angle between F and

l.

i) As per the problem, the electron is moving along the direction of E.
So,   0. Thus, the work done is
W  (qE )l cos 0

 (1.6  1019 C)  (200 NC 1)  (30 m)   9.6  10 16 J

The change in electrostatic potential energy of the electron is

U  U f  U i   W  9.6  10 16 J

Thus, the electrostatic potential energy of electron increases as it

moves along the direction of the electric field.

ii) As per the problem, the proton is moving along E. So,   0. Thus,
we have
W  qEl cos 0

 (1.6  1019 C)  (200 NC 1)  (30 m)  9.6  1016 J

So, the change in electrostatic potential energy of proton is

U  U f  U i   W   9.6  10 16 J

Thus, we find that the electrostatic potential energy of proton

decreases as it moves along the direction of the electric field.
3. a) From Eq. (8.14), we have the electric potential due to a point charge
1 Q
V .
40 r

i) So, the electric potential at point X is

VX  [(9  109 Nm 2C2 )  (7  10 6 C)] (8 m)

 7.87  103 V  8  103 V

up to one significant digit. And the electric potential at point Y is

VY  [(9  109 Nm 2C2 )  (7  10 6 C)] (12 m)

 5.25  103 V  5  103 V

Thus, the potential difference between the points X and Y is

VX  VY  (7.87  103 V  5.25  103 V)  2.62  103 V  3  103 V
261
Block 2 Electrostatics
ii) When the point charge  7 C is replaced by  7 C, we have
electric potential at point X

VX  [(9  109 Nm 2C2 )  (7  10 6 C)] (8 m)  7.87  103 V

VY  [(9  10 9 Nm 2 C 2 )  (7  10 6 C)] (12 m)  5.25  10 3 V

Thus, the potential difference between the points X and Y is

VX  VY  7.87  103 V  ( 5.25  103 V)   2.62  103 V   3  103 V

iii) The work done in moving the charge  3 C from infinity to point
X is

W  qV X  (3  10 6 C)  (7.87  103 V)  2.36  10 2 J  2  10 2 J

b) Charge on the nucleus Q  Ze  79  1.6  10 19 C and

r  6.6  10 15 m

Thus, from Eq. (8.14), we have

1 Q (9 109 N m2C2 )  (79  1.6  10 19 C)

V 
4  0 r 6.6  10 15 m

 1.7  107 Nm C1  1.7  107 V ( N mC 1  J C1)

4. Let the point P be at a distance x from the point charge  q and the
electric potential at P due to the two charges be zero (Fig. 8.11). The
electric potential at point P is

1  q ( 2q ) 
V   
4  0 r  x (9  x ) 
Fig. 8.11: Diagram for
answer to SAQ 4. Since V = 0 at P, we have

q 2q
  q(9  x )  2qx  9q  3qx  x  3 m
x (9  x )

5. The relation between E and V is:
  V ˆ V ˆ V 
E   ˆi j k
 x y z 

As per the problem, V  x( y 2  4x 2 )

Thus,

V V V V
 [ xy 2  4 x 3 ]  y 2  12 x 2;  [ xy 2  4 x 3 ]  2xy
x x y y

V V
 [ xy 2  4 x 3 ]  0
z z

So, E  [ˆi( y 2  12x 2 )  ˆj(2xy )  kˆ (0)]  (12 x 2  y 2 )ˆi  2xy ˆj
262
Unit 8 Electric Potential
6. The electric potential due to an electric dipole is given by Eq. (8.24):

p cos 
V
40 r 2

So, for point P1 we have

p cos  p cos 
(V )P1    (60 V)  (0.40 m) 2 (i)
40 (0.40 m) 2 40

For point P2, we can write using Eq. (i)

p cos  (60 V)  (0.40 m) 2

(V )P2    27 V
40  (0.60 m)2 (0.60 m) 2

Terminal Questions
1. Let us consider a closed path starting from and ending at a as shown in
Fig. 8.12. Let b be some point on this closed path. A unit positive charge
can be moved between points a and b through two paths: L and L. If Va
and Vb are potentials at a and b, respectively, we can write

b  
  E.d l  Vb  Va (i)
a
along L

b  
also   E.d l  Vb  Va (ii)
a
along L

Now, by changing the limits of integration, we can write Eq. (ii) as:
b   a   Fig. 8.12: Diagram for
  E.d l   E.d l  Va  Vb (iii) answer to TQ 1.
a b
along L' along L'

Adding Eqs. (i) and (ii) and making use of Eq. (iii), we can write
b  b  b  a 
  E.d l   E.d l    E.d l   E.d l  Vb  Va  Va  Vb  0
a a a b
along L along L along L along L

That is, along a closed path, the line integral of the electric field is equal to
zero.

Alternative method: We can also use the fact that the line integral of
electric field is independent of the path. Thus, we can write
b  b 
 E.d l   E.d l
a a
along L along L
263
Block 2 Electrostatics
or
b  b  b  a 
 E.d l   E.d l  0   E.d l   E.d l  0
a a a b
along L along L along L along L

Note that ( L  L) implies a closed path between points a and b in

Fig. 8.12.
2. Let A and B betwo oppositely charged plates separated by a distance d
(Fig. 8.8). Let E be the uniform electric field between the two plates.
Then, the potential difference between the two plates can be written as
[Eq. (8.11)]:
B

 E.d l  (VB  VA )
A

where VA and VB are the potentials at the plates A and B respectively.

B x2 
  
In the present case, writing  
E.d l as E.î dx, and noting that both E and
A x1
î dx are parallel, we can write
x2  x2

VB  VA   E. ˆi dx   E x 
x1
  E ( x2  x1)   E d
x1

That is, the magnitude of the electric field between two oppositely charged
parallel plates is equal to the difference of potential between them divided
by their separation.
3. The electric potential V at a point distant r from a charge Q is given by
Eq. (8.14):
Q
V
40r

As per the problem, Q  2.0 C  2.0 10 6 C,1/( 4 0 )  9  109 Nm 2C2

and r  0.10 m and 0.50 m. Substituting these values, we get

2.0 10 6 C
VA  (9  109 Nm 2 C 2 )   1.8  105 V
0.10 m

2.0 10 6 C
VB  (9 109 Nm 2 C 2 )  0.36 105 V
0.50 m

Work done in moving charge 0.5 C from point B to A is W  q (VA  VB ),

w here q  0.05  10 6 C,

 W  (0.05  10 6 C ) (1.8  105  0.36  105 ) V  7.2  103 J

4. We can write
B  C 
VB  VA  (VB  VC )  (VC  VA )    
E.d l  E.d l
C A
264
Unit 8 Electric Potential
 
For path C to B, E and d l are perpendicular to each other. Therefore,

B   
 E.d l  E d l cos 90  0
C
 
For path A to C, the angle between E and d l  135. Thus,

C   C
 
E.d l  Edl cos 135 
A A

C
E E E

2  dl   2
( AC )  
2
2 d  Ed
A

since AC  d / cos 45  2 d. Thus, we have

  C


VB  VA   E.d l  Ed
A

You may note that this is also the value obtained via the direct path from A
to B (shown in Fig. 8.10 by dotted lines.)

