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 TABLE OF CONTENT:

1.

Problem Statement
2.Objective and Constraints................................................................................................

3. Theory………………………………………………………………………………………….
2.1 Power amplifier........................................................................................................

2.3 Classification of power amplifier.............................................................................

2.4 Class A Amplifier.....................................................................................................

2.5 Class B Amplifier.....................................................................................................

2.6 Class AB Amplifier.................................................................................................

 2.6.1 Basic Operations.................................................................................................

 2.6.2 Use of AB Amplifier in audio applications……………………………………………

2.7 Power Efficiency......................................................................................................

3. Darlington Pair................................................................................................................

4.Sziklai Pair.......................................................................................................................

5. Cost table………………………………………………………………………………
6. Circuit Layout and Construction ……………………………………………………...
 6.1 Design Steps..............................................................................................…......

 6.2 Calculations:………………………………………………………………………..
 6.3 Schematic..............................................................................................................

6.4 Simulation Result.....................................................................................................

7. Gantt Chart…………………………………………………………………………...
8. Conclusion.....................................................................................................................

9. References.....................................................................................................................

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 CEP REPORT

1. PROBLEM STATEMENT:

Design a class AB audio power amplifier system that can deliver 6 watts of output power to an
8 Ω speaker over a frequency range of 70 Hz to 5 kHz, with a minimum harmonic distortion
level and high efficiency. The system should be able to amplify the input microphone signal
with a dynamic range of up to 40 mV, without any significant noise interference or clipping.
The amplifier should also be able to handle the maximum power output of the microphone,
and provide a linear frequency response over the entire frequency range

2. OBJECTIVE AND CONSTRAINTS :

In this CEP , We have designed a class AB audio amplifier that fulfills the demand and specifications
given in the problem. These specifications are:

1) Use Darlington and Siziklai pairs in the Push-Pull output stage rather than using a single discrete
NPN and PNP transistors.
2) The amplifier shall be designed for high power efficiency and low total harmonic distortion.

3. THEORY:

POWER AMPLIFIER:

A power amplifier is an electronic amplifier designed to increase the magnitude of power of

a given input signal. The power of the input signal is increased to a level high enough to
drive loads of output devices like speakers, headphones, RF transmitters etc. Unlike
voltage/current amplifiers, a power amplifier is designed to drive loads directly and is used as
a final block in an amplifier chain.
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The block diagram of power amplifier is shown below:

CLASSIFICATIONS OF POWER AMPLIFIER:

Power amplifiers are divided into classes based on the amplifier’s characteristics. Classes A, AB,
B, and C depend on their conduction angle, which is the number of degrees in a cycle during
which the amplifying device conducts. Classes D and E are switching amplifiers. Classes D, DG,
and H are also common audio amplifiers that are similar to Class AB but use different techniques
to improve efficiency.

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The amplifier classes are:

1. Class A: – The amplifiers single output transistor conducts for the full 360o of the cycle of the
input waveform.

2. Class B: – The amplifiers two output transistors only conduct for one-half, that is, 180o of the
input waveform.

3. Class AB: – The amplifiers two output transistors conduct somewhere between 180o and
360o of the input waveform.

 Class A Amplifier Operation

For Class A amplifier operation the switching transistors Q-point is located near to the centre of the output
characteristic load line of the transistor and within the linear region. This allows the transistor to conduct for
the complete 360o so the output signal varies over the full cycle of the input signal.

The main advantage of Class A is that the output signal will always be an exact reproduction of the input
signal reducing distortion. However, it suffers from poor efficiency, because to bias the transistor in the
center of the load line there must always be a suitable DC quiescent current flowing through the switching
transistor even if there is no input signal to amplify.

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  Class B Amplifier Operation

For Class B amplifier operation, two complimentary switching transistors are used with the Q-point (that is
its biasing point) of each transistor located at its cut-off point.

This allows for one transistor to amplify the signal over one half of the input waveform, while the other
transistor amplifies the other half. These two amplified halves are then combined together at the load to
produce one full waveform cycle. This NPN-PNP complimentary pair is also known as a push-pull
configuration.

Because of the cut-off biasing, the quiescent current is zero when there is no input signal, therefore no power
is dissipated or wasted when the transistors are in the quiescent condition, increasing the overall efficiency
of a Class B amplifier with respect to Class A.

 Class AB Amplifier

A Class AB amplifier can be made from a standard Class B push–pull stage by biasing both switching
transistors into slight conduction, even when no input signal is present. This small biasing arrangement
ensures that both transistors conduct simultaneously during a very small part of the input waveform by more
than 50 per cent of the input cycle, but less than 100 per cent.

