CORE EXPERIMENT: 1 (Slide Preparation: Pollen Germination) Aim: To study pollen germination on a slide. In nature, pollen grains germinate on the compatible stigmas of the carpel. Pollen grains can also be induced to germinate in a synthetic medium. During germination, intine (inner wall) of pollen grain emerges out as pollen tube through one of the germ pores in exine (outer wall). Requirements: Freshly plucked seasonal flowers (Vinca /Tradescantia/balsam/Jasmine/lily/ pomegranate/grass/ Petunia), beaker, boric acid, sucrose, microscope and cavity slide. Procedure: The first step involves the preparation of a sugar solution. This is done by dissolving 10g of sucrose 90ml of water.Pour a few drops of this solution onto the cavity slide. ‘Then, use a brush or fingers to gently dust a few pollen grains from the stamen of mature flowers. Let the slide set for 5 minutes. Then, use the microscope to view the slides in 30- minute intervals. Observation: ‘The pollen grains will germinate when submerged in the sugar rich nutrient medium. This is characterized by the enlargement of the vegetative /tube cell. It emerges through one of the germ pores, eventually forming a pollen tube. The generative cell nucleus grows into the pollen tube and makes two male gametes (sperm nuclei). The male gamete is either spherical or lenticular in outline. ‘@— * o) —_— woe Tube nucteus Figure Pollen germination Inference: Different stages of germinating pollens are observed. Some pollens are in their initial stage of germination while others have quite long pollen tube containing tube nucleus and two male gametes. Precautions: 1. Flowers should be freshly plucked. 2. Use clean cavity slide to observe the pollen grains. 3. The slides should not be disturbed, otherwise position of pollen grains will get changed. 4. During observations pollen grains must be properly dipped in nutrient solution.1 METRE 1 METRE METRE H METREPROCEDURE : ‘Sclect any area to study the diversity of plants. Measure 1 metre x 1 metre area with the help of scale. 2Fix the nails at the four corners of the square and tie the string. . -3-Further divide the large square into 16 small squares by tieing strings at a distance of 50 cm each. © Count the number of plants of a specific type in one quadrant. Mark it as A. 5/Similarly, count the number of individuals of other species and mark them B, C, D and E respectively. ( Add all the plants of a particular species of smaller squares to get the total number of plants in the bigger quadrat measuring 1 metre x 1 metre. ‘XRepeat the experiment at different areas and at different places. Count and note down the number repvan's of @ Particular species in these quadrates also, Tabulate your observations in the table given low : ABLE : Tabulation of Data collected a. ‘Number of individual plants Isno.| Nameot | “ofa‘species voumtetm’? | Totalno. of No. of Total Population SNo. | ‘species attieent quate Individuals | quadrates of | quadrates density e —™) ‘occurrence ‘studied D=NA Me 1 fw [navy vt fv) nx x. ©) & Ht A |3)ololo|s|2)j6lojol2| 18 5 10 D=1810 2 D=1.8/quadrant g 4. 5. 6 i .AMESULTS : Density —It is the numerical strength of an species per unit area. It is calculated as : 1. Population density of a plant species in the given field or Number of quadrates: (i.e. population density/sq metre) 2. Percentage of the individuals of a particular species = Tetalnumber of althoindividua plants op Number of individual plants of onespecies }CAUTIONS : 1. To avoid the variation in data, quadrates should be selected within a field. 2. Only few plant species must be considered for data collection at one time. 3. Thickness of the string should be normal neither very thick nor very thin. 4, Count the number of plants carefully.( ai : Study the plant population frequency by quadrat method. JUIREMENTS : 4 pegs, 1 metre scale, string 50 m, workbook, bag for plants collection, wooden quadrat of definite size. _PHOCEDURE : Select a suitable area having rich diversity of plants for study. 2A7ake the wooden framed quadrat of required size and lay it randomly at any place. oR With the help of metre scale, pegs and string, construct the quadrates of required size. -& Identify the species falling inside the quadrat or distinguish them as A, B, C, ete. 4 Sount the total number of individual species. Lay the quadrat at several places (at least 5 places). ih5, Record the total number of species, each time, the quadrat is placed. 6. Count and note down the number of plants of a particular species in these quadrates. Quadrat frame : 0.5 cm wooden frame with wires fixed at 10 em interval. hea made from 4 peg, nails, string making squares. eT 4 | IBSERVATIONS ; Write down the name of the species, total number of species to calenlate the frequency in your Practical notebook in a tabular form as shown on next page : _PRICULATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS : ‘Tabulate the record in the following manneRESULTS: Population Frequency — It is the degree of dispersion in terms of percentage as follow : No. of quadrates in which species occurred Population Frequei AHODeY.Siaeetrotel wauanber Ue QuRrdtaa Hida x 100© Cytology Mitosis is a type of cell division to form two daughter cells similar to the parent cell. It maintains the chromosome number constant in a species. JUIREMENTS ion bulbs, conical flasks/glass bottles, corked vial/tube, petri dishes, scissors, forceps, needles, methyl alcohol, acetic acid, hydrochloric acid, acetocarmine, distilled water, spirit lamp, microscope, slides, coverslips, blotting paper, ete. Fo. Method of growing onion root tes PROCEDURE : Z Take a medium sized bulb of onion and trim off the old roots from its base by means of a sharp blade. © Place the onion on a conical flask/glass bottle full of water, with its base touching the water. Keep it for a week to grow the roots. 34 Cut 5 mm off the tips of roots and put them into a vial containing a mixture of 1 ; 3 acetic acid and methanol. Keep for one hour. This process is called fixation. 4¢ Remove 2 or 3 root tips and hydrolyse them by warming to 60°C in 1 N hydrochloric acid for 15 minutes, 5¢ Remove the root tips and wash them thoroughly in water. 