5. a) False
b) False (See Eq. (8.24) and (8.32) for any point on the perpendicular
bisector of an electric dipole.)
c) True
d) True
e) True

 5m B

 
6. a) V (5 m)  V (0)   E.d l   Edl  (3  103 NC 1)  (5 m)  15  103 V
A 0

b) The difference in electrostatic potential energy and potential difference

is related by

U  qV  (2  10 6 C)  (15  103 V)  3.0  10 2 J

c) From the conservation of energy, we know that

U  K  0

where U is the change in potential energy and K is the change in

kinetic energy. So,

[K (5 m)  K (0)]  U  0  K (5 m)  U  3.0  102 J

d) We know that for uniform electric field, V  Ed . So

V ( x )  V (0)   Ex ( x  x0 )   (3  103 NC 1) ( x  x0 )

i) for V (0)  0

V ( x )   (3  103 NC 1) x
265
Block 2 Electrostatics
ii) for V (1m)  0

V ( x )  0   (3  103 NC 1)  ( x  1)

or V ( x )  3  103 V  (3  103 Vm1) x

7. Note that the electric field is along negative x-direction. So, the relation
between potential and electric field can be written as

dV
Ex 
dx

So, the value of potential will be higher for larger value of x. So, (VB  VA )
is positive.

Further, to determine the magnitude of E x for VB  VA  104 V, we can

write

V V  VA 10 4 V
Ex   B   2.5  103 Vm1
x (7 m  4 m) 4m

8. In going from the positive terminal of a battery to the negative terminal, the
electron (a negatively charged particle) moves from a point at a higher
potential to a point at a lower potential. Thus, if A and B are, respectively,
the positive and negative terminals of the battery, we have

VB  VA  12 V

Thus, the work done in moving an electron from the positive to the
negative terminal is

W  q (VB  VA )  (1.6  10 19 C)  (12 V)  1.92  10 18 J

266
Unit 9 Electric Potential of Continuous Charge Distributions

UNIT 9
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL OF
CONTINUOUS CHARGE
Particle accelerators utilise very high
potential differences to produce high

DISTRIBUTIONS
energy charged particles used in atom
smashing experiments for studying
nuclear structure. This is a picture of
the Large Hadron Collider located at
CERN, near Geneva.
(Picture source: Wikimedia Commons)

Structure
9.1 Introduction 9.4 Electrostatic Potential Energy
Expected Learning Outcomes 9.5 Summary
9.2 Electric Potential of Continuous Charge 9.6 Terminal Questions
Distributions 9.7 Solutions and Answers
Line Charge
Uniformly Charged Spherical Shell
Uniformly Charged Non-conducting Sphere
9.3 Equipotential Surfaces

STUDY GUIDE
In this unit, we will continue our discussion on electric potential begun in the previous unit.
You will learn how to determine the electric potential of continuous charge distributions such
as charged wire, spherical shell and non-conducting solid sphere. While studying this unit, you
should focus on how to calculate the total charge for a given continuous charge distribution.
The mathematical tools used for these calculations are similar to those you have learnt in
Block 1 of this course. However, you will do better if you revise Units 3 and 4 of Block 1 on
vector integral calculus and school integral calculus. Further, you should also focus on how
the value of electric field can be calculated at a point using the expression for potential at that
point due to a given continuous charge distribution. To help you understand and practice the
method of determining electric potential better, we have given several examples, SAQs and
TQs. Try to solve them yourself to check your understanding of the concepts and methods
discussed in the unit.

Thomas A.
“I have not failed. I've just found 10,000 ways that won't work.”
Edison

267
Block 2 Electrostatics
9.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous units of this block, you have learnt how to determine the
electric field E and electric potential V due to a point charge and a system of
discrete charges. You have learnt how to calculate potential
 by evaluating the
line integral of E. You have also learnt how to calculate E from potential V by
taking its gradient. In this unit, we shall extend these ideas to determine
electric potential of continuous charge distributions.

You know that the electrical appliances we use in our homes work on a
potential difference of 220 V. Apart from these appliances, the concept of
potential difference plays an important role in the design and manufacturing of
high voltage sources used by physicists to do interesting experiments. For
example, if a charged particle is allowed to fall through a potential difference, it
accelerates and its kinetic energy increases. The machines called particle
accelerators have been designed on this basic principle to produce high
energy charged particles used in atom smashing experiments for studying
nuclear structure. In electrical appliances and machines, the desired potential
difference is created by charging objects of appropriate geometry. Therefore,
it is important to study electric potential of continuous charge distributions.

We begin the discussion by determining the electric potential of three types of

continuous charge distributions, namely, line charge, spherical shell and non-
conducting solid sphere (Sec. 9.2). In Sec. 9.3, you will learn about
equipotential surface which is a useful concept because it is characterised by
the fact that no net work is done in moving a charge from one point to other on
this surface. In Sec. 9.4, you will learn how to calculate electrostatic potential
energy of a system of discrete charges as well as continuous charge
distributions if electric potential is known.

In the next unit (Block 3), you will study the macroscopic properties of the
dielectrics kept in an electric field. The understanding of the concepts of
electric field and potential studied in this block will help you appreciate the
properties of dielectrics better.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 obtain the expression for electric potential of a line charge;

 determine the electric potential of a uniformly charged spherical shell;
 derive the expression of electric potential of uniformly charged non-
conducting sphere;
 explain the concept of equipotential surface; and
 calculate the electrostatic potential energy for a given charge distribution.

