ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

INTERNAL ASSESSMENT

Candidate Name: Toni-Shea Grant

Candidate Number: 100164

Centre Number: 100164

Form: 12^2

Teacher: Ms. Powell

School: Jonathan Grant High School

Territory: Jamaica

Topic: Ecosystem Stability and Diversity of two Ecosystems

Year of examination: 2021

Page | 1
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGENT

INTRODUCTION

JOURNAL ENTRIES

Journal entry 1

Journal entry 2

Journal entry 3

Journal entry 4

LABS

Lab 1

Lab 1b

Lab 2

Lab 3

Lab 4

Lab 5

SECTION 3

Problem Statement

Page | 2
Purpose of Project

Methodology

Literature Review

Presentation of Data

Analysis of Data

Discussion of Findings

Conclusion

Recommendations

Index

Bibliography

Page | 3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Whilst finishing this research I would like to share utmost gratitude to my teacher Ms. Powell for

the support she has given to me. Secondly, I would like to thank my parents for helping me

during this rough time and for the motivation that was applied. Lastly I would also like to

commend myself for the efforts that I had put in to complete this research.

Page | 4
 INTRODUCTION

This Internal assessment is focused on the effects of human activities on species diversity and

stability around two ecosystems (1 terrestrial and 1 aquatic). This research intends to highlight

various anthropogenic activities identified that affect species diversity at Cudjoe’s Hill and

Cudjoe’s River in St. Catherine, Jamaica. Journal entries were formulated for each site and

various tests were operated and recorded in the form of labs.

Page | 5
Journal Entry 1

Date: November 25, 2020

Site: Cudjoe’s Hill (Farm-land), disturbed area

Map of Cudjoe’s Hill

Objectives:

1. To identify some feeding relationships at each of the four ecosystems.

2. To observe any infrastructural development or man-made activities that can influence and

affect ecosystem stability.

3. To make note of flora and fauna in and along the ecosystem and determine the extent of

diversity at each site.

4. To collect and test soil samples from the surface to a six inch depth randomly.

5. To determine the stability of each ecosystem that is being studied.

Page | 6
Activities

A fifteen by fifteen (15x15) meters quadrant was created at a random space on the farmland

using a tape measure and a rope. The soil temperature within the quadrant was recorded. Two

soil samples were then collected from the surface and from a six inch depth and tested for their

pH which was also recorded. The amount and types of organisms within the quadrant was

identified and recorded. Samples of various flora and fauna were collected for further

identification. Flora and fauna within the quadrant was recorded to determine species diversity in

the area. Appropriate calculations were done. The researcher decided to use a quadrant for[lp1]

this activity because it is easier to estimate the population of plants and slow-moving animals

this way. Tests for the potential hydrogen and temperature of each soil sample were done.

Observations:

The farmland in Cudjoe's Hill that was studied was a disturbed area due to the farming activities

and housing (infrastructure). The area was not flat based on how it is structured but due to human

intervention (building of steps) it was easy for the researcher to reach the farming area. The sky

seemed to be partly cloudy resulting in a cool atmosphere.

A random area on the farm land was chosen for study; hence a 15 ×15 quadrant was marked

around the area using a rope. In the study, there was a wide variety of species of flora than fauna.

Fruit-baring plants were present as well as grasses. Mainly tiny insects were observed within the

quadrant. The feeding relationships identified in this area were between the producers, primary

consumers and few secondary consumers. Some of the plants seemed to be trampled due to

human movements, cultivation and for research. The temperature of the soil in this area was 24°

Celsius.

Page | 7
 Results:

Insect Species Number of Plant species Number of

Individuals individuals
Snail 14 Fern 4
Cut worm 1 Soursop 2
Spider 2 Sweet potato 8
Duck ants 5 Grass 15
Mosquito 10 Banana 3
Lady bug 1 Pumpkin 2
Termite 12 Vervine 2
Butterflies 2 Bean 5
Total 47 Lime 2
Maiden Plum 1
Total 44

FOOD WEB

SPIDER

CUTWORM LADY BUG BUTTERFLY

PUMPKINE GRASS FERN

Interpretive comments

Based on the data collected, it can be said that this ecosystem has stability (is able to maintain

equilibrium after disturbances). Even though it is being disturbed everyday by human activities,

the population can rebuild itself. The species diversity of this ecosystem is at a normal level.

This species diversity ensures for natural sustainability for the ecosystem because each species,

whether plants or animals has an important role in their environment.

Page | 8
Follow Up Activities:

The soil samples collected will be taken to the lab to test for water drainage/ capacity, water

content, soil temperature and soil components. The type of soil present at each site will also be

identified. Species diversity will be calculated and also identify some feeding relationships

present.

Page | 9
Journal Entry 2

Date: November 25, 2020

Site: An Undisturbed area near the Farmland on Cudjoe’s Hill

Objectives:

1. To identify some feeding relationships at each of the four ecosystems.

2. To observe any infrastructural development or man-made activities that can influence and

affect ecosystem stability.

3. To make note of flora and fauna in and along the ecosystem and determine the extent of

diversity at each site.

4. To collect and test soil samples from the surface to a six-inch depth randomly.

5. To determine the stability of each ecosystem that is being studied.

Activities

A fifteen by fifteen (15x15) meters quadrant was created at a random space on the farmland

using a tape measure and a rope. The soil temperature within the quadrant was recorded. Two

soil samples were then collected from the surface and from a six-inch depth and tested for their

pH which was also recorded. The amount and types of still and moving organisms within the

quadrant was identified and recorded. Samples of various flora and fauna were collected for

further identification. Flora and fauna within the quadrant were recorded to determine species

diversity in the area. Appropriate calculations were done. The researcher decided to use a

Page | 10
quadrant for this activity because it is easier to estimate the population of plants and slow-

moving animals this way.