6, Place a drop of acetocarmine on a slide. Put one hydrolysed root tip in a drop and place a coverslip on the root. ‘Y¢ Gently squash the root by tapping the coverslip with the blunt end of a pencil or needle until the cells separate and spread out into a very thin layer. &. Gently warm the slide over a flame for a few seconds. Y. Observe first under the low power of microscope to locate the dividing cells. Examine the different stages of mitosis under the high power of microscope.OBSERVATIONS : t eh nat the low power of microscope, rectangular cells with pink nucleus high power of microscope following stages become distinct . _3ATnterphase : Ot is a non-dividing phase of the cell cycle between two successive cell divisions. 46), Nuclear envelope and nucleolus are distinct, $7 Chromatin fibres appear forming network within the nucleus and are not distinguished into chromosomes, a Interphase stage Prophase : #87 Chromatin material shortens and condenses into thread-like structures called chromosomes, #47" Each chromosome eonsists of two chromatids jointed at a point ealled centromere. At the end of the Prophase, the nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear. The cellular contents condense into a spindle. af a Be 40 A bipolar, spindle develops in the cell. (J. The chromosomes appear short and thick having two chromatids, (i) The chromatids become clear and get attached to the spindle fibres at their centromeres. (iy) Chromosomes become arranged at the equator of the spindle. DAUGHTER, — sPwoLe Fanes ‘CHROMOSOMES | curowanios | SPNOLEFRES f—carwan |_ cxpowosowes (cHROATIDS) {— sPnoLEFERES LATE ANAPHASE __TRLOPHASE STAGE a ‘Fie. Various stanaa of Aitincis ees ok de,- 4, Anaphase : (i) The centromeres split into two and the fibres pull the daughter centromeres to the opposite poles. (ii) The daxighter chromosomes (separated chromatids) appear V, J, L and I shaped depending upon the position of centromere. 5 etophase : (The chromosomes reach the poles of the cell, uncoil, lengthen and lose the ability to be seen dlearly. (ii) The spindle fibres disintegrate. (iii) Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear and two daughter nuclei appear at opposite poles. ig eal (@ Cell plate formation takes place between the two daughter nuclei. (ii) Two daughter cells are formed. ao : _1 Affe base of the onion bulb should be in contact of water while growing the roots. 2. Root tips should be fixed in the morning between 8 to 10 A.M. 3 The root tips should be washed thoroughly after boiling with dil HOI, otherwise the cells do not get stained. i se slide should be warmed gently much above the flame of the spirit lamp. The root tips should not dry up during warming and staining, i 6, There should be no air bubble in the slide.Birperiment. 9 » Toole tion Of DNA I Prin tratatcon Of D119 fas Banana Wp deal iy ade tn ee — [Ron snip ly sty Ba ted — Bee Pe crceriorals Pea dlthisgint oad mn 1 | | pi, ce ag no toubble,coe Futon og buh. OLp ee fa ——Aiecha taht r eam nue ae scantily bang 7 ; 2] Soap ots to eee Olden Cone Mmomb oon arrcol ‘ee a ns ). Salt hors Ps We E Dee eee tec fs ls looms but 1p solution 40 2b cam Lu ape ae | aie Pe tee Paactathc htDove Hearx Og DooPhex Or Dra.pio : Study of flowers adapted to pollination by different agencies (wind, insects, birds). ‘REQUIREMENTS : ’ Living materials or charts or models of Maize, Ricinus, Sunflower, Salvia, Ficus (Anjir), Notebook, Pencil, Rubber, ete. OBSERVATIONS : Observe the above specimens one by one and note the various adaptations/modifications which are helpful to the plant, for pollination with wind or by insects. (A), Adaptations of the plants to wind pollination : ORY: 1 Anemophily (Wind-pollination) : It is a type of cross-pollination involving transfer of pollen gralt® from the mature anthers to the stigma of another flower through the agency ef wind. The adaptations of anemophily are as under : 42 The flowers are devoid of showy bracts and other floral structures like calyx and corolla. e€ (Flower colourless, nectarless and odourless. (ii Stamens are numerous and exserted (projecting outside corolla tube). (yFlowers small inconspicous. in monoecious plants, male flowers are more abundant. (ui Flowers produce large amounts of pollen, as anemophily is non-directional and not a sure method. (vii) Pollen is dry, light and non-sticky. (viii) Stigma is exserted, hairy, feathery or branched to catch the wind borne pollen. ( ix) In deciduous plants, the flowers are produced above and before the appearance of foliage. () Anemophilous plants are generally gregarious. It ensures wind pollination. (zi) Anthers are versatile. Git) The inflorescence or the flowers (male flowers in eatkin) may be pendant so that they may swing with slight breeze. Some anemophilous plants are Salix, Quercus, Rumex, Corylus Grasses belonging to family Graminae and Cyperaceae (sedges), Juncaceae (rushes), Cannubis, Ricinus, Chenopodium, Amaranthus, ete. F 1, Grasses : Grasses mainly belong to families C Glumaceae. In grasses, the flowers may be unisexual (i ‘yperaceae (Cyperus) and Graminae under series ‘maize, Carex) or bisexual (Oat, Wheat, Rice, etc eeSTAMINATE INFLORESCENCE LODICULES STILTROOTS PALEA GLUME II APEANT Zea mays (Maize) |18 iteteone of the plants to insect pollination ; ORY: ily (Pollination by insects) : It is the transference of pollen of ripe anthers a ee flower to mature stigma of another flower by the insects. It is the most common type of zoophily affect by moths, butterflies, wasp, bees and heetles, The inseets visit the flowers for edible pollen, nectay. Oe their food or for getting protection against wind, rain, high or low temperature. Entomophilous plants have the following adaptations : (@- Flowers develop brightly coloured bracts, sepals, petals, stamens or stigma, spathes oF even Jeaves, to become conspicous to different insects eg. bees prefer blue colour and the butterflies red. (i Small, inconspicous flowers become prominent by grouping eg. capitulum, {ii), Flowers often have pleasant fragrance (odour) and sweet nectar. (W), Pollen grains have a yellowish, viscous, sticky oily layer—Pollen kit, for easily sticking to neg jody of insect. gta are also sticky and rough to catch the pollen sticking to the body of insects. (vi) Stamens and stigmas are inserted. (vii) In