Laboratory Manual

Course code: PHY 2104

Course title: Heat and Thermodynamics Practical

Department of Physics
Jashore University of Science and Technology

Prepared by:
Dr. Mohammad Abdur Rashid
Anamika Biswas
List of Experiments:

1. To determine the specific heat of a liquid by the method of cooling.

2. To determine the thermal conductivity of a bad conductor by Lee and Charlton’s method.

3. To determine of Specific Heat of Solid with Radiation Correction.

4. To determine of coefficient of thermal conductivity of a metal using Searle’s apparatus.

5. To determine of Latent heat of fusion of ice with radiation correction.

6. To calibrate of a thermocouple and determination of unknown temperature.

7. To determine of the Ratio of the Specific Heats of a Gas by Clement and Desorme’s
apparatus.

8. To determine the value of the mechanical equivalent of heat (J) by electrical method with
radiation correction.

9. To determine of the value of J, the Mechanical equivalent of heat by Callendar and Barnes
apparatus (with radiation correction)

10. To determine of temperature co-efficient of the resistance of the material of a wire.

Reference Books:

1. Practical Physics, Dr. Giasuddin Ahmed and Md. Shahabuddin

2. Physics-I & II, R. Resnick, D. Halliday

2
Experiment no 01: Date:

Name of the Experiment: Determination of the specific heat of a liquid by the method of
cooling

Theory: Newton’s law of cooling can be used to determine the specific heat of a liquid by
observing the time taken by the liquid in cooling from one temperature to another.

Suppose a liquid of mass M1 and specific heat S1 is enclosed within a calorimeter of mass m and
specific heat s. The thermal capacity of the system is (M1S1+ms). If the temperature of the liquid
falls from θ1 to 𝜃2 in timet1, then the average rate of loss of heat is
(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )
(𝑀1 𝑆1 + 𝑚𝑠)
𝑡1

If now the first liquid be replaced by an equal volume of second liquid of known specific heat (say
water) under similar conditions and if the time taken by the second liquid to cool through the same
range of temperature fromθ1 to 𝜃2 be t2, then the average rate of loss of heat is
(𝜃1 −𝜃2 )
(𝑀2 𝑆2 + 𝑚𝑠) ,
𝑡2

where M2 and S2 are the mass and specific heat of the second liquid, respectively.

Since the conditions are similar, these two rates are equal
(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) (𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )
(𝑀1 𝑆1 + 𝑚𝑠) = (𝑀2 𝑆2 + 𝑚𝑠)
𝑡1 𝑡2
or,
𝑀2 𝑆2 𝑡1 + 𝑚𝑠(𝑡1 − 𝑡2 )
𝑆1 =
𝑀1 𝑡2
Apparatus: Double walled enclosure, Calorimeter, Thermometer, Heater, Stopwatch, etc.
Brief Procedure:
1. Clean and dry the calorimeter and measure the mass (m) of the calorimeter and stirrer using a
balance.
2. Pour water up to two-third volume of the calorimeter. Measure the total mass (m") of the
calorimeter, water and stirrer. Calculate the mass (M2) of water.
3. Put the calorimeter on the heater and hold the thermometer bulb in the middle of the water
and raise the temperature around 62 oC. Keep the calorimeter into the double walled enclosure
with the help of a tongs. Close the lid and fix the thermometer with holder so that its bulb is
in the middle of the water.
4. Start the stopwatch when the temperature just falls to 60 °C. Note this temperature in the table.
Go on recording the temperature of water up to 20-25 minutes at an interval of one minute.
Gently stir the water during the whole process.
5. Pour out the water from the calorimeter and wipe it dry. Take experimental liquid in the
calorimeter as the same volume of water. Repeat steps 2, 3 and 4 for liquid.
6. On a graph paper, plot curves (both for water and liquid) by taking temperature as ordinate
and time as abscissa (see Graph 1). Calculate t1 and t2 from the graph.
3
7. Using the given formula, determine the specific heat of the given liquid.