Observations

The structure of the area was a bit steep, making it a challenge to step down. The ground was

covered with decaying twigs and leaves and had woody trees surrounding the area. There was

barbed wire there to separate it from the farmland. This terrestrial ecosystem has been

undergoing secondary succession for it is only disturbed by natural causes. A 15 x 15 meters

quadrant was formed at a chosen area for study using a rope. Flora and fauna found within the

quadrant was recorded and then place in a table. In this area were shrubs and dried plants and

mainly flying organisms were seen. The feeding relationships observed can be said to be a

predator-prey type and producers -consumers. Two soil samples were collected one sample from

the topsoil and the other from 6 inches beneath the ground. The pH of both samples was tested

and recorded with the topsoil’s pH being 6 (acidic) and the other being 7(neutral). The soil itself

was a little wet. The temperature of the soil turned out to be 24° Celsius.

Results

Insect Species Number of Plant species Number of

Individuals individuals
Moth 4 Star apple 1
Fly 6 Pimento 1
Bird 2 Creeping bamboo 3
Earth worm 1 Grass 15
Grasshopper 6 Deadly night shed 4
Aphid 3 Claw ich 3
Lizard 2 Mango 5
Butterflies 1 Total 32
Spider 5
Total 30

Page | 11
 FOOD WEB

LIZARD SPIDER BIRD

MOTH GRASSHOPPER BUTTERFLY

CREEPING BAMBOO MANGO GRASS

Interpretive comments

From the observation it can be said that this ecosystem is not stable. There are not enough

herbivores to consume the many plants, therefore resulting in more trees in the surroundings. The

species diversity for animals is lower than that of plants.

Follow Up Activities:

The soil samples collected will be taken to the lab to test for water drainage/ capacity, water

content, soil temperature and soil components. The type of soil present at each site will also be

identified[lp2]. Species diversity will be calculated and also identify some feeding relationships

present.

Page | 12
Journal Entry 3

Date: November 25, 2020

Site: Cudjoe’s River

Objectives:

1. To identify some feeding relationships at each of the four ecosystems.

2. To observe any infrastructural development or man-made activities that can influence and

affect ecosystem stability.

3. To make note of flora and fauna in and along the ecosystem and determine the extent of

diversity at each site.

4. To collect and test soil samples from the surface to a six inch depth randomly.

5. To determine the stability of each ecosystem that is being studied.

Activities:

A fifteen by fifteen (15x15) meters quadrant was created at a random space on the farmland

using a tape measure and a rope. The soil temperature within the quadrant was recorded. Two

soil samples were then collected from the surface and from a six inch depth and tested for their

pH which was also recorded. The amount and types of still and moving organisms within the

quadrant was identified and recorded. Samples of various flora and fauna were collected for

further identification. Flora and fauna within the quadrant was recorded to determine species

diversity in the area. Appropriate calculations were done. The researcher decided to use a

quadrant for this activity because it is easier to estimate the population of plants and slow-

moving animals this way.

Page | 13
Observations

An area at the river was chosen for study. The area had a rocky structure, flashed with river

water, making it a bit slippery for the researcher. Moss on the rocks was observed. Few woody

trees were seen in the area. Mosquito larvae was spotted at a small area of the river, where there

was limited sunlight, therefore, it can be said that the river is a mosquito breeding site. Cudjoe’s

river is an aquatic ecosystem but there were not any aquatic animals observed due to the strong

currents in the water. The atmosphere was cooler than the previous terrestrial ecosystems. Within

the quadrant, the researcher noticed that some of the plants are growing from soil beneath the

rocks. The growing plants in this area appeared to be young and fragile. Within this ecosystem,

the researcher noticed that there was only a producer-consumer feeding relationship. The

temperature of the soil was 23 degrees Celsius.

Results

Insect species Number of Plant species Number of

individuals individuals
Mosquito 5 Fern 5
Ants 3 Mango 3
Total 8 Tach form grass 4
Total 12
FOOD WEB

ANTS

MANGO TACH FORM GRASS

Interpretive comments

Page | 14
The research shows that the ecosystem has enough of each fauna species to keep the

environment stable. The plant population is almost the same as the animal population. As pointed

out earlier, the animal population might have been low due to the strong river currents, plus the

river was shallow so there would not be anywhere for aquatic organisms to inhabit. The diversity

of the species that were present was high in terms of numbers and not size.

Follow Up Activities:

The soil samples collected will be taken to the lab to test for water drainage/ capacity, water

content, soil temperature and soil components. The type of soil present at each site will also be

identified. Species diversity will be calculated and identify some feeding relationships

[lp3]present.

Journal Entry 4

Date: November 25, 2020

Site: Undisturbed area at Cudjoe’s River

Objectives:

1. To identify some feeding relationships at each of the four ecosystems.

2. To observe any infrastructural development or man-made activities that can influence and

affect ecosystem stability.

Page | 15
 3. To make note of flora and fauna in and along the ecosystem and determine the extent of

diversity at each site.

