BEGS-185: English Language Teaching

GUESS PAPER-I

Q. Why do students lose interest in school work in General? What can the Teacher do to help them
renew their Interest in their Studies?
Ans. All of us must have had the experience ourselves or of those we know well losing interest in
sh1dics and wanting to give up - and even drop out - at some time or the other. Forhmatdy, these
negative moods change after some time in many cases. When these sh1dcnts get back to sh1dics, they
usually have a large backlog to deal with or may have lost a year. We need to note the distinction
between this general loss of interest and motivation, and negative attih1dc sh1dcnts sometimes
develop to a particular subject or topic or teacher. This will affect learning in that subject, but the
sh1dcnt might be doing quite well in other subjects, and on the whole be happy at school. The general
problem of interest and motivation is not linked to a particular subject or teacher. The negative
attih1dc seems to apply to practically all school activities, which can also lead to getting more isolated
and unhappy. There arc two possible causes of this condition. One is the feeling that everything is too
difficult and that there is no real help from teachers or sh1dcnts (friends). It could be that the sh1dcnt
started the term with many gaps in prior learning (readiness), but no diagnosis leading to appropriate
action was taken up. She/he would have found lessons difficult to follow from the beginning.
Sometimes other children may make fun of such sh1dcnts. Unit tests reinforce the fact of being far
behind others, and usually no help to improve is provided. All this can lead to feeling unable to do
anything successfully and a sense of worthlessness. (We will discuss this idea again under self -
esteem). Such loss of confidence often makes a child unwilling even to try, and interest and
motivation arc slowly lost. Such occurrences arc not the individual teacher's fault: the problem lie in
the larger system. The already overburdened teacher cannot provide intensive individual attention to
each sh1dcnt. However, the teacher can try and adapt the syllabus and materials to some extent. The
important point here is that teachers need to convey to 'weak' sh1dcnts that they (teachers) arc aware
of sh1dcnts' difficulties and arc trying to help them. Encouragement can be shown in small ways. The
feeling of being cared for matters greatly to such children. Children need to fed they arc welcome in
school and class, and also that they arc respected. The gentle pressure they feel should be to try and
keep trying, and not necessarily to succeed. Low motivation is nearly always a temporary condition
initially. It can become more pronounced if there is no support. But helping a sh1dcnt to overcome
loss of motivation and interest even in one subject area can have positive effect in other areas as well.
Thus, we can sec the value of creating and maintaining a supportive social climate in classrooms.

Q. Describe the Leaming styles and Preferences.

Ans. Learning Styles: Educational psychologists sh1dying the processes of learning have found that
individuals seem to have different styles of learning. These arc not linked to higher or lower levels of
the capacity to learn. They arc rather equally nah1ral and effective ways of engaging cognitively with
new experiences and ideas. The alternative styles arc rather like being left-handed or right-handed,
but they arc not so sharply different or fixed. A sh1dcnt's typical learning style in class is an
orientation or preference for how information and ideas arc taken in and processed. But even these
styles can and often do change over time, though only slowly. Also, sh1dents can have different styles
for different types of subject matter or curricular activities. Leaming styles arc of relevance to us
because they influence learning. If there is a match between the teaching style and the sh1dcnt's style,

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learning will be more comfortable and effective. A mismatch could result in obstacles to effective
learning.
Several different ways of describing and categorizing styles have been proposed by various scholars.
One survey found there were about 70 such models! Obviously, there is a lot of overlap, because
many different words arc used to talk about the same thing. We will look here only at a few
interesting styles sets of differences that might be relevant when planning for teaching. This overview
only provides a general background. Some of the interesting areas in which style differences have
been identified arc:
(i) Sensory preference: The word teaching is associated primarily with something the teacher
provides or docs - usually telling or presenting. Some input (received through the senses -
listening, seeing and feeling) is central to teaching-learning experiences especially in
relation to subject matter in the syllabus. Remember that the same message can be
conveyed or presented in different ways. For instance, when we have to give someone
directions for reaching a house from the station or bus stand, this can be done in different
ways - using words mainly, or words and gcsh1rcs or a diagram/map. Similarly, when
teaching a lesson, the presentation could use different types of sensory input. One
difference among learners is in the way of 'taking in' information, i.e., which one suits them
best. These arc orientations or preferences for the mode of sensory input. The possibilities
or options arc: visual, auditory, tactile and kinaesthetic. Visual is based on seeing. Sh1dcnts
with this orientation learn best from written statements (on the board or worksheets) and
pich1rcs, diagrams, models they can sec. Auditory is based on hearing. Spoken messages
(like teacher talk) seem best for some sh1dcnts to learn. Tactile (relating to touch) and
kinaesthetic (sense of moving body parts) arc taken together. Some sh1dcnts learn best
when they can touch and fed objects (especially models) or arc themselves moving (as in
demonstrations and role play).
Most teachers would say that they use all these 'methods' at different times during their
lessons. And they would be right. The point here is that specific ways of presenting
information can be chosen and used in a more planned manner after the teacher comes to
know about individual sh1dcnts' styles. This is especially useful when giving individual
attention to sh1dcnts or organizing activity in pairs or small groups. Sh1dcnts also differ in
the way they engage with or cognitively process the 'inputs' they receive. We now look at
these differences in the way children learn.
(ii) Whole or part focused learning: Some learners tend to focus more on general ideas or the
'big pich1rc', while others pay much more attention to the small details. This has also been
described as the global versus sequential style of processing information. Some sh1dcnts
learn better when the teacher presents and discusses general ideas and assigns related
tasks; they may have a tendency to 'switch off' when a lot of time is spent on small details.
But others may respond well to specifics and details, and fed somewhat lost when the focus
is on abstract ideas. This orientation is related to a broader factor called field dependence­
field independence. Field dependent individuals arc influenced by the context. For
example, in a group where most people favour one opinion in a set of possibilities, they arc
more likely to agree with others. Those who arc more field independent arc better able to
sec basic facts or arguments by themselves. This docs not mean that they arc independent
thinkers or misfits. Their style of thinking is more analytical, that is all.

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 (iii) Inductive vs. deductive learning: Inductive learning occurs when a body of specific facts or
data is given and effort is directed to finding pattcrn(s) or inferring a general principle.
Tasks involving trying out possible explanations - exploring without knowing beforehand
what is the best thing to do-involves such learning. Grammar is often taught inductively
in deductive learning, usually a mlc or principle is given to begin with, and the discussion
is on its implications and applications. Many problems in mathematics and science involve
sets of deductions. Herc too it is found that some students arc more comfortable and learn
better with the first of these approaches. They seem to enjoy finding things out for
themselves - learning by discovery. Other sh1dcnts arc more comfortable when principles
and mies arc stated, and the challenge is to understand and apply them.
(iv) Convergent thinking vs. divergent thinking: This dimension is related to the distinction
sometimes made between 'intelligence' and 'creativity'. Psychologists who have studied the
way people deal with problems that require thinking and analysis have found two broad
approaches. The more common one is to analyse the problem logically using relevant
knowledge from mathematics or biology or economics, and then proceed systematically­
step by step towards the solution. There is a gradual progress of narrowing down -or
converging - to the solution. This is rather similar to the deductive approach mentioned
above. Some people do not go directly to the problem as given. They will look at it from
different angles and sometimes even try to change or reformulate it. This can lead to
unusual or creative suggestions. The process here is one of opening up or widening the
discussion. That is why the term divergent is used. Many innovations or discoveries in
science and new theories have come from people who were divergent in their thinking.
However, both approaches arc useful and important. Having convergent and divergent
thinking sh1dcnts in the same class is a great resource. The problems introduced in class
should allow both types to try their approaches and share their experiences. These learning
styles were mentioned here mainly to illustrate what they arc. There arc many others. Note,
that there arc no 'good' or 'bad' styles. What we have seen arc equally useful and effective
alternative ways of learning. If teachers can organize some aspects of their teaching to
match the styles of different students, this could facilitate better learning. To enhance the
chances of such matching of styles, teachers need to add more variety to their teaching
styles- by including more types of presentations and activities in their lesson plans. They
need not know all the names and definitions of several learning styles. Once they have the
basic concept, as they interact with successive batches of learners, they will recognize
different learning styles. This knowledge can guide them when planning their teaching.
Personality dispositions -feelings, emotions and social interactions
The term personality is a familiar one. When we talk about and describe individuals, we always say
something about their personality - their typical ways of behaving in their daily lives and especially
when relating to others. This is something in addition to and different from their abilities and skills,
achievements, stah1s and so on. When sh1dcnts write about 'my favourite teacher', ' my hero' these
personal qualities arc emphasized. These arc fairly stable qualities or characteristics of a person
(referred to as traits), and can be seen even in children. The study of personality is one of the major
sub-fields of psychology, and involves many different theories and models. Several personality
dimensions have been proposed. We will look at a few of them here to get a sense of what personality
factors arc. They arc of interest because they seem to influence learning, but in a different manner
than the more cognitive factors we just looked at.

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One widely mentioned list of personality dimensions (called the big five) - aspects on which
individuals differ - are the following
Extraversion - Introversion
A person near the extraversion end is generally active, energetic, outgoing, talkative and friendly
Openness - Closed Mindedness
A person high on openness is likely to be curious, imaginative, original and has wide interests.
Conscientiousness - Undirected Ness
A person high on conscientiousness behaves in an organized, efficient manner and is thorough and
reliable in getting things done.
Agreeableness - Antagonism
An agreeable person is generally good nah1red, kind, tmsting, generous, modest and appreciative.
Neuroticism - Stability
A person high on neuroticism is often anxious and insecure, gets upset easily and shows signs of self­
pity.
This is only an outline. The descriptions above are not at all complete. They give us a general sense of
what psychologists treat as aspects of personality. We must note carefully that we cannot put people
(especially children) into such categories. Even psychologists who conduct elaborate tests are careful
about this. What is important here is that these personality dispositions are fairly stable -almost
nah1ral qualities of a person. They are not expressions of conscious and deliberate decisions to act in
particular ways-they are like all established habits one does not think about. Some dispositions of
children (see examples below) seem to be positive for classroom participation and others less so. The
teacher must remember that a child with a certain disposition is not doing anything deliberately.
Let us consider personality related differences among children. Look at the examples below of
different types of learners we might see in a class:
• an extroverted child who is active and talkative and likes to be interacting with others
• a child who is more introverted and does not participate actively in group work.
• a child who is anxious and gets easily discouraged,
• a cl1ild who seems inattentive and careless about work and does not complete assignments,
• a child who seems keenly interested in new ideas and activities and enjoys engaging with
them
We should recognize that no such 'type' is good or bad in itself. Also, as noted already, these ways of
behaving are not conscious choices made by individuals. Teachers should appreciate that they
represent children's habihrnl styles or predispositions, and accept them without judging them. It is
trne that in the conventional classroom, some types seem not well adjusted. Scolding or putting
pressure on a child whose behaviour seems 'negative' will not help. As far as possible they should be
involved in other activities. There are spaces within the curriculum where a shy and withdrawn child
or even the child who seems careless is not a 'problem'. Remember that a high-pressure competitive
classroom is not the ideal, though it is commonly found. The classroom climate can be changed. As
teachers understand such predispositions of children and work sensitively with them, these children
too can learn successfully; they may also contribute to others' learning in small ways. And to repeat
an earlier point, changes in aspects of personality can occur, but only slowly and based on a lot of
supportive interaction.
Some further dimensions of personality
Another aspect of personality which is fairly easy to see is self-esteem. This is related to confidence
and a capacity to accept challenges, take risks and risk failure without much anxiety. A person with

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high self-esteem is able to accept criticism, and is not worried about being unpopular at times.
Teachers and peers arc forhmatc when there arc such sh1dcnts in class. There will also be others low
on self-esteem. We can be sure that they were not born that way. They must have been through many
negative experiences in the past both in and out of school. Using the many types of sihiations and
activities of the total curriculum to provide such children positive experiences is not very difficult for
teachers using the support of peers. Some people have a marked tendency to be strongly influenced
by the opinions of those around them. This disposition is called social conformity. While all members
of society arc expected to generally follow group norms and obey rules and so on, a certain degree of
independence and thinking for oneself is also treated as normal and healthy. A child who seems
always to watch what others do and say, and tries to follow them and 'not be different' would be high
on the social conformity dimension. This is not the same as low ability and confidence. Such a sh1dcnt
might be getting quite good grades, but may not participate in group activities where each child has
to contribute his/her own ideas and opinions, and may try to avoid tasks calling for innovation.