some cases, pollen is edible, an attraction to insects for food e.g. Fose, poppy, ete- (viii) Most insect pollinated flowers have a landing platform e.g, Salvia. (ix) In many cases special markings occur on the petals for guiding the insects to nectar glands. ‘They are called Nectar guides e.g. Viola (Pansy). (2) Stigmas are inserted and sticky. Some plants having special adaptations to insect pollination are deseribed in the following account : )) Salvia - It is a cultivated ornamental herbaceous plant belonging to family Labiatae. specialised floral mechanism for bee pollination. The flowers have a bilipped calyx and corolla—a landing platform, two protandrous stamen attached to corolla tube. Only one lobe of anther is fertile whereas the lower lobe is sterile, knob-like, which form a plate which lies at the mouth of flower. The two sterile anther plates lie side by side and block the path of insect. When the bee alights on the lower lip of corolla and tries to enter the flower, its head strikes on the plate-like sterile anther lobes and forces the fertile anther lobes to strike against its back to receive a shower of pollen grains. When this pollen loaded bee visits another mature flower, having a receptive stigma positioned in such a way that i brushes against the back of the insects, collects pollen and thus cross-pollination is brought about. Brightly coloured calyx and corolla, lower lip of corolla acts as landing platform, protandrous stamens with lever mechanism, pollen grains with pollen kit, presence of nectar glands help in pollination by umbel, spadix, ete. It shows insects. ‘CLOSEDSTIGMA WITHERING STERILE ANTHER, SHEDDING OF POLLEN are Lose GRAINS ON THE BACK STIGMARECEWVING POLLEN GRAINS FROM THE BACK OF INSECT (OF INSECT lng FLOWER tote in Sata ofeinals\(PAdaptations of plants to bird pollination (Ornithophily) OR} i q ft is the mode of allogamy performed by birds. Only a few types of birds are specialised for this. They usually have small size and long beaks. Two common types of tropical pollinating birds are sun birds (Afro-Asia) and humming birds (America), Some other pollinating birds are Crow, Bulbul, Parrot and Meynah. Ornithophilous plants are very few as compared to entomophilous plants. Only about 100 species of Australian plants are ornithophilous. Common bird pollinated plants are Bombax (Red Silk Gotton), Erythrina (Coral Tree), Callistemon (Bottle Brush), Butea monosperma, Bignonia, Lobelia, Agave, Grevillea, etc. Ornithophilous plants have the following adaptations : SOF egine oratthaphaiseatianers amend nt uttany wactle Os nae Carbte parts. 2-The nectar is secreted in such abundance that drops of it can be brought down by shaking pranches of Gravillea and Erythrina, Nectar is mainly made of sugar. Ornithophilous flowers are usually brightly coloured-red, orange, yellow or blue. bcThe floral parts are commonly leathery. 5. In some cases, the corolla is funnel-shaped. 6. Scent is often absent. a a i Meeeait: Study of pollen germination on stigma through a permanent slide or seanning electron micrograph. _BEQUIREMENTS : ‘An opened mature flower of Portulaca, glass slide, needles, coverslip, safranine stain, dissecting microscope, compound microscope, glycerine.JURE ‘Wfake out a pistil from a fresh, opened mature, flower of Portulaca. , 2Btain the isolated stigma with safranine stain. 3/Mount the stained stigma in glycerine and place a coverslip over it. (Observe under dissecting microscope. 5/With the help of needles, take out a germinating pollen, foyerslip. 6. Observe the slide under compound microscope. ‘ BSERVATIONS : _JAlany pollen grains are present over the stigma. 2 Millen grains absorb water and other substances such as sugars and organic a by stigma, 3CObserve many pollen grains germinating over the stigma. A The thin intine protrudes out through a germ pore into a slender pollen tube. ald “SASugary substances secreted by the stigmas stimulate further growth of pollen tube which gradually elongates, passes through the style, enters the ovary and finally in the ovule. mount in glycerine and place a cids secreted rousy cud one Ime rena pou TUBE ome i ll se wcieus Biot gis coving aor, Fl, Gaetan ard oon of len pee sminating poten unde com rare ona sg Pondaca oe oleracea (After Brown). .$/Mhe pollen tube acts as a male gametes/sperm carrier as well as haustorial organ. «J Pollen tube carries with its vegetative / tube nucleus at its tip, followed by generative nucleus, The generative nucleus gives rise to two male gametes. tification points (Permanent slide) : Many pollen grains present on the stigmatie surface 2, Pollen grains swell up, due to absorption of stigmatic secretions.| ‘Schtine protrudes out to form thin, slender pollen tube. , ae tube contains tube/vegetative nucleus at its tip followed by generative nucleus which later divides to form two male gametes. PRECAUTIONS : 1. Care must be taken so that pistil particularly stigma is not injured, while isolating stigma.tification of stages of gamete development i.e, T.S. testis and T.S. ovary through ides (from grasshopper / mice). (A) T'S, testis of a (from grasshopper/mice) mice (to show the stage of spermatogenesis) ent Cy, Ee) wa a no EPIDIYMIS. \. LS. OF TESTIS REASONS FOR IDENTIFICATION Shinada OF AMCE, LAA testis shows a large number of Jong convoluted seminifergus tubules (in section they are yunded in shape). ; Each seminiferous tubule is lined by basement membrane, germinal epithelium the cells of which ivide mitotically from spermatogonia and sertoli cells. Various stages in the development of sperms like primary spermatocytes, secondary atocytes, spermatids and spermatozoa are seen. ~ Large and prominent sertoli cells are present in seminiferous tubules which provide surface and nourishment to the developing spermatozoa. -$Anterstitial cells or Leydig cells are present in-between the tubules that secrete the male sex hormone-testosterone, ,6, All stages of spermatogenesis can be seen at any time in a seminiferous tubuleTERTIARY FOUCLE CONDE - FOLLICLE PRIMARY SPERWATOS ‘speRUATOOYTES| rahe of seminerous tube in deta 5x FS, Ovary of a mice By bi Ovary of a female mice (to show the stages of oogenesis) ? iS FOR IDENTIFICATION + J Amice ovary is a solid structure bounded by germinal epithelium. 