Modernisation of Japan in early 20th century

Political conditions

1. A constitutional monarchy infused with Japanese tradition

‘Meiji Constitution’
Emperor
- Was ‘sacred and inviolable’ as a supreme leader
- Had absolute control over legislation, military, diplomatic, etc.
Diet
- Included the House of Peers and the House of Representatives
- Only a small no. of taxpayers (e.g. landlords) had the right to vote
- Limited authority and no decision-making power
Genro and Privy Council
- Mostly oligarchs
Prime Minister and Cabinet
- Appointed by and were only accountable to the Emperor
Military
- Had direct access to the Emperor → high status of soldiers

2. Rise of political parties

- Major newspaper (Edo Shimbun) advocated Western democratic
beliefs
- Japanese people trusted more in the democratic powers as of Allied
Powers’ defeat of Central Powers in WWI
Constitution Protection Movement (1913)
 - To show their discontent with autocratic rule
- Succeeded in forcing Katsura Taro to resign
Beginning of party politics (1918-1932)
- 1918: Hara Kei became the first commoner to be appointed as Prime
Minister of Japan

Diplomatic conditions

1. Aggressive diplomacy: Foreign wars in the early 20th century

- Eight-Power Expedition (1900): Japan was the only Asian country in
the Eight-Power Alliance
- Russo-Japanese War(1904): Japan defeated Russia and signed the
Treaty of Portsmouth under the mediation of the US
- WWI (1904-1918): Proposal of the Twenty-One Demands (1915) in
China
2. Concerted diplomacy: Non-aggressive diplomatic activities and
policies in the early 20th century
- Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902)
- Paris Peace Conference (1919): Japan became a permanent
member of the League of Nations
- Washington Conference (1921): Nine-Power Treaty to limit tonnage
of capital ships
- Friendly policy on China to ease anti-Japanese feelings
- Kellogg-Briand pact (1928): promised to negotiate during a conflict →
ineffective, Mukden Incident occurred in 1932
- London Naval Conference (1930)
Economic Conditions

1. Rapid Industrialization
- Japan’s control of Korea, NE China, Taiwan & Fujian provided more
consumer markets & raw materials for Japan
→ facilitated both light & heavy industries
- Exacerbated the shortage of natural resources in Japan
2. Maintaining agricultural development
- Feudal land tax made up to 25% of the total government revenue in
1900
3. Economic domination of zaibatsu
- E.g. Mitsui, Mitsubishi, Sumitomo, Yasuda
- Invested their money in capital-intensive industries, e.g. finance,
mining
- Their domination hindered the development of a free economy in
Japan
4. Start of the financial and banking industry
- 1897: converted monetary system into the gold standard system
- Established Kanyo Bank, Noko Bank
5. Unstable foreign trade
- Japanese expansion in NE China caused a boycott of Japanese
goods among the Chinese people
6. Rapid development in transportation
- Tokyo was the first Asian city to construct its subway (in 1927)
- 1901: Railway system extended to 4000 km
Social conditions

1. A society with limited freedom

- People have freedom of speech, assembly, press, religion
- Labor organizations were established, e.g. Friendly Society and the
Japan Federation of Labour
However
- 1925: the Peace Preservation Law suppressed any ideas that
threatened the reign of the Emperor
- 1925: 38 university students were indicted for promoting communism
→ Lower degree of freedom in Japan than Western democratic countries
2. Highest education standard in Asia
- The national enrolment rate reached 97%
- 1907: 6 years compulsory education for children of both sexes
3. Rapid urbanization & rural-urban disparity
- Many peasants moved to the city for job opportunities → rapid
urbanization
- 1914: Mitsukoshi Department Store went into business → more
Westernized culture
- Rise of ideas of democracy & liberty in the city
- Rural children had fewer opportunities to learn Western cultures and
ideas
- Peasants kept their simple & traditional lifestyle while remaining
obedient to the government → hotbed of militarism
4. Difficult life and social unrest
- Workers worked long hours but were poorly paid with little welfare &
legal protection
 - Many peasants did not have enough food & lived in small cottages
- WWI led to inflation, which led to riots, e.g. Rice Riot in 1918
5. Higher status of women
- Women had more education opportunities
- 1929: Establishment of the Women Workers’ School in Tokyo