Experimental data:
Table: Time–temperature record for water and liquid

No. of obs. Time (min) Temperature of water (℃) Temperature of liquid (℃)

1 00

2 01

3 02

4 03

5 04

6 05

7 06

8 07

9 08

10 09

11 10

12 11

13 12

14 13

15 14

16 15

17 16

18 17

19 18

20 19

21 20

22 21

23 22

24 23

25 24

26 25

4
Mass of the calorimeter + stirrer, m = g

Mass of the calorimeter + stirrer + liquid, m = g

Mass of the liquid, M1 = m – m = g

Mass of the calorimeter + stirrer + water, m = g

Mass of the water, M2 = m – m = g

Specific heat of the water, S2 = 1.00 Cal g-1℃-1

Specific heat of the material of the calorimeter (Aluminum), s = 0.2096 Cal g-1℃-1
(Copper), s = 0.0909 Cal g-1℃-1

Temperature vs time
Temperature (℃)

𝜃1

𝜃2 Water
t1
Liquid
t2

Time (min)

Graph 1: Variation of temperature with time

Calculations:
Time taken by water to cool from θ1 = ℃ to 𝜃2 = ℃ as obtained from the
graph 1, t2 = min

Time taken by the liquid to cool from θ1 = ℃ to 𝜃2 = ℃ as obtained from the

graph 1, t1 = min

5
Specific heat of the liquid,
𝑀2 𝑆2 𝑡1 + 𝑚𝑠(𝑡1 − 𝑡2 )
𝑆1 =
𝑀1 𝑡2

Error Calculation:
Standard value of the specific heat of turpentine is 0.42 Cal g-1℃-1.

𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 ~ 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Percentage error = × 100 %
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Result:

Discussions:

6
Experiment no 02: Date:

Name of the Experiment: Determination of the thermal conductivity of a bad conductor by

Lee and Charlton’s method.

Theory: Consider a thin layer of slab of a bad conductor, S(such as glass or ebonite).A and B are
the thick discs of brass or copper, one on either side of S. B is a steam chamber from which heat
passes to S and A(Fig. 8.1). When steam is passed
through B, A is warmed up by the heat conducted
through S. After some time, a steady state will be
reached when the rate of flow of heat through S
equals the heat lost from A by radiation and
conduction.

If θ1 and θ2 be the temperatures of B and A

Steam
in steady state, respectively, then the quantity of
heat conducted per second through the slab S is
𝐾𝛼(𝜃1 −𝜃2 )
𝑄1 = ,
𝑑
B T1
where K is the thermal conductivity of the slab S
S
and α and d are the area of cross-section and
A T2
thickness of S, respectively.
𝑑𝜃
If be the rate of cooling of disc A, the
𝑑𝑡
heat lost (radiated) per second is
𝑑𝜃
𝑄2 = 𝑚𝑠 𝑑𝑡 , Fig. 2.1: Lee and Charlton’s apparatus
where m and s be the mass and specific heat of A.

In the steady state, Q1=Q2.

𝐾𝛼(𝜃1 −𝜃2 ) 𝑑𝜃
or, = 𝑚𝑠
𝑑 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜃
𝑚𝑠 𝑑
𝑑𝑡
or, 𝐾 =
𝛼(𝜃1 −𝜃2 )

Apparatus:
Lee and Charlton’s apparatus, Slide callipers, Screw gauge, Thermometers, etc.

Brief Procedure:

1. Start heating the boiler apart from the bad conductor slab.
2. Measure the diameter of the bad conductor slab by using slide callipers.
3. Measure the thickness of the bad conductor slab by using screw gauge.
4. Put the slab between A and B.
7
 5. When the steam starts to come from the outlet, start taking data from both the thermometers
T1 and T2at an interval of every 5 minutes until they show steady readings (θ1 and θ2). Steady
readings mean that they remain constant for at least 3 consecutive intervals, i. e. for 20 or 25
minutes.
6. After reaching the steady temperature 2 in thermometer T2, stop the supply of steam and
remove B. Place A with the slab still on the top of it on the heater and heat it till its temperature
rises to (2+10)C.
7. Remove A with the slab still on top of it from the heater and allow it to cool. Note the
temperature at an interval of every half minute until the temperature falls from (2+10) to (2-
10) C.
8. Plot a graph of temperature vs. time from cooling data. Draw a tangent at steady temperature
(2). Calculate the slope of the tangent.
9. Determine the thermal conductivity of the bad conductor using the given formula.