4. To collect and test soil samples from the surface to a six-inch depth randomly.

5. To determine the stability of each ecosystem that is being studied.

Activities

A fifteen by fifteen (15x15) meters quadrant was created at a random space on the farmland

using a tape measure and a rope. The soil temperature within the quadrant was recorded. Two

soil samples were then collected from the surface and from a six-inch depth and tested for their

pH which was also recorded. The amount and types of still and moving organisms within the

quadrant was identified and recorded. Samples of various flora and fauna were collected for

further identification. Flora and fauna within the quadrant were recorded to determine species

diversity in the area. Appropriate calculations were done. The researcher decided to use a

quadrant for this activity because it is easier to estimate the population of plants and slow-

moving animals this way.

The area was steep, wet and muddy making it hard for the researcher to move around freely. The

floor had a number of leaves covering it. The area had perennial and woody trees in the

surrounding. There was not any human structure (buildings) in the area. A trail was cleared to

reach to the river due to humans walking and trampling plants continuously. This area had more

soil and fewer rocks, resulting in more trees. This terrestrial ecosystem mainly had slower

moving insects and perennial plants. The feeding relationship(s) observed was mostly producers-

consumer and predator-prey. The recorded temperature of the soil was 23 degrees Celsius.

Results

Page | 16
 Insect Species Number of Plant species Number of
Individuals individuals
Moth 2 Fern 1
Mosquito 30 Pepper rayla 1
Snail 2 Mass 3
Spider 1 Ash bush 15
Frog 1 Johncrow bead 4
Forty leg 2 Filo thendran 3
Worm 1 Total 27
Total 39
FOOD WEB

FROG SPIDER

WORM FORTY LEG MOTH

FERN PEPPER RAYLA ASH BUSH

Interpretive comments

From the observations attained, it could be said that human activities do influence how and

where plants grow. Frequently used areas by man are normally cleared of plants and other

species. This ecosystem is stable for even though it is disturbed occasionally, it manages to

replenish its species. Species diversity in this ecosystem seems to be relatively good rate.

Follow Up Activities:

Page | 17
The soil samples collected will be taken to the lab to test for water drainage/ capacity, water

content, soil temperature and soil components. The type of soil present at each site will also be

identified. Species diversity will be calculated and identify some feeding relationships

[lp4]present.

LABS

Page | 18
Lab: 1

Title: The species diversity of the four ecosystems

Aim: To determine the species diversity of the two ecosystems

Apparatus: Rope, tape measure, sticks, notebook, pen

Procedure:

1. Four specified sites were chosen for study.

2. A random area on each site was selected.

3. Using a rope, tape measure and four sticks, a 15x15m quadrant was formed.

4. Flora and fauna that were present within the quadrant was observed and recorded.

5. The frequency of each species was recorded in table format.

Observations: While comparing both tables, it was noticed that Cudjoe’s Farmland has a more

diverse ecosystem than the aquatic ecosystem. Both ecosystems were being used for recreational

purposes. The farmland was being used to produce crops while the river was used as an

attraction site. Plants were removed from both sites to be identified later. [lp5]

With the use of the Simpson’s diversity index, the species diversity of both ecosystems was

determined.

Page | 19
D = ∑N(N-1)

∑n(n-1)

Data collection/results: Cudjoe’s river

Insect species Number of Plant species Number of

individuals individuals
Mosquito 5 Fern 5
Ants 3 Mango 3
Total 8 Tach form grass 4
Total 12
Insect diversity

Ʃ n(n-1) = 5(5-1) + 3(3-1)

= 26

Diversity = 8(8-1)
26
= 56
26
= 2.15
Plant diversity

Ʃ n(n-1) = 5(5-1) + 3(3-1) + 4(4-1)

= 38

Diversity = 12(12-1)
38

Page | 20
 = 132

Insect Species Number of Individuals Plant species Number of individuals

Moth 2 Fern 1
Mosquito 30 Pepper rayla 1
Snail 2 Mass 3
Spider 1 Ash bush 15
Frog 1 Johncrow bead 4
Forty leg 2 Filo thendran 3
Worm 1 Total 27
Total 39
38
= 3.47

Cudjoe’s river site 2

Insect diversity

Ʃ n(n-1) = 2(2-1) + 30(30-1) + 2(2-1) + 1(1-1) + 1(1-1) + 2(2-1) + 1(1-1)

=876

Diversity = 39(39-1)
876
= 1482
876
= 1.69
Plant diversity

Page | 21
 Ʃ n(n-1) = 1(1-1) + 1(1-1) + 3(3-1) + 15(15-1) + 4(4-1) + 3(3-1)

Insect Species Number of Plant species Number of

Individuals individuals
Snail 14 Fern 4
Cut worm 1 Soursop 2
Spider 2 Sweet potato 8
Duck ants 5 Grass 15
Mosquito 10 Banana 3
Lady bug 1 Pumpkin 2
Termite 12 Vervine 2
Butterflies 2 Bean 5
Total 47 Lime 2
Maiden Plum 1
Total 44
=234

Diversity = 27(27-1)
234
= 702
234
= 3
D=14(14-1) + 1(1-1) + 2(2-1) + 5(5-1) + 10(10-1) + 1(1-1) + 12(12-1) + 2(2-1)+ 4(4-1) + 2(2-1)
+ 8(8-1) + 15(15-1) + 3(3-1) + 2(2-1) + 2(2-1) + 5(5-1) + 2(2-1) + 1(1-1)

91(91-1)

=0.82

Cudjoe’s Hill (Farmland)

Insect diversity

Ʃ n(n-1) = 14(14-1) + 1(1-1) + 2(2-1) + 5(5-1) + 10(10-1) + 1(1-1) + 12(12-1) + 2(2-1)

=428

Diversity = 47(47-1)