Cultural conditions

1. Preserving Japanese traditions

- Upheld Shintoism as the state religion & emphasized relationship
between Shintoism and the state
- 1900: it set up the Bureau of Shrines and Temples
- Traditional culture such as Kabuki, tea ceremony and sumo was
preserved
2. Instilling patriotic education
- 1890: Imperial Rescript on Education emphasized loyalty to the
Emperor
- 1903: establishment of the National Textbook System
3. Absorbing Western culture
- People began to eat beef & drink milk
- People sat on chairs instead of mats
Rise of militarism and its impact

Features of Japanese Militarism

Militarism: adoption of military control and aggressive foreign policy
1. Extreme nationalism, emphasized patriotism, Japan as a world power
2. Emphasis on loyalty and obedience (towards emperor)
3. Anti-communism (as it discourages the belief of God)
4. Extolling violence, advocating military expansion
5. Promotion of foreign expansion, under ‘Eight Corners Under Roof’
6. Pan-Asianism, advocated ‘Great East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere’, to
fight against the West from colonial exploitation
7. Controlling the country, under absolute military control

Factors leading to militarism

1. Longstanding military tradition

- Military had always enjoyed a superior status
- 1900 - 1913: Ministers of Army and Navy must be active generals
- Shintoism as state religion, people must be loyal to the Emperor
- The Imperial Rescript on Education,1890 : its people had to sacrifice
for the country in critical situations

2. Weaknesses of the party government

Politically
1. Unable to restrain the power of the military
 - Failed to change the law to appoint important positions, e.g. Ministers
of Army and Navy

2. Widespread corruption
- The parties gained votes through cheating and corruption
- 1924: around 15,000 cases of cheating in election
- Matsushima Incident (corruption scandal)
- Only cared for zaibatsu and disregarded the public interests

3. Frequent changes of the Cabinet destroyed national unity

- 1918-1932: 11 cabinets were formed
- The Cabinet of Kiyoura Keigo lasted for less than a year

Economically & socially

Problems:
- Limited agricultural land and natural resources as of rapid
industrialization
- Trade deficits & unemployment after WWI
- The Great Depression in 1929 affected Japan’s economy
- 1923: Great Kanto Earthquake caused huge casualties and
devastation
Party government could not devise effective solutions
- Resulted in social instability and unrest
Meanwhile, militarists advocated foreign expansion to provide stable land
supply
→ gained public support
Diplomatically
Party government failed to raise Japan’s reputation
- Western powers refuses to include a clause of ‘racial equality’ in the
Covenant of the League
→ Japanese regarded the criticism as discrimination against their country
- Militarists blamed the adoption of the peaceful economic expansion
policy for the failure

3. Impact of the extreme nationalism

Establishment of extreme nationalist associations
- Aimed at removing corrupt genro, zaibatsu and government by force
e.g. Sakura Society, Brotherhood of Blood League

Some extreme nationalists actively promoted militarism

- 1919: Kita Ikki wrote An Outline Plan for the Reconstruction of Japan
(reform Japan through military power)
- 1910: Tanaka Giichi founded Imperial Military Reserve Association
(instilled ideas of loyalty to the Emperor, patriotism and forign
expansion to young boys)

4. Impact of totalitarianism in Europe

Italy & Germany seemed more successful in solving their economic
problems

5. Threat of Chinese nationalism

Growing anti-Japanese feeling in China
Militarist proposed to safeguard their rights in China by using violence
 6. Favorable international conditions
Adoption of isolationism & appeasement policy in the US and France and
Britain respectively
Closer relationship with totalitarianism Italy & Germany
- 1940: formation of Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis

Impact of militarism on Japan

Politically
1. Frequent military coups
- 1932, May 15 Incident: assassination of Prime Minister Inukai
Tsuyoshi → end of party politics
- 1932: murder of former Minister of Finance Inoue Junnosuke
- 1936, February 26 Incident: killing former Prime Minister Saito
Makoto & Takahashi Koreiyo
Further consolidated the power of military

2. Military control of politics in Japan

- After 1932, almost all Prime Ministers were generals
E.g. Admiral Saito Makoto
- 1940: Imperial Rule Assistance Association replaced all political
parties in Japan

Economically (abnormal economic development)

All economic activities served military purposes
 - Big enterprises (e.g. Mitsubishi) produced many military vehicles,
planes and chemical products
- 1938: passed the National Mobilization Law
- 1944: military budget accounted for more than 85% of overall budget

Socially
Militarists suppressed all labor movements
- Neighborhood Association to surveil and control its citizens
- Promotion of the idea ‘war is the father of invention and the mother of
culture’
- 1936: increased tax rate for military, affecting people’s livelihood
seriously

Diplomatically
Breaking up with Western democratic countries
- 1931: Mukden Incident invaded Northeast China
- 1933: withdrew from the League
- 1940: formation of the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis

Enduring war destruction and consequences of the defeat

- 1945: atomic bombs caused huge destruction and civilian casualties
- 1945 -1952: occupation by the US downgraded its international status
Impact of Japan militarism on Asia

1. China suffered long-time invasion

- 1931, Mukden Incident: Guandong Army sent troops to Northeast
China
- 1932, January 28 Incident: invaded Shanghai as of the boycott of
Japanese goods
- 1932: formation of puppet regime Manzhouguo & declared Puyi as
emperor
- 1937, Lugouqiao Incident
- Nanjing Massacre: killed 300,000 Chinese in Nanjing

2. Break out of the Pacific War & invasion of Southeast Asia

- 1941, sudden attack of Pearl Harbor: triggered the Pacific War
- 1942: occupation of Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaysia, the
Philippines, Burma and Indonesia
- June 1942: Japan was defeated by the US in the Battle of Midway
- Militarism brought length wars and massive disasters to Southeast
Asia

3. Decolonisation of Southeast Asia

- Advocation of ‘Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere’ and an ‘Asia
for Asians’ facilitated decolonisation of Southeast Asia
- 1946: the Philippines declared independence
- Southeast Asian nationalists (e.g. Aung San from Burma)
co-operated with Japan
Political development after WWII

1. US occupation of Japan (1945-1952)

- The US General MacArthur was appointed as the Supreme
Commander of the Allied Powers (SCAP)
- All major policies by Japanese Government had to seek approval
from him

2. Demilitarisation
- 1946, Tokyo Trials: Japanese military officers (e.g. Tojo Hideki) & war
criminals were found guilty and sentenced to death
- Abolished military laws, e.g. Act of Military Conscription & the
National Mobilization Law
- Banned production of weapons, bombs, warships
- Dismissed militarist groups, e.g. Imperial Military Reserve Association

3. New Constitution (democratization)

1. Emperor being the symbolic leader, no more absolute control of
country
2. Diet being the highest power authority
- All members of Upper & Lower House were elected by all men &
women aged 21 or above
- Revisions could only be passed after the voting of citizens
3. Supervision of the Prime Minister and the Cabinet
- Dissolution of the Privy Council
 - Prime Minister must be chosen from members of the Diet through
election
- Cabinet members must be civilian officials & were responsible to the
people
4. Judicial independence
- The Judiciary became independent, would not be interfered by
anyone
- All judicial power belonged to the Supreme Court & lower courts
5. Relinquishing(give up) the right to declare war
- New constitution/Peace constitution : Japan should never adopt war
as its national policy
6. Practicing regional autonomy
- Allowing the establishment of local assemblies
- 1947: Local Autonomy Law promoted political democratization
process