Q. What was the difference between the Traditional curriculum and the present-day Curriculum?
What is learner Autonomy?
Ans. In the sections above we have looked at some of the ways in which individuals differ. The focus
has been on individuals as persons - who have their own thoughts, feelings, hopes, needs and so on.
The focus has been on these psychological aspects, which lie beyond the more obvious physical ones
such as sex, age, physical development, health. The survey has been brief and has covered only some
of the many possible dimensions of individual differences. Even so we have gained a sense of how
vast and rich human diversity can be. A class of 35 or even a small group of 10 has children whose
unique personalities will lead to different patterns of learning. This diversity can be seen as a resource
now, and we need to try and adapt the 'standard curriculum' to suit individual needs. This is a big
challenge of course, but the new approach to the curriculum also has a source of support. This is the
principle that the child relates ideas coming as inputs in lessons to her/his life outside the school and
thus becomes an active cocrcator of new knowledge. This knowledge will be personal and therefore
different for different children. In other words, we do not have to try to make every child in a class
learn exactly the same things, in the same manner at the same rate which was the tmdcrlying
principle of the traditional curriculum. In a traditional classroom, the given syllabus was covered
following the required or recommended method. Individual teachers tried to give so called weak
sh1dcnts some special help. Those who could not meet the requirements 'failed' and dropped out of
the system and were forgotten. The RTE made drastic change in this process. Every child had the
"right to education of quality" through the elementary stage (till Class VIII), which meant no failures,
no dropouts. Obviously, the education in this framework has to be flexible in many ways. It is
necessary in a public education system to have an official syllabus and a prescribed textbook. These
can have some clements of flexibility, but the real flexibility and adaptation occurs in the day-to-day
transactions in class. This too is not something the teacher docs following a detailed lesson plan with
many parallel segments - but rather a process based on the joint activity of the teacher and the
learners.
Flexible classroom transaction as described above involves learners' active participation. Active
participation is not only doing what is asked for in exercises and tasks which is typically the same for
all sh1dcnts. It means importantly that learners contribute their ideas and suggestions, ask questions
to keep the activity going-and not only give answers to questions already raised by the teacher or in
the textbook. This points to initiative and independence on the part of sh1dcnts who arc members of a

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team working together (with their different skills and styles) for the benefit of all. Such cooperative
activity is an opportunity both to know about others' talents, styles and needs and to respect them.
Leamer independence and autonomy
These two terms arc often used interchangeably. Both point to the capacity to learn on one's own -
without relying heavily on the teacher's inputs and guidance. Such a capacity is seen as an asset in the
broad setting of a learner centred education. It is especially desirable for sh1dcnts of a second or
foreign language who do not normally use this language for social communication outside class.
Developing communication skills in a second or foreign language will be greatly aided by the
learners' own efforts to extend contact with the language by using or practicing it outside class. The
typical five sessions a week of classroom contact can only provide a base. Much more effort by the
learner is needed for effective skill development. Even intensive courses of 100 or 150 hours spread
over about 6 weeks cannot in any way be complete. So, the learner's own efforts arc important.
Another perspective on learner independence has come from the distance and open learning sectors.
For courses in this mode there arc no time tabled 'teaching sessions. Well-designed course material is
provided -- in print and audio-visual media. The sh1dcnt has to find a suitable place and time to
'sh1dy' -keeping to a schedule of 15 (for example) hours a week. Such courses arc thus based on self­
managed or self-directed learning. The effort and discipline have to come from within. We can sec
here that the personal quality of independence or autonomy is important - for all areas of sh1dy, not
only language. It is also tmc that the use of modem technology (ICT) in education is linked to modes
of learning which arc different from sh1dcnts and live-teacher interaction. This is not to say that the
classroom has no importance any more, but rather that classroom-based instmction has to be
complemented as well as supplemented. Herc again the learner's initiative is called upon.

Q. Gives a brief history of the Education of the Underprivileged.

Ans. 'According to a government estimate, out of 200 million children in the age group of 6 to 14 in
India, around 59 million do not attend school. Of the rest, who arc currently in school, four out of
every 10 children beginning to attend school will drop out before completing their primary school
education. In addition, various sh1dics of the learning achievement of children indicate that the
sihrntion is achrnlly grim. Recent community-based surveys done in 28 cities and eight mral districts
in the country find that not more than 30 per cent of school children in the age group 6 to 14, in an
educationally advanced state like Maharashtra, can read simple text fluently or do basic arithmetic
sums (SMILE).So, we sec that still a lot needs to be done for the underprivileged children of India. A
brief look at the history of education of the underprivileged all over the world will reveal three clearly
marked stages: Isolation, Assimilation and Integration.
(i) Isolation: Initially, a large number of underprivileged children were outside the network of
education, having no access to educational facilities. With the realisation of social
responsibility, various efforts were being made to provide them with education. But as in
some countries like America, separate schools were created for the coloured population.
Similarly, in India separate schools with a separate simplified curriculum were opened for
the tribal population. Although government schools do not discriminate between class and
caste in their policies, the attih1dcs and biases of teachers and administrators prevent them
from accepting the lower caste children who arc often made to sit separately, away from the
rest of the children. It was commonly believed that these children would not be able to
handle the general curriculum and a special curriculum was prepared for them. The
general belief that assignments for the underprivileged would result in failure made many

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 educationists lowered the bar for them. This created an isolation of another sort and the
education gap continued to widen.
(ii) Assimilation: The second phase of the education of the underprivileged is marked by a
tendency to assimilate. Attempts were made to educate the underprivileged learners along
with the privileged learners in the same school. But castcism and class consciousness came
in the way and it was the case of isolation-assimilation as learners of lower castes sat in the
same class but on separate benches or were relegated to the last benches where they seldom
received the teacher's attention. Since the school and the system of education was based on
the dominant or the advantaged group, the aim was to assimilate the underprivileged into
the privileged culh1rc. This attempt is still on and according to the Right to Education, it is
mandatory for elite private schools meant for the privileged sections of society to keep 25%
of the scats for the underprivileged and also to look after their education monetarily. How
much of this genuinely happens is a matter of concern.
(iii) Integration: In the third phase of integration, attempts were first made to educate the
underprivileged in their own language and culhirc so that they would develop a positive
attih1dc to their own culhirc and language. Depending on these approaches or stages,
mainly three theories have been put forth to explain the poor achievement of the unreached
learner: these varied from innate or hereditary qualities, to culh1ral deprivation in their
environment or to the deficiency in the instih1tion (school) itself.
Although these three stages have been historically noted there have been instances where all the three
co-existed at the same time in some states.
Some Interventions
It has been noticed universally that the system of education is targeted at the privileged in society and
the curricular content, both in its selection and nahirc, mirrors the life of the privileged. The textbooks
appeared alien to the underprivileged learners as they did not find any resemblance to their lives or
their culh1rc in the textbooks. In addition, the methods of teaching too were developed on certain
assumptions of pre-knowledge which led to a gap in understanding for the underprivileged.
Similarly, the teachers suffered from biases and an unfriendly attih1dc towards these learners which
either led to the neglect of these learners or a simplification of the content and assignments, making
them repetitive and boring. As early as the 60's, 'The Kothari Commission (1964-66) articulated the
idea of a "neighbourhood" school as a common space, where all children cutting across caste, class
and gender lines learn together in the best inclusive manner. This idea has been articulated in
practically all policy documents thereafter: the National Policy on Education 1968, as well as the
National Curriculum Framework, 2005. This concept has also been incorporated in the RTE Act, 2009.'
(AnshuVaish, Secretary, School Education and Literacy, in her speech at Shri Ram School) It has also
been felt that the inclusion of underprivileged learners in schools, either government or private, has
not been implemented fully, remaining a mere lip service in certain instih1tions. There is a clear
demarcation between the schools for the privileged (privately-nm schools) and those for the
underprivileged (schools nm by the government) and these cater to two distinct categories and
economic strata. This segregation starts at an early stage in school; and many private schools feel
reluctant to follow a policy of integrating children from the socio-economically weaker sections of
society with those from the better-off strata. The education policies of the government like the
Univcrsalization of Elementary Education (UEE), Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, the Right to Education Act
and the policy of neighbourhood schools arc attempts to assimilate and integrate the underprivileged
learners into the mainstream. In spite of these, certain assumptions need to be revisited and some

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interventions are required to realise these policies. By opening of the Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya,
the Government of India has made quality education accessible to rural learners.
(i) Curriculum: The curriculum of the schools largely focuses on the skills and knowledge
required for an individual to be integrated into the society of the middle class and white
collared jobs. Skills and knowledge required for blue-collared jobs are neglected except for
certain special schools and instih1tions. The textbooks are written from the point of view of
the culh1re of the privileged. Contribution of the underprivileged class to nation building is
neglected or ignored. Facts and information are densely packed in the textbook which seem
suitable for highly motivated learners. Since the underprivileged learners find nothing of
their lives, history or culh1re in the textbooks they find these irrelevant to their experiences
and thereby lose interest. A simplified curriculum for these learners is created based on the
assumption that the underprivileged learners would not be able to handle this. This further
demoralizes them, and moreover they are not stimulated intellechrnlly.
A conscious attempt needs to be made to make the curriculum not only attractive but also
challenging for the underprivileged learners. Some of the suggested interventions are listed
below:
• Inclusion of topics of interest or familiarity for the underprivileged learners
• Reflection of the lives and culh1re of the underprivileged as equal contributors to
society.
• Removal of biases in favour of the privileged
• Content should aim at fostering a positive attih1de towards their lives and culh1re.
• Illustration could include tribal art and styles that represent their culh1re and lifestyles.
• Stimulating but linguistically simple questions to help them develop their cognitive
and analytical skills.
(ii) Teaching Methods: Sh1dies in teaching methodology to the privileged and the
underprivileged learners have revealed that teachers offer differential instruction to the
privileged and the underprivileged.
In a sh1dy of African-American and Hispanic sh1dents in America, it was found that the
'novice readers' were taught differently from the advanced readers. The advanced readers
received more instruction in critical thinking while instmction for the novice readers was
restricted to rote learning, drill and memorization. The impact of this was felt later in high
school when it was noticed that the underprivileged learners could not do problems where
critical thinking was involved as they were not introduced to it in their primary school. It
was also assumed by the teachers that the advanced readers received more reinforcement
from their parents whereas the sh1dy proved that both sets of parents reinforced the
learning of their wards. Sh1dies have also shown that 'the typical classroom environment
tends to (and is intended to) mirror the interactive milieu of a typical middle-class home
(very different from a typical lower-class home) hence the sh1dents find himself in an
environment he does not fully understand but is expected to fit into'. (Marsha Cope et al)
Thus, in a way the education system is stifling the progress of these learners and not
teaching them to overcome their circumstances and strive for excellence. The assumption
remains that the underprivileged will not be able to compete with their privileged peers.
If education has to be 'empowering' to the underprivileged learner then the following
interventions can be made:

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 • The learners can be given a choice of choosing subjecl'> for writing and books for
reading.
• Discussions and activities in the classroom could also focus on topics that touch the
lives of these sh1dents.
• They should be allowed to work on collaborative projects and allowed to make
decisions about the choice of topic, method or group members.
• They should be encouraged to talk about and write about their own lives and
experiences and these should be treated with respect in the classroom.
(iii) Evaluation procedures: A way of overcoming the problem of drop out was the government
policy of non-detention at the primary level. It was understood that the teachers would
ensure that 80% of the sh1dents would master 80% of the content and skill so that no one is
detained. But this was misunderstood as a 'pass all' policy, as a result of which, learners
who had not obtained even 10% of learning were promoted. On the one hand the teachers
did not work with the learners to ensure learning and on the other hand the learners lost all
motivation, comfortable in the thought that merely the basic required attendance would
take them to the next class. This only helped in widening the gap in knowledge and as the
learners reached the higher classes they found it difficult to concephialize or analyse, not
having mastered the basic concepts. They also were deficient in the skills of taking the tests
which were of only the paper pencil kind and summative in nahire.
The focus has slowly shifted from paper pencil tests to continuous and comprehensive
evaluation that takes into account the different learning styles and diverse capabilities of
the learners and proposes stress-free activities and procedures for evaluating the learners
on a continuous basis. It is hoped that the underprivileged learners will be encouraged to
participate in different activities and display their strengths in some of them. Today the
gamut of evaluation activities would encompass content, life skills (cognitive, social and
emotional skills), learners' own goal-setting and self-assessment. This will require a lot of
teacher preparation not only in evaluation procedures but also in removal of biases from
the testing procedures. Since the evaluation is holistic it would be essential to make the
tests relevant to the context of the learners. Forty percent of the evaluation would be
conducted by the teacher with whom the learners have been working closely, hoping
thereby that the element of bias and unfair evaluation would be eliminated. This is because
the teacher himself or herself would be the evaluator and not an outside agency, who has
no knowledge of the needs and problems of different learners. Although it is important to
inspire the underprivileged learner to compete with the others and strive towards
excellence, a few provisions like clear instmctions (perhaps in their own language), extra
time during their initial stages of test taking need to be made. Test taking skills of these
learners would have to be sharpened and the criteria of evaluation explained well to them
so that they can focus appropriately when they take a test. If the teachers allowed the
learners to improve at their own pace and provided a lot of scaffolding, in place of
simplifying or merely lowering the bar for them, the underprivileged learners would be
able to reduce the gap in achievement. One way of reducing stress and improving the
performance of the underprivileged learners is to give collaborative tasks and projects
wherein these learners get an opporhmity to work with their peers and learn from them, at
the same time feel comfortable tmder the common umbrella of the group.

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 (iv) Education through the language and dialect of underprivileged learners: Educationists
agree that education in the early stages ought to be in the learner's home language before
introducing them to any other language. The three-language formula too recommends the
use of home language or the regional language in the primary stage. It is believed that it is
easier to develop the skills of reading and writing in the learner's home language. Learners
can transfer some of the skills to the other language once they arc fluent in their own
language. In a country like India, where the culh1ral diversity is very wide, even the
regional language may prove to be difficult to the underprivileged learner who is perhaps
exposed to only the dialect of home and community.
To some extent this problem in learning a second language can be overcome by using a
multilingual method in the initial stages and then slowly weaning them away from their
own language and using the second language and third languages in the classroom.
(v) Teacher Preparation: Teacher preparation is of utmost importance as it is the teacher who
would execute the suggested methods or take the process forward. However good the
material, its efficacy can be felt only in the hands of an efficient teacher. Most sihtations of
teaching and learning require improvisation, on the spot modification and drawing
associations across subjects. This is tmc of the teaching learning sih1ations for the
underprivileged. The teacher needs to be sensitive to the needs of the learners, be
innovative to draw references or make modifications to make the topic or activity
understandable and doable for the learners. The teacher's role in making the topic relevant
to the learners in the classroom is immense as the curriculum framer and textbook writer
only keeps some general guidelines in mind.
The teacher thus needs to be trained and sensitised to the following aspects:
• Using a variety of methods to convey a single idea
• Addressing the needs of the target group and overcoming biases
• Making the topic interesting and relevant
• Developing the skills of reading and writing amongst learners with 'experiential
deficiency'
• Removing bias in the material, if any
• Treating all learners alike and encouraging the underprivileged children to perform to
the best of their capabilities.

Q. How to Help the Underprivileged Learners?

Ans. While it is tmc that the underprivileged learners come to school with limited experiences and
limited language skills, it is not appropriate to assume that they arc not capable of improving or
taking up a challenge. A teacher would need to develop an action plan and devote time on these
learners without giving them the message 'You may not be able to handle this'. They should
encourage them to set goals for themselves and provide as much support as possible. Some of the
measures a teacher can take to accelerate language learning of underprivileged learners arc given
below.
(i) Mentoring the learners: Allow them to fed a spirit of challenge while being aware of their
strengths and weaknesses. Encouragement and setting the goal high while providing both
academic, social and emotional support through one-to-one mentoring, cooperative work
and display of tmst in their capabilities is a good strategy to adopt. The teachers can have
mini conferences with the learners and suggest ways to improve their language skills to

10
 bridge the gaps. The unreached children should be allowed to make their decisions on
topics for study, for projects or writing tasks.
(ii) Introduction to critical thinking skills: It is essential that teachers introduce the
underprivileged learners to critical thinking skills from an early stage. This will help them
to become analytical and be able to make decisions. Earlier we had discussed how these
learners are more mahire than those from comfortable homes. Asking them open-ended
questions or allowing them to choose the topics or books for projects and reading
workshops would assure them that the teacher does not believe them to be cognitively
deficient. If complemented with support whenever the learners require, it would lead to a
positive self-image.
They can also be encouraged to explore their own backgrounds which will help them to set
pragmatic goals.
(iii) Selection of relevant topics: Topics for classroom discussion and writing tasks would have
to be sensitively selected to ensure that these fall within the experiences of the
underprivileged learner's that one is teaching. If care is taken not to select topics of which
the learners have no knowledge, the learners will never feel a sense of inadequacy. When
the learners will be able to identify with the topic, they would take interest and the task will
be completed. If the focus is on their lives and their dreams, learners will move from a state
of resignation to motivation and goal setting. Similarly, some of the topics used in the
books need to be related to the lives of these learners, keeping in view the culh1ral
diversity. If for the reading project the learners are allowed to exercise their choice on the
kind of books they would like to read, the problem of involvement gap that was discussed
in the earlier part of the Unit will be bridged. Younger children may choose to read very
simple books which may be meant for children younger than them. They should be allowed
to exercise this choice and slowly graduate to books meant for their level. It is very
important to promote the culhire of reading.
(iv) Adequate Sc affolding and support: The role of scaffolding like giving task that these
learners find relevant, explaining the task, breaking it up into doable smaller tasks,
encouraging them to do the task and last but not the least providing the support of peers by
way of collaborative work, cannot be undermined. In addition to the process writing
approach, the teacher can also use the process approach to grammar as well. Instead of
doing a grammar item formally and in isolation, learners can do speaking or writing tasks
in which they practise the grammar item in a meaningful and contextual manner.
Collaborative and cooperative learning modes will also provide for peer evaluation and
peer editing of written work or project reports. This will lead to removal of errors in a more
supportive environment.
(v) Use Mother-tongue based Multilingualism: In the initial stages underprivileged learners
can be exposed to bilingual methods wherein they can contribute their ideas in their own
language or the teacher repeats her instrnctions in their language. This may be done in a
nah1ral manner without making the underprivileged learners feel that this is a special
concession in view of their inadequate language skills. At the primary level, questions
should be formed in a way that the expected response can be only a word or a group of
words. If the teacher continues to insist on answering in a complete sentence, they feel de­
motivated as they find the syntax of the English language very different from theirs. They
should be encouraged to do language tasks that focus not on the language but on

11
 completion of the task. To conclude, it can be said that if the learners arc provided with a
positive self-image and their expectations arc kept high while giving a lot of support in a
less obvious manner, they would be able to learn effectively

Q. Who are the Underprivileged Learners? What Makes Them Underprivileged?

Ans. The term 'underprivileged' or 'unreached' is used to refer to the disadvantaged section of people
who arc economically, socially or geographically backward. They arc in an unfavourable position
compared to other sections of society since they do not have access to proper nutrition, proper health
care, good education facilities and skill development. This may be due to poverty, culh1ral
disadvantage because they arc an ethnic minority or being in inaccessible areas where facilities of
schooling arc not adequate. They have been referred to as 'deprived', 'psycho-socially deprived',
'culh1rally deprived', 'locationally deprived' or 'socio-economically deprived'. Due to a variety of
reasons they do not have the experiences to gain knowledge, have a shmtcd communication system
as they have not been exposed to fluent adult language users or have had a very limited interaction
with the others in society which keeps them at the fringes.
The causes of the backwardness of such learners can be many as we have mentioned above.
(i) Poverty: Poverty is a major cause of disadvantage and backwardness. Due to lack of means
such learners arc deprived of many experiences and opporhmitics. They may have working
parents who have very little time to interact or talk to them. Moreover, the language
repertoire of the parents can be very limited. Hence the experiences that a pre-school child
requires to become a good communicator, reader or writer arc missing. Emergent
experiences such as conversation with parents and those around, letter knowledge, sound
knowledge, access to books and toys, stories and rhymes and songs, numerical knowledge,
which arc a part of any middle-class child's life, arc missing in the lives of these children.
We can say that they arc under-stimulated.
In addition to this, there is a major problem caused by malnutrition. Their poor health
status docs not allow them to make full use of their intelligence. In addition, differential
treatment is meted out to them at school where the teachers believe that they would not be
able to understand or handle the content meant for the common learner. Hence, they get a
diluted exposure in the classroom too. This further hampers their growth.
(ii) Discrimination and exploitation: The exploitation of the less privileged by the more
privileged and powerful classes of society has its roots in history. Similarly, the biases
against these sections reduce the availability of opportunities, and increase the likelihood of
their being exploited. In fact, the education system in any culhire is largely targeted at the
middle class and hence is based on the privileged culhirc. The underprivileged learners'
culhirc docs not form part of the content of textbooks. The teaching methods work on
assumptions of certain pre-knowledge and skills which the marginalised lack. Hence the
gap in the learning sihiation keeps on growing. This inability to handle content or learning
sihiations as well as the behaviour of their peers in the classroom creates in them a poor self
-image. This further creates a negative attih1dc towards school, ultimately leading to a drop
in their achievement and being pushed out of school.
(iii) Geographical or locational disadvantage: The underprivileged often live in remote rnral
areas which arc inaccessible, beyond the reach of schools. In urban areas they live in slums
which in themselves arc islands cut off from the facilities, advantages and opporhmitics

12
 that the city offers. The electronic media has reduced this alienation to a large degree, for
these people arc now aware of many things that form the lifestyle of the middle class.
(iv) Culturally disadvantaged: The 'culh1rally disadvantaged' may belong to ethnic minorities,
certain demographic groups like the slum dwellers or tribes untouched by education. They
have poor stimulus for learning and their exposure to even the regional language is
negligible.