The 0.6 to 0.7V (one forward diode volt drop) dead band that produces the crossover distortion effect in
Class B amplifiers is greatly reduced by the use of suitable biasing. The pre-biasing of the transistor devices
can be achieved in a number of different ways using either a preset voltage bias, a voltage divider network,
or by using a series connected diode arrangement.

The structure of an AB amplifier is characterized by two output devices, typically transistors that are biased
at a point between Class A and Class B operation. This biasing allows the amplifier to operate in Class A
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mode for small input signals and transition to Class B mode for larger signals, effectively minimizing power
dissipation while maintaining high fidelity.

 BASIC OPERATIONS:
A Class AB amplifier is a type of amplifier that combines the features of Class A and Class B amplifiers to achieve a
balance between high efficiency and low distortion. Here are the key characteristics and working principles of a Class
AB amplifier:
1. Biasing:
A Class AB amplifier employs a biasing scheme that operates the output transistors near their cutoff or
threshold region but slightly biased to conduct a small quiescent current. This allows for a reduction in
power consumption compared to Class A amplifiers.
2. Amplification Range:
In a Class AB amplifier, each output transistor handles only a portion of the input signal cycle. When
the input signal is small or close to zero, only one transistor conducts, resulting in low quiescent current.
As the input signal amplitude increases, both transistors start conducting to provide high gain and
increased output power.
3. Low Distortion:
By having both transistors conducting for a portion of the input signal, a Class AB amplifier reduces
crossover distortion, which is a common issue in Class B amplifiers. The slight overlap between the
conduction regions of the transistors helps minimize distortion and improves overall linearity.
4. Efficiency:
Compared to Class A amplifiers, Class AB amplifiers offer improved efficiency since the output
transistors are biased near their cutoff region when there is no input signal. This results in reduced power
dissipation and improved power efficiency, making them suitable for applications where power
efficiency is important.

Use of AB amplifier in Audio Applications:

Class AB amplifiers are commonly used in audio applications such as audio amplifiers, headphones, and
speakers. They offer a good balance between efficiency and audio fidelity, providing high-quality sound
reproduction.
It's worth noting that Class AB amplifiers may still have some level of distortion, especially when
compared to Class A amplifiers. However, they are more efficient and can deliver higher output power while
maintaining acceptable audio quality. The choice of amplifier class depends on the specific requirements of the

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application, balancing factors such as power efficiency, distortion levels, and output power capabilities.

POWER EFFICIENCY
An AB amplifier is a type of amplifier that combines the advantages of both Class A and Class B amplifiers.
It operates by using two transistors, one in Class A mode and the other in Class B mode. The Class A
transistor conducts current at all times, while the Class B transistor conducts current only during half of the
input waveform cycle. This configuration helps to improve power efficiency compared to a pure Class A
amplifier, which can be quite inefficient. The power efficiency of an AB amplifier is typically expressed as a
percentage and represents the ratio of the output power to the input power. In an ideal scenario, where there
are no losses, the power efficiency would be 100%. However, in practical implementations, there are always
some losses due to factors such as resistive losses in the transistors and power supply, as well as other
parasitic elements in the circuit. The power efficiency of an AB amplifier typically is upto 65 %, To
maximize power efficiency, AB amplifiers often employ various techniques such as biasing the Class A
transistor at a low level, using a push-pull configuration, and implementing feedback mechanisms. These
methods help to reduce crossover distortion and improve overall efficiency. By carefully designing and
optimizing the circuitry, engineers can achieve higher power efficiency percentages, resulting in more

effective amplification with reduced energy wastage.

 DARLINGTON PAIR:

A Darlington pair is a configuration of two bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) connected

together to provide a high current gain. It is named after Sidney Darlington, the electrical
engineer who first proposed this configuration. The Darlington pair is commonly used in
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 applications where a small input current needs to control a larger output current.The basic
structure of a Darlington pair consists of two BJTs, typically NPN transistors, connected in a
specific way. The emitter of the first transistor is connected to the base of the second
transistor, and the collectors of both transistors are connected together. The base of the first
transistor serves as the input, while the emitter of the second transistor serves as the output.
The base-emitter junction of the first transistor is forward-biased by the input signal, which
in turn controls the current flow through the second transistor.

The key advantage of a Darlington pair is its high current gain. The current gain of the pair is
approximately the product of the individual current gains of the two transistors. This makes the
Darlington pair suitable for applications requiring a high input impedance and a high output
current. It allows the pair to provide a significant current amplification with a relatively low
input current.Here are some specifications of a typical Darlington pair:

1. Current Gain (hFE or β): The current gain of the Darlington pair is the product of the
individual current gains of the two transistors. It can range from several hundred to
several thousand, providing a high current amplification.