9.2 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL OF CONTINUOUS

CHARGE DISTRIBUTIONS
In the previous unit, you have learnt how to determine the electric potential of
a point charge at a given point. You have also learnt how to use the
268
Unit 9 Electric Potential of Continuous Charge Distributions
superposition principle to obtain the expression for electric potential of multiple
discrete charges. NOTE
Now, suppose that we need to determine the electric potential of a charged Can we consider a
object such as a metal rod or a solid sphere. In general, for determining the charged object as a
collection or
electric potential of a continuous charge distribution, we first calculate
distribution of discrete
the potential due to a small element of the charge distribution and then charges and use the
integrate this expression over appropriate limits to include the effect of method described in
total charge in it. We now determine the electric potential of three types of the previous unit for
continuous charge distributions: line charge, uniformly charged spherical shell determining its electric
and uniformly charged non-conducting sphere. potential? No, we
cannot. This is so
9.2.1 Line Charge because for such
uniformly charged
In Unit 7 of this block, you have learnt how to determine the electric field at a objects, we can only
know the total charge
point near an infinitely long charged wire (or a line charge). It is given by:
on them. There is no
  way to ascertain the
E rˆ (9.1)
2 0 r position of individual
charges because the
where  is the charge per unit length on the wire or the linear charge charge is uniformly
density, r is the perpendicular distance of the point from the wire,  0 is the distributed all over the
object. A uniformly
permittivity of free space, and r̂ is the unit vector along the direction of
charged object is
increasing r from the line charge (Fig. 9.1). called continuous
charge distribution
The question now is: What is the potential of this wire at a point a situated at a
because the
perpendicular distance of ra from the wire? From Eq. (8.15) of Unit 8, you can
separation between
write individual charges on
ra
  such objects is very,

V   E.d l (9.2) very small.

Let us evaluate the line integral in Eq. (9.2) by first moving a unit positive
charge from a finite distance rb instead of infinity, to point a at distance ra
and then let rb go to infinity. Here rb is the distance of point b from the wire
(see Fig. 9.1). This integral then gives us the difference in potentials between
points a and b, i.e.
ra
  r b   rb  
 
Va  Vb   E.d l  E.d l  E.d r  (9.3)
rb ra ra
 
because for the path a to b, d l is parallel to d r . Inserting the expression for

E from Eq. (9.1) we get
rb 
 rˆ.d r
Va  Vb 
2  0 r 
ra
 Fig. 9.1: Electric potential
Since r̂ and d r are in the same direction, we have at a point a due to an
rb infinitely long charged
 dr
Va  Vb 
2  0  r
wire.
ra

  ln ra  ln rb  r 
ln r rab  
r
   ln a  (9.4)
2 0 2 0 2 0 20  rb 
269
Block 2 Electrostatics
As you have learnt in the previous unit, we take a point at infinity with zero
potential as our reference point and calculate the potential at a given point
with respect to infinity. In the instant case, if we consider point b to be located
at infinity, i.e. rb   and take the potential Vb equal to zero, then the RHS of
Eq. (9.4) tells us that the potential Va at point a will be infinite. This is expected
also because the infinitely long line charge having uniform charge distribution
means an infinite amount of charge. Therefore, the sum of finite contributions
from each part or element of an infinite line charge leads to an infinite
potential.

Thus, to have a physically meaningful expression for potential at a point finite

Note that an infinite line distance away from the line charge, we cannot take infinity with zero potential
charge contain infinite as our reference point. However, the inability to have a reference point with
amount of charge. Thus, zero potential does not cause any problem because in practical situations, we
we cannot calculate V at are interested in difference in potential between two points rather than its
a point for such a
absolute value at a given point. Thus, Eq. (9.4) which gives the potential
continuous charge
difference between points a and b (Fig. 9.1) with both ra and r b having finite
distribution by taking total
charge into consideration. values meets our requirement.
That method will not work
as it will give infinite
Further, to check whether we can obtain the value of electric field at a point,
potential everywhere. say a, using Eq. (9.4), let us assume that point b located at a finite distance
That is why we have used rb is the reference point with zero potential. This implies that rb is fixed and
the relation between V
 Vb  0. Hence, the second term on the RHS of Eq. (9.4) is constant. Thus, we
and E and the can write Eq. (9.4) as

expression for E for an
infinite line charge to  ln ra
Va    const (9.5)
obtain a physically 2 0
meaningful expression for 
V. You may recall that electric field E and electric potential V are related by
Eq. (8.20):
  dV 
E  V   rˆ a  rˆ (9.6)
dr 20r

Note that Eq. (9.6) is the same as Eq. (9.1).

To concretise the ideas discussed above, go through the following example.

XAMPLE 9.1 : ELECTRIC POTENTIAL OF A LINE CHARGE

An infinite line charge has linear charge density   2.0 C m 1. Calculate
the electric potential at a point on a line perpendicular to the line charge, at
a distance of 3.0 m from the line charge. Assume that the electric potential
of the line charge is zero at the perpendicular distance of 4.0 m.

SOLUTION  From Eq. (9.4), note that the potential difference between
two points a and b due to an infinite line charge is given as


Va  Vb   ln (ra / rb ) (i)
20
270
Unit 9 Electric Potential of Continuous Charge Distributions

From the problem, we have ra  3.0 m and rb  4.0 m. It is also given that
Vb  0 at rb  4.0 m. Substituting these values and   2.0  10 6 C m1 in
Eq. (i), we get
2.0  106 C m1  3.0 m 
Va  0   ln  
2  3.14  (8.85  1012 F m1)  4.0 m 
or Va  10.93  103 V

Before proceeding further, solve an SAQ.

SAQ 1 - Electric potential of a line charge

The linear charge density of an infinite line charge is 3.0  10 6 C m 1.

Assuming that the electric potential at a perpendicular distance of 5.0 m from
the wire is zero, calculate the potential at the perpendicular distance of 6.0 m.

Now, let us discuss how to determine the electric potential of a uniformly

charged spherical shell at a given point.

9.2.2 Uniformly Charged Spherical Shell

You know that a spherical shell is a hollow sphere. For determining the
electric potential of a uniformly charged spherical shell, there are two regions
of interest: one at a point inside the spherical shell and the other at a point
outside.