Q. At what stage do children face problems of writing? What kind of problems do they face?
Ans. Writing is a complex activity and demands an integration of several different skills. Writing
involves:
• selection of ideas
• expressing the ideas in words and sentences
• mechanics of writing (like handwriting, spelling, format etc.)
• motor skills of forming letters in writing or typing (if on a computer)
According to Johnson and Myklebust (1967) difficulties in writing may occur at different stages and in
different areas. These could be in:
• planning and selection of ideas
• expression in language
• spelling
• handwriting (fine motor skills)
Difficulty in planning and selection of ideas: In the initial stages' learners arc expected to copy
words and phrases in blanks from a box in a highly controlled manner. Planning and coordination arc
not required much in classes 1 and 2. Difficulties will become evident when the learner is expected to
do some guided or free writing which involves coordination of planning, sentence strnch1rc and
spelling. Writing tasks like writing stories, letters, describing personal things or writing about
personal experience may show evidence of writing difficulties. The difficulty in planning and
selection of ideas can be due to basic language difficulty with inadequate vocabulary, expression and
general knowledge. The cause of the difficulty may be traced back to the child's early years when the
s/hc was not exposed to reading, books, stories or oral communication due to the home environment.
Another kind of writing difficulty can be seen amongst children who can read well and have a good
oral language but arc unable to express themselves in writing. They may be very active in the class
responding to questions orally or reading well but writing poorly. A child can be placed in different
levels of writing ability and then by means of focused activities helped to reach the next stage and
progress to the required level.
Concrete-description Level: The child at the concrete-description level can convert thought into oral
language but has limited written expression. The teacher can help the child by using the following
methods:
Initially making the child write very simple sentences which arc copied.
Showing the child an object and asking the child to think of as many ways as she can to describe the
object: long yellow pencil, nice yellow pencil, new colour pencil etc.
Next is asking a child to describe an object along different dimensions like its shape, colour, size and
USC.

Concrete-imaginative Level: This level requires the child to use imagination. The activities at this
level arc initially done verbally. Later the child is encouraged to write the phrases. The child can be
encouraged to write simple sentences by looking at pich1rcs and asking the child questions about the

13
sequence like what is happening, what will happen next and what the person will feel at that time,
etc.
By doing this the child is able to manipulate ideas into past and fuhirc events, or imagine what a
person in a pichirc is doing or infer where a person may be or what the person is planning to do next.
Abstract-descriptive Level: This is the next level in writing wherein the child can write longer pieces
of text using a visual or verbal stimulus like pichircs to be sequenced in a kind of story before writing
the story. Initially the number of pichircs is restricted to 3-4 and later increased and more events
introduced.
Gradually the child begins to present different characters in the story and may give them
characteristics based on perception and experience. Children can also be encouraged to write short
plays.
Abstract-imaginative Level: This is a sophisticated level and only a few sh1dcnts of the primary
school can attain it. However, children can be made to work collaboratively and develop a story with
the following guidelines. They can use the original plot, create characters, create a sihiation and
narrate it in a fairly interesting manner
The story should have:
• an imaginative setting
• a sequenced plot
• a message that can be concluded from it
The writing activity can be preceded with a preparation where in the teacher holds a discussion and
gives them direction. The teacher can also provide the sh1dcnts a set of questions to address so that
they can produce a more mahirc text.
Difficulties with grammatical structure: The second requirement for a piece of writing is that it
should be presented in adequately formed sentences and paragraphs. The other difficulty children
face is with developing sentences with correct grammatical struch1rc.
The teacher can help such children by using the methods given below:
• First encourage them to create clear and interesting sentences orally through discussion and
then transfer them onto writing.
• Use topics that interest the child so that s/hc is encouraged to talk about it before putting it
down on paper
• Practice in meaningful discourse.

Q. Does the teacher's response help them prepare for their next Internal Assessment?
Ans. Formative Evaluation, as we all know, informs us about how individual sh1dcnts arc
progressing in relation to the target learning outcomes. What is most often neglected is, how it may be
used to teach the learner what to learn and how to learn it. In other words, formative evaluation
procedures, if designed and implemented to help sh1dents, can guide them to learn independently.
Instead of treating them as testing tools, we may use them to support learning.
The following sihiation and the teacher's response helps us understand her attih1dc to formative
evaluation.
The teacher evaluated and rch1rncd the answer scripts. Quite a few students thought that they had
done their internal assessment reasonably well and felt disappointed by the marks they were given.
When the class was over, a few of them followed her to the staff room. After a good deal of hesitation,
one of them came up and asked the only question they all wanted to ask, "Teacher, I expected a
higher score for this question. Have I not answered it correctly?"

14
The teacher said, "The answer is correct. But, you have not organized it well". Her other comments
were on vocabulary, grammar, paragraphing, handwriting etc. The sh1dcnts felt discouraged and no
wiser. She also carefully defended and justified all her evaluation procedures; she discussed every
response, answered all their questions patiently, and added a few marks here and there. They left
feeling better.

Q. Does autonomous Learning involve choices?

Ans. In the sihmtion we just examined, only two learners understood learning in the right sense.
Although the teacher did not appreciate or comment on what Dccpthi had done, Nalini learned how
she might approach the task from her classmate. She could perceive the difference in the quality of
the presentations made by Dccpthi and the rest of her class. Then, she made a conscious choice and
chose to do something similar to what Dccpthi had done.
The example illustrates how an autonomous learner demonstrates:
• a willingness to learn,
• a realization that learning is their own responsibility,
• an ability to make choices, and (iv)thc courage to take risk.
Neither Dccpthi nor Nalini might be able to consciously analyze what they have done. But, they
constrnctcd effective discourse. This shows their awareness of the parameters for not just the
presentation but communication itself. They need guidance to become conscious of what makes their
response appealing. It will help them transfer the knowledge to other areas of communication. Only
an autonomous learner-teacher can give this kind of support.

Q. What, in your opinion, are the strengths of Transacting language through Literature?
Ans. Some of the reasons for using the English textbooks could be:
• They arc prescribed in the syllabus.
• They provide easy access to texts that can help develop the language abilities of learners.
• Similarity in standards of learning English.
• It is difficult for an ordinary teacher to think of suitable material that can be used in class.
• All learners can access these easily.
The question that arises next is what should be done with the textbooks in class?
Most textbooks include prose pieces such as short stories, extracts from biographies, descriptions,
newspaper reports, along with some selections from poetry and drama. These arc samples of
litcrah1rc, but the idea behind their inclusion is:
• They seem appropriate to the learners' age and context.
• Learners ought to be oriented to readings from different kinds of discourses.
• They present different aspects of humanity thereby broadening the learners' perspective.
• Literary language is suited to the development of learners' language abilities.
• Reading literary texts help learners in understanding and appreciating the multiple levels of
meanings.
• Learners can become familiar with a range of styles of writing and the different purposes for
which they can be used.
• Litcrah1rc provides the learners with a concrete context for language use.
The 'Language through Litcrah1rc' approach helps the learners in achieving their main aim -which is
to improve their knowledge of, and proficiency in, English. Literary texts arc perceived as a resource
to stimulate language activities - especially for classes VI-X

15
A few tasks that can be undertaken in the class arc listed here:
• Read untitled poems. Select appropriate titles from the list of titles provided along with
discussion: reasons for choice of title.
• Predict 'what happens next?' after reading till a specific point
• Read a story and write dialogues for the same.
• Guess the meaning of the words from the given context.
• Read a scene from the play and devise role play on what happens next.
• Choose the most accurate review/ summary of a short story.
• Develop and complete a time line based on what they have read.
• Decide which traits suit a character best.
• Fill in the crossword with the help of the given clues. This task is based on the words from the
text being read in class.
• Listen to the discussion and identify which characters from the story arc being referred to.
• Assume that you arc a character from the story and write a diary entry/ letter. ..

16
 BEGS-185: English Language Teaching
GUESS PAPER-2

Q. Frame the Integrating writing tasks in the Lesson.

Ans. Let us refer to the Lesson 'Kalpana Chawla' and try to examine the types of writing tasks that
can be integrated with it. The lesson on Kalpana Chawla has two distinct writing forms - the first part
is a newspaper report, while the second part is a biographical sketch. Teachers can choose to work on
either of the two or both of these with their learners.
Possible tasks that can arise from it arc:
• Identifying the feahircs of
• a newspaper report
• news headlines
• Identifying the format of a newspaper report.
These can be followed by controlled or guided tasks for framing newspaper reports.
A few examples arc:
• Match the pichircs to the newspaper headlines.
• Observe the given pich1rcs closely. Discuss the nahirc of the events depicted in these. Small group
discussions lead to a class discussion and the significant points arc listed on the board. This can be
followed by the learner's attempt to write the news report in pairs/groups/individually
• Watch this YouTubc video and imagine yourself as a citizen journalist. What points would
you like to include? Discuss in small groups and write a news report.
• Similarly, learners can be asked to file in a profile sheet based on the biographical sketch of
Kalpana Chawla. This can be followed by a discussion on the feahircs of a biographical
sketch. Next, the learners in groups arc supposed to write a biographical sketch of a famous
sportspcrson, actor, scientist or someone who inspires them. They could be asked to collect
biographical details about a person of their choice and create a few profiles/ biographical
sketches which can be displayed in class later.
It's important that writing is integrated with other language abilities. A few examples arc:
• Imagine that Kalpana Chawla, on her last visit to India met an old school friend. Based on the
biographical piece you've read in 'Honeysuckle' write an imaginary dialogue that might have
taken place between them.
• You have read Kalpana Chawla's biographical sketch and arc inspired by her. Write a letter
to your best friend saying how impressed you arc (or you can write a diary entry expressing
your feeling).
• You have read 'Kalpana Chawla's biographical sketch. Now listen to some of the people
who've known her and write a tribute to Kalpana Chawla.
• Listen to the audio recording of people talking about Kalpana Chawla. Listen carefully and
fill in the profile sheet based on this information.