Experimental Data:

Vernier Constant (V.C.) of the slide callipers

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
V. C. =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

Table-1: Table for the radius of the disc S

Vernier Instru-
Vernier Vernier Mean Corrected Radius,
No. Main scale scale Diameter, mental
scale constant, diameter, diameter, 𝑟 = 𝐷/
of reading, x reading, D=x+y error
division, Vc D D−(±e) 2
obs. (cm) y = Vc × φ (cm) ±e
φ (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
(cm) (cm)

8
Least Count (L.C.) of the Screw Gauge
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
L. C. =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

Table-2: Table for the thickness of the disc S

Linear Circular Least Circular scale Mean Instrumental Corrected
No. Thickness,
scale scale count, reading, thickness, error thickness,
of d=x+y
reading, x division, Lc y = β × Lc d ±e d−(±e)
obs. (cm)
(cm) β (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)

Table-3: Time- temperature records of B and A.

No. of
observation Time (minutes) Temperature, 𝜃1 (℃) Temperature, 𝜃2 (℃)

1 0

2 5

3 10

4 15

9
 No. of
Time (minutes) Temperature, 𝜃1 (℃) Temperature, 𝜃2 (℃)
observation

𝜃1 = 𝜃2 =

Table-4: Time-temperature record of A during its cooling.

No. of Time, t No. of Time, t
obs. Temperature, (℃) obs. Temperature, (℃)
(minutes) (minutes)

1 0 𝜃2 + 10 15 7.0

2 0.5 16 7.5

3 1.0 17 8.0

4 1.5 18 8.5

5 2.0

6 2.5

7 3.0

8 3.5

9 4.0

10 4.5

11 5.0

12 5.5

13 6.0

14 6.5 𝜃2 − 10

10
 Temperature vs time

Q
Temperature (℃)

. θ (Steady Temperature)
2

P R

Time (min)

Graph 1
Calculations:

Mass of the disc A, m = g

Specific heat of the material of A, s = 0.0909 Cal g-1℃-1

Radius of the specimen disc S, r = cm

Area of cross-section, α=  r2 =
= cm2

From the graph 1, the slope of the tangent at θ2 = ℃,

𝑑𝜃 PQ PQ
= ℃ min−1 = ℃ s-1 =
𝑑𝑡 PR PR×60

11
Thermal conductivity,
𝑑𝜃
𝑚𝑠 𝑑
𝐾= 𝑑𝑡
𝛼(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )

Error Calculation:
The thermal conductivity of ebonite is 4.2×10-4 Cal cm-1 s-1℃-1.

𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 ~ 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Percentage error = × 100 %
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Result:

Discussions:

12
Experiment no 03: Date:

Name of the Experiment: Determination of specific heat of solid with radiation correction.

Theory: Let a solid body of mass M of specific S be heated to a temperature T2 ℃ and then dropped
into water of mass W gm, contained in a calorimeter whose mass and specific heat are W1 and S1
respectively. The water and the calorimeter were both at the room temperature T1 ℃ before the
solid was dropped. But after the solid has been dropped, (the calorimeter and its contents gain heat
while the solid loses heat and after a while mixture attains a final temperature, after radiation
correction be T ℃.