4. Resuming to party politics

Founding of many political parties (1945-1955)
- 3 biggest parties: Liberal Party, Democratic Party & Socialist Party
- Before 1955, none of them could gain the majority votes in the
election of both houses
↓
Political domination of the Liberal Democratic Party (1955-1993)
- 1955: merging of LIberal Party & democratic Party
- Was the top political party & dominated the politics
 - Average term of office of the 12 Prime Ministers was 3.7 years
(longer)
→ Japan’s politics was stable

5. Features of Japan's politics after the occupation

1. US influence after 1952
- Japan followed the US anti-communist policy after 1952
- Mutual Security Pact, 1952: US troops continued to station in Japan
for its defense → US military bases enjoyed independent judicial
rights, which aroused discontent
2. Becoming a political power since the 1980s
- ‘Total reassessment of post-war politics’: aimed to transform Japan
from a pure economic power into a political power
- 1983-1987 Defense Capacity Preparation Plan to strengthen
bilateral defense cooperation
3. Emergence of plutocracy(富豪), numerous corruption scandals
- 1988: Recruit Scandal
- 1992: Sagawa Kyubin Scandal
4. Active civic movements
- Establishment of civic groups, women and students’ organizations
→ raise awareness for violence & rapes in the US military bases
Economic recovery and growth after WWII
1945 - 1952: economic recovery
Problems:
- Unemployment
- Casualties
- Destruction of factories & industrial production

Factors leading to economic recovery

1. SCAP policies favorable to economic recovery
- New constitution stabilized Japan’s politics
- Nine Principles of Economic Stabilization stabilized economy
- Implementing priority production system
- Agricultural reforms raised production
- Anti-monopoly policy that dissolved zaibatsu
- Basic Education Law promoted education
- Trade Union Act raised the status of women

2. Favorable effects of the Cold War

- ‘Reverse course’ adopted by the US, kept Japan as a reliable ally in
Asia
- Special procurement of the Korean War increased Japanese people’s
income

1952-1973: ‘Economic miracle’

- Japan’s GNP had surpassed West Germany’s
- Doubled monthly salary from 1955 to 1965
Factors leading to the the miracle
1. Special relations between the US and Japan
- Signing of Treaty of San Francisco ended their hostility
- The US had helped Japan's industrial development by providing
raw materials & technologies
- Mutual Security Pact reduced Japan’s military expenditure

2. Policies of the Japanese government

- Emphasis on economic development
e.g. - setting up of ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI)
- 1952: joining International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank
- Carrying out macro-economic plans, e.g. Five-Year Plan of
Economic Independence & Income Doubling Plan
- Emphasis on education facilitated the future development of
hi-tech industries

3. Favorable international circumstances

- World market trend, prices of raw materials dropped, beneficial
for an industrial power like Japan
- Special procurement of the Vietnam War → Japan had higher
foreign currency earnings

1973-1990: stable economic growth

Factors leading to the end of rapid economic growth
1. Oil Crisis
 - 1973: First Oil Crisis occurred as oil prices increased in the Middle
East (due to the Fourth Middle East war), leading the country into a
trade deficit with the peak in 1974 over $ 6 billion.
2. Collapse of the Bretton Woods system
- ∵ 1973, USD fell in value → other countries implemented the floating
exchange rate
- Japan GNP recorded negative growth

Factors leading to stable economic growth

1. Policies of the Japanese government
- Promotion of commercial activities
→ reduce government expenditure to stimulate economy
- Development of new energies & encouragement of energy saving
→ 1974: the Sunshine Programme to develop solar energy
- Encouraging the development of advanced technology
- Implementation of the policy with a low interest rate
2. Contribution of Japanese enterprises
- Many enterprises produced high-tech goods, e.g. industrial robots
→ increased production
- Energy consumption was reduced → lower production cost
- 1979: despite during Second Oil Crisis, Japan’s economy remained
relatively stable