Q. How to integrating reading with other Language Abilities?

Ans. As mentioned earlier, integrating language abilities is important in a language class. Indian
classrooms have chiefly focussed on reading ability, so much so that English classes have revolved
around or been limited to the text books. As a result, we have been unable to optimize the
opporhmitics to develop the listening, speaking and writing abilities of learners. Contemporary

17
approaches to teaching English call for integrating language abilities in class in order to prepare
learners to face real life sihiations.
Read the given list of tasks and activities that can be included as part of the reading lessons.
• Talk in pairs/groups about the theme/context being taken up in the reading passage/ lesson.
Share this with the class.
• Show the class the pich1rcs of a couple of characters from what is to be read. Ask them to
imagine who they arc, how arc they related and what kind of conversation arc they likely to
be a part of. This activity is to be undertaken at pair/group level. Possible answers to be listed
on board before reading.
• Enact a role play based on the poem.
• Work with a partner. Read the following extracts of poems and discuss the word pich1rcs
(imagery) that you read.
• Imagine you arc an interviewer from 'Times of India'. Interview the characters from the story
to establish the tmth about events. Work in groups of 4.
• Read the newspaper clipping and compare the facts with the events in the story.
• Complete these words puzzle with words from the passage.
• Work in groups of four. Think of an alternative ending. What changes arc needed in the story
to accommodate this ending?
• Which of the cartoons describes the meaning of the given passage best?
• Given below is a partially filled table. Fill it on the basis of the given passage.
• Convert this story /poem into a play.
• Compare this play / story with the movie.
• Complete the cartoon strip on the basis of the story / passage read.
• Fill in the missing sentences of dialogues. Use your own words.
• Write out the dialogues for the story you just read. Work in groups of four.
• You've read the story. Now listen to two characters from the story. Identify who could these
be based on the character traits displayed in the story. Give reasons for your answer.
• Imagine you arc one of the characters from the story. Write a diary entry/ letter. Enact / Role
play a scene from the text read.

Q. Why do we need to understand Classroom Discourse?

Ans. It has been established by experts in the area of classroom discourse that the teacher plays an
important role in understanding, establishing and maintaining patterns of communication that foster,
to the greatest extent, both classroom learning and second language acquisition. Therefore, classroom
discourse needs to be understood to promote learning in the classroom. Let us first understand the
typical stmch1rc of classroom discourse. We have all been part of various classrooms as learners and
teachers. It is easy to identify and present a very clear stn1ch1rc of classroom discourse. In most
classrooms teachers control both the topic of conversation and him-taking. Learners take cues from
the teacher through whom they direct most of their responses. In a second language classroom the
teacher is often considered to be the main point of reference and he/she controls most of the patterns
of communication primarily through the ways in which the teacher restrict or allow learners'
interaction, take control of the topic and facilitatc or hinder learning opporhmi tics.
The 1mdcrlying stmch1rc of second language classrooms typically represent sequences of discourse
'moves' IR (E/F), where I is teacher initiation, R is learner response and E/F is an optional evaluation

18
or feedback by the teacher (Smclair and Coulthard, 1975). In later versions of the model, F became
follow- up. This model is referred to as the IRF sequence, as illustrated below:

Extract 1.1
(I) Teacher There are two thmgs that the wnter establishes at the beginning
ofth<.> <:tory Om• 1<: ,;1tuahon ,1tm1tmn Wh:it 1<; the ,;ituahon at the hegmnmg
of the story? Anybody? What's the -;1tuat1on Amta? Have you read the story
Amta?
(R) Student No ma'am
(F) Teacher Ah that won't help then will 1t? Who's read the story? What 1s
the -;1tuatton at the bcgmnmg Rahul?
As you can see m the above Extract 1.1, for every utterance made by a learner (R), teachers typically
make two (l,F). Thus, teacher talk (speech of the teacher m the classroom) represents approXJmately
two-thirds of classroom speech. It is both parbcular to the classroom and charactenzed by it. Tlus is
the traditional IRF mteraction which prevails m most classrooms.
Musllllle□ (1996) discusses four reasons for the dommance of the IRF sequence m our classrooms:
• Teachers' and students' expectabons consider quesbon and answer roubnes as appropnate
classroom behaviour. Tlus is how conversabon m a classroom is charactenzed.
• Teachers feel the need to make learners 'feel good'. The feedback given by a teacher to a
student is impo1iant and necessary.
• The system of power relabons m most classes means that it 1s the teacher who has more of the
'floor' owmg to asymmetncal roles.
• Fmally, the time constraints facmg teachers make them believe that quesbon and answer
roubnes are the most effective means of advancmg classroom discourse.
However, experts have frequently highlighted that the IRF sequence has a negative effect on
classroom commurucation because it gives nummum mteractional space to the learners. The teacher
talk considerably mcreases and learners don't get enough opporturuties for language use. In order to
fac1htate leammg m the classroom we need to grant greater parbc1pation nghts to our learners and
allow them to play a more central role m classroom mteraction. If our classroom discourse is
donunated by the IRF sequence then mteracbon can become very mechanical and also monotonous.
We need to be aware of tlus and we should conscrously try to break the IRF pattern. In the followmg
secbons we will discuss vanous strategies that we can use to make our classroom discourse
mteracbng and effective.
In the L2 classroom, teachers control both the content and the procedure of the learmng process. L2
classes exhibit some typical charactensbcs:
• teachers control the topic of discuss10n,
• teachers control who may parbc1pate and when, students take the:ir cues from teachers,
• role relabonsh1ps between teachers and learners are unequal, teachers are responsible for
managing the mteracbon which occurs, teachers talk more.
Thus, one may conclude that teachers often control both the content and structure of classroom
commumcabon, at least m part, by then use of language. Furthermore, the:ir decrs10n as to whether to
hghtly control the topic of discuss10n or whether to allow a more egahtanan discourse structure m
which students self select and have a more equal share m turn- taking, is not random. Thus, teachers
influence learner parbc1pation both by the ways m which they use language and by what they bnng
to the classroom. Therefore, it is important to be aware of our language use m the classroom. In

19
Extract 12 below, for example, note how the teacher selects who may talk (turn 1), controls the topic
of conversation (1), selects another speaker (7), evaluates the learner's performance (3, 5, 7), manages
both language form (what's the verb in 5) and the message (they go to in 5) Note too how the
predominance of an IRF structure characterizes tlus extract as a piece of classroom discourse

Extract 1.2
I) /) Teacher Ok Rua could you exp/am somethmg about law and order
m our country?What happens ifyou comm/t a crime?
2) R) Learner I. /fwe do crane policeman come to take somebody to police
station
3) F) Teacher Yes
4) R) Learner/. and prisoner quewoned and 1f he ts (5 seconds
1111111tel/1g1ble)
5) Fil) Teacher. Yes what '.s tlte verb Rita if site or he yes commm a
cmne they go to...
6) R) Lem nerl l'l1ey go to court but if they he they d1dn t do that
the y can go home
7) Fil) leacher They can go home ( .. ) ve1J' good 111deed nght what
lwppe11s Ill the cow t?
Thus, we find how the teacher controls the classroom discourse The responsibility for promoting
efficient and effechve language use resides with the teacher Thus, the teacher's use of language can
get the best out of a group of learners- that is, facilitating contnbutions, helping them say what they
mean, understand what they are studying and making sure the rest of the group is able to follow - is
dependent on a teacher's ability-to make professional use of language This ability has to be learned
and prachsed over hlne, in the same way that we teachers acquire and perfect classroom teaching
skills ln order to make our classroom discourse meaningful and effective we need to understand
some of the desired features of an effecb.ve classroom discourse ]n the next secb.on we v,tll. discuss
these features of classroom discourse

Q What do we mean by repair? What are the Different types of Repairs?

Ans Apart from quesb.oru:ng, the acb.vity wluch most characterizes classroom discourse is correchon
of errors Repair is also called error correcb.on The term error correcb.on is a broader term wluch
encompasses all types of teacher feedback Error correction may be direct or indirect, overt or covert
Teachers have many options - our spht- second decJSions in the rapid flow of a lesson may have
consequences for the learning opporturub.es we present to our learners Just hke our quesb.ons need to
match our pedagogic goals, similarly our choice of specific repair strategies should match our goal
Repair can be language centred repair or content centred repair Repair 1s closely related to the
context of what is being done The unphcation being that repair, hke other aspects of classroom
discourse should be related to pedagogic goals
Direct repair This refers to overt error correcb.on Direct repair involves correcting an error quickly
and directly Example
Student My brother hke bikes
Teacher not hke hkes he hkes bikes

20
Indirect repair: This repair strategy is covert. In this strategy instead of correcting an error directly,
the teacher tries to get the correct response from the learner by giving hints and cues. In other words
the teacher tries to elicit the correct response through questions or appropriate prompts. Example:
Sh1dcnt: My brother like bikes...
Teacher: Your brother. ...?
Sh1dcnt: like bikes...
Teacher: hc ...you arc talking about your brothcr ...hc...
Sh1dcnt: likes bikes...
Form-focused feedback: This is also called language centered repair. It refers to feedback given on
the words used, not the message. Sec the example below:
Sh1dcnt: I am belonging from the Delhi
Teacher: I am from Delhi...not the Delhi...not am belonging ...
Content feedback: This is also called content-centered repair. It refers to feedback given to the
message rather than the words used:
Sh1dcnt: During summers I go my grandmother's house ...I like spending time there.
Teacher: What do you do there?
Sh1dcnt: I likes play football and listen stories of grandmother.
Teacher: ok ...that's intcrcsting...grandmothcr's stories arc always intcrcsting ...Docs your grandma
make those stories? Or docs she read them from a book?
As we can sec here the teacher gives feedback on the message and ignores the language errors of the
learners. She further asks genuine questions related to the content of the message. The teacher's aim
in this interaction is to clearly promote fluency and get learners to speak. If our pedagogic goal is to
develop fluency then direct repair is not recommended. However, if our goal is to develop accuracy
then grammatical input in the form of direct repair is desired. In other words language- focused
feedback is appropriate for accuracy based tasks whereas content based feedback allows learners to
express themselves freely without getting conscious. For fluency based tasks we should avoid direct
repair. Therefore, to facilitate interaction we need to match our pedagogic goals with our repair
strategics just like our questioning strategics need to match our desired pedagogic goals.