Then the heat lost by the solid =𝑀𝑆(𝑇2 − 𝑇) and the heat and the heat gained by the calorimeter
and its contents
=𝑊(𝑇 − 𝑇1 ) + 𝑊1 𝑆1 ((𝑇 − 𝑇1 ) = (𝑊 + 𝑊1 𝑆1 )(𝑇 − 𝑇1 )
Since, heat lost= heat gained
𝑀𝑆(𝑇2 − 𝑇) = (𝑊 + 𝑊1 𝑆1 )(𝑇 − 𝑇1)

(𝑊+𝑊1 𝑆1 )(𝑇−𝑇1)
or, 𝑆 =
𝑀(𝑇2 −𝑇)

Apparatus: Regnault’s apparatus, Balance, two thermometers, steam boiler, pieces of solid,
stopwatch.

Experimental data:
Mass of the solid, M = gm

Wight of the calorimeter + stirrer, W1 = gm

Wight of the calorimeter + stirrer + water, W2 = gm

Wight of water, W = W2 - W1 = gm

Specific heat of the material of the calorimeter + stirrer, S1 =

Temperature of the hot solid, T2 = ℃

Initial temperature of water + calorimeter, T1 = ℃

Final temperature of the mixture after applying radiation correction, T = ℃

13
Calculations:
Specific heat of the material of the given solid is

(𝑊 + 𝑊1 𝑆1 )(𝑇 − 𝑇1)
𝑆=
𝑀(𝑇2 − 𝑇)

Error Calculation:
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 ~ 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Percentage error = × 100 %
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Result:

Discussions:

14
Experiment no 04: Date:

Name of the Experiment: Determination of coefficient of thermal conductivity of a metal

using Searle’s apparatus.

Theory: If two points of a material of length d and area of cross section A are maintained at
temperatures 𝜃1 and 𝜃2 where 𝜃1 is greater than 𝜃2 , then the amount of heat flowing from the
hotter to the colder point in t sec is given by
(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )𝑡
𝑄 = 𝐾𝐴
𝑑
Where K is the thermal conductivity of the material.
To measure Q, cold water is made to circulate round the colder ends through a coil of tube in
contact with this end so that the quantity of heat Q raises the temperature from 𝜃3 to 𝜃4 of m gm
of water flowing in sec, then
𝑄 = 𝑚 × 1(𝜃4 − 𝜃3 ) = 𝑚(𝜃4 − 𝜃3 )

with the specific heat of water be unity. Combining the above equations, we have

(𝜃1 −𝜃2 )𝑡
𝐾𝐴 =𝑚(𝜃4 − 𝜃3 )
𝑑

or,
𝑚𝑑(𝜃4 −𝜃3 )
K=
𝐴𝑡(𝜃1 −𝜃2 )

Apparatus: Searle’s thermal conductivity apparatus, steam generator, four thermometers, a

beaker, stopwatch, slide callipers and constant pressure head apparatus

15
Experimental data:
Diameter of the cylinder = cm

Radius of the cylinder, r = cm

Area of cross-section of the cylinder, A = π r2 =

= cm2

Distance between the holes, d = cm

Mass of water collected, m = gm

Time of collection, t = s

Table: Thermometer reading

No. of Time
𝜃1 (℃) 𝜃2 (℃) 𝜃3 (℃) 𝜃4 (℃)
obs. (min)
0

10

15

20

Calculations:
Coefficient of thermal conductivity of the given material is

𝑚𝑑(𝜃4 −𝜃3 )
K=
𝐴𝑡(𝜃1 −𝜃2 )

16
Error Calculation:
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 ~ 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Percentage error = × 100 %
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Result:

Discussions:

17
Experiment no 05: Date:

Name of the Experiment: Determination of Latent heat of fusion of ice with radiation
correction.

Theory: Latent heat of fusion of ice is defined as the quantity of heat required to melt one gram
of ice at 0 ℃ into water at 0 ℃. Let an amount of ice of mass M be added to a mass m of water
contained in a calorimeter of mass w and specific heat s. Let 𝑡1 ℃ be the temperature of the
calorimeter and its content before the addition of ice and 𝑡2 ℃ be the final temperature ,after
making due allowance for the gain of heat from the surrounding ,of the mixture after addition and
complete melting of ice. Then the heat lost by the calorimeter and water is

𝑚(𝑡1 − 𝑡2 ) + 𝑤𝑠(𝑡1 − 𝑡2 ).

