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Exercise 8: Read the information. Then read the text and answer the questions. Choose the
correct letter, A, B, C or D.

The history of chocolate

Why people first started eating chocolate and how it spread across the world.

No one is certain which Mesoamerican* culture first farmed cacao trees. However,
archaeologists think the Olmec people of southern Mexico were one of the earliest to create a
drink using cacao beans. While the Olmecs left behind no written records, researchers have dug
up pots from this ancient civilisation that date back to 1500 BC. After the pots were taken to a
laboratory and analysed, it was discovered that they contained theobromine, a chemical found in
cacao beans. A small team of archaeologists has also been looking at a site in the Mexican state
of Chiapas. Here, they claim, is proof of another society making cacao drinks even earlier. Not
everyone accepts their evidence, so it seems further investigation is necessary.

Each fruit of the cacao tree is full of white flesh, and inside this are about 60 brown seeds, or
beans. Some researchers theorise that early Mesoamerican cultures boiled the flesh for stews,
before discovering that the seeds could also be used. This seems highly likely, as the flesh is
sweet, but the seeds are incredibly bitter. It’s remarkable, in fact, that anyone would have
thought to dry out the seeds and then roast them in the first place. Perhaps what happened is that
someone was eating the fruit and spitting seeds into a fire. They might have then noticed that the
burnt seeds were producing a rich smell, and decided to experiment, but we can never know for
sure. More certain is the fact that the Olmecs turned the roasted beans into a thick paste to make
their drink, and into this was added chilli and vanilla.

Unlike the Olmecs, the Mayan people left behind paintings showing their use of cacao beans.
From these pictures, we know that cacao beans and chocolate drinks had a special status in
Mayan society, and were often used in marriage ceremonies and other rituals. Later, when the
Aztecs ruled much of Mesoamerica, they wanted cacao beans for themselves, and would trade
with the Mayans to get them. Although other crops were important at the time, they were
nowhere near as valuable as cacao beans. This was partly because cacao trees could not survive
in the dry highlands of central Mexico, the centre of Aztec civilization. Unusually for plants,
cacao trees depended on tiny swarms of flies for pollination, and these insects lived only in a
humid climate.

In Mayan society, we know that cacao beans were very valuable, perhaps so valuable that it may
have been worth creating ‘fake beans’. Archaeologists have discovered beans made of clay in
many Mesoamerican sites, and suspect that they were used by Mayans when they had to pay a
form of tax to the Aztecs. But it wasn’t just their economic value that made them important in
society. Like today, the Mayan people liked to prepare traditional dishes to share with friends
and family. Extended families would have come together to collect cacao beans and slowly turn
them into a rich drink, using the occasion to strengthen their social ties.
 In the 16th century, the Spanish arrived in Mexico and noticed the way in which cacao was
central to the local diet. We still have records of the letters they sent home to Spain. Expedition
leader Hernán Cortés wrote to King Carlos I of Spain about a strange drink called xocoatl, which
he mistakenly believed the Aztecs, including their ruler, Montezuma, used for medicinal
purposes. One of Cortés’s officers even claimed to have seen Montezuma drinking more than 50
cups of a chocolate drink per day, and thought he was doing this to improve his health. That
number is no doubt inaccurate, but even if it were true, the officer missed the point. The Aztecs
simply saw cacao as part of their diet and did not attribute any special qualities to it.
Nevertheless, the Spanish were soon exporting cacao beans back to Spain and creating chocolate
drinks for themselves, adding sugar and honey to sweeten them. The demand for cacao soon
spread across the rest of Europe.

Until 1828, it was only the wealthy that could afford these new chocolate drinks. It was in this
year that Dutch chemist Coenraad Johannes van Houten invented the cocoa press, a machine that
could squeeze the natural oils from roasted cacao beans. The beans were then crushed into
powder, combined with alkaline salts, and sold as cheap blocks of cooking chocolate. Later, in
1847 the first edible chocolate was created by Fry and Sons in England. Unfortunately, its bitter
taste was unpopular with consumers. In 1874, Swiss chocolate maker Daniel Peter finally
realized that milk was perfect for improving the taste and texture of chocolate, and it has been a
key ingredient ever since.