Fig. 9.2: A uniformly charged spherical shell of radius R and point P is an

external point.
Study Fig. 9.2, which shows a uniformly charged spherical shell of radius R.
To obtain an expression for the potential at an external point P, we first
identify a suitable element of charged shell. The charged surface of the shell
can be considered as a collection of a large number of thin rings such as the
ring AB. The orientation of these rings are so selected that the axis of the
rings is along OP, the line joining the centre O of the shell with the point P.
Now, let the ring AB be contained between the directions  and  + d with
respect to the axis OP. Let it be of infinitesimal width so that every point on it
is at the same distance, say r, from P. The angular width of the ring is d, its
width is Rd and its radius is R sin. The circumference of the ring is
2R sin  and hence, its area is given by
271
Block 2 Electrostatics
dA  (2R sin )R d  2R 2 sin d (9.7)

What is the charge on the ring? If the total charge on the shell is Q, then
charge per unit area,   Q /( 4R 2 ). Thus, using Eq. (9.7) we can write the
charge on the ring

Q Q
Qring   (2R 2 sin ) d  sin d (9.8)
4R 2 2

We shall now determine the electric potential at point P due to the ring AB.
The ring is made up of a large number of point charges each having charge
equal to, say Q. So, the electric potential for one such point charge is
1 Q
. So, the electric potential due to the ring will be
4 0 r 

 Q  1 Qring
  40  Q  40
1 1
dVring  
r   40r  r

So, on using Eq. (9.8), we get

 1 Q 
dVring     sin d  (9.9)
 4 0 r    2 

As we mentioned above, the shell can be imagined to be made of rings like

Fig. 9.3: Diagrams for
calculating electric
AB having a common axis OP. Since electric potential is a scalar quantity, we
potential of charged shall integrate Eq. (9.9) to get the electric potential V of the shell.
spherical shell.
Note that on the RHS of Eq. (9.9), we have two variables  and r. It will be
convenient if we can express it in terms of a single variable. For this, we shall
consider the relation between r, r and R. To do so, refer to Fig. 9.3a. From
triangle OAP, we have (see Margin Remark):

For triangle OAP r  2  r 2  R 2  2rR cos 

(Fig. 9.3a):
   On differentiating with respect to , we get
a bc  0
   dr 
 a  b  c 2r   2rR sin 
d
   
 ( a  b) . ( a  b)  c 2
dr  sin d
  or  (9.10)
 a  b  2a.b  c 2
2 2
rR r
or Substituting Eq. (9.10) in Eq. (9.9), we get
a2  b2 
1  Q   dr  
2ab cos(   )  c 2 dVring     (9.11)
4 0  2   rR 
or
To obtain the electric potential due to the entire shell, we need to integrate
c 2  a 2  b 2  2ab cos 
Eq. (9.11) over appropriate limits of integration to include the contribution of
every ring of the shell:
r2
1 Q

V  dVring 
4 0 2rR
dr   (9.12)
r1
272
Unit 9 Electric Potential of Continuous Charge Distributions
where r1 and r2 are, respectively, the minimum and maximum values of r . To
write the values of r1 and r2 in terms of r and R, we consider the two cases –
point P outside the shell and point P inside the shell – separately :

a) Point P outside the shell

In this case, as shown in Fig. 9.3b, the values of r1 and r2 are

r1  r  R and r2  r  R

So, Eq. (9.12) becomes

(r R )
1 Q 1  Q  Q
V
40 2rR  dr   40  2rR  [2R]  40r (9.13)
( r R )

Eq. (9.13) gives the electric potential due to a uniformly charged spherical
shell at a point outside the shell. Note that Eq. (9.13) is same as Eq. (8.14)
which is for the electric potential of a point charge at a point at distance r.

Thus, we may conclude that, for an external point, the uniformly

charged spherical shell behaves as a point charge located at the
centre of the shell.

b) Point P inside the shell

Refer to Fig. 9.3c which depicts the point P inside the shell. From the
figure, you may note that for r < R

r1  R  r and r2  R  r

Substituting these values of r1 and r2 as limits of integration in Eq. (9.12),
we get
(R r )
1 Q 1  Q  Q
V 
4 0 2rR  dr   4 0  2rR  [2r ]  4 0 R (9.14)
( R r )

From Eq. (9.14), which gives electric potential at an internal point P, we note
that the electric potential is independent of r, the distance of point P from the
centre O of the shell. This means that the electric potential at every point
inside the shell is same and its value is equal to its value at the surface. If we
plot the variation of potential for a spherical shell with distance from its centre, Fig. 9.4: The variation
we obtain a curve as shown in Fig. 9.4. of electric potential
due to a spherical shell
On the basis of Eq. (9.14) and Fig. 9.4, can you guess what will the value shell with distance
of electric field inside the uniformly charged spherical shell be? Note from its centre.
from Fig. 9.4 that the electric potential is constant everywhere inside the shell.
So, if we move a test charge from one point to another inside the shell, no
work is to be done because both the points are at the same potential. This is
possible only if the value of the electric field inside the shell is zero. Thus, we
conclude that:
273
Block 2 Electrostatics

The value of electric field inside a uniformly charged spherical shell is

zero.

Now, before proceeding further, solve an SAQ.

SAQ 2 - Electric potential of a uniformly charged spherical shell

The radius and surface charge density of a uniformly charged spherical shell
are 20 cm and 3.0 C m2, respectively. Calculate the electric potential at a
distance (a) 40 cm and (b) 15 cm from the centre of the shell.

9.2.3 Uniformly Charged Non-conducting Sphere

Let  be the volume charge density (charge per unit volume) of a uniformly
charged non-conducting sphere. Let the radius of the sphere be R (see
Fig. 9.5). As in the case of spherical shell, here also we have two regions of
interest for determining electric potential: one at a point outside the sphere
and the other at a point inside it.

Fig. 9.5: A uniformly charged non-conducting sphere of radius R with point P1

outside the sphere and point P2 inside the sphere.

a) Electric potential at a point outside the sphere

For points outside the non-conducting sphere, such as P1, located at
distance r from the centre O of the sphere, the whole charge spread
throughout the volume of the sphere behaves like a point charge located
at its centre O. This fact can easily be deduced on the basis of the
derivation of the potential at an external point due to a spherical shell
discussed in the previous section. We can divide the non-conducting
sphere into a large number of thin concentric shells as shown in Fig. 9.5.
For each of these shells, the charge can be regarded as concentrated at
the centre O for points outside the shell. Thus, for a point outside the
sphere, such as P1 in Fig. 9.5, the whole charge of the sphere can be
regarded as a point charge located at its centre O. Hence, for points
outside the sphere, the expression for electric potential due to a non-
conducting charged sphere will be the same as for a uniformly charged
spherical shell [(Eq. (9.13)]:
274
Unit 9 Electric Potential of Continuous Charge Distributions
Q
V (9.15)
4  0 r