Page | 22
 = 2162
428
= 5.05

Plant diversity

Ʃ n(n-1) = 4(4-1) + 2(2-1) + 8(8-1) + 15(15-1) + 3(3-1) + 2(2-1) + 2(2-1) + 5(5-1) + 2(2-1) +
1(1-1)

=312

Diversity = 44(44-1)
312
= 1895
312
= 6.06

Cudjoe’s Hill Site 2:

Insect Species Number of Plant species Number of

Individuals individuals
Moth 4 Star apple 1
Fly 6 Pimento 1
Bird 2 Creeping bamboo 3
Earth worm 1 Grass 15
Grasshopper 6 Deadly night shed 4
Aphid 3 Claw ich 3
Lizard 2 Mango 5
Butterflies 1 Total 32
Spider 5
Total 30

Page | 23
Insect diversity

Ʃ n(n-1) = 4(4-1) + 6(6-1) + 2(2-1) + 1(1-1) + 6(6-1) + 3(3-1) + 2(2-1) + 1(1-1) + 5(5-1)

=90

Diversity = 30(30-1)
90
= 870
90
= 9.67
Plant diversity

Ʃ n(n-1) = 1(1-1) + 1(1-1) + 3(3-1) + 15(15-1) + 4(4-1) + 3(3-1) + 5(5-1)

=254

Diversity = 32(32-1)
254
= 992
254
= 3.9

Discussion: Species diversity is referred to as the number of individuals/ organisms that are in

abundance in a specific area. Species diversity is very important in ecosystems because it helps

to prolong the lives of organisms and helps to provide food. Species diversity also helps to

maintain equilibrium in an ecosystem. In an ecosystem, organisms depend on each other and all

have an important role to play. This helps to keep the ecosystem healthy and balanced. Species

diversity is mainly caused by evolution, meaning that an ecosystem gets more diverse with the

creation of new species. A 15x15m quadrant was used at each site to help determine the species

Page | 24
diversity alongside with the use of the Simpson’s index formula. The Simpson’s index is a

measure of species diversity which takes into account the number of species present in a given

area. The formula is as follows: ∑N(N-1)/ ∑n(n-1). With this index, 1 represents

infinite diversity and 0, no diversity. The aquatic ecosystem studied (Cudjoe’s river) had 3

number of flora present which includes Ferns, moss, Ash bush and Johncrow bead along with 3

number of fauna (Snails and Spider). Cudjoe’s hill had 10 types of flora and 8 fauna. Farmland

site 2 on the other hand had 7 types of plants which include Lime tree, Pumpkin vines and

Banana trees with 9types of moving organisms. The second site at the river had 6 types of flora

and 7 types of fauna.

Conclusion: The plant diversity of Cudjoe’s river resulted to be 3.47 and as for the animal

diversity 2.5. The second site at the river had a plant diversity of 3 and an animal diversity of

1.69. For the farmland, plant diversity was 6.06 and animal diversity= 5.05. The second site on

the farmland plant diversity resulted to be 3.91 and animal diversity= 9.67. Species diversity

helps to stabilize an ecosystem and provide survival necessities. With reference to the Simpson’s

index, it can be said that all ecosystems have attained diversity.[lp6]

Page | 25
Lab: 1b

Title: Testing the temperature of the soil at the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystem studied.

Aim: To determine the temperature of the atmosphere at each site

Apparatus: Thermometer, gloves, notebook, pencil.

Procedure:

1. A thermometer was held in the soil for a short period of time at each site.

2. Each reading was recorded.

3. Reading was placed into a table.

Observations/results:

Site Temperature

(degrees Celsius)

1Cudjoe’s river 23

2Cudjoe’s river site 2 23

1Cudjoe’s Hill 24

2Cudjoe’s Hill 24

Discussion:

Temperature is the measure of how hot or cold something is. It can either be measured in degrees

Celsius, Fahrenheit, Kelvin or Rankine. Temperature is measured using a thermometer. A

Page | 26
thermometer is a glass tube that is sealed at both ends and contains Mercury or Alcohol. The

Mercury/ Alcohol are used as an indicator of whether the temperature of something rises or falls.

Soil temperature affects plant growth indirectly. At low temperatures, the water and nutrients

uptake by roots is relatively slow. Temperature can slow down the activities of the soil by

increasing or decreasing the rate of enzyme reaction activities, evaporation rates, the rate of

transpiration, etc. It can reduce/increase the number of plants produced by the soil and attracted

different types of moving organisms.

Research was done and it shows that 24 degrees Celsius is the ideal temperature for optimum

plant growth. As observed at the farmland; site 1 and site 2 had a temperature of 24 degrees

Celsius. At both aquatic ecosystems, both the air recorded to be at 23 degrees Celsius which

might have been the reason for less plant growth than the farmland.

Conclusion:

The temperature of at Cudjoe’s hill farmland and farmland site 2 resulted to be 24 degrees

Celsius and as for the aquatic ecosystems, 23 degrees Celsius[lp7].

Page | 27
 Lab: 2

Topic: Testing the pH level of the soil from each ecosystem visited

Aim: To determine the pH level of the topsoil and soil at a 6 inch depth from ecosystems

Materials: Soil samples, Ruler, Universal indicator, Notebook, Pencil, Gloves, Test tubes

and PH strips.

Procedure:

1. Test tubes were rinsed.

2. A small amount of soil from the surface was added to a test tube and then

labeled.

3. Four drops of universal indicator were added to the test tube containing

soil.

4. The test tube was covered and shaken vigorously.

5. A pH strip was used to obtain a small amount of the sample from the test

tube.