2 Inside the ovary, stroma made-up of connective tissues, blood vessels and nerve fibres are present. a In the stroma, (graafian follicles) in various stages of development like primary oocyte and secondary oocyte are found. 4 A graaffian follicle consists of an ovum (in the secondary oocyte stage) surrounded by a group of follicular cells. ¢ A mature follicle ruptures and releases the ovum out of the ovary. At the point of rupture, corpus Tuteum is formed which secretes the hormone-progesterone.'0 study meiosis in onion bud cell or grasshopper testis through permanent slide REQUIREMENT : Permanent stained cytological slides of meiosis in onion bud or testis of grasshopper. OBSERVATION AND COMMENTS : On observation we can find the following phases of cell division : Meiosis involves two sequential cycles of nuclear and cell division called Meiosis I and Meiosis II but only a single eycle of DNA replication. hase : It occurs prior to meiosis. It is similar to interphase of mitosis except S-phase is vrothge, DNA replication occurs. Each chromosome comes to have two chromatids. felosis-I, Heterotypic or reduction division It is divided into four stages : oA prophase 1; It is more complicated and prolonged, It can be divided in following sub-stages. totene : (@_ Nucleus enlarges. Gi The chromatin fibres shorten and elongated chromosomes become clear. (ij The chromosomes possess string of swollen areas called chromomeres. (iv) Both the centrioles separate and develop astral rays, in animal cells. J (v) Chromatids of the replicated chromosomes are not distinguishable. © Zygotene : (i) Phe two homologous chromosomes get attached to each other and the process is called synapsis. in account of synapsis, chromosomes form pairs or bivalents. (iii) The number of bivalents is half the total number of chromosomes. (> Pachytene : ) The paired chromosomes shorten. }) The two chromatids of the same chromosome are called sister chromatids. (iii) The two chromatids of homologue chromosome of a bivalent are called non-sister matids. Ge a over takes place. It is the exchange of chromatid segments between two homologous chromosomes. (v) Cross over is an enzymatic process. lotene i Othe nucleoprotein fusion complex of the synapsed chromosomes dissolves. y ) Ne ae wae(CELLMEMBRANE {EPLICATED CENTAQSOME. (CYTOPLASM NuCLEAR pan cepouo: sprorene 2 PROPHASE ZYGOTENE a ae ‘GunoMaTN RETICULUM DISAPPEARING: y- ENVELOPE a 6 pe 4 PROPHASE PACHYTENE CHIASMA 4, PROPHASE DIPLOTENE DOUBLE METAPHASIC ATE ANAPHASE! METAPHASE : CconsTRICTON CCeLLWEMERANE 19) @ yo DAUGHTER CELLS ee Gy The four chromatids of Xbivalent become distinguishable—Tetrad stage. (ii) oleae chromosomes separate except in the region of crossing over. «Gy The points of contact are called chiasmata. (v) The homologous chromosomes appear cross-like, ring-like or chain-like. esis : oa shift. towards the ends of the paired chromosomes a process called terminalisation. (i) The bivalents of satellite chromosome remain united with nucleolus. (ij) Nuclear membranes start degenerating. taphase I: @ the bivalents become arranged across the equatorial plate of the spindle in such a iy that each chromosome of a bivalent faces opposite pole of the spindle. {ix Formation of double metaphasic plate, since there are two centromeres in each bivalent. The spindle fibres get attached to the centromere of the chromosome by chromosome or tractile fibril. The distribution of bivalent is at random. The maternal and paternal chromosomes Par facaleaneinole) (iii) (iv)3. Suciphgae I: b (i) 7 homologous chromosomes break their connections and separate out, * eee 4 process called (i Alvesepereud chromosomes or univalents are also called dyads, t (iii) The chromosomes move towards spindle poles along the path of tractile fibril. (fe) At the end of anaphase-I, two groups of chromosomes with half the number of chromosomes are present at each spindle pole. 4, Fetophase 1: Othe Polar group of chromosomes arrange themselves in two haploid nuclei, (Ate chromosomes elongate, (i) A nucleolus is formed by the satellite chromosome, (W¥_ Reappearance of nuclear membrane. Siatete Il; Itis shorter than the typical mitotic division, The Produced at the end and Telophase II. ll division maintains the number of chromosomes of Meiosis-I. It is divisible into Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II . ee cHRoMOsOME FIBRE CONSTRICTION ‘APPEARING, NUCLEAR CELLMEMERANE ENVELOPE (APPEARING) Nucleus, CYTOPLASM -CONSTRICTION DEEPENS ical © pete een mene Stages of Meiosis. ieee i: (This stage of nuclear division is very brief. (ii) Phe centriole pairs develop asters and move to opposite poles. (i), The chromosomes shorten, Nucleolus and nuclear envelope degenerate. (iv), The chromatids of individual chromosomes are usually divergent. Aes: is 4Two achromatic bipolar fibrous spindles are formed. \ (Fine two spindles are either parallel or at right angle to one another. (iii) The chromosomes reach the respective spindle and arrange themselves in sucha fashion that DAT? SRE TARO SAU EE PT aAneemae ts (@ The centromere of each chromosome divides into two. («Each chromatid has one centromere. 4 (iii) The two chromatids separate completely and are known as daughter chromosome: (iv) The daughter chromosomes move towards their respective poles along the path of chromosomal fibres. 2 At the end of Anaphase-II, four groups of chromosomes are produced. elophace I Hy Aussi elongate very much. (iA nucleolus reappears. (Gif) Nuclear membrane develops. (iv) Formation of four haploid nuclei.Alm: Study of 7.5, of blastula through permanent slides (Mammalian). REQUIREMENT : Permanent slides of different stage of T.S. of Blastula. ost (VATIONS : lorula develops into trophoblast or trophoectoderm by absorbing the nutritive fluid secreted by the uterine wall through outer cells. {The trophoblast consists of blastocoel and inner cell mass. The nutritive fluid collects in the centre. (aii) Ahe enlarged young embryo resembles a cyst and the stage is called Blastocyst. ZONA PELLUCIOA BLASTOMERES: /AEARLYMORULA OUTER LAYER OF CELLS INNER CELL MASS,ee Tera mass, appear like a knob called Embryonic knob and the side of blastocyst is called Embryonic or animal pole and the opposite side—aembryonic pole. &Trophoblast is mainly and amnion for the (iv) concerned with the formation of extra-embryonic membrane—Chorion Protection and nourishment of embryo. Toner cell mass is responsible for the formation of embryo proper. (vii) he process of attachment of Blastocyst with uterine wall is called Implantation. It occurs 7 days after fertilization,Agw6Study Mendelian inheritance using seeds of different colourlsizes of any plant. REQUIREMENTS : ! Seeds of any plant different in shape or eolour, preferably sweet pea (edible pea), notebook, pencil and water. PROCEDURE : ‘ake 100 of edible pea seeds. Sort out the round seeds and wrinkled seeds in two separate containers. 