where Q  ( 4 / 3) R 3  is the total charge on the sphere and r is the

distance of external point P1 from the centre O of the sphere. You must,
however, note that the expression for the total charge, Q is different
for a uniformly charged non-conducting solid sphere from that for
the uniformly charged spherical shell (it is spread in a volume, whereas
for a shell, it is spread on its surface).
b) Electric potential at a point inside the sphere
Let point P2 be an internal point at a distance r from the centre O such
that r < R (see Fig. 9.5). If we divide the sphere into a large number of thin
concentric shells with centre O, then for shells with radii  r , point P2 is
outside and for shells which have radii between r and R, point P2 is inside.
For shells with radii less than or equal to r, potential V1 at P2 can be
written as if point P2 is an external point and hence it is given by Eq.
(9.15):
Q1 4 r 3 r 2
V1     (9.16)
40 r 3 40 r 3 0
To evaluate the contribution to electric potential by the shells for which P2
is inside the sphere, let us consider a shell of radius x and thickness dx as
shown in Fig. 9.5. For this shell, the total charge Q2 is equal to volume
times charge density, i.e. Q2  4x 2dx. This charge contributes a
constant electric potential dV2 at any internal point and is given by (see
Eq. (9.14)):
4 x 2 dx  x dx
dV2   (9.17)
4  0 x 0
For adding the contributions from all such shells for which P2 is an internal
point, we integrate Eq. (9.17) for x varying from r to R. This gives the
electric potential V2 at P2 due to shells for which point P2 is internal as
R R
   R2  r 2 

V2  dV2 
0x dx  
0  2 
 (9.18)
r r

Thus, adding Eqs. (9.16) and (9.18), we can write the electric potential V
of the non-conducting sphere at an internal point P2 as:
 2   R2  r 2 
V  V1  V2  r   
30 0  2 

  3R 2  r 2  4R 3  3R 2  r 2  Q (3R 2  r 2 )
      
3 0  2  3  40  2R
3
 8   0R 3
(9.19)
where Q [ ( 4 / 3) R 3] is the total charge on the uniformly charged non-
conducting sphere.
To fix these ideas, you may like to go through the following example, which is
for conducting sphere.
275
Block 2 Electrostatics

XAMPLE 9.2 : ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO CHARGED

CONDUCTING SPHERE

Two charged spherical conductors of radius r1  8.0 cm and r2  2.0 cm

are separated by a distance much larger than 10 cm. These spheres are
connected by a conducting wire and a total of 60 nC charge is placed on
one of the spheres. (a) Calculate the charge on each sphere. b) Calculate
the electric potential of each sphere at a point on their surfaces.
SOLUTION  Since the charged conducting sphere is connected through
a conducting wire to the uncharged sphere, the 60 nC charge will
redistribute between the two sphere in such a manner so that both sphere
have same electric potential. Let the final charge be q1 (on the larger
sphere) and q 2 on the smaller sphere.

(a) From the conservation of charge, we have

q1  q2  60 nC (i)

Further, since the electric potential of both spheres are equal, we can
write,
1 q1 1 q2 r
  q 2  2 q1 (ii)
40 r1 40 r2 r1
From Eqs. (i) and (ii), we can write
r
q1  2 q1  60 nC
r1

Note that the spheres in  r  80 cm

 q1   1   60 nC   60 nC  48 nC
Example 9.2 are  r1  r2  10 cm
conducting spheres.
So, q2  (60 nC  48 nC)  12 nC
b) Using the values of q1 and q 2 , we can write the potential V1 and V2 of
the two spheres at a point on their surfaces as

1 48 nC (9  10 9 Nm 2 C 2 )  ( 48  10 9 C)
V1    5.4 kV
4 0 (8.0  10  2 m) (8.0  10  2 m)

1 12 nC (9  10 9 Nm 2 C 2 )  (12  10 9 C)
V2    5.4 kV
4 0 (2.0  10  2 m) (2.0  10  2 m)

Now, you may like to solve an SAQ.

SAQ 3 - Electric potential of a charged conducting sphere

An isolated solid sphere of aluminium having radius 7.0 cm is at a potential of

500 V. Calculate the number of electrons which have been removed from the
sphere to raise it to this potential.

Let us now learn about the concept of equipotential surface.

276
Unit 9 Electric Potential of Continuous Charge Distributions

9.3 EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES

To understand the concept of equipotential surface, recall that electric
potential of a point charge Q, at a point at distance r is given as:
Q  1
V   
4  0  r 
From the above equation, we note that electric potential depends only on r.
Now, you know that the locus of points having the same value of r is the
surface of a sphere of radius r with the point charge as its centre. For a
different value of r, we get a different surface of the sphere (see Fig. 9.6a). On
any such surface, the value of electric potential will be the same everywhere
because r is same for all points of this surface. Such a surface is called an
equipotential surface. Formally, we define equipotential surface as the
locus of all points having the same electric potential. Further, the
geometry of Fig. 9.6a suggests that the electric field lines due to the point
charge Q located at the centre of the concentric spheres are everywhere
perpendicular to the equipotential surfaces. The consequences of this fact are
very important which we shall discuss shortly.

Fig. 9.6: a) Equipotential surfaces of a point charge  Q; the electric field lines
are radial (dashed). Solid circles are intersections of equipotential
surfaces on the plane of paper; b) The equipotential surfaces
(cylindrical surfaces) of a uniform infinite line charge.
Can you guess the nature of equipotential surfaces for a uniform infinite line
charge? From Eq. (9.5), you may note that for a uniform infinite line charge,
the electric potential is same at all points equidistant from the line charge.
Therefore, for such a charge distribution, equipotential surfaces are cylindrical
with the line charge as the axis of the cylinder (Fig. 9.6b).
Yet another example of an equipotential surface is a conducting surface. An
ideal conducting surface must be an equipotential surface. Can you
guess why it is so? This is because if there were any potential difference
between two points on the conducting surface, charges would move from
higher to lower electric potential (or vice-versa) until the electric potential
everywhere became equal. You will see later in Unit 11 that this property of
conductors helps us determine the electric field and potential in the space
between the plates of a capacitor easily.
Since an equipotential surface is a surface having constant electric
potential, the potential difference between any two points on it is zero. This
277
Block 2 Electrostatics
implies that the work done in moving a unit charge from one point to another
on such a surface is also zero. Thus, if a and b are two points on a
equipotential surface, we can write
b 


Vb  Va   Ε . d l  0 (9.20)
Fig. 9.7: Direction of a
electric
 field vector where Va and Vb are potential at points a and b, respectively. You will agree

Ε relative to equipotential
that Eq. (9.20) will hold only when the electric field Ε and the small

surfaces. PQRS and
PQRS are part of
displacement vector d l are perpendicular to each other. Since d l is an
equipotential surfaces. infinitesimal displacement on the equipotential surface, Ε has to be
perpendicular at all points on such a surface (see Fig. 9.7). It is for this reason
that we have drawn the electric field lines as perpendicular to the equipotential
surfaces in Fig. 9.6.