6. The strip was then compared to the pH chart and observations were

recorded.

7. Process was repeated for the soil sample at a 6-inch depth and for the other

ecosystem.

Observations/Results:

Site Topsoil Ph Soil at 6 inches Ph[lp8]

Cudjoe’s Hill Farmland 5-Acidic 6-Acidic

Farmland site 2 6-acidic 7-Acidic

Cudjoe’s River 8-Alkaline 8-Alkaline

Page | 28
River site 2 8-alksaline 8-alkaline

Discussion: Ph is an abbreviation for the term “potential Hydrogen”. It is a measure of how

acidic or basic water is. The Ph levels range from 0-14. Ph that results below 7 represents an acid

and anything above 7 is referred to as neutral. Ph is very useful to plants because it helps with

plant growth and the conversion of some nutrients. Before a plant can use the soil nutrients, they

have to be dissolved first. For this to happen, the soil has to be acidic or even very acidic. Plants

grow mostly in acidic soil because of this. Nutrients are readily available in a soil that has a Ph of

5.5-6.5. Soil that has a Ph lower than this can result in little or no plant growth.

Alkaline soils are not known to grow strong woody plant. From the table above, it shows that

the soil at Cudjoe’s river had a Ph of 8(alkaline) while river site 2 had a Ph of 8 as well. At these

sites, only weak, perennial plants were identified. This might be because of the soils’ incapability

to cement sturdy roots, absorb water and dissolve nutrients.

The soil at Cudjoe’s Hill (farmland) has a Ph of 5-6. Farmland site 2 topsoil resulted to be 6

while the soil at a 6inch depth was 7. At this site, woody plants, vines and fruit trees were seen.

The soil at this site is acidic and can dissolve nutrients, absorb and store water and help grow

strong roots.

Conclusion: The Ph of the soil samples at each site was recorded and are as follows: the topsoil

at the Farmland resulted to be 5-Acidic and as for the soil at a 6 inch depth 6-Acidic. The topsoil

for both aquatic ecosystems was 8-Alkaline and likewise for the soil at a 6 inch depth. Farmland

site 2 topsoil resulted to be 6 while the soil at a 6inch depth was 7[lp9]

Page | 29
Lab: 3

Title: Showing the difference between clay and sandy soils.

Aim: To determine the difference of the Drainage/Absorption rate of water by clay and sandy

soils.

Apparatus: Clay soil, sandy soil, measuring cylinders, funnels, a balance, filter paper

Procedure:

1. Four filter papers were folded and placed into four separate funnels.

2. Each funnel was the placed in a measuring cylinder.

3. Two samples of clay soil and two samples of sandy soil was added to respective cylinders

and then labelled.

4. 100cm3 of water was poured unto each soil.

5. Results were measured after the soil samples drained off the excess water.

6. The soil that drains the quickest was noted.

Observations/Results: Measuring Cylinder Results

Soil Samples Amount of water drained(cm3) Amount of water absorbed (cm3)

Cudjoe’s river 90.1 9.9

River site 2 80.4 19.6

Cudjoe’s Hill 70.7 29.3

Farmland site 2 80.1 19.9

Cudjoe’s river topsoil drained the fastest and retained the least amount of water.

Page | 30
Discussion:

Soil drainage is a natural process in which water travels throughout the soil as a force of gravity.

Soil's ability to keep water related to particle size; water tends to be more adhesive to the fine

particles of a clay soil than to the particles of sand, so clays generally retain more water. Soils

with very small particles tend to retain more water because it has a large surface area to volume

ratio. Sand that has large particle has a smaller surface area than clay. This will result in sand

draining more freely than clay because it is unable to retain water.

The sandy soil that was observed had large particles and low nutrient content; it retained the least

amount of water. Sandy soil can quickly replenish itself with water although it is unable to retain

it. The clay soil absorbed as much water as it could and drained the excess. Soil retains water to

support plant growth, nutrient dissolving, and photosynthesis.

Conclusion: Sandy soil drains/ keeps less water than Clay soils[lp10].

Page | 31
Lab: 4

Title: The water content of soil

Aim: To determine the water content of soil

Apparatus: A balance, metal containers, an incubator, soil samples

Procedure:

1. A table was constructed to record the results.

2. 10g of soil was placed into a metal container.

3. Process was repeated for the other 3 soil samples.

4. Soil samples were labelled.

5. Each container was placed into an incubator at 105 degrees Celsius and left for 24 hours.

6. Samples were removed and weighed.

7. Percentage of water was calculated for each soil sample.

Observations/Results:

Soil Sample Before oven After oven Percentage

Cudjoe’s River 10g 6.30g 37%

River site 2 10g 6.88g 31.2%

Cudjoe’s Farmland 10g 6.42g 35.8%

Farmland site 2 10g 6.20g 38%

Page | 32
Discussion:

Soil is very essential for plant life and water is a viable component of this system. It also

provides a habitat for slow moving insects. Water retention provides a great supply of water to

the plants. Soils obtain water by infiltration. This is the process by which water enters the soil

through the earth’s surface. The water on the surface may be derived from rainfall, melted snow

or anthropogenic activities such as watering.

Water-holding capacity is controlled primarily by soil texture and organic matter. Soils with

smaller particles (clay) have a larger surface area than those with larger sand particles, and a

large surface area allows a soil to hold more water. In other words, a soil with a high percentage

of clay particles, which describes fine soil, has a higher water-holding capacity.