2 Count the number of round seeds and wrinkled seeds. Find out the phenotypic ratio for the ed shape, the characters whose inheritance is under study. ena ont the phenotypic ratio, ak 100 of edible pea seeds in a beaker, with warm water for few 2 or 3 hours in order to soften the testa. 5, Again sort out the round seeds and wrinkled seeds of pea in two separate containers. Count their numbers separately and record it. 6, First of all, take the round seeds. Remove the testa/seed coat with the help of forceps. Observe the colour of the cotyledons contained wit ‘hin. Note the number of round seeds with yellow cotyledons and the round seeds with green colour cotyledon:7 Now, take the wrinkled seeds, Separate the testa/seed coat of seeds with the help of forceps. Observe the colour of cotyledons in them. Note the number of wrinkled seeds with yellow cotyledons and the wrinkled seeds with green cotyledon colour, ” ind out the ratio of Round yellow, Round green, Wrinkled yellow and Wrinkled green seeds, m their number, he experiment can be repeated with sample of seeds from different plants or plants with ferent flower colour, ete. opafivartons (Monohybrid Cross) : IRVATIONS (Dihybrid Cro: On the basis of your observations, you can deduce the laws of inheritance : «erthe experiments where the inheritance of two alternate forms of only one character or trait is studied, the expected phenotypic ratio, for all the different characters will be 3 : 1. The observed ratio will be approximately near the expected ratio. the experiments, where the inheritance of two traits is under consideration, the expected phenotypic ratio is 9: 8 : 8:1. Again the observed ratio will be near the expected ratio.£0 study prepared pedigree charts of any one of the genetic traits such as rolling of ‘groups, ear lobes, widow's peak and colour blindness. Before analysing a pedigree chart, it is necessary to become familiar with the symbols used in constructing a pedigree chart. eet.10. i. 12, 13, O I. Om OCH © Oud ; 68 SY S% & Qu] Onn yer | Ox ao _spntoia se IN PEDIGREE CHARTS Normal female Normal male Indicates marrige Indicates consanguineous mating or mating between close relatives. Normal parents with 3 normal children, 2 daughters and one son. Roman numerals denote generation numbers and arabic numerals, the order in which the children are born. Only a single parent is shown as the other parent is normal and is of no significance in pedigree analysis. % Fraternal twins or twins arising from two different zygotes (dizygotic). Identical twins or twins arising from a single zygote (monozygotic). Sex unknown. ‘Number of children for each sex. Shaded circle or square indicates affected daughter or son. An arrow below the affected individuals indicates that the analysis begins from that individual. The individual is an index case. The affected individual is thus a proband or propositus. Autosomal heterozygous recessive,categories, depending upon their vided into tm abili the tongue into mg ong; Ha a ana Nema on ani a ability to roll or waroll the engi Fone (R), while the non-rolling ©". ghters and two sons of Hees controlled by a domi ler and the couple had five children, He tarried ree non-rolling man. yhom, & ae bea dncghter or non-roller. One of the roller daughter married Mad a daughter are whom, ters, This couple had eight children, five sons and three daught the inl on-rol]er- i Bichoe i "ies on the data provided, we may construct a pedigree cha nvf-roller allele in the family. én O aaneemns imilarly, H-1 and 1-5 iption : The pedigree shows that the female parent is @ non-roller. Peel Wes pen fore indibiduals are non-rollers ; so also I1I-3, IIl-7 and 111-8 individuals, Tt % pene Loe ca below. pedigree that the trait is determined by an autosomal allele, The method o ee ey ofthe neces, Briefly it could be said here that if the allele were to be a sex linked trait, So eesircd generation would have inherited it. You have learnt that sex linked characters are g°DETE Ys from mother to sons and from father to daughters, a phenomenon known as criss-cross ane From the pedigree chart it is possible to deduce whether the trait is a dominant one oF T00k FE ce ‘Assuming the trait is a dominant one and the father is homozygous for it (RR), then the mother will be homozygous recessive (rr). All the children of this couple, then would necessarily be rollers and heterozygous (Rr), However, this is not the case here. Assuming the father is heterozygous dominant, then half their children would be non-rollers and the other half rollers. More or less this appears to be the case in th pedigree cited. The II-4 female, a roller is married to a non-roller. Assuming she is also heterozygous dominant, then half of the children would be non-rollers and the other half rollers. The data suggests that this is not so in the III generation. So, the II-4 female is heterozygous (Rr) for the trait under study. Therefore, the allele in question is dominant allele. Essentially the rolling of tongue is an autosomal dominant trait. heritance pattern of ‘The autosomal dominant trait (i) appears in all generations (ii) Heterozygous married to normal individual produces normal offspring to affected one into ratio of 1: 1. (iii) Trait is equally distributed in both nome i) Blood Groups : In human beings, there are phenotypically four types of blood groups A, B, AB and O. These blood groups are determined by three alleles. I, I? and I°. Alleles IA and TP are dominant over I° and44 and IB are co-dominant over each other. GaSe : A woman