For an arbitrary charge distribution, the equipotential surfaces may look like
the ones drawn in Fig. 9.8. By convention, the equipotential surfaces are
drawn such that there is a constant difference of potential, say V ,
between the adjacent surfaces as shown in Fig. 9.8.

Further, you may note in Fig. 9.9 which depicts the equipotential surfaces for
Fig. 9.8: Separation an arbitrary charge distribution, that the equipotential surfaces may or may not 
between equipotential
be parallel to each other. They are relatively closer where the magnitude of E
surfaces for arbitrary
distribution of charges. is large, and are relatively far apart where the magnitude of E is small. It is so
Portions of four because the difference in potential, V between any two given equipotential
equipotential surfaces surfaces is constant and we know that
are shown.
V  Ed  El (9.21)

Thus, for constant V , if l decreases, E must increase.

The magnitude of electric field is greater in the region where

equipotentials are closer to each other.

So, we have seen that the sketch of equipotential surfaces gives us a fairly
good idea about the magnitude of electric field in that region. You have also
learnt that the electric field is directed perpendicular to an equipotential
surface. Can we also draw some inference about the sense of the direction of
electric field on the basis of equipotentials? Yes, we can. To find out, refer
again to Fig. 9.9. Note that, on the left hand side of the figure, equipotential
surfaces are closer to each other as compared to theright hand side. Now,
you may recall from Unit 8 that the relation between E and electric potential is
given by:
 
Fig. 9.9: Direction of
E  V (9.22)
 
electric field E from The negative sign in Eq. (9.22), along with the fact that the electric field E is
equipotential surfaces.

always perpendicular to equipotential surfaces, implies that E always points
in the direction of decreasing V. To understand this better, let us consider two
probable directions APB and AQC for the electric field E (Fig. 9.9). Let the
278
separation between two adjacent equipotentials along APB and AQC be l
Unit 9 Electric Potential of Continuous Charge Distributions

and l  respectively. Since V is constant and the geometry of the figure

suggests that l   l , we have
V V

l l 
 
This implies that E is directed along  l , that is, along APB because the
decrease
 in V is fastest along this line. Thus, we conclude that the electric
field E is always along the direction of maximum (or the steepest)
decrease of potential, V.

Thus, a sketch of the equipotential surfaces gives us a visual picture of both

the direction and the magnitude of E in a region of space containing a single
charge, a group of charges, or a charge distribution of some particular form (or
shape).
On the basis of the above discussion, we can summarise the properties of
equipotential surfaces as follow:

 The electric field is perpendicular to equipotential surface.

 The electric field is directed along the maximum (steepest)
decrease of potential. That is, it points from surface at higher
electric potential to lower electric potential.
 No work is done in moving a charge between any two points on
an equipotential surface.
 The tangential component of electric field along an
equipotential surface is zero. If it were not so, a finite work
would be required to be done in moving a charge along the
surface.

So far, we have described the electrostatic field in terms of electric field

vector, potential and equipotential surfaces. In the next section we shall
discuss the electrostatic energy associated with discrete and continuous
charge distributions. But, before studying the next section, you may like to try
an SAQ.

SAQ 4 - Equipotential surfaces Fig. 9.10: Diagram for

SAQ 4b.
a) Suppose you are given a sketch of electric field lines due to a group of
charges and asked to draw the equipotential surfaces. List the various
points you will keep in mind while drawing equipotential surfaces.
b) The equipotential surfaces for a charged solid metal object are shown in
Fig. 9.10. Draw the electric field lines.

9.4 ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

In the previous unit, you have learnt about the electrostatic potential energy of
charge q in the field of another charge Q. We now extend this discussion to
discrete and continuous charge distributions. 279
Block 2 Electrostatics
Let us first consider two charged particles q1 and q 2 very far apart from one
another as shown in Fig. 9.11a. Now, if we bring these two particles slowly
towards each other to a distance between them be r21, then how much work
is done in this process? Recall that the work done will be the same whether
we move q 2 and keep q1 fixed or vice-versa. The work done is the integral of
the product of the force between the charges and displacement in the
direction of force.

Fig. 9.11: a) Two charged particles q1 and q2 at a very large distance from each
other; b) the two charges at a separation r 21 from each other; c) three
charges q1, q2 and q3 are brought near one another.

The work done in bringing the charges q1 and q 2 separated by a large

distance to a separation r21 from each other is:

  r21 1 q1q2 ( dr ) 1 q1q2


W1  F21.d l   40 r 2

40 r21
(9.23a)
r 

Note that we have taken distance as ( dr) because r is changing from  to

r21. We have taken q1 and q2 to be positive; so the charges must be pushed
together and the displacement is opposite to the direction of Coulomb force.

You know from Unit 8 that the work done in moving a charge from infinity to a
finite distance r in a field due to another charge is independent of the path we
take. With this understanding, let us now bring a third charge q 3 from infinity
(that is, from very large distance from charges q1 and q 2 ) and bring it to a
position such that its distance from q1 is r31 and from q 2 ,r32 (Fig. 9.11c). So,
the work done in moving charge q 3 to this position is
        
   
F.d l  (F31  F32 ).d l   [Link]  F32 .dr (9.23b)

Eq. (9.23b) is written due to the fact that the work done to bring q 3 to point
P3 is the sum of the work needed when q1 alone is present and the work
needed when q 2 alone is present. So,

1  q1q3 q2q3 
W2    
40  r31 r32 

So, the total work done in assembling this arrangement of three charges
q1,q2 and q3 is
280
Unit 9 Electric Potential of Continuous Charge Distributions
1  q1q2 q1q3 q2q3 
W  W1  W2      (9.24)
40  r21 r31 r32 

The work done given by Eq. (9.24) is defined as electrostatic potential energy
of the system.
We can now generalise the result contained in Eq. (9.24) to any number of
charges. If we have N different charges in any configuration in space, the
electrostatic potential energy of the system can be written as sum over all
pairs. So, for a system of N charges q1, q 2 , q3 ,..., qN , the electrostatic
potential energy can be written as
1 N N q j qk
P.E.  
2 j 1 k 1 40 r jk
(9.25)
k j