Conclusion: It can be said that the soil at 6 inches on the farmland retains the most water of all

the soil samples collected.[lp11]

Page | 33
Lab: 5

Title: The main components of soil

Aim: To determine the main solid components of soil

Apparatus: Gas jars, covers, graph paper, soil samples, sellotape

Procedure:

1. 1/3 of the gas jar was filled with soil.

2. 2/3 of water was poured into each gas jar containing soil.

3. Each gas jar was covered and shaken thoroughly for 1 minute.

4. The gas jars were then allowed to stand for 24 hours.

5. Graph paper was sellotaped to the side of each jar.

6. Each type of particle was estimated using a percentage formula.

Observation/Results:

Percentage = height of particle

Total height of mineral particles+ humus

Cudjoe’s River Topsoil

Percentage of Sand: 4cm/ (7.9cm+0.3cm) = 0.49%

Percentage of Humus: 0.3cm/ (7.9+0.3) = 0.036%

Percentage of Mineral Particles: 7.9cm/ (7.9+0.3) = 0.96%

Page | 34
Cudjoe’s River (6 inch)

Percentage of Sand: 5cm/ (8.8cm+2cm) = 0.46%

Percentage of Humus: 2cm/ (8.8cm+2cm) = 0.18%

Percentage of Mineral Particles: 8.8cm/ (8.8cm+2cm) = 0.81%

Cudjoe’s Hill Farmland Topsoil

Percentage of Sand: 4.9cm/ (9.2cm+3cm) = 0.40%

Percentage of Humus: 3cm/ (9.2cm+3cm) = 0.25%

Percentage of Mineral Particles: 9.2cm/ (9.2cm+3cm) =0.75%

Cudjoe’s Hill Farmland (6 inch)

Percentage of Sand: 3.3cm/ (8.2cm+1.3cm) = 0.35%

Percentage of Humus: 1.3cm/ (8.2+1.3cm) = 0.14%

Percentage of Mineral Particles: 8.2cm/ (8.2cm+1.3cm) = 0.86[lp12]%

Discussion:

Sand is a loose granular material that results from the breakdown of rocks. It consists of particles

smaller than gravel but rougher than silt.

Humus is the organic component of soil that is formed by the decomposition of leaves and other

plant material by soil microorganisms/ bacteria. Humus serves as a source of nitrogen,

phosphorus, and sulfur for higher plants; improves structure and drainage. Humus enhances the

Page | 35
dissolution of silicate minerals; and serves as a source of energy for the growth and development

of micro- organisms. Mineral particles are inorganic substances that serve as a source and a sink

of plant nutrients. Mineral particles make up more than half the volume of soil.

These particles come from rocks – the parent material that formed the soil. Mineral particles are

[lp13]sorted into three groups based on their size – sand, silt and clay. Sand particles are the

biggest and clay is the smallest.

Conclusion: the main solid components of soil are sand, humus and mineral particles.[lp14]

Page | 36
 SECTION 3

Page | 37
 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Biodiversity is the number of different species living in a particular habitat. Human activities

such as farming, and resource exploitation tend to have significant impacts on animal and plant

life. The main purpose of this project is to examine and explain how anthropogenic activities

may influence species diversity around a terrestrial and an aquatic ecosystem by making direct

comparison of two such ecosystems and to infer how ecosystem stability is impacted at each

site.[lp15]

Page | 38
 PURPOSE OF PROJECT

The purpose of this project is to investigate the effect of human activity on species diversity

around two ecosystems, by examining the effect of pollution, farming and construction, if any, in

these ecosystems. The objectives to be achieved in the research include the following:

 To identify some feeding relationships at each of the four ecosystems.

 To observe any infrastructural development or manmade activities that can affect

ecosystem stability.

 To make note of flora and fauna in and along the ecosystem and determine the extent of

diversity at each site.

 To collect and test soil samples from the surface to a 6-inch depth randomly.

 To determine the stability of each ecosystem being stu[lp16]died.

Page | 39
 METHODOLOGY

Methodology can be defined as a system of techniques used to gather information on a specific

study for later analysis. For this project, to gather information on species diversity a 15x15m

quadrant was constructed and used (primary source). A quadrant is “an instrument used for

taking angular measurements of altitude in astronomy and navigation, typically consisting of a

graduated quarter circle and a sighting mechanism”, (Oxford languages). The quadrant was

formed at a specific area at each site. Any animal/plant life that was found within this space was

recorded. Soil temperature and PH at each site was determined with the use of a thermometer,

pH strips and universal indicator.

Secondary sources such as online articles and textbooks were also used to gather information

[lp17]towards this project.

Page | 40
 LITERATURE REVIEW

An ecosystem is defined as a biological community of interacting organisms and their physical

environment, (Oxford dictionary, 2016). This statement simply means an area in which plants

and animals inhabit and how they behave or contribute to this area. For this research two (2)

ecosystems were chosen for study and were then compared to see how anthropogenic activities

influence species diversity in each environment and ecosystem stability.

Laura Nappin (2017), defines species diversity as “the number of species and abundance of each

species that live at a particular location.” The species diversity of both locations was studied, and

the results were significantly different for both areas. Cudjoe’s Hill Farmland had a denser

population (wider variety of species) than Cudjoe’s River. This was due to many factors

including anthropogenic influences. Anthropogenic activities such as farming, infrastructure

development and travelling may pose a threat to the environment.

Such activities contribute to the destruction and/or fragmentation of habitats for species and

reduce the survival rate of organism. Ground organisms such as earthworm, plants and other tiny

herbivores are most definitely affected by such procedures; this can cause a shift in the stability

of the ecosystems.