with blood group A marries a man and the couple had four children, two sons and two daughters, and one of the daughter had the blood group similar to the father, while the rest had the ee group similar to the mother. One of the daughter II-3 marries a man and had 3 daughters withoa 2 " oO tha b 1 aye 7 ne oOo a i + The trait is present in the father due to presence of two recessive genes (1—2 = aa), The trait can appear in the progeny only when it becomes homozygous recessive. Since only one of the — carries the trait, the mother parent must be heterozygous (test cross—Aaxaa = 50% heterozygous, <0% recessive), ie, I-1 = Aa, III is aa. 12, 13 and II—4 are heterozygous (test cross) and, therefore, Aa. The cross between II—1 and her husband also produces one double recessive (III—2 = aa), This is possible only if her husband is heterozygous (Aa). Naturally [I—1 is also homozygous (aa). IL-3 daughter is heterozygous (Aa). Her husband can be either heterozygous (Aa x Aa = AA, 2 Aa, aa) or homozygous dominant (Aa x AA = 2AA, 2Aa). Since none of the progeny is with recessive blood group ©, the possibility is that her husband in the pedigree is homozygous dominant (AA). III—3, III—4, I1I—5 are either AA or Aa, Aa aa It 7 2 0 Aa———— 2 Aas], «~ 7 —— AA ta 1 ged 3 4 Aa aa AD Ae w 1 2 aeota 5 iff) Widow's Peal : A hairline that forms a distinct peak as it crosses the forehead is due to a dominant gene (W) and the straight line is due to the recessive gene (w). fe + A man with the normal straight line marries a woman and have 2 sons and 2 daughters. OrleGon and one daughter had widow's peak. The II-I son marries a woman and had one daughter with widow's peak and one son with a normal straight line. The III-A daughter marries a man and had 2 sons and/2 daughters, with one son and other daughter have widow's peak. The IV-4 son with widow's peak marries a woman and have 4 children, one son and one daughter with straight line and a identical twin daughters with widow's peak.From the data provided,. we can construct a pedigree chartitojshow tie inheritance pattern of widow's peak in a family for five generations. °e m. ] te O } 0 - - Dlindness : It is a recessive sex-linked trait in which a person fails to distinguish red- its recessive allele is present on the It shows criss-cross inheritance. @ grecl(colour. The gene for normal vision is dominant. The gene and X-chromosome. No gene for colour vision is present on Y-chromosome. ‘The sex-linked recessive traits express more in males, since they earry one X-chromosome. Females (XX°) are carrier of recessive allele are heterozygous, because of alleled brothers, fathers or maternal uncles, Male receive sex-linked trait from mother. Females possess the trait when homozygous (KEX°). All the sons of a affected female are affected and 50% daughters are carriers. Nearly 60% sons of the carrier female (KX°) would be affected. ‘The pattern of inheritance of a sex-linked recessive allele is shown in the following pedigree chart : ad o% a CHO ] uw, b 05 eno ct ace BOO - oan 6AIM; ereise on controlled pollination Eimaseulation, tagging and bagging. REQUIREMENTS : Fine pointed straight or curved scissors, two pointed forceps, hand lens, muslin or parchment bags, camel hairbrush, watch glass, needles—pointed or curved, scalpel, thread, alcohol and field- record book. OR TECHNIQUE : e technique of hybridisation mainly comprises of the following steps : Selection of parents : A plant breeder must first be clear about the object of hybridisation. Choice of parents is of great importance. The parents should be vigorous and healthy ; weak, old and sick-plants should be rejected. > In culture, pests, diseases and contamination with foreign pollen should be guarded. The parents should be of true breeding nature, Im cereals, such as rice only 7 or 8 spikelets are selected and others are eut off. It is necessary to bag the plants es + The next step is to ensure that no self-pollination takes place. In bisexual flowers, this is done by removing the stamens before the anthers dehisce and shed the pollen ; which thus becomes virtually a female parent and should be bagged immediately. ‘The process of removing the stamens / anthers from a bisexual flower is called Emasculation, It is necessary to open the bud before anthesis and emasculation done without injuring floral parts”) In case of small flowers or where the flowers are aggregated in dense inflorescences, subjecting the a (Pollen) to heat, cold or exposure to chemicals makes it sterile. Hot water emasculation (43°C) for1_{9)-Bagging +A the flowers to be used as female parents are protected by covering with the suitable paper or polythene bag to keep them off the undesired pollen. The flowers of male parent plants are similarly protected, to prevent falling of foreign pollen on them and thus contaminating. Artificial Pollination The next step in the process is the collection of pollen from the selected male parents, in paper bags, tubes, vials or dishes, at the time when anther dehisce. The collected pollen is dusted with a fine brush, on the stigma of selected female parent, by temporarily removing the bag. After artificial pollination, the female flower is safely sealed in a bag, till the time of setting of the fruit or seed begins,itably tagged or JS Tagging or Labellings : The artifical pollinated female parent plants are suitably tagged ofS labelled. The tag should contain the following information : (a). Details / note about the male parent (by Date of emasculation OF Date of artificial pollination / crossing (gr Detail of the female parent (gy Serial number in the record book (Remarks, if any. SULTS ; The last step is the collection of hybrid fruits an next growing season seeds are sown to raise the F, allowed to self-pollinate and seed are collected and s and so on. In some cases, id seeds when they are fully mature. During the (first filial) hybrid generation. The F, plants are sown in next growing season to raise F, generation ‘he selected Fis back crossed with either parent to achieve the same Purpose, PRECAUTIONS ; J-Gelected parents should be vigorous and healthy. 