N N
Note that the double summation notation.
 implies that when we take
j 1 k 1
k j

j  1, we need to sum over all values of k except 1; that is, we sum over
k  2, 3,..., N; then we take j  1 and sum over k  1, 3, 4, ..., N (leaving
k  2), and so on. So, we find that the double summation includes every pair
twice and the factor of (1/2) has been included in Eq. (9.25) to correct this
double counting.
In terms of electric potential V j at the position of charge q j , Eq. (9.25) may
be written as
N
 40kr jk
1 N q
P. E.   q j Vj where Vj  (9.26)
2 j 1 k 1
j k

Eq. (9.26) implies that, for calculating the electrostatic potential energy for a
group of point charges, one may consider each charge by turn, and the
corresponding potential at its position due to all other charges except the one
under consideration.
Continuous Charge Distribution
Since most of the charged real physical systems such as the plates of parallel
plate capacitor are described as continuous charge distributions, you may like
to know how to determine their electrostatic or electrical potential energy. To
learn the method, take a simple example of adding point charges gradually, in
steps, on an isolated conductor. In such a situation, the work done can be
calculated as follows.
Let the charge on a conductor at a given time be q. Then, the potential V of
this charged conductor is proportional to q. Thus, the work done W in adding
an additional charge q on q (isolated conductor) is
W  Vq
Further, we can write V as V  kq where k is the constant of proportionality.
Hence
W  kq q
As we go on adding more and more charges to this conductor, the total work
done is the electrical potential energy of the charged body. The total work
281
Block 2 Electrostatics
done can be calculated by integration (equivalent to summation). Thus, if Q is
the final charge on the isolated conductor, then its electrical potential energy
can be expressed as:
Q Q Q
q 2  Q2 Q
 
P. E.  W  k q q  k    k
 2 0
 Vf
2 2
(9.27)
0 0

where (Vf  k Q ) is the final electric potential of the charged isolated

conductor.
Eq. (9.27) gives the electrical potential energy of a charged conductor. We
can write this expression in terms of charge density. For example, if in an
infinitesimal volume d, we assemble point charges such that the volume
charge density is  and the electric potential is V then Eq. (9.27) for electrical
potential energy can be written as
1
P. E. 
2  Vd (9.28)
volume
Note that d in Eq. (9.28) gives charge in the volume element d and when
we integrate it over volume, we get Q, total charge on the conductor.
Similarly, for a charge distribution on a surface, if σ is the charge per unit area,
then Eq. (9.28) takes the form
1
P.E. 
2  V dS (9.29)
surface

where dS is the element of surface area. And for a line charge distribution, if 
is the charge per unit length, then Eq. (9.27) for potential energy becomes
1
P. E. 
2  V dl (9.30)
line

where dl is line element.

Now, let us work out an example on electrical potential energy.

XAMPLE 9.3 : ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

Three charges are arranged as shown in Fig. 9.12. Calculate the electrical
potential energy of the system. Assume q 1.0 10 5 C, and d  0 .10 m.

SOLUTION  The total electrical potential energy (P.E.) of the system is

the algebraic sum of the electrical potential energies of all pair of charges,
viz.,

1  (q )  ( 4q ) (q )  ( 2q ) ( 4q )  ( 2q ) 

P. E.   
40  d d d 

1   10q 2   (9.0 10 9 N m 2 C 2 )  (10)  (1.0 10 5 C)2

Fig. 9.12: Diagram for    
Example 9.3. 40  d  0.10 m

  90 J
282
Unit 9 Electric Potential of Continuous Charge Distributions

SAQ 5 - Electrical potential energy

With the help of a suitable diagram, estimate the number of terms that will
contribute to the electrical potential energy for a system of five point charges.

We now sum up what you have learnt in this unit.

9.5 SUMMARY

Concept Description

Potential due to  The potential difference between two points a and b on the line perpendicular
infinite line to infinite line charge at distance ra and rb , respectively is:
charge
 ln ra  ln rb
Va  Vb   
20 20

If we assume that point b is at finite distance rb and it is the reference point

having zero electric potential (that is, Vb  0 ), then

 ln ra
Va    const
2 0
Potential due to  At a point distant r from the centre and outside the spherical shell of radius R:
uniformly Q
charged spherical V 
40 r
shell
where Q  4R 2.
At a point inside the shell:
Q
V 
40R
Potential due to  At an external point at distance r from the centre of the sphere:
uniformly charged Q
non-conducting V 
40 r
sphere
where Q  ( 4 / 3) R 3 .
At an internal point:
Q
V  (3R 2  r 2 )
8 0 R 3
where R is the radius of the sphere and r (< R) is the distance of the internal
point from the centre.
Equipotential  Equipotential surfaces are surfaces on which the potential at each point is
surface same.

The electric field E is always directed perpendicular to an equipotential
surface. It is always along the direction of the fastest decrease of the electric
potential.
No work is done in moving a charge between any two points on an
equipotential surface.
Equipotential surfaces are closer to each other in regions of strong electric
field and are relatively far apart in regions of weak electric field.
283
 Block 2 Electrostatics
Electrical  The electrical potential energy is the energy stored in a system of charges. It
potential energy is equal to the amount of work done in assembling the system together by
bringing the charges from infinity.
The electrical potential energy for a group of N discrete point charges is given
as:
N

1
P. E.  q j Vj
2 j 1

where V j is the potential at the position of charge q j due to all the charges
except the charge q j .
The electrical potential energy of a charged conductor is
1
P. E.   Vd
2 v olume
where  is volume charge density.
The electrical potential energy of a charge distribution on a surface is

P. E.  (1/ 2) surf aceVd S

 The electrical potential energy of a line charge is
P. E.  (1/ 2) lineVdl

9.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS


1. If electric field E equals zero at a given point, must V (electric potential)
equal zero at that point? Give one example to justify your answer.

2. An infinite charged sheet has a surface charge density σ of

1.0 10 7 Cm 2 . How far apart are the equipotential surfaces whose
potentials differ by 5.0 V?

3. A uniformly charged sphere has electric potential of 375 V on its surface.

At a radial distance of 25 cm from the surface of the sphere, the electric
potential is 125 V. Calculate the radius and charge on the sphere.

Fig. 9.13: Diagram for

4. Derive an expression for the work required to put the four charges
TQ 4. together as indicated in Fig. 9.13.

5. Calculate the gain or loss of electrical potential energy when a droplet of

radius R carrying a charge Q splits into two equal sized droplets of charge
Q / 2 and radius r. Assume that the droplets are repelled to a large
distance compared to r because of electrostatic repulsion.

6. There are two charged conducting spheres of radii a and b. Suppose that
they are connected by a conducting wire. What will happen? Using the
result from this arrangement, explain why charge density on sharp and
pointed ends of a conductor is higher than on its flatter portions.