Traditional Japanese customs

→ contributed a lot to its rapid economic growth
1. Willingness to learn
 2. Obedience united Japanese together
3. Encouragement of savings & investment in deposition
4. Unique management style to work efficiently

1990-2000: Negative economic growth

Problems:
- Early 1990s: tokyo stock market crashed
- Recession
- Bankrupt

Factors leading to negative economic growth

1. Trade disputes between the US and Japan
- 100% punitive tariff on Japan’s semiconductors, calculators & color
TV
2. Revaluation of the Japanese yen
- Plaza Accord, 1985: exchange rate of yen rose by 20%
→ increased the prices of Japanese exports & negatively affected exports
→ the entering of a large amount of capital led to a bubbly economy (an
economy undergoing an unsustainable boom)
3. Over-investment & over-production
- Many enterprises borrowed money from banks for financial
speculation
- Many factories increased production, e.g. overproduction of 3 million
cars
→ burst of bubble economy & 2 stock market crashed
4. Suppression of over-investment by the Japanese government
- raised interest rate & sale tax
- Sped up the burst of the bubble economy
Social development after WWII
1. Society with great freedom
- Emperor could not take away people’s basic rights at will
- SCAP government abolished the National Textbook System & issued
new curriculum guidelines
- Japanese enjoyed religious freedom (e.g. Christianity )

2. Extension of universal education

- SCAP government extended compulsory education to nine years &
established a tertiary education system
- 1997: literacy rate of Japanese aged 15 or above was almost 100%

3. Urbanization
- Post-war economic growth created more employment → rapid
urbanization
- Cities e.g. Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya developed rapidly
- 1964: establishment of the Tokaido Shinkansen high-speed railway
line → more convenient to travel between urban & rural areas

4. Narrowing rural-urban disparity

- LDP government set a price floor for rice to secure the income of
peasants
- 1975: the average income of peasants came close to that of workers
- Railway system shortened distance between villages and cities

5. Improvements in material life

- Late 1980s: most families owned hi-tech products, e.g. hi-fi, air-cons
- Late 1960s: over 80% of Japanese believed they belonged to the
middle class → narrowed wealth gap
- Quality of life in Japan was still worse than Western countries due to
overpopulation

6. Slight improvements in workers’ welfare

- Wide range of welfare was provided e.g. medical service, housing
allowance
- 1961: introduction of the national Pension system & Health Insurance
system to provide welfare to workers of small factories
- ‘Overwork death’ occurred frequently

7. Changes in the population & family structures

- 1948: legislation of abortion to control the birth rate
- Low birth rate & low death rate → aging population
- 1975: most families were nuclear families

8. Improved status of women

- SCAP government promoted gender equality
- 1947: both men & women had the right to vote
- 1984: revised the Nationality Law to protect women’s right
- 1985: Equal Employment Opportunity Act was passed

9. Popularized Western culture

- Both men & women wore Western-style clothing, e.g. suits &
short skirts
- Western fast food shops were introduced, e.g. KFC
- People pursued free love & became more materialistic

10. Preserving traditional values & cultural practices

- People would put on traditional Japanese-style clothing in
important festivals, e.g. Shichi-Go-San
- Shintoism remained as the most popular religion
Relations with other Asian Countries

Political

South Korea
1910: Korea was annexed to Japan, Koreans were put under oppressive
rule & exploitation of resources
→ aroused anti-Japanese feelings in Korea
↓
1965: the US helped South Korea & Japan to establish normal diplomatic
relations
1973: the exile of dissident leader Kim Dae-jung in Japan violated Japan’s
sovereignty
→ their relationship remained with tension & mistrust
↓
1983: Japan Prime Minister Nakasone Yasuhiro visited South Korea
1990: South Korean President Roh Tae-woo visited Japan
1998: signing of Japan-South Korea Joint Declaration created framework
for security interaction
→ relationship improved, more political cooperation
→ but South Koreans could hardly overcome their anti-Japanese feelings