2-Selected parents should be pure or true breeding &The flowers of the plants to be used as parents should be bagged Properly to keep off the undesired pollen. t A thorough knowledge of the floral Parts and anthesis in the crop, breeder to emasculate and cross the is necessary to evaluate the flowers at proper time, 6. The time between collection of polle Pollen, is only for a very short period,at: To identify common disease causing organisms like Ascaris, Entamoeba, porn Ringworm through permanent slides, models or virtual images or specimens. Comment on symptoms of diseases that they cause. REQUIREMENTS : Preserved specimens or charts or permanent slides of Ascaris, ao Plasmodium and Ringworm. ) Ascaris (The Giant intestinal worm) Gocaris Lumbricoides is an endopagagite of small intestine of human beings, "i ‘i excRETORY- more common in ce at its entry through eating soil PORE infected with eggs of Ascaris The worm ingests semi-digested food of the host with the help of suctorial pharynx. It respires ee (20-40 cm in females and 15-30 em long in males). 'e worm is rounded in form} The mouth is bounded by three OE lips-one dorsal and two ‘lateral lips. Behind the mouth there APERTURE S- is a single excretory po pee shows sexual dimorphism. The LATERAL. female is longer than male. The posterior end of male is curved ct ‘entralligin males there is cloacal aperture posteriorly having two equal chitinous, spicules or pineal setae, which help in copulation. In female, there is a genital aperture on the mid-ventral line at about one-third of length from the mouth end. At the posterior end, there is anus. The post-anal part of the body is called, tail which ig Present both in the male and female worms, The fertilization is A . internal and deyelypment is indirect, As. Sn causes the disease called Arcattttase major symptoms of the disease are : anes oe a i Abdominal discomfort, colic pain, caused by the obstruction of intestinal passage by large number of adult worms(@7he patient may also suffer from, impaired digestion, produced by the parasite, diarrhoea and vomiting due to the toxins Gi) Body growth is retarded and mental ar bowels (ii) occasional vomiting (iii) anaemia, oe : (® Disposal of human faeces hy underground sewerage system, Gi) Washing of fruits and vegetables by potassium permanganate, GH Washing hands before meals is a good preventive measure, () Protection of food articles from dust and flies, (v) Administering anti helmi Mebex, Zentel, ete, (Wi) Parents should be extra cautio 3 2h Entamoeba (F, histolytica) ae Gmoeba histolytica lives in the large intestine and lower part of small intestine of human beings] ‘The microscopic parasite is 18.25 um. It is covered by a semipermeable plasmalemma, It possesses a single nucleus surrounded by a clear area or halo. There are number of food vacuoles. Cytoplasm is differentiated into Betoplasm and Endoplasm. Contractile vacuoles are absent, because there eno need of osmoregulation. ‘There is one permanent pseudopodium. inthic drugs such as oil of chenopodium, Aleopar, Bendex, Dewormis, us that their children do not take to the habit of eating soil encysted stage, fe histolytica causes a diseases called as Amoebie dysentery or Enteritis It is mor ‘oebiasis is widespread in India due to secreting proteolytic enzyme eytolys ‘ses and get entrance into the bloodstream and right lobe of liver and Portal vessels. No cysts are produce d in extra intestinal amoebiasis, . weenie Foe wevo.e | PseuDoPooI INGESTED RED INcesTeD ‘Loon Celis BACTERIASym biasis : Th as Nee mat Ioose, mucus and blood with the watery stoole. e patier ° : «iy The patient feels severe gripping pain in and nervousness. Gen chronic cases, large tumour-lik ‘may prove fatal. (iv) In the extra-intestinal amoebiasis, sever: and brain. (o) The patient may have a slightly enlarged liver with of abdomen. Control : (1) Purification of water, Water can be disinfected by boiling. (2) Elimination of the source of faecal contaminations. (8) Washing of vegetables and fruits before using. 7 (4) Protection of food and drinks from dust, flies, ete. a (5) Avoid taking salad and fruits from vendors or fruit handlers as some of them may be carriers and may place the general public at risk. (6) Taking of suitable medicines such as Iodoquinol, Metron-idozol, Emetine, Dehydro-emetine under the advise of a physician. Plasmodium (Malarial- Parasite) :[It is a digenetic, obligate, intracellular parasite which completes its life history on two hosts~Man and Female Anopheles) fleztale anopheles is the definitive or primary host where the parasite completes its sexual phase. Man is the intermediate or secondary host where the parasite completes its asexual phase: Daaw from NCERT Sexe. /A life cycle of Plasmodium in Man; When a mosquito bites a man it releases minute sporozoites in the bloodstream. the abdomen, and spasms, fever, nausea, exhaust Ieisons are formed in the sub-mucosa of large intestine, 1, al lesions and abscesses are formed in the liver, lungs pain and tenderness in right upper portionWhen the mosquito bites another human, sporozoites are injected with bite. Mature infective stages {sporozoites} escape from gut and migrate to the mosquito Parasite (sporozoites) reach the liver through blood Mosquito Host Fertilization and development take place * in the mosquito’s — SX mt 5 A yi asexually in liver cells, bursting the cell and releasing into the Haman mel Host ge Female mosquito takes up gametocytes with blood meal. gt Gametocytes, po oo Parasites reproduce @ as asexually in red blood Male cells, bursting the red @ a blood cells and causing cycles of fever and othe Sexual stages (gametocytes) symptoms. Released develop in red blood ceils. parasites infect new red blood cells. Figure 7.1 Stages in the life cycle of Plasmodiumof Malaria : The incubation period of P. vivax is 12- 17 days (ayerage 14). ae attack of malaria is preceded by restlessness, yawning, tiredness, headache, less appetite and muscular pain.We fover, the patient feels chillinees or eold at the extromition. 