By Tehmina Bilal
Contact: +92336-9010470
EDEXCEL IGCSE CHEMISTRY
TOPIC:
ORGANIC
CHEMISTRY
Page 1 of 12
By Tehmina Bilal
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Organic Compounds
Representing Organic Compounds
Introduction
Organic Chemistry is the scientific study of the structure, properties, and
reactions of organic compounds. Organic compounds are those which contain
carbon
For conventional reasons metal carbonates, carbon dioxide and carbon
monoxide are not included in organic compounds
Definition of a Hydrocarbon
A compound that contains only hydrogen and carbon atoms
Representing Organic Molecules
Organic compounds can be represented in a number of ways:
o Empirical Formulae
o Molecular Formulae
o General Formulae
o Structural Formulae
o Condensed Structural Formulae
The empirical formula shows the simplest possible ratio of the atoms in a
molecule
o For example: Hydrogen peroxide is H2O2 but the empirical formula is HO
The molecular formula shows the actual number of atoms in a molecule
o For example:
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The general formula shows a ratio of atoms in a family of compounds in terms
of 'n' where n is a varying whole number
o For example, the general formula of a molecule that belong to the alkane
family is CnH2n+2
The displayed formula shows the spatial arrangement of all the atoms and
bonds in a molecule
This is also known as the graphical formula.
o For example:
In a structural formulae enough information is shown to make the structure
clear, but most of the actual covalent bonds are omitted
Only important bonds are always shown, such as double and triple bonds
Identical groups can be bracketed together
Side groups are also shown using brackets
Straight chain alkanes are shown as follows:
Exam Tip
For defining a hydrocarbon, you must specify that they are compounds which contain
hydrogen and carbon atoms only, no other element is [Link] may not be asked to
name branched chain organic compounds but you will come across them. It is useful to
know that the numbers in the names of these compounds refer to the position of the
side chains with respect to the main chain.
Page 3 of 12
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Organic Terminology
Three important terms to know in this topic are homologous series, functional
group and isomerism
Homologous Series
This is a series or family of organic compounds that have similar features and
chemical properties due to them having the same functional group
All members of a homologous series have:
o The same general formula
o Same functional group
o Similar chemical properties
o Gradation in their physical properties
o The difference in the molecular formula between one member and the
next is CH2
Functional Group
Functional group: A group of atoms bonded in a specific arrangement that
influences the properties of the homologous series
Some examples are shown here
Structures and Names of Common Functional Groups
Page 4 of 12
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Isomerism
Isomers are compounds that have the same molecular formula but
different displayed formulae
o Eg. propene and cyclopropane
Isomers of C3H6 show the same molecular formula but different structures.
Isomers can show similar physical and chemical properties or if they have
different functional groups, the properties can be different.
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Naming Organic Compounds
Naming Organic Compounds
Names of compounds
The names of organic compounds have two parts: the prefix or stem and the end
part (or suffix)
The prefix tells you how many carbon atoms are present in the longest
continuous chain in the compound
The suffix tells you what functional group is on the compound
Examples of Naming Organic Molecules
Further rules for naming compounds
When there is more than one carbon atom where a functional group can be
located it is important to distinguish exactly which carbon the functional group is
on
Each carbon is numbered and these numbers are used to describe where the
functional group is
When 2 functional groups are present di- is used as a prefix to the second part of
the name
Page 6 of 12
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Isomers can be distinguished by following the naming rules
Exam Tip
You may not be asked to name branched chain organic compounds but you will come
across them. It is useful to know that the numbers in the names of these compounds
refer to the position of the side chains with respect to the main chain.