North Korea
Japan did not recognise the North Korean regime as it adopted
communism
→ tense relationship, no breakthroughs
 ↓

1990s,end of cold war: Japan started to establish a normal relationship with

North Korea
1992 & 1994: Prime Minister Murayama Tomiichi tried to tackle the nuclear
crisis via negotiation
→ could not established a formal diplomatic relationship

China
1951: signing of Mutual Security Pact indicates Japan was in hostility with
China
Under the anti-communist containment policy of US, Japan isolated the
Communist government of China
China did not recognise the Treaty of San Francisco
→ no official relations

They remained in contact to import necessities from each other

1952: First Non-government Trade Agreement to carry out limited trade
↓
1958: Nagasaki National Flag Incident occurred, caused resentment of
Chinese
→ China ended all relations with Japan
↓
1959: Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai invited Japanese Prime Minister
Ishibashi Tanzan to visit China
1962: signing of the Memorandum Concerning Sino-Japanese Trade
→ improved relations to semi-official level
 ↓
1970s: Detente of Cold War & the US’s advocation of peaceful
co-existence
Japan had cultural exchange & private trade with China
1972: Prime Minister Tanaka Kakuei visited China & issued the
Sino-Japanese Joint Declaration
1978: signing of Sino-Japanese Treaty of Peace and Friendship
→ relations was officially established

1980s: more official exchange to discuss regional problems, international

orders & armament control
1992: Emperor Akihito paid an official visit to China
1995: Prime Minister Murayama Tomiichi delivered Murayama Statement,
admitting that Japan’s colonial rule & invasion had caused damage and
suffering
1998: Jiang Zemin met with Prime Minister Obuchii Keizo & signed the
Japan China Joint Declaration
→ maintained a pleasant relationship

China & Japan still had disputes over technology transfer, political status of
Taiwan, Diaoyu Islands, etc.
1998: Jiang Zemin refused to accept the honorary degree granted by
Waseda University
→ signified the tension in the Sino-Japanese relations
Southeast Asian countries
Japanese invasion in WWII became a hindrance
∴ The US helped Japan to establish economic relation with the Southeast
Asian countries
1951: signing of Treaty of San Francisco to pay reparations to the SE Asian
countries → normalized relations
1957: Prime Minister Kishi Nobusuke visited Southeast Asia (e.g. Burma &
Thailand), the 1st time after WWII
→ established pure economic relations with not much political contact
↓
1974: Tanaka Kakuei visited & encountered many anti-Japanese
demonstrations
1977: Fukuda Doctrine was given, in which Japan promised to help the SE
Asian countries in different aspects & cultivate ‘heart-to-heart’ relations
1991: Emperor Akihito visited SE Asian countries for the first time (e.g.
Thailand, Malaysia)
1994: Japan entered the ASEAN Regional Forum to strengthen
cooperation
→ played the role of a political power

South Asian countries

1952: Japan signed peace treaties with India & Pakistan
India adopted a pro-Soviet policy
→ established formal diplomatic relations but with not much political
contact
 ↓
1984: Nakasone Yasuhiro visited India & Pakistan
1990: proposed a new principle of developing relations with South Asian
countries
→ improved relations

Economic relations

South Korea
1977: Japan provided US$2 billion loans to South korea, which helped SK
to develop into the ‘four Little Dragons of Asia’
1989: both participated in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) &
their relation grew closer
1990s: South Korea became Japan’s third biggest trading partner