* Mesoamerica A region stretching from Mexico to Costa Rica in which several advanced
civilisations existed before the 1600s.
1 What are we told about research into the origins of cacao-based drinks? 

o   A Researchers have used written documents as evidence.

o   B Researchers have failed to agree about the findings.

o   C It was carried out in laboratories outside Mexico.

o   D No more research is needed.

 
2 When the writer discusses the early use of cacao beans, he is surprised that…

o   A they were first eaten raw.

o   B people preferred the flesh to the seeds.

o   C people regarded them as something to throw away.

o   D anyone had the idea that they could be eaten.

 
3 What problem did the Aztecs face in getting cacao beans? 

o   A The beans were destroyed by insect pests.

o   B The Mayans asked increasingly high prices for the beans.

o   C The local conditions were unsuitable for growing the cacao tree.

o   D The Mayans were unwilling to trade with them for religious reasons.

 
4 Which of the following best summarises the writer’s argument in the fourth paragraph? 

o   A The Aztecs mainly appreciated cacao beans for their economic benefit.

o   B The sharing of food is not as important now as it used to be in earlier societies.

o   C Cacao beans had a value which went beyond how much they were worth.

o   D The use of artificial cacao beans meant that real ones lost their value.

 
5 The writer refers to the drinking of chocolate by the Aztec ruler Montezuma to show how 

o   A the Spanish misunderstood why Aztecs drank chocolate.

o   B the history of chocolate has not always been a peaceful one.

o   C the Aztecs pretended their chocolate drink had powerful qualities.

o   D people tend to make untrue claims about food and drink.

 
6 What is the writer doing in the final paragraph? 

o   A Highlighting why modern chocolate is less healthy than its original form.

o   B Questioning whether modern chocolate is superior to older types.

o   C Outlining the steps that led to the kind of chocolate we have today.

o   D Explaining why rich people were prepared to pay more for chocolate.

 
7 According to the writer, what led to chocolate becoming a successful mass product? 

o   A The price of manufacturing chocolate became cheaper.

o   B New machines were invented which made it easier to create chocolate.

o   C A lot of the fatty oils were taken out of cacao beans.

 D The recipe was altered to reflect what consumers wanted.

Exercise 8: Read the information. Then do the IELTS Reading task. The text has seven
paragraphs (A–G). Which paragraph contains the following information? Choose the
correct paragraph.

What does it take to become an astronaut?

A What could be more thrilling than traveling through space and seeing the Earth from miles
above? Becoming an astronaut used to be a typical ambition for children, but one they were
unlikely ever to fulfill – it was even harder to achieve than becoming a rock star or Hollywood
actor. However, since it was launched, the International Space Station (ISS) has been home to
well over 200 people from 18 different countries. Although some critics complain that investing
in the ISS is a poor use of billions of dollars, they should not forget that research in the unique
conditions of the ISS has resulted in some incredible discoveries in medical treatments, weather
science and satellite technology, which we now use on Earth. More teams are scheduled to be
sent up in the future and are certain to make even more valuable contributions to humanity.

B So what are the requirements for someone wanting to work on the ISS? First, the applicant
must be a citizen of the nation whose space programme they are applying for, or be willing to
become one. Age is also important, mid-20s to mid-40s being the preferred range. Natural
intelligence is vital, and so is achievement in such fields as engineering, biological and physical
sciences, and mathematics. Candidates are nearly always from a military background, often
because they already have piloting skills, but in some countries, civilians can also apply. For
example, in the USA, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) considers
people from a wide range of backgrounds.

C Obviously, applicants are unlikely to have previous space-travel experience when they attend
an interview, but recruiters also look for qualities such as adaptability and determination. Even
after an applicant has got through the first stage of the interview process, there are still other tests
they have to pass. For example, if it is discovered that the quality of an applicant’s eyesight is
poor then, unfortunately, it’s time to go home. There is a tough physical examination as well.
Astronauts need to prove they are in good shape because if they are eventually chosen to go on a
mission, they will have to survive long months in microgravity, something which can cause
uncomfortable swelling in the arms and legs, and can affect the cardiovascular system.