Q. How can we encourage Negotiated Interaction in our Classroom and thereby break the IRF
structure?
Ans. The above strategics need to be incorporated in our classroom discourse in a balanced manner
so that we can facilitate learning. Matching each of these strategics with our pedagogic goals will give
us the desired effect. When we use multiple and appropriate strategics to manage our classroom
interaction we succeed in promoting negotiated interaction. Instead of accepting the first learner
contribution we need to push the learners to interact adequately. In order to understand negotiated
interaction we now him to the issue of talk management and topic management.
Talk management
Talk management is defined as an "activity" of classroom discourse. It refers to the ways in which the
participants (teacher and the learners) conduct their classroom conversation in order to achieve their
immediate learning goals. The stmchirc of information exchange determines the way in which the
talk is managed. In other words, the types of questions asked and the kinds of responses determine
how it is controlled. The IRF sequence (as discussed in earlier sections) is considered to be the most
commonly found stmchirc of information exchange where I stands for teacher initiation, R for learner
response and F is the feedback provided by the teacher. This stmchirc doesn't allow learners to

21
interact freely or to genuinely communicate and express their ideas. In classrooms where the teacher
tightly controls the talk it gives rise to an IRF sequence dominated interaction which is extremely
limited. Negotiated interaction helps teachers to break the IRF pattern as teachers engage in jointly
generating meaningful classroom talk. For example, the teacher's questions may try to elicit learner
responses which arc based on their own opinions and interpretations and not facts directly taken
from textbook. We should try to encourage the learner to strngglc to express themselves by providing
linguistic and paralinguistic cues. In classrooms where negotiated interaction is missing the teachers
end up answering their own questions or they stop with the first 'correct' response. This doesn't
allow opporhmitics for other learners to stretch their linguistic repertoire and take part in classroom
discourse.
Asking more referential questions that seek information and allow open-ended answers facilitate
meaningful interaction as compared to asking display questions that restrict teachers and learners to
exhibit their linguistic competence only.
Kumaravadivclu (2003) points out that asking referential questions alone need not break the IRF
chain. Teachers need to pay attention to the meanings of the responses rather than treat questions and
responses in a routine and rihmlizcd manner
Real negotiated interaction can take place only if we focus on the meaning contained in the learners'
responses rather than evaluate it linguistically and move on. We need to connect our talk
management with effective topic management.
Topic management
We should give freedom to the learners to nominate topics as it provides an effective basis for
intcractional opporhmitics. Topicalization is defined as a process by which learners take up
something the teacher or another learner says and (attempt to) make it into next topic. There arc
several advantages of letting learners have control over the topic:
• Linguistic complexity of the input can be tailored to the learners' own level.
• It can also create better opporhmitics for negotiating meaning when a communicative
problem occurs
• It can also facilitate the production of more complex and extensive output on the part of the
learner
Research has shown that learners benefit more from self-and peer-nominated topics than from
teacher-nominated topics as they arc more likely to create and sustain motivation among the learners
and give them a sense of freedom and achievement in taking some control of the classroom discourse.
Even learners who do not participate directly in the interaction by initiating a response benefit
unknowingly from their peers' contributions. Thus, it not only results in increased opporhmity for
practice but also enables learning.
In topic as well as him management we teachers play a crncial role. It cannot be denied that the
strnchirc of information exchanged (whether it will be IRF or not) to a large extent depends on the
teacher, his/her questions, ways to manage hims and the degree of freedom he/she allows to let
learners take over topic nomination.

Q. List the benefits of Content and Language Integrated Learning.

Ans. There arc several benefits of Content and Language Integrated Leaming
• Learners arc exposed to a considerable amount of language through stimulating content.
Learners explore interesting content using language dependent activities.

22
 • Content and Language Integrated Teaching (CLIT) supports contcxhrnlizcd learning;
languages taught arc useful for language that is embedded within relevant discourse contexts
rather than as isolated language fragments. Hence sh1dcnts make greater connections with
the language and what they already know.
• Motivates students - complex information is delivered through real life contexts for sh1dcnts
to grasp well.
• Greater flexibility and adaptability in the curriculum can be deployed as per sh1dcnts'
interest.
• CLIT is sh1dcnt-ccntrcd, one of its goals is to keep sh1dcnts interested and motivated by
generating stimulating content, instruction and materials.
• In such classrooms, instead of the lcch1rc method, sh1dcnts learn through doing and arc
actively engaged in the learning processes.
• Central to CUL is that learning happens not only through teacher input but through peer
input and inaction. Sh1dcnts assume active social roles in the classroom that involves
interactive learning, negotiating the information gathered and co-constructing the meaning.

Q. What do you understand by Language registers?

Ans. Each subject, say Mathematics, Science, Social Sciences has its own discourse, lexicon and
strnch1rcs which arc distinct and unique. Even within a broad subject there could be distinctions, for
example with regard to Science, Biology can be stated to be more descriptive than Physics which is
more experimental. The language of Mathematics is logical and involves problem solving. Subject
teachers need to be sensitive to the nuances of language i.e., towards what is called language registers
viz. science register, mathematics register, social science register and so on. This makes it easier to
perceive the discourse of the subject which is mostly conveyed through a language and helps in
comprehending the ideas.
According to Dalton's atomic theory, all matter, whether an clement a compound or a mixh1rc is
composed of small particles called atoms. The poshilatcs of this theory may be stated as follows:
• All matter is made of very tiny particles called atoms.
• Atoms arc indivisible particles, which cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction.
• Atoms of a given clement arc identical in mass and chemical properties.
• Atoms of different clements have different masses and chemical properties.
• Atoms combine in the ratio of small whole numbers to form compounds.
• The relative number and kinds of atoms arc constant in a given compound.
Take a look at the underlined sentences, phrases or clauses. They arc in the passive voice or in simple
present tense. This denotes that the Science register expresses neutrality, i.e., that facts have been
proved, experimented or tested and accepted universally as truth. This may have been changed by
another scientist later. But at the given point of time this is or was the truth. Language of Science
presents the characteristics of science as objective, neutral, amoral and of proven fact which can be
tested anywhere in any condition. A Science teacher should be sensitive to the linguistic fcah1rcs
which reveals the characteristics of science and scientific processes viz. observation, formulation of
hypothesis, testing and so on. The following is a corpus-based analysis of NCERT Mathematics
textbook of class VI which shows how the language of Mathematics operates and where the use of
determiners and prepositions arc used to convey the mathematical concept of problem solving and
abstraction. The most frequently used words arc not the 'content' words, they arc function words like
articles, prepositions and so on. The word 'number' appears as the ninth most frequently used word.

23
This reveals how the mathematical ideas and thinking are conveyed in language in assumptions,
calculations, logical sequencing and thinking. Prepositions, determiners and conjunction play
important role in making the calculations effective. For example, 'into' matters more when we do a
multiplication.

Q. Write a lesson plan in science for class VIII using LAC as one of Strategies?
Ans. The English language has a unique role today in the educational scene of this country. It is
taught as a language across the country and it is also the medium of learning in number of schools.
There is also an increasing demand for the language (NCERT, 2005). Teaching of Science,
Mathematics and Technology through Indian languages medium also present difficulties when
translating the terminologies originating from Latin, Greek, and so on. This demands serious
attention by the teacher who needs to find ways to use the languages (as a tool) to make learners
comprehend the concepts. All the languages available in the classroom come in handy to support
learning. The position paper on Teaching of English (NCERT, 2006) while making a case for whole
language perspective for teaching-learning of language stresses the need for supplementary and
complementary roles for languages, particularly for English as a second language. English does not
stand alone. It needs to find its place.
• along with other Indian languages
i) in regional-medium schools: how can children's other languages strengthen English
teaching/learning?
ii) in English-medium schools: how can other Indian languages be valorised, reducing the
perceived hegemony of English?
• in relation to other subjects:
A language-across the- curriculum perspective is perhaps of particular relevance to primary
education. Language is best acquired through different meaning making contexts, and hence all
teaching is in a sense language teaching. In the initial stages contexhial meaning supports language
use, at later stages meaning may be arrived at solely through language.

Q. Write the importance of Monitoring in the Classroom?

Ans. As we have seen above, an informal level of monitoring is going on while the teacher is
conducting a lesson. This is an interesting and encouraging phenomenon. However, we must be
careful not to assume that all teachers monitor carefully and successfully all the time, and their
teaching is therefore very relevant to the needs of their sh1dents. Far from it! In fact in all areas of
education, and language courses are no exception, there is the persistent problem of the curriculum­
in-operation not being very effective or satisfactory. Even newly designed courses, supported by
sophisticated materials and appropriate teacher orientation reveal many inadequacies, especially
when followed in a variety of instih1tions. The explanation lies in the fact that the teaching -learning
process is not a simple and straightforward matter of predetermined and neatly organized inputs
leading to clearly predictable outcomes. As we know from everyday experience, even simpler
operations can go wrong. For example, when assembling a household gadget following a manual, or
when baking a cake using a recipe, following a set procedure does not always guarantee success. It
should not surprise us therefore, that in our teaching- learning endeavours, there is nearly always a
gap between our intentions and what is realized. The processes activated in class (cognitive,
motivational, interpersonal, ...) are influenced by various factors, thus making outcomes highly
unpredictable. This does not mean that we give up and accept that teaching cannot be planned and

24
organized and made (more) effective. This complexity of the teaching-learning sihiation presents us
as individual teachers with a challenge - that of monitoring several aspects of the achial sihiation and
going as far as possible to take account of the information obtained as a lesson progresses. A plan for
teaching should not be followed strictly like a recipe, but used as a starting point for further
'sihiation-spccific' decisions. This need for modification or adjustment of plans is what our earlier
discussion of flexible planning points to. What learners in a given class will achially do (or be
prepared to try to do seriously) - and this is their contribution to the lesson - cannot be controlled, or
even predicted accurately when planning in advance. Hence the teacher must keep getting 'up to
date' information (especially about the learner involvement and progress) and 'finc-hmc' her planned
inputs accordingly. Monitoring is the means of obtaining feedback on an ongoing basis so that
teaching can be made sensitive or responsive to the immediate sihiation in the class. We have already
seen that a predisposition to monitor (informally) is present in teachers.
Monitoring needs to be carried out in a more conscious and systematic manner if it has to help with
'improving' instmction. Monitoring of instmction can, of course, be done by others (outsiders) as
well. This has advantages and disadvantages. Herc our focus is on self-monitoring. This process as
noted above, helps immediately in the (more) effective handling of given lessons. In the long term, it
plays a major role in enhancing the teacher's professional skills. The rationale for self-monitoring can
be summed up as shown below.
• A teacher who has an awareness of teaching and its different components is better prepared
to make appropriate judgements and decisions in teaching.
• Critical reflection can trigger a deeper understanding of teaching. Critical reflection, as we
saw earlier, involves examining our own experiences as a basis for decision-making and sclf­
dcvelopmcnt. It involves asking questions about how and why things arc the way they arc,
the value systems they represent, alternatives available, etc.
• Much can be learned about teaching through self-inquiry. Very often class visits by outsiders
arc not feedback-oriented but arc judgement-oriented. Moreover, rather than depending on
external sources for information, the approacl1 that seems to have a lot of potential for self­
development is one where teachers monitor and collect information about their teaching
either individually or through collaborating with a colleague and making decisions about
what alternatives to adopt. Lawrence Sten house, a well-known expert in curriculum­
rcscarch, is of the opinion that all well-founded curriculum research and development,
whether the work of an individual teacher, of a school, of a group working in a teachers'
centre or of a group working within the coordinating framework of a national project, is
based on the sh1dy of classrooms. It thus rests on the work of teachers. He further adds: 'It is
not enough that teachers' work should be sh1dicd: they need to sh1dy it themselves'.
• Another related concept to self-monitoring is the view that experience by itself is insufficient
as a basis for professional growth. We know that for many experienced teachers, many
classroom routines and strategics arc applied almost automatically and do not involve a great
deal of conscious thought and reflection. Experience is the starting point, but for the
experience to play a productive role, it is necessary to examine such experience
systematically. For this, systematic procedures arc needed. A more detailed discussion of
these points is available in Richards and Lockhart (1994). Self-monitoring then is
'illuminative' because it involves raising the consciousness of teachers as to what is ach1ally
happening in the classroom as opposed to what is supposed to happen. It is also formative in
purpose since the information we get about the process and product of teaching/learning can

25
be immediately fed back to alter or improve our own class. Therefore, it involves descriptions
of what happened, and why and how this self-awareness helps in developing deeper insights
into the complexities of a classroom. Therefore, monitoring plays a major role in a teacher's
self-development. Monitoring therefore involves systematic observation and explanation of
dassrnom prnccsscs.