“Human activities directly and indirectly, are now the primary cause of changes to marine

biodiversity. Natural perturbations have always occurred in oceans-ranging from seasonal

climate events (such as Hurricanes, typhoons and storm tides), leading to the local habitat

destruction. The resulting changes in biodiversity were frequently reversible or have been long

integrated as into the larger spatial and temporal patterns of ecosystem structure and function.

Effects of many human activities however are frequently irreversible, at least over a span of

Page | 41
human life”, (Understanding Marine biodiversity, 1995). The purpose of this statement was to

say that water bodies are most likely to recover from disturbances caused by natural disasters

than those caused by human activities. The aquatic environment studied was hardly disturbed by

humans.

Ecological stability is the ability of an ecosystem to maintain equilibrium of its species after a

disturbance. Two soil samples were taken from each site during the research for testing. Soil

plays a significant role in every ecosystem. “Soil is a complex ecosystem where living micro-

organisms and plant roots bind mineral particles and organic matter together”, (Managing soil

health, 2017). Soil promotes the decomposition of waste and serves as a home for micro-

organisms which converts these materials into nutrients to support plant growth. Soil is a critical

agent in the nitrogen, phosphorus, water and carbon cycles. Soil cycles the nutrients and is a

water store for plants. “Soil is a home to a complex assemblage of organisms that interact to

significantly impact both above and below ground process”, (Hoopet et al. 2000). Soil consists of

its own food web which is a “community of organisms living all or part of their lives in the soil”,

(Coleman et al.2004).

Each of these organisms has a specific role to play in the soil; either as a decomposer, serves as

[lp18]food or helps control stability.

Page | 42
 PRESENTATION OF DATA

12

10

Flora
6
Fauna

0
Cudjoe's river Cudjoe's River site 2 Farmland site 2
Hill(Farmland)

Chart representing the species diversity of the four ecosystems

Fig. 1.0

Page | 43
 8

4 Topsoil
Soil at 6 inches
3

0
Cudjoe's river Cudjoe's Hill River site 2 Farmland site 2
(Farmland)

Chart representing the PH[lp19] levels of the soil at the four ecosystems

Fig. 1.1

Page | 44
 Temperature
24.2
24
23.8
23.6
23.4
23.2 Temperature
23
22.8
22.6
22.4
Cudjoe's river River site 2 Cudjoes Hill Farmland site 2
Farmland

Chart representing the temperature of the soil at the four ecosystems

Fig. 1.2

Page | 45
 Percentage of water evaporated

River site 2

Cudjoe's River

Percentage of water
Farmland site 2 evaporated

Cudjoe's Hill

0 10 20 30 40

Fig 2.0

Chart representing the percentage of water that was removed from the soil samples collected

after baking

Page | 46
Soil Sample Water Drained Water Absorbed

(cm3) (cm3)

Cudjoe’s River 90.1 9.9

River site 2 80.4 19.6

Cudjoe’s Farmland 70.7 29.3

Farmland site 2 80.1 19.9

Table representing the drainage and water capacity of various soil samples collected

Fig 2.1

Page | 47
 Sand Humus Mineral particles

Cudjoe’s River 4cm 0.3cm 7.9cm

River site 2 5cm 2cm 8.8cm

Cudjoe’s Farmland 4.9cm 3cm 9.2cm

Farmland site 2 3.3cm 1.3cm 8.2cm

Table showing the different section of particles observed after letting soil samples stand in water

for 24 hours

Fig 2.2[lp20]

Page | 48
 ANALYSIS OF DATA

Figure 1.0 represents the species diversity of the four ecosystems that were studied. The plant

diversity of Cudjoe’s river resulted to be 3.47 and as for the animal diversity 2.5. The second site

at the river had a plant diversity of 3 and an animal diversity of 1.69. For the farmland, plant

diversity was 6.06 and animal diversity= 5.05. The second site on the farmland plant diversity

resulted to be 3.91 and animal diversity= 9.67.

Figure 1.1 shows the PH levels of the soil at the four ecosystems. Soil samples were collected

from each site; topsoil and at a 6 inch depth. The topsoil at Cudjoe’s river had a PH of 8

(alkaline) and likewise for the soil at a 6 inch depth. For river site 2, topsoil=8 and same as for

the soil at six inches. For Cudjoe’s Hill, the topsoil had a PH of 5 (acidic) and the 6 inch soil had

a PH of 6 (acidic). Farmland site 2, topsoil=6 and soil at six inches = 7.

Figure 1.2 shows the temperature of the soil samples at each ecosystem. Cudjoe’s river and river

site 2, had a temperature of 23oC. The farmland and farmland site 2, on the other hand had a

temperature of 24oC.

Figure 2.0 shows that the soil sample that was collected from the farmland contained the most

water (38%). The soil from the aquatic ecosystem contained 37% of water, while farmland site 2

had 35.8% of water. The soil at river site 2 had the least amount of water (31.2%).

Table 2.1 signifies that Cudjoe’s river drains the most water hence having the lowest water

capacity. The soil at farmland site 2 has the highest water capacity and drained the least amount

of water.

Page | 49
For table 2.2, Cudjoe’s river soil sample had 4cm of sand, 0.3cm of humus and 7.9cm of mineral

particles, whilst for the soil at river site 2, 5cm sand, 2 cm of humus and 8.8cm of mineral

particles. Cudjoe’s Hill soil contains 4.9 cm of sand, 3cm of humus and 9.2cm of mineral

particles and as for Farmland site 2, 3.3cm of sand, 1.3cm of humus and 8.2cm of mineral[lp21]

particles.