The heat required to melt the ice is ML where L is the latent heat of fusion of and the heat required
to raise the temperature of the water , formed as a result of melting of ice, from 0 ℃ to 𝑡2 ℃ is 𝑀𝑡2 .
Therefore, the total heat gained in the experiment is

𝑀𝐿 + 𝑀𝑡2 = 𝑀(𝐿 + 𝑡2 )

According to the law of colorimetry heat gained is equal to heat lost. So,

𝑀(𝐿 + 𝑡2 ) = (𝑚 + 𝑤𝑠)(𝑡1 − 𝑡2 )

or,
(𝑚 + 𝑤𝑠)(𝑡1 − 𝑡2 ) − 𝑀𝑡2
𝐿=
𝑀

Apparatus: Calorimeter with stirrer, thermometer, blotting paper, stopwatch, ice, balance, etc.

Experimental data:
Mass of calorimeter + stirrer, w = gm
Specific heat of the calorimeter material, s = Cal g-1℃-1
Mass of calorimeter + stirrer + water, w1 = gm
Mass of water, m = w1 – w = gm
Mass of calorimeter + stirrer + water + molten ice, w2 = gm
Mass of ice added, M = w2 – w = gm
Initial temperature of water, t1 = ℃
Final temperature of the mixture, t2 = ℃

18
Calculations:
Latent heat of fusion of ice is
(𝑚 + 𝑤𝑠)(𝑡1 − 𝑡2 ) − 𝑀𝑡2
𝐿=
𝑀

Error Calculation:
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 ~ 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Percentage error = × 100 %
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Result:

Discussions:

19
Experiment no 08: Date:

Name of the Experiment: Determination of the value of the mechanical equivalent of heat
(J) by electrical method

Theory: The mechanical equivalent of heat J is the amount of electrical energy required to
generate one calorie of heat. If E volt be the potential difference across a conducting coil (Fig. 8.1)
and i ampere be the current flowing through the coil for t seconds, then the electrical energy in the
coil is Eit. If this energy is converted into heat H (calories) then the mechanical equivalent of heat
J is
𝐸𝑖𝑡 (1)
𝐽= Joules/Calorie
𝐻

If H is measured by means of a calorimeter with its contents where the temperature raises from 𝜃1°
C to 𝜃2° C then
𝐻 = (𝑀𝑠 + 𝑊)(𝜃 − 𝜃 ),
(2)
2 1

where M is the mass of the water in the calorimeter, s is the specific heat of water and W is the
water equivalent of the calorimeter and stirrer. W can be calculated from the mass and specific
heat of the calorimeter and stirrer.

From equations (1) and (2), we get

𝐸𝑖𝑡
𝐽= Joules/Calories
(𝑀𝑠 + 𝑊)(𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )

+ −

Power Supply

+ −
Rh V

+ −
A

Fig. 8.1: Experimental setup for measuring the mechanical equivalent of heat

20
Apparatus:
Joule’s calorimeter set, Ammeter, Voltmeter, Stopwatch, Thermometer, Balance, Power
Supply, Rheostat, Key, etc.

Brief Procedure:
1. Measure the mass (m1) of the calorimeter and stirrer using a balance.
2. Pour water into the calorimeter which is just enough to dip the heating coil and the bulb of the
thermometer. Then measure the total mass (m2) of the calorimeter, stirrer and water. Calculate
the mass (M) of water.
3. Place the heating coil into the calorimeter. Keep the calorimeter with heating coil into its
insulating box. Fix the thermometer with holder so that its bulb is in the middle of the water but
never touching the coil and the calorimeter.
4. Complete the circuit as shown in Fig.8.1. Switch on the circuit temporarily and adjust the
control knob of the power supply until the current is about 2 amperes. Then switch off the
circuit and stir the water until a steady temperature is shown by the thermometer. Record this
temperature as initial temperature.
5. Switch on the circuit and start the stopwatch simultaneously. Then start recording the
temperature, current and voltage in the table at an interval of every 1 minute. Keeping the
current supply and stopwatch on, record these values for 10 minutes. Then switch off the circuit
but allow the stopwatch to run on and record the temperature for further 10 minutes in the same
manner. Stir the water gently during the whole process.
6. Find the maximum and final temperatures. Use them to calculate the radiation correction.
7. Calculate the water equivalent of the calorimeter.
8. Using the given formula, determine the value of the mechanical equivalent of heat.