26
 BEGS-185: English Language Teaching
GUESS PAPER-3

Q. What are Learners' Beliefs and Attitudes about Language Learning?

Ans. Learners, too, bring to learning their own beliefs, goals and attih1dcs which influence how they
learn. We know that learning is the goal of teaching, but learning is not the mirror image of teaching.
We may want to know what assumptions and expectations learners bring to classrooms. You could
draw up an inventory as shown below and give it to your students for their opinion. Find out from
sh1dcnts to what extent they agree with each of these statements:
• English is much more difficult than other languages.
• English is the most important language in the world.
• You need to know a lot of words if you want to know English.
• We need to practise every day to improve our English.
• Teachers should explain grammar rules of English in the class.
• It is enough if the teacher gives grammar cxcrcisc(s) as homework.
• It is important to speak English very well.
• It is better if the teacher corrects all our mistakes.
• I like group work because when I make mistakes my friends don't correct me.
• It is not correct to ask the teacher when you have a doubt.
• I know the rule but I forget it when I speak.

Q. What are some of the positive trends in Materials Production?

Ans. Materials development involves understanding how materials arc developed, designed and
customized for language teaching-learning. The process involves both teachers and materials writers.
The teacher evaluates the material for use in the classroom while the writers conceive and prepare the
material based on the teacher /learner needs.
Current Trends: The publishing trade certainly dominates material developments. While they do
claim that it is supported by research on what teachers and children need, this may not be entirely
tn1c, as the trade is often driven by economic and commercial pressures. Unforhmately, teachers and
true language experts arc unable to compete with the publishing trade and so tend to cvcnh1ally give
in to them. However, some positive trends with regard to the production of material arc:
• Materials requiring investment by learner where they discover for themselves the intricacies
of the language and content,
• Interactive learning packages which use different media to provide richer experiences of the
language.
• Extensive reader series that do not rely just on language activities but provoke the reader to
think as well.
• Personalized texts that refer the learner to achrnl life and the use of language in such
sihrntions.
• Increased use of internet sources for language learning.
• Introduction of functional grammar rather than rules of grammar.
• More and more government research instih1tions like the NCERT etc. arc involved in
preparing materials where there is no commercial angle to these materials.
Some negative trends exhibited in material production arc:

27
 • A rising emphasis on grammar driven texts.
• The texts used arc often very short and do not take the reader through the language
experience.
• Literature tends to get neglected in the course books.
• Most of the activities arc language stimulated and do not focus on critical and analytical
thinking.
• Most of the books and the activities underestimate the learner linguistically, intcllcchially and
emotionally.
Areas of focus in developing materials should be:
• localization and personalization of materials
• emphasis on creativity and flexibility
• more learner centred
• more content that is meaningful to the learner
• global and multiculh1ral content
• content that engages the learner and challenges him/her
• more involvement of other sources like media, internet, technology etc.
• more workshops to train teachers to write materials.
It is always advisable in the interest of the language learner that these books arc developed by
professionals who arc experienced and competent in the area of language learning and teaching and
who arc not led by commercial needs of publishing houses. Teachers, very often do not make good
material writers, but if given the right training and exposure there is no reason to believe that this is
not possible. Experiments in many parts of the world where national instih1tcs have involved teachers
in writing materials have proved that teachers can make great contributions to text book writing.

Q. List the negative aspects of Textbooks.

Ans. There has been a great deal of controversy on whether we need text books for sh1dcnts, whether
they serve any purpose, whether they arc often outdated or whether we just cannot do without them.
Sheldon (1988) claims that textbooks "merely grow from and imitate other textbooks and do not
admit the winds of change from research, methodological experimentation, or classroom feedback".
The pre-packaged text book cannot really cater to the day-to-day complexities of language learning.
There is, however, another school of thought. Hutchinson & Torres (1994) argue that textbooks will
survive, and prosper primarily because they arc the most convenient means of providing the
stmch1rc that the teaching learning system requires. Problems do exist with the available teaching
materials, yet we need to accept that the textbook is a necessity in our classes today. This sihmtion
also implies that the teacher must be competent to evaluate textbooks. They need to be aware of what
should be the process for evaluating and selecting material, and also adapting material to meet the
changing teaching learning needs today.
Some of the negative aspects of textbooks could be:
• They contain inauthentic language. The language may have been manipulated to achieve
certain learning outcomes and so it may not represent language in use.
• They may distort content. The content is often distorted to represent accepted middle class
views and no controversial issues arc dealt with.
• They may not reflect sh1dcnts' needs.

28
 • They may result in dcskilling the teacher. When teachers become too dependent on the
textbook and the accompanying teacher's manual, then the teacher's role gets reduced to a
technical role of just presenting materials.
• They may also be expensive for the sh1dcnts.
Measuring the potential value of the material for the user can be termed as evaluation of the material.
Some of the areas that need to be evaluated when looking at material arc:
• appeal to the learner
• credibility of the material vis-a-vis the stakeholders
• validity and reliability of the material
• The ability of the material to motivate.
• The value of the materials in academic performance and in enhancing communicative skills.
• the flexibility of the materials
• the internal ability of the material to move the learner and the teacher to higher levels of
learning, i.e. critical and analytical thinking.
• The appropriacy of the material vis-a-vis the syllabus, standards required and benchmarks

Q. Why is it Important to evaluate Textbooks?

Ans. Let us now make a study of the various processes or methods used in evaluating textbooks, their
advantages and demerits.
Using Checklists and questions
One method of assessing textbooks is to use checklists which consist of a list of factors
• Rationale
• Availability
• Layout
These factors arc again placed against rating scales of poor fair, good, excellent. It is very difficult in
this case to be totally objective. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) emphasise the importance of
objectivity and say that if evaluation is to be objective it should involve a matching process where
needs arc matched to solutions. So they divide the process of evaluation into four steps:
• Defining critcria
• Subjective analysis
• Objective analysis
• Matching
Williams (1983) in his article "Developing Criteria for Textbook Evaluation" presents a scheme for
evaluation which can be used to draw up a checklist of items relevant to language tcacl1ing. These he
identifies as
• Up-to-date Methodology: The textbook should incorporate current psychological and
linguistic principles. It docs not mean that innovation is included just for the sake of
sounding new. It must be based on sound principles of language learning.
• Guidance for non-native teachers: The textbook should be supportive to the untrained or
partially trained teacher who may not have a native-like control of the language.
• Needs of second language learners: It is important to distinguish between the class where
English is taught as a subject and a class where English is the medium of instmction.
• Relevance to the socio-cultural context: The socio culh1ral norms must also be kept in mind
when reviewing the text book.
In using questions, Breen (1987) suggest that questions be used in two phases:

29
The first stage is the posing of some initial questions on the usefulness of the teaching materials;
The second stage is using more searching questions to ascertain the effectiveness of the material with
particular learners. The questions could relate to:
• Comparison with other textbooks available
• The approach adopted in the textbook
• The emphasis given to all the four skills
• The balance between linguistic competence and communicative competence
• The methodology of transacting the material
• The language stmchircs dealt with and the approach used
• Logical sequencing of the content
• Selection of content-authenticity
• Meeting learning needs
• Balance between visual material and text
• Design of the layout

Q. What are the various types of Evaluation?

Ans. Empirical evaluation can be done at both a macro level and a micro level. However, it is
advisable to attempt such an evaluation at the micro level because the macro level evaluation is often
too time consuming.
In the case of micro evaluation a teacher only looks at one aspect of the teaching materials and
another teacher would look at another aspect. This is then submitted as a basis for macro evaluation.
Sometimes a micro evaluation can stand on its own for evaluating materials. Micro evaluation is very
effective when analysing tasks. Evaluating a task has a series of steps:
Choosing a task to evaluate: Teachers may like to evaluate a new task in order to check how
innovative it is, or they may like to evaluate a familiar task to sec if it works the way it should. They
may also want to experiment with a known task in order to sec if it has any visible effects on learning
outcomes.
Describing the task: It is necessary to describe the task in terms of its objectives, the input and
ultimately the intended outcomes.
Planning the evaluation
When doing an evaluation, it must be carefully planned? Some of the steps involved in planning arc:
• Purpose (Why?)
• Audience (Who is it for?)
• Evaluator (Who? is it the teacher teaching or is it an outsider)
• Content (What?)
• Method (How?)
• Timing (When?)
One of the most important aspects of planning an evaluation is the type of evaluation. Sh1dcnt based
evaluation looks at the attih1dc to the task. The task is said to have worked if the sh1dcnt finds it
enjoyable and motivating. Response based evaluation mandates the teacher to look at the achrnl
outcomes to sec if they match the predicted outcomes. This evaluation is at times time consuming but
they provide valuable information as to whether what has been planned has been achieved. Leaming
based evaluation attempt.<; to determine if the task has resulted in any new learning. It is difficult to
carry out because the teacher has to determine if the sh1dcnts can do the task in advance which
implies that the teacher must be aware of the sh1dcnts' prior knowledge.

30
Steps in evaluating a task:
Collecting the information
This can be done before, during and after the task is attempted by the sh1dcnts.
Analysing the information
This involves quantifying the information which can be presented in a tabular form.It can also be
presented qualitatively where sh1dcnt's responses arc elicited in the form of quotes.
Reaching conclusions and making recommendations
Conclusions arc general statements and recommendations arc the evaluator's ideas regarding fuhirc
actions.
Writing the report
When the evaluator writes a report she has to clarify the procedures followed and in doing so is more
likely to understand the strength and weakness of the sh1dy. Micro evaluation of a task is difficult but
it is advocated as one of the best forms of evaluation Firstly, it gets teachers to evaluate as they plan
the lesson. Secondly, the procedure makes teachers more objective in their assessments. Thirdly, it
involves the teacher in some type of action research. Fourthly, it achially leads to professional
empowerment. While this type of evaluation is best for evaluating tasks, but can be very useful in
evaluating materials.