Page | 50
 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

While conducting the study, the researcher noticed that the four ecosystems (Cudjoe’s Hill

farmland and Cudjoe’s river) were disturbed areas. Farmland site 2 and River site 2 were less

disturbed areas. The terrestrial ecosystems were more frequently disturbed than the aquatic

ecosystems. This was due to the ongoing farming activities observed and the fact that people

were living on the land. As previously stated in the literature review, ecosystems are likely to

replenish themselves after natural disturbances then after human caused disturbances. It may take

hundreds of years before an ecosystem can be repaired to its full potential.

An ecosystem can be defined as a group of communities of organisms living together and

interacting with their physical environment. Biodiversity can help to increase the functions of the

ecosystems. For example, the more diverse the population of trees there are in an ecosystem can

higher the production of oxygen and other substances.

Species diversity is the abundance of different species in an ecosystem. This abundance

influences ecosystem stability. Ecosystem stability is the capability of the ecosystem processes to

restore the area after it has been disturbed, whether by natural causes or anthropogenic activities.

Ecosystems that are more diverse are more resilient and are better able to withstand and adjust to

various disturbances.

The aquatic ecosystem studied (Cudjoe’s River) only had disturbances that were mainly caused

by natural means. The area was clean, and rocks were covered with moss.

The species diversity of an ecosystem can be determined by using the Simpson’s Index (∑n(n-1)). The

Simpson’s index is a measure of species diversity which takes into account the number of

Page | 51
species present in a given area. Figure 1.0 represents the species diversity of the 4 ecosystems

studied. From the diagram it can be said that Cudjoe’s Hill has higher species diversity than

Cudjoe’s river. This might be due to the difference in the environment and the PH levels of the

soil.

Diagram 1.1 states that the PH levels of the soil at the farmland ranges from 5-6 (acidic) and the

soil at the river to be 8 (alkaline). Ph is very useful to plants because it helps with plant growth

and the conversion of some nutrients. Before a plant can use the soil nutrients, they have to be

dissolved first. For this to happen, the soil has to be acidic or even very acidic. Plants grow

mostly in acidic soil because of this. Nutrients are readily available in a soil that has a Ph of 5.5-

6.5. Soil that has a Ph lower than this can result in little or no plant growth.

Chart 1.2 represents the soil temperatures at each site. It was noted by the researcher that the soil

at the farmland was 1oC warmer (24oC) than the soil at the river (23oC). Soil temperature affects

plant growth indirectly. At low temperatures, the water and nutrients uptake by roots is relatively

slow. Temperature can slow down the activities of the soil by increasing or decreasing the rate of

enzyme reaction activities, evaporation rates and the rate of transpiration.

Diagram 2.0 shows that the soil samples from the Farmland had a higher concentration of water

(38%, 35.8%) than the soil from the river (31.2%, 37%). This may be due to the soil type

differences.

Soil is an important component in every ecosystem. The type of soil that is at an ecosystem

depends on whether the area is terrestrial or aquatic. Clay soil was at the farmland while sand

was at the river. According to table 2.1 the soil samples from the river drains more freely and

retains less water than that of the farmland. Water in soil helps to dissolve nutrients for plant use.

Page | 52
Table 2.2 shows the different layers of soil after various soil samples were left to stand for 24

hours in water. Cudjoe’s river topsoil sample had 4cm of sand, 0.3cm of humus and 7.9cm of

mineral particles, whilst for the soil at 6 inches 5cm sand, 2 cm of humus and 8.8cm of mineral

particles. Cudjoe’s Hill topsoil contains 4.9 cm of sand, 3cm of humus and 9.2cm of mineral

particles and as for the soil at 6 inches, 3.3cm of sand, 1.3cm of humus and 8.2cm of mineral

[lp22]particles.

Page | 53
 CONCLUSION

The four ecosystems that were studied were affected by anthropogenic activities, either

continuously or occasionally. Cudjoe’s Hill, Farmland site 2, Cudjoe’s River and River site 2

was being disturbed by humans either for farming purposes or for entertainment.

From the observations obtained, such activities affect species diversity either by increasing or

decreasing the population. Anthropogenic activities such as farming, and infrastructure were

[lp23]taking place at the farmland. As for the river, swimming and other activities took place[lp24].

Page | 54
 RECOMMENDATIONS

The researcher decided to make a few recommendations on how to reduce the damages caused to

various ecosystems by humans. The recommendations are as follows:

1. The public should be educated by the M.O.H (Ministry Of Health) [lp25]about the

importance of ecosystems and start projects or open parks to help to protect them.

2. Law enforcement procedures should be implemented against illegal tree logging.

3. M.O.H should [lp26]designate lands that should be used for farming purposes only and

mitigate[lp27] any illegal farming practices.

[lp28]

Site visit + labs + journal =

10 + 40 + 31 = 81

Page | 55
 INDEX

Page | 56
 REFERENCES

1. Elsa E. Cleland (Section of Ecology, Behavior, and Evolution, University of California at

San Diego) © 2011 Nature Education.

2. Glossary of Environment Statistics, (Environmental Statistics), United Nations (Sept. 25,

2001).

3. Gleissman, S.R. 1997. (Agro-ecology: Ecological Processes in Sustainable Agriculture.)

Ann Arbor Press, Chelsea, MI

4. Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed. (Oxford: University Press,2004.), S.V. “Parable”

5. A.S. Mori, in Encyclopedia of the Anthropocene, (Ecological Stability, Single

Equilibriums, and Alternative State), 2018

Page | 57