7. Devise an arrangement of three point charges, separated by finite

284
distances, that has zero potential energy.
Unit 9 Electric Potential of Continuous Charge Distributions

9.7 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS

Self-Assessment Questions

1. We know that the potential difference between two points P and Q due to
an infinite line charge is given as [Eq. (9.4)]:


VP  VQ   ln( rP / rQ )
20

As per the problem, let point Q be at a distance of 5.0 m from the line
charge where potential VQ  0. So, the potential at point P located at 6.0
m can be written as

2
ln (rP / rQ )  2  (3.0  10 16 C m 1 )  (9  10 9 Nm2C  2 )  ln 
6.0 m 
VP   
4 0  5.0 m 

  9.8  10 3 V

2. a) The point located at 40 cm from the centre of the shell where potential
is to be calculated is an external point because radius is 20 cm. So, we
can write

1 Q (9  10 9 Nm 2 C 2 )  4  (0.20 m) 2  (3.0  10 6 C m 2 )
V 
4 0 r (0.40 m)

 8.4  10 4 V

b) The point located at 15 cm from the centre is an internal point. For any
such point, potential has a constant value given by

1 Q (9  10 9 N m 2C 2 )  4  (0.20 m) 2  (3.0  10 6 C m 2 )
V 
40 R (0.20 m)

 6.7  10 4 V

3. Let Q be the charge on the aluminium sphere and n number of electrons

have been removed to raise it to potential of 500 V. So, Q  ne, where e
is electronic charge. So, n  (Q / e). Further, the potential of the sphere is
given as

1 Q 1 ne
V  
40 r 40 r

( 40 )Vr (500 V)  (.07 m)

So, n   2.4  108
e (9  10 N m2C 2 )  (1.6  10 19 C)
9
Fig. 9.14: Diagram for
answer to SAQ 4b.
4. a) i) Equipotentials are always perpendicular to the electric field lines.

ii) Separation between the equipotentials depends on the strength of

the electric field.

b) Electric field lines for the charged metal object are shown in Fig. 9.14. 285
Block 2 Electrostatics
5. The diagram for a system of five charges is shown in Fig. 9.15. Since each
pair of charge has a potential energy and there are 10 pairs between 5
point charges, 10 terms would be contributing to the potential energy of 5
charges.

(Rule: If there are n charges, the number of terms (pairs) contributing to

n(n  1)
the potential energy is ).
2

Terminal Questions

1. We know that the electric field is related to potential as E  (dV / dx ).
Thus, if E  0, electric potential
 has to be a constant. It is not necessary
that V be equal to zero when E  0. Consider, for example two identical
Fig. 9.15: Diagram for
charges separated by a distance 2a. At the mid-point between the
answer to SAQ 5.
charges,
 1 q
E  0, but V 
2  0 a

2. The magnitude of electric field near an infinite charged sheet is given by

(see Unit 6):
 
E 
2 0

where  is the surface charge density. Therefore, for the problem under
consideration,

 1.0  10 7 C m 2
E  5.6  10 3 NC 1
2  8.9 10 12 C 2 N1 m  2

The spacing l between the equipotential surface is given by

l  (V / E ) where V is the potential difference between the adjacent
surfaces. With V  5.0 V, we have

5.0 V
l   0.89  10  3 m  0.89 mm
5.6  10 3 NC 1

3. The potential of a charged sphere is

1 Q 1 Q
V   375 V  (i)
40 r 4 0 r

Also, as per the problem

1 Q
125 V  (ii)
40 ( 4  0.25 m)

From Eqs. (i) and (ii)

375 V (r  0.25 m)

125 V r
3r  r  0.25 m  r  0.13 m
286
Unit 9 Electric Potential of Continuous Charge Distributions
And, total charge on the sphere is
375 V  0.13 m
Q  V (4 0 ) r =  5.2  10 9 C
9  10 9 Nm 2 C  2

4. The work required to assemble four charges together as shown in

Fig. 9.13 is equal to the electric potential energy of the system. The
electrical potential energy of the system may be obtained by considering
the charges in pairs:

1  (q ) ( q ) ( q ) (q ) ( q ) (q ) ( q ) (q )   ( q ) ( q ) (q ) (q ) 
      
4  0  a a a a   2a 2a 
1   4q 2 2q 2  1 q2
     ( 4  2)
4  0  a 2 a 4  0 a

5. Total volume of 2 droplets after splitting  2  ( 4 / 3) r 3 . Volume of the

original droplet  ( 4 / 3) R 3 . Since volumes have to be equal, we have

2  (4 / 3) r 3  (4 / 3) R 3  r  (1/ 2)1/ 3 R (i)

Electrical potential energy (P.E.) of the original droplet with charge Q is

1 1 Q Q2
P.E.  QV  Q  (ii)
2 2 4  0 R 8  0 R

Total electrical potential energy of 2 droplets after splitting is

1 Q Q/2 Q2 / 2
(P.E.) split  2  
2 2 4  0 r 8  0 r

Using Eq. (i), we have

Q2  1 2 / 3
(P.E.) split    (iii)
8  0 R  2 

Thus, the loss in electrical potential energy after splitting is

Q2  1 
1 
8  0 R  (2) 2 / 3 

6. When two charged conducting spheres are connected by a wire as

shown in Fig. 9.16, the charges redistribute themselves till both spheres Fig. 9.16: Diagram
are at the same potential, i.e., for answer to TQ 6.
1 q1 1 q2
V  
4 0 a 4 0 b
where q1 and q2 are charges on spheres of radii a and b respectively.
This gives
q1 a
 (i)
q2 b
The surface charge densities 1 and  2 on these spheres are:
q1 q2
1  and  2 
4a 2 4b 2 287
Block 2 Electrostatics
Thus, we can write
1 q b2
 1 (ii)
2 q2 a 2

Combining Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get

Fig. 9.17: Diagram for 1 a b 2 b
the answer of TQ 6.   
2 b a2 a

Thus, we see that the surface charge densities of conducting spheres are
inversely proportional to their radii. For sharp and pointed ends, the radii
are small, resulting in high surface charge densities. For flatter ends, the
radii are larger which result in smaller surface charge densities. See
Fig. 9.17.
7. If we devise an arrangement as shown in Fig. 9.18, the electrical potential
energy (P.E.) turns out to be zero because the P.E. of the arrangement is:
1  ( q ) q ( q ) (q ) (q ) (q ) 
P.E.    0
4  0  2a a 
Fig. 9.18: Diagram for
2a
the answer to TQ 7.

288