Trade surplus continued to widened

1990: US$6 million
→ caused trade disputes
Electronic competition grew fierce

North Korea
North Korea had to rely on Japan to develop its economy
1989: Japan became North Korea’s second biggest trading partner
1999: Japan provided US$1 billion loans to North korea
China
1952: Japan-China Private Trade Agreement was signed
1962: signing of Memorandum Concerning Sino-Japanese Trade & set up
a five-year plan
→ strengthen bilateral trade relation

1978: signing of Sino-Japanese Treaty of Peace and Friendship

Official Development Assistance was introduced
- China provided cheap land & labor
- Japan introduced advanced technology & invested in China
1989: Japan maintained trade with China despite sanctions imposed by the
Western Countries after the June Fourth Incident

Frequent economic contract brought about conflicts

e.g. Trade surpluses

Southeast Asian countries

They relied heavily on the Japanese loans & aid to maintain the
development of their domestic economics (except Singapore)
Japan had to import raw materials (e.g. rubber, copper & tin) from SE Asian
countries
1951: under the Treaty of San Francisco, Japan built for SE Asian countries
hydropower stations, railways, roads & factories
1976: Japan’s direct investment in SE Asian countries reached US$2.9
million
→ dependence of SE Asian countries on Japan, so it held firmly the
economic pulse of the countries

1980s: Japan had become their biggest trading partner

1989: APEC was established → closer economic cooperation between
Japan, Indonesia, Singapore, Thailand
→ SE Asian countries became a key export market for Japan
→ still had trade deficits with Japan & resentful about Japan’s economic
domination over their countries

Cultural relations
1. More frequent cultural exchanges
Before (as of anti-Japanese sentiment)
South Korea banned Japanese songs, films & TV shows
Others maintained limited cultural contact
1956: Chinese Peking opera artist Mei Lanfang performed in Japan

After (Relations improved, more cultural exchange)

1979: both countries agreed to build China-japan Friendship Hospital
1988: after signing of Japan-South Korea Joint Declaration, SK removed
sanctions against Japanese films
2002: Japan & SK co-hosted the FIFA cup

2. Promotion of Japanese culture

Japanese government sought to improve its international image & promote
Japanese culture eagerly to alleviate hostility of the Asian countries
1972: setting up of Japan Foundation to spread Japanese culture

3. Spread of Japanese popular culture

- Widespread of TV drama series, movies, comics, video games & pop
music
- Japan established into a cultural power
Factor hindering the improvement of relations
between Japan & other Asian countries
1. Denials of aggression & falsification of history textbooks
- Japanese textbook denied the Nanjing Massacre, argued that
Japan only ‘entered’ China
- 1982: Ministry of Education, Science and Culture allowed the
falsification to be included in history textbooks
→ drew huge criticism

2. Official visits to Yasukuni Shrine

- Yasukuni Shrine was a place to worship Japanese militarists that
sacrificed their lives (“Showa martyrs”), including war criminals
e.g. Tojo Hideki
- Showed that Japanese militarism had not died out & caused fear
of the revival of Japanese militarism

3. Refusal to pay reparations to Asian people

- More than 200,000 comfort women from across the Far East had
been forced into serving as sex slaves for the Japanese troops
- Government refused to compensate ‘comfort women’
- 1955: establishment of Asian Women’s Fund (NGO)
- Most comfort women refused and demanded official
compensation from the Japanese government
 4. Territorial disputes with China & South Korea
- China: disputes over Taiwan & Diaoyu Islands
- SK: Dokdo

5. Rebuilding its military power

- 1991: Japan removed sea mines in the Persian Gulf after the
Gulf war → violated the post-war constitutional restrictions on
Japan’s overseas military operations
- Increased military expenditure
- Japan’s national defense ranked second in the world
→ aroused fear of the revival of militarism

6. Taiwan issue
- Mainland conducted missile tests in the waters surrounding
Taiwan
- 1996: the Japan-US Joint Declaration on Security stated that any
incidents broke out in the regional territories of the Korean
Peninsula, the US military could send its army from its military
base for intervention
- Worsened Sino-Japanese relation