Experimental data:
Mass of the calorimeter + stirrer, m1 = g

Mass of the calorimeter + stirrer + water, m2 = g

Mass of the water, M = m2 – m1 = g

Specific heat of the water, s = 1 Cal g-1℃-1

Specific heat of the material of the calorimeter (Aluminum), s1= 0.2096 Cal g-1℃-1
(Copper), s1= 0.0909 Cal g-1℃-1

21
Table 1: Table for current, voltage and temperature

No of Times Current, i Voltage, E Temperature, T

observations (min) (amp.) (Volt) (℃)

1 00 0 0 θi =

2 01

3 02

4 03

5 04

6 05

7 06

8 07

9 08

10 09

11 10

Current Stopped
12 11 0 0

13 12 0 0

14 13 0 0

15 14 0 0

16 15 0 0

17 16 0 0

18 17 0 0

19 18 0 0

20 19 0 0

21 20 0 0 θf =

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Calculations:
Water equivalent of the calorimeter, W = m1s1 = g

Initial temperature of the calorimeter + contents, 𝜃i= ℃

Maximum temperature of the calorimeter + contents, 𝜃m = ℃

Final temperature of the calorimeter + contents, 𝜃f = ℃

Rise of temperature, θ = (𝜃m - 𝜃i) ℃

Radiation correction, 𝜃r = (𝜃m - 𝜃f)/ 2 = ℃

Corrected rise of temperature (𝜃2 - 𝜃1) = (𝜃 + 𝜃r) = ℃

Time during which the current is passed, t = sec

Mean current during the interval t, i = amp.

Mean voltage during the interval t, E = volt

Mechanical equivalent of heat,

𝐸𝑖𝑡
𝐽= Joules/Calories
(𝑀𝑠 + 𝑊)(𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )

Error Calculation:
Standard value of the mechanical equivalent of heat, J is 4.2 Joules/Calories
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 ~ 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Percentage error = × 100 %
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Result:

Discussions:

23
Experiment no 10: Date:

Name of the Experiment: Determination of temperature co-efficient of the resistance of the

material of a wire.

Theory: The temperature co-efficient of the resistance of the material of a wire may be defined as
the change in resistance per unit resistance per degree rise in temperature.

If R2 and R1 are the resistances of a coil at temperatures 𝑡2 ℃ and 𝑡1 ℃ respectively, then

𝑅2 = 𝑅1 (1 + 𝛼𝑡)
Where 𝛼, the mean temperature co-efficient between the temperature 𝑡2 and 𝑡1 , is given by

(𝑅2 − 𝑅1 ) −1
𝛼= ℃
𝑅1 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )

Apparatus:
Metre bridge, dc power supply, rheostat, commutator, galvanometer, hypsometer etc.

Experimental data:
Table: Reading for R1 and R2
Resistance Mean
Null points (cm) Unknown Mean
No. of (ohm) null
Temperature resistance Resistance
obs. Left Right Direct Reverse point
(ohm) (ohm)
gap gap current current (cm)

3
t1 =
4

24
 Resistance Mean
Null points (cm) Unknown Mean
No. of (ohm) null
Temperature resistance Resistance
obs. Left Right Direct Reverse point
(ohm) (ohm)
gap gap current current (cm)

3
t2 =
4

Calculations:
(𝑅2 − 𝑅1 ) −1
𝛼= ℃
𝑅1 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )

Result:

Discussions:

25