D Eventually, out of all the applicants that apply, a small group is chosen to attend a two-year
period of study. During this time, they will learn a whole range of new things, such as a new
language (they will have to communicate with other nationalities on the ISS). They will also
have media awareness lessons and special preparation in a simulated zero-gravity environment.
Once they have completed these sessions, the potential astronauts may have to wait years before
being chosen to go up to the ISS. In other words, they need to be willing and able to depart at
any time.

E If an astronaut is lucky enough to be sent to the ISS, he or she will have plenty to keep them
busy. Mostly they will be involved in scientific research, experimentation and maintaining
equipment. But just as in any home, the ISS must be kept clean. In fact, wiping and vacuuming
up dirt and debris is even more important in space, as the tiny particles could cause huge
problems if they got inside some of the computers or other equipment. Astronauts on board the
ISS certainly report that they miss their children, their families and their friends on Earth, but
few ever complain about boredom. Of course, technology makes it a lot easier to stay in touch
nowadays.

F While the daily routine for an astronaut on the ISS may be little different from any other kind
of job, there are many new challenges each astronaut faces when they take their first trip into
space. One of these is getting used to the fact that there is no more ‘night’ and ‘day’ – at least,
not in the way the astronauts have previously experienced them. In fact, astronauts on the ISS
will see a sunrise, or sunset, every 45 minutes. Traveling at 17,500 miles an hour means they
orbit the Earth 16 times in a normal ‘day’. As a result, it means they won’t know when they are
supposed to sleep any more. This is one of the reasons why they need to follow the schedule that
is organized for them. The schedule also tells them when they need to visit the gymnasium –
which is at least once a day. If they do not exercise regularly, they will soon lose all the muscle
in their legs.

G Another challenge concerns when, what and how the astronauts eat. The schedule, of course,
tells them when it’s time to heat up a packaged meal, some of which are now prepared especially
to suit the tastes of the different nationalities amongst the crew. However, for a long time
astronauts have reported that normal food loses its flavor in the ISS, and they find it harder to
taste anything. Scientists think this has something to do with the fact that fluid moves to the
upper body in microgravity, especially the head. This causes the tissues of the face to swell
slightly and makes the nose feel blocked. This is why ISS crews often prefer really spicy food
and strong flavors. If the food still isn’t spicy enough, they can add salt and pepper, but these
have to be squeezed out of tubes in liquid form!
Exercise 10: Read the information. Then answer the questions. Do the following statements
agree with the information given in the text? Choose TRUE if the statement agrees with the
information, choose FALSE if the statement contradicts the information, or choose NOT
GIVEN if there is no information on this.

How birth order might affect a child’s personality

In the last few decades of the 20th century, a considerable number of books were published in
Europe and the USA on the theme of birth order, and how it affected personality. These books
seemed to put forward a similar argument: that a child’s brothers or sisters – their siblings –
could have as much, or even more, influence on their development than their parents, and that
this influence could have far-reaching consequences. Furthermore, the authors described the
personalities of children in the same way: first-born children would naturally be leaders, ‘middle’
children would be the family diplomats, and the youngest in the family would be charming but
often lazy and rebellious.  

These books were popular, and not just with the public, but with certain companies who were
interested in matching ‘first-born, middle-born, and last-born’ employees with particular roles.
Since then, there has been a change of thinking, and those kinds of books are no longer at the top
of bestseller lists. It is now felt that explanations and descriptions of siblings’ behaviour were
often simplistic and too general, and not really based on any hard evidence. Researchers are still
interested in birth order and how it affects children’s development, but are developing new
theories.

The findings from a recent Canadian study suggest that the first-born sets the pattern for the
siblings who follow. It found that if the child was easy-going and ‘well-behaved’, it would make
the parents feel better about their own parenting skills. This positive feeling grew further if the
first-born performed well academically and got good reports from teachers. Such an experience
for parents meant that they would have the same expectations of the following children, and
would actively encourage them to develop their abilities. However, as Dr Anna Stevens, a senior
child psychologist, states: ‘My research shows that when the first-born child is “difficult” – when
they seem to be angry, moody and upset all the time, or refuse to do what their parents tell them
– the parents may consider themselves to be “bad parents”. As a result, they may not make much
of an effort with the next child, expecting them to demonstrate the same difficult behaviour.’  