Q. List the steps in adaption. Write the procedure of adaption?

Ans. Evaluating material helps the teacher to decide if the material is adequate for the learning needs
of the group. In the process of evaluating the teacher also looks at the need and the process of
adapting. A successful process leads to superior levels of adaptation. Some steps suggested arc:
• Identify needs of the learners
• Be clear about the goals for your learners
• Review the communicative activities
• Check the balance of skills
• Clarify the inclusion of audio-visual materials
• Sh1dy the time lines
• Review the socio-culh1ral references
• Check authenticity of materials
• Check the appropriateness to the age level/competency level
• Decide what will be adapted and what will not be adapted.
Material Adaptation Procedures: Let us look at some of the procedures for material adaptation.
(1) Addition: Addition is an adaptation procedure which involves supplementation of extra
linguistic items and activities to make up for the inadequacy/ insufficiency of materials.
Addition of extra materials is necessary/applicable/appropriate when the following
sihiations arc faced:
• Areas arc not covered sufficiently.
• Tcxts/pichircs/tasks arc not provided.
• Tcxts/pichircs/tasks arc fewer than needed.
• Tasks arc limited in scope.
• Tasks arc of limited range.
(2) Deletion/omission: Deletion is an adaptation procedure which involves removal of some of
the linguistic items and activities which arc found to be extra and unnecessary. So, deletion

31
 is a process in which materials are taken out rather than added. Materials should be
reduced through omission when the following situations are faced:
• Learners are clear about a language point.
• Learners are competent in a skill.
• There are too many tasks on a particular area/point.
• The item/area concerned is not a priority.
• The i tern/task is not well designed.
• The item/task is not well-suited to its airn(s).
• The topic is not appropriate for learners.
(3) Modification/changing: Modification means changes in different aspects of materials, such
as linguistic level, exercises, assessment system and so on. Modification of materials is
applicable/ appropriate in the following sihiations:
• Texts are of inappropriate length.
• Materials are inappropriate to the aim
• Materials are inappropriate to the learners' age/ experience.
• Materials are unclear, confusing or misleading.
• Tasks are badly designed.
(4) Simplification: This procedure is employed to make materials less complicated or easier to
understand. If the language teaching material is found to be difficult or mechanical for the
target learner, it (material) can be made suitable for the learner through the process of
simplification.
(5) Rearrangement/re-ordering: Rearrangement is a procedure of materials adaptation
through which different parts of a course book are arranged in a different order or
sequence. Rearrangement of materials helps to make them comparatively more interesting
and appropriate for the learner as well as the teacher.

Q. Define World Wide Web (WWW).

Ans. There are millions of sites on the World Wide Web (www) which are called websites. For each
query that we put on the search engines, hundreds of website links are given. Generally, the most
relevant to our immediate needs are the ones which are on the first page. To access these materials,
one needs to take care of a few things.
Use correct spelling to reach the exact information.
• Use double quotation marks to search for words that come together. It is very useful when
looking for a quotation. The search engine will reh1rn only those links where the words one is
looking for come together and help you to narrow down your search.
• Use the + symbol if you want to add something to your search. For example, putting a +
symbol between the words 'travel' and 'London' will restrict your search to travelling to
London only.
• Search within a range of numbers: Put ..between two numbers. For example, camera Rs.5000.
R-,.10000
• Compare foods using "vs": Type in "rice vs. quinoa," for example, and you'll receive side-by-
side comparisons of the nutritional facts.
Search Engines
A search engine is a web server that searches for information on the Internet. There are a number of
search engines available to Web surfers.

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Swe et Searcl1 is a Search Engme for Students Sweet search has a lmuted number of sites for students
It has only 35,000 Websites wluch have been evaluated and approved by staff of research experts,
hbrarians and teachers Educators across the globe consider it to be a site with lots of mfonnab.on to
help with instrucb.on and have labelled it as the hbrarian of the Internet Sweet Search allows students
to choose the most relevant result from a hst of rehable results, without the distraction of
untrushvorthy sites

Q Explain Digital Libraries

Ans The emergence of t he Internet and the wide availability of affordable computing equipment
have created tremendous interest in digital hbranes and electroruc pubhslung 'The term "digital
hbraries" covers the creation and distribub.on of all types of mformab.on over networks, rangmg from
converted lustoncal matenals to kinds of mformab.on that have no analogues in the physical world In
some ways digital hbraries and tradib.onal hbraries are very different, yet in other ways they are
remarkably surular
An Internet encyclopaedia is a huge database of information that is available on the Internet and can
be accessed via the World Wide Web A number of such informab.on reservoirs are avail.able on the
internet Generally, the web pages can be viewed through software apphcations called Web browsers
or lugh-quahty search engmes Some useful hnks to encyclopaedias available on the net are given
below
• Encyclopaedia Bntanruca - www britanruca com
• Arumal facts encyclopaedia - www arumalfactsencyclopedia com
• An overview of countries of the world - wwwnewworldencyclopedia orgl entry/List of
countnes
• Encyclopaedia with diverse categones- www acaderruckJ.ds com
Online dictionaries
• hup /i\\ wv.. y0t11d1ct1onary com/
• http /!d1ct1onc11y c<1mbndgc org!
• http //www thcfrecd1c11rnrnl) com/
• http //wv.. w mc1-rium-web-,te1 com/
Onhne dictionanes, generally, give you the facihb.es of browsing dicb.onaries, thesaurus,
encyclopaedia, vocabulary building acb.vib.es, q=es, word of the day, most popular words of the
day and the -vveek, new words, slang, pronuna.ation, topic words that are related to particular topics
such as art, travel, medical, and favourite words wluch lets you store your favounte word and evolve
your m<m dicb.onary These dicb.onanes may also allow you to create your oVvn personal homepage
by adding and removing, draggmg and dropping, and "using or losmg" exisb.ng content \<\l'llldows In
addib.on, you can add your own bookmarks, weather information, horoscope, and RSS (Really Srmple
Syndicab.on) feeds from anywhere on the web
Wilcipedia· Wilipedia is a mult!l.mgual, web-based, free-content encyclopaedia proJect supported by
the Wilimedia Foundab.on and based on a model of openly editable content The name "Wilipedia"
is a portmanteau of the words woo (a technology for creab.ng collaborab.ve websites, from the
HawaJ..1an word WJ.ki, meaning " quick") and encyclopaedia Wilipedia's arb.cles provide hnks
designed to gt11de the user to related pages with addib.onal mformab.on Wilipedia is wntten
collaborab.vely by largely anonymous volunteers who wnte without pay Anyone with Internet
access can v,,rite and make changes to Wlkipedia arb.cles, except in lmuted cases where editing is

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restricted to prevent disn1ption or vandalism. Users can contribute anonymously, under a
pseudonym, or, if they choose to, with their real identity. The fundamental principles by which
Wikipcdia operates arc the five pillars. The Wikipcdia community has developed many policies and
guidelines to improve the encyclopaedia; however, it is not a formal requirement to be familiar with
them before contributing.
Concordancer: A concordanccr is a piece of software which can be installed on a computer and also
accessed on the Internet. They arc extremely important if one wants to check language currency and
authenticity because it can search, access and analyse language from a large database called the
corpus. They arc particularly of use for examining the collocational relationships between words and
for exploring precise information about how language is used by the native speakers. Most teachers
generally rely on how they use the language when they teach rather than on a reliable source. They
do not have the knowledge about the existence of such resources and they prefer to go by their
instinct which may or may not be correct. Having access to a corpora of 'real use' language can be of
great help in validating our assumptions about how a particular word or a phrase can be used and in
what environments. To search a word in a concordanccr, one has to enter a word or phrase in the
query section to search for examples of how and where the word or phrase has been used. British
National Corpus is one such concordanccr to search for British English usage. Coca is a corpus of
contemporary American English and the concordanccr can be used to search for everyday usage of
American English in speech or writing. A query of 'taking tea' was entered in both the corpuscs and
the result has been given below.
Email: Electronic mail, commonly known as email is an asynchronous form of computer-mediated
communication. It may be considered as the most important of all Internet applications. It is a method
of exchanging digital messages from one person to another. Simultaneously, it can be sent to one or
more recipients. Email servers arc used to accept, forward, deliver and store messages for the users.
The users can access email whenever they have time for it. To access and use any Internet application,
one needs to register, and have a uscrnamc and password to browse that site. Having a valid email
account becomes important as it is a required field while filling up the registration form.
Email may be used as a language teaching tool as it provides an extension to what one is able to do in
a classroom to a venue outside the classroom. Email facilitates composing, sending and receiving real
authentic communication in the target language both with other sh1dcnts in the classroom and across
the world. Because of the storage capacity of e-mail, learners do not have to be in a synchronous
classroom. The exchange of messages can take place at any time of day. Users just have to log in to
read, reply or compose new e-mail from anywhere they have access to the Internet. It is these spatial
possibilities that help learners to spend as much time as they want to read and write in the target
language in a real communicative context rather than learning only in the confines of classroom time
and place. It helps in providing learners with additional input and output in the target language
resulting in more interaction than was ever possible in the traditional language learning classroom.
The activities that can be done using email arc immense, provided teachers use their imagination.
Real tasks woven around one to one email interaction, group email exchanges, and email with the
class or between other classes or with independent learners outside the school whether in the same
city/country or any other arc possible as language learning activities. Some possible activities could
be weekly email essay/ letter/ story writing assignments which arc closely integrated into language
teaching without losing sight of the content of the curriculum. However, in the context of large
classes, sending individual feedback to learners would mean sending hundred odd emails which

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becomes difficult for teachers. To solve such problems collaborative or group projects would be more
useful, as feedback would be limited to the group rather than to individual sh1dcnts.

Q. What is an Authoring tool?

Ans. Authoring tools arc also known as author ware. An authoring tool is a program that helps you
write hypertext or multimedia applications. Authoring tools facilitate the users to create an
application by bringing different media such as a text, a pichirc or a diagram, or an audio or a video
file together. Materials from other electronic resources such as the Internet, and CD-ROM databases,
can also easily be incorporated into an authoring package. Authoring generally helps in creating
highly interactive applications in which the message is provided to the user and then the user
responds by acting or commenting on the information. Authors who may not have much expertise
arc able to produce high quality smart and useful applications using multimedia authoring tools and
incorporating audio and video content in their applications. Authoring docs not require knowledge of
programming. Content specialists need no programming experience to learn and use the authoring
tools. Teachers with a basic level of computer literacy and some imagination can produce materials
tailored to the specific needs of their sh1dcnts using authoring tools. Teacher-authored programs have
an added advantage because the teacher can control the content, keep the program focused and
monitor the level of the exercises as well. Further these programmes have facility of immediate
feedback to the learners.
Wida Authoring Suite http://www.wida.eo.uk/noframes/auth.htm
Wida Authoring: Suite is an easy-to-use authoring program specially written for language teachers. It
enables them to create their own computer assisted language learning materials using multimedia
feah1rcs. The suite has the following facilities:
Gapmaster: It is a gap filling programme in which teachers delete some items (words/ phrases) from
texts and the students arc required to fill the gaps.
Matchmaster: It is an on-screen activity in which jumbled up matching pairs of words or sentences
arc given which learners have to match.
Storyboard: It is a CALL program that may be embedded with sound, pich1rcs and videos and
sh1dcnts arc required to rcconstmct the text and build up a story using the application objects.
Choicemaster: It is a multiple-choice creating program in which sh1dcnts arc provided with feedback
on each distractor.
Testmaster: It is a test making 'question and answer' program that has flexibility of allowing for
alternative correct answers and sh1dcnts can type in their answers.
Pinpoint: It is a program where learners arc expected to match a short text up with its correct title. It
helps learners to develop inferential reading skills.
Vocab: can help develop six language games and activities for vocabulary building from a list of
keywords, definitions and example sentences entered by the teacher.

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