Page 7 of 12
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Classifying Organic Reactions
Classifying Organic Reactions
The reactions of organic compounds can be classified
into substitution, addition and combustion
Substitution
A substitution reaction takes place when one functional group is replaced by
another
o Example: Methane reacts with bromine under ultraviolet light
CH4 + Br2 → CH3Br + HBr
Methane + Bromine → Bromomethane + Hydrogen Bromide
Addition
An addition reaction takes place when two or more molecules combine to form a
larger molecule with no other products
o Example: Bromine will react with ethene and the bromine molecule will
react and add across the double bond of the ethene
C2H4 + Br2 → C2H4Br2
Ethene + Bromine → Dibromoethane
Combustion
This is the scientific term for burning. In a combustion reaction, an organic
substance reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide (or carbon monoxide if
incomplete combustion) and water.
o Example: Alkenes burn when heated in air of oxygen
o If there is an unlimited supply of air / oxygen, the products are carbon
dioxide and water:
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O
This is termed complete combustion
o If there is a limited supply of air / oxygen, the products are carbon
monoxide and water: CH4 + O2 → CO + 2H2O
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This is termed incomplete combustion.
Crude Oil & Fractional
Distillation
Crude Oil & Fractional Distillation
Crude oil as a mixture is not a very useful substance but the different
hydrocarbons that make up the mixture, called fractions, are enormously
valuable, with each fraction having many different applications
Each fraction consists of groups of hydrocarbons of similar chain lengths
The fractions in petroleum are separated from each other in a process
called fractional distillation
The molecules in each fraction have similar properties and boiling points,
which depend on the number of carbon atoms in the chain
The size and length of each hydrocarbon molecule determines in which fraction it
will be separated into
The size of each molecule is directly related to how many carbon and hydrogen
atoms the molecule contains
Most fractions contain mainly alkanes, which are compounds of carbon and
hydrogen with only single bonds between them
Page 9 of 12
By Tehmina Bilal
Contact: +92336-9010470
Diagram showing the process of fractional distillation to separate crude oil in a
fractionating column
Fractional distillation is carried out in a fractionating column which is
very hot at the bottom and cool at the top
Crude oil enters the fractionating column and is heated so vapours rise
Vapours of hydrocarbons with very high boiling points will immediately condense
into liquid at the higher temperatures lower down and are tapped off at the
bottom of the column
Vapours of hydrocarbons with low boiling points will rise up the column and
condense at the top to be tapped off
The different fractions condense at different heights according to their boiling
points and are tapped off as liquids
The fractions containing smaller hydrocarbons are collected at the top of the
fractionating column as gases
The fractions containing bigger hydrocarbons are collected at the lower sections
of the fractionating column
Exam Tip
As you move up a fractionating column the temperature decreases, so the compounds
with higher boiling points come off lower down the column.
The Main Fractions
Properties of the main fractions of crude oil
Viscosity: This refers to the ease of flow of a liquid. High viscosity liquids are
thick and flow less easily. If the number of carbon atoms increases, the attraction
between the hydrocarbon molecules also increases which results in the liquid
becoming more viscous with the increasing length of the hydrocarbon chain. The
liquid flows less easily with increasing molecular mass
Colour: As carbon chain length increases the colour of the liquid gets darker as
it gets thicker and more viscous
Melting point/boiling point: As the molecules get larger, the intermolecular
attraction becomes greater. So more heat is needed to separate the molecules.
With increasing molecular size there is an increase in boiling point
Volatility: Volatility refers to the tendency of a substance to vaporise. With
increasing molecular size hydrocarbon liquids become less volatile. This is
because the attraction between the molecules increases with increasing
molecular size
Page 10 of 12
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Trend in Boiling Point of the Main Fractions
Uses of the different fractions obtained from petroleum (crude oil)
The petrochemical industry is hugely important for modern society and
development
The fuels that are used in most modern methods of transport (cars, trains,
airplanes etc.) are all based on oil products
Polymers, lubricants, solvents, detergents and adhesives are all products that
are obtained from crude oil
The array of fractions in crude oil and the huge range of compounds we can
produce from them all stem from carbon’s ability to form multiple strong covalent
bonds with itself leading a huge number of organic compounds
The main fractions and their uses are described in the following table:
Page 11 of 12
By Tehmina Bilal
Contact: +92336-9010470
Uses of Crude Oil Fractions
Exam Tip
You need to learn the names and uses of the main fractions obtained from crude oil:
refinery gases(also known as liquid petroleum gases), gasoline, kerosene, diesel, fuel
oil and bitumen. Gasoline and petrol are the same thing; gasoline is the term used in the
USA.
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