But how true is the idea that the personalities of first-born, middle-born and last-born children
will be defined by their relationships with their siblings? Clara Solway, a child and family
development specialist, makes an interesting point. ‘We found that last-born children tend to be
independent-thinkers and rather rebellious,’ she says. ‘This confirms our theory that their
behaviour is not connected to their relationship with older siblings. It’s more to do with the way
their parents treat them.’ She explains that because many parents are so familiar with the first-
born, middle-child, youngest-child stereotypes, they expect their youngest to behave in a
rebellious way. As a result, they act in a way that actually encourages that kind of behaviour to
develop, even though they don’t realise it.

Child therapist and author Edward Croft claims that our early experiences shape our self-image.
‘We form ideas and beliefs about ourselves based on what we are good at, and how others treat
us. It is common for a child to notice any differences in how parents treat them and their siblings.
And if they believe that a brother or sister is the favourite, this will almost certainly create a
sense of inferiority. And that kind of feeling often continues into adulthood.’   

However, this does not automatically mean that the ‘preferred’ child will receive only benefits
from their status. As Croft explains, ‘Children who please their parents, and enjoy the attention
they receive, sometimes fall into the habit of trying to please everyone. In later life, this can
include people at work, management for example.’ So how is this a bad thing? ‘If you are
constantly trying to please other people, you may not know what your own needs and desires are,
and so become directionless in life.’  

Recently it has been suggested that it is the size of the family, rather than the birth order, that has
the greatest impact on individual development, for many different reasons. Michael DeHora, a
senior researcher at the City Institute of Societal Development, points out that ‘In large families,
with both parents working, older siblings often find themselves taking on responsibilities for
taking care of the younger ones.’ There’s considerable evidence, he claims, to show that siblings
who are caregivers and teachers in their family become skilled at reading and communication,
and gain confidence as a result. However, it is also the case that such responsibility at an early
age can increase their levels of anxiety if they feel under pressure.   

One other interesting area of research is connected to acquiring new vocabulary. Researchers
have for a long time pointed out that first-born children are quick to learn and use new language,
and will acquire, for example, 100 words several months earlier than their siblings. The
traditional view was that the vocabulary of younger children was poorer because their parents
spent less time interacting with them. However, a Norwegian study has just disproved this idea.
Carried out over fifteen years, the study has shown that younger children do catch up, and
eventually acquire the same number of words as older siblings. The reason for this is that the
older siblings often take on the role of teacher, and the younger children learn entire phrases just
by listening to and copying them.
READING PASSAGE 1
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13 which are based on Reading Passage 1
below.