1¢ is followed by rise in the body tempera ‘os is feeling of warmth, headache and vomiting. The pulse is fast. It lasts for about 4 hours, ‘The temperature may reach 106°F at the height of fever. Soon the. patient has profuse sweating with a feeling of relief: The temperature steadily goes down to the normal till the next attack takes place after 48 hours (completion of erythrocytic-schizogony cycle). (ett. soar of alternateOster: aim Me is a group of fungal diseases caused to the skin, nails and hair ete. by different spies of three genera feeding on keratin of skin of human beings namely Microsporum, Epidermophyton and Trichophyton; follectively called as Dermatophytes. [hese genera belong to class Deuteromycetes or Fungi imperfeeti] an artificial group of fungi which lack sexual reproduction. They may be unicellular or multicellular with Simple septal pore, wall made-up of chitin. They reproduce asexually by fragmentation, budding and conidia. Conidia are of different shapes, may be unicellular or multicellular, may be septate transversely or longitudinally or both.\-AIM : To study the symbiotic association (models/specimen) found in root nodules of Teguminous plants, Cuscuta on host and Lichens. Models or specimen of : (2) Root nodules of leguminous plants (2) Cuseuta (3) Lichens ~#ROCEDURE : Study the modeV/specimens and observe the association between the Rhizobium bacterium and roots of leguminous plant, Cuscuta and its host and lichens. A BSERVATIONS : nodules of leguminous plants : Bacteria (Rhizobia sp.) can be found in the root nodules of, egumes. The relationship between legumes and Rhizobia sp. is a form of symbiosis called mutualism. Mutualism occurs when both species benefit from the interaction, Because mutualism is beneficial to both species involved, there are a wide variety of mutualistic interactions, and these are most common in nature. In the present case the legumes allow Rhizobia to infect their roots. This leads to root nodule formation wherebacteria are accommodated to convert nitrogen from the air into ammonia that the plant can use for growth. Whereas the bacteria receive organic acids from the plant to use as a food source. _ Cabo and the host plants : Cuscuta spp. possess no roots nor fully expanded leaves and the vegetative portion appears to be a stem only. The parasite winds around plants and penetrates the host stems via haustoria, forming direct connections to the vascular bundles of their hosts to withdraw water, carbohydrates, and other solutes. Besides susceptible hosts, a few plants exist that exhibit an active resistance against infestation by Cuscuta spp. Os type of symbiotic relationship is called parasitism. yt {in Lichen both algae and fungi live together. Together they ‘provide each other with food and structure. This type of symbiosis is both obligate and mutualistic. Role played by algae : (@ Provides products of photosynthesis like glucose or sugar to the fungus. (ii) Performs nitrogen fixation which is used by the fungus to synthesize proteins. Role played by fungus : (i) Provides shelter to algae. (ii) Transports water and phosphorus from soil to algae. (iii) Protects the algae from ultraviolet light,fn : To study homologous and analogous organs wi REQUIREMENTS : fate Flash cards/Models of : eit. (2) Homologous organs such as » Forelimb of man, whale, bat, cheetah, > "Mouth parts of cockroach, honey bee, butterfly. > Thorns of Bougainvillea and tendril of Cucurbita. (2) Analogous organs such as > Wings of an insect and bird. » Pectoral fins of shark and flippers of dolphin. » Eyes of mammal and octopus. PROCEDURE : Study the modellash cards and observe origin and the anatomical similarities and dissimilarities between these organs. OBSERVATIONS : Pe flomologous Organs = 2 forelimbs of Vertebrates ‘The basic structure of the forelimbs of almost all the vertebrates like dogs, humans, whales (flippers), frogs, cats, birds ete are similar but they perform different functions. For example, the flippers of whales are used for swimming, humans use their limbs for writing, grasping, birds use their wings for flying, dogs and cats use their forelimbs for walking ete.Pies a The similarity in their structure is evidence of the Divergent Evolution which reflects that the vertebrates have been evolved from a common ancestor. Boson of Various Insects fouthparts of insects like the butterfly, grasshoppers, mosquitoes, honey bee etc., have a similar basic structure but perform very different functions and hence are an example of Homologous Organs. For example, butterfly sucks nectar, grasshoppers mainly bite and chew and mosquitoes suck the blood. ® (ce) a i (A) ss Poste a e Edu VW 3 @ Hs 2 md» Tendrils of Cucurbita and thorns of Bougainvillea Both these structures are similar, as they are stem modifications, but they perform differe The thorn protects the plant from grazing animals while the tendril provides support stem, fost Pickw08 Bougainilea (2) Analogous Organs ; » Wings of the insect and the wings of the bird. “ The structure of wings of the bird has bones covered by fle of insect is an extension of integument. But in both the cases, These organisms would have to adapt to the same ecolo may have evolved similar (analogous) organs. necting 6Pins therefore they are an example of Convergent at walk on the land while penguins ar® evolved common structure called flippers %0 S17 Je of Analogous Organs. Penguins and Dolphins are evolved from different origins Evolution. Dolphins are evolved from the mammals thé from the birds that fly. But both these organisms emerged underwater. The function of the flippers are similar and hence these ar® an examp! » Eye of an Octopus anda Mammal \ 5). by Ey, = | Oi. Cephalopod © fe of the convergent evolution) §lthough morphologic there is a notable difference in their structures.| For the difference in focusing light on the retina by octopus eye and mammalian eye. The eye lens of the Jens using ciliary muscles, octopuses, on the other jr lenses farther and closer to their pgtina, similar to a 1 referred to ag{Camera Eyes’ nother difference is mmalian eye) But both the organs perform a related Je of Analogous Organs} fasts Pudus v Vertebrate ese two organs are also an exampl thess two organs may look similar to each other, example, mammals focus light by changing the shape of hand, move thgafocus of the light by moving thei camera 4 frefore, the eyes of octopuses are als in the cellufar structure of the octopus eye and a mai function, that is focusing the light on the retina, and are therefore an examp!