Bats to the rescue

How Madagascar’s bats are helping to save the rainforest
There are few places in the world where relations between agriculture and conservation are more
strained. Madagascar’s forests are being converted to agricultural land at a rate of one percent
every year. Much of this destruction is fuelled by the cultivation of the country’s main staple
crop: rice. And a key reason for this destruction is that insect pests are destroying vast quantities
of what is grown by local subsistence farmers, leading them to clear forest to create new paddy
fields. The result is devastating habitat and biodiversity loss on the island, but not all species are
suffering. In fact, some of the island’s insectivorous bats are currently thriving and this has
important implications for farmers and conservationists alike.
Enter University of Cambridge zoologist Ricardo Rocha. He’s passionate about conservation,
and bats. More specifically, he’s interested in how bats are responding to human activity and
deforestation in particular. Rocha’s new study shows that several species of bats are giving
Madagascar’s rice farmers a vital pest control service by feasting on plagues of insects. And this,
he believes, can ease the financial pressure on farmers to turn forest into fields.
Bats comprise roughly one-fifth of all mammal species in Madagascar and thirty-six recorded bat
species are native to the island, making it one of the most important regions for conservation of
this animal group anywhere in the world.
Co-leading an international team of scientists, Rocha found that several species of indigenous
bats are taking advantage of habitat modification to hunt insects swarming above the country’s
rice fields. They include the Malagasy mouse-eared bat, Major’s long-fingered bat, the Malagasy
white-bellied free-tailed bat and Peters’ wrinkle-lipped bat.
‘These winner species are providing a valuable free service to Madagascar as biological pest
suppressors,’ says Rocha. ‘We found that six species of bat are preying on rice pests, including
the paddy swarming caterpillar and grass webworm. The damage which these insects cause puts
the island’s farmers under huge financial pressure and that encourages deforestation.’
The study, now published in the journal Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, set out to
investigate the feeding activity of insectivorous bats in the farmland bordering the Ranomafana
National Park in the southeast of the country.
Rocha and his team used state-of-the-art ultrasonic recorders to record over a thousand bat
‘feeling buzzes’ (echolocation sequences used by bats to target their prey) at 54 sites, in order to
identify the favourite feeding spots of the bats. The next used DNA barcoding techniques to
analyse droppings collected from bats at the different sites.
The recordings revealed that bat activity over rice fields was much higher than it was in
continuous forest – seven times higher over rice fields which were on flat ground, and sixteen
times higher over fields on the sides of hills – leaving no doubt that the animals are preferentially
foraging in these man-made ecosystems. The researchers suggest that the bats favour these fields
because lack of water and nutrient run-off make these crops more susceptible to insect pest
infestations. DNA analysis showed that all six species of bat had fed on economically important
insect pests. While the findings indicated that rice farming benefits most from the bats, the
scientists also found indications that the bats were consuming pests of other crops, including the
black twig borer (which infests coffee plants), the sugarcane cicada, the macadamia nut-borer,
and the sober tabby (a pest of citrus fruits).
‘The effectiveness of bats as pest controllers has already been proven in the USA and Catalonia,’
said co-author James Kemp, from the University of Lisbon. ‘But our study is the first to show
this happening in Madagascar, where the stakes for both farmers and conservationists are so
high.’
Local people may have a further reason to be grateful to their bats. While the animal is often
associated with spreading disease, Rocha and his team found evidence that Malagasy bats feed
not just on crop pests but also on mosquitoes – carriers of malaria, Rift Valley fever virus and
elephantiasis – as well as blackflies, which spread river blindness.
Rocha points out that the relationship is complicated. When food is scarce, bats become a crucial
source of protein for local people. Even the children will hunt them. And as well as roosting in
trees, the bats sometimes roost in buildings, but are not welcomed there because they make them
unclean. At the same time, however, they are associated with sacred caves and the ancestors, so
they can be viewed as beings between worlds, which makes them very significant in the culture
of the people. And one potential problem is that while these bats are benefiting from farming, at
the same time deforestation is reducing the places where they can roost, which could have long-
term effects on their numbers. Rocha says, ‘With the right help, we hope that farmers can
promote this mutually beneficial relationship by installing bat houses.’
Rocha and his colleagues believe that maximising bat populations can help to boost crop yields
and promote sustainable livelihoods. The team is now calling for further research to quantify this
contribution. ‘I’m very optimistic,’ says Rocha. ‘If we give nature a hand, we can speed up the
process of regeneration.’
Questions 1-6
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?
In boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE                  if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE                 if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN    if there is no information on this
1   Many Madagascan forests are being destroyed by attacks from insects.
2   Loss of habitat has badly affected insectivorous bats in Madagascar.
3   Ricardo Rocha has carried out studies of bats in different parts of the world.
4   Habitat modification has resulted in indigenous bats in Madagascar becoming useful to
farmers.
5   The Malagasy mouse-eared bat is more common than other indigenous bat species in
Madagascar.
6   Bats may feed on paddy swarming caterpillars and grass webworms.

Questions 7-13
Complete the table below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 7-13 on your answer sheet. 

The study carried out by Rocha’s team

●   to investigate the feeding habits of bats in farmland near the
Aim
Ranomafana National Park
●   ultrasonic recording to identify favourite feeding spots
Method
●   DNA analysis of bat 7 …………………
●   the bats
     –  were most active in rice fields located on hills
     –  ate pests of rice, 8 …………………, sugarcane, nuts and fruit
     –  prevent the spread of disease by eating 9 ………………… and
Findings blackflies
●   local attitudes to bats are mixed:
     –  they provide food rich in 10 …………………
     –  the buildings where they roost become 11 …………………
     –  they play an important role in local 12 …………………
●   farmers should provide special 13 ………………… to support
Recommendation
the bat population