2. Voltage Drop: The Darlington pair has a higher voltage drop across its base-emitter
junction compared to a single transistor configuration. This voltage drop can be around
1.2 to 1.4 volts, which should be taken into account when designing circuits.

3. Saturation Voltage: The saturation voltage, which is the voltage drop across the
collector-emitter junction when the transistor is fully conducting, is slightly higher in a
Darlington pair compared to a single transistor. It typically ranges from 0.6 to 1.2 volts.

4. Bandwidth: The bandwidth of a Darlington pair is limited by the individual transistors'

bandwidth and the overall circuit configuration. It is important to consider the frequency
response requirements of the application when using a Darlington pair.

5. Power Dissipation: The power dissipation of a Darlington pair can be higher compared
to a single transistor due to the increased current flow. Sufficient heat sinking and
thermal considerations are necessary to prevent overheating.

 SZIKLAI PAIR:

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The Sziklai pair (also known as Complementary Darlington Pair or Compound Transistor Pair) is a variation
of the Darlington pair that uses one NPN and one PNP transistor. It provides similar advantages as the
Darlington pair but with some differences. Here are the key points about the Sziklai pair:

 High Current Gain: Similar to the Darlington pair, the Sziklai pair offers high current gain by
combining the gains of the NPN and PNP transistors. This makes it suitable for applications
requiring high current amplification.
 Improved Voltage Drop: The voltage drop across the Sziklai pair is lower compared to the
traditional Darlington pair. This is because the PNP transistor in the Sziklai pair compensates for the
voltage drop of the NPN transistor, resulting in a reduced overall voltage drop.
 Simplified Biasing: The biasing of the Sziklai pair is relatively simpler compared to the Darlington
pair, as it requires a single biasing network to set the operating point.
 Thermal Stability: The Sziklai pair offers better thermal stability compared to the Darlington pair.
The thermal dissipation is shared between the NPN and PNP transistors, reducing the risk of thermal
runaway and ensuring more stable operation.

 COST TABLE:

Quantity Description Rate unit Amount

Rs.

5 Capacitors 5 25

4 Diode 5 20

1 UR5U 10 10

5 2N3904, 2N3906, 2222 10 90

15 Resistor 2 30

2 BD135 30 60

1 Veroboard 160 160

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 1 Solder wire 190 190

Total: 535

 Circuit Layout and Construction

 The input stage consists of a preamplifier circuit that amplifies the microphone signal with a dynamic
range of up to 40 mV.
 Tone control and equalization circuits shape the frequency response according to desired audio
characteristics.
 The power amplifier stage is designed to deliver 6 watts of output power to an 8 Ω speaker.
 The power amplifier operates in a Class AB configuration for a balance between power efficiency
and low distortion.
 The push-pull output stage, using Darlington and Sziklai pairs, ensures efficient power delivery and
improved linearity.
 Techniques such as biasing, feedback, and circuit optimization are employed to minimize harmonic
distortion.
 High power efficiency is achieved through careful component selection, efficient power supply
design, and minimizing resistive losses.
 Detailed circuit schematics with specific component values are necessary for accurate construction
and implementation.

 Design Steps

To design a Class AB audio power amplifier system that meets the given specifications, you can follow
these steps:

1. Calculate the required output power, considering the desired sound level and the impedance of the
speaker. In this case, the amplifier should deliver 6 watts to an 8 Ω speaker.
2. Class AB amplifiers are commonly used for audio applications due to their efficiency and low distortion.
Choose a Class AB topology for your amplifier design.
3. Design a suitable input stage that can handle the microphone signal with a dynamic range of up to 40 mV.
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Consider using a pre-amplifier stage with appropriate gain and impedance matching.
4. Determine the desired frequency range for your amplifier system. In this case, it is specified as 70 Hz to 5
kHz. Ensure that the amplifier's frequency response is flat and within the specified range.
5. Determine the biasing requirements for the output stage of the amplifier to operate in Class AB mode.
Calculate the appropriate quiescent current to minimize crossover distortion.
6. Select the appropriate output stage configuration, considering the power output and efficiency
requirements. Incorporate Darlington and Sziklai pairs, as specified, to improve linearity and reduce
distortion.
7. Design a stable and efficient power supply for the amplifier. Consider factors such as ripple voltage,
voltage regulation, and appropriate filtering.
8. Implement techniques like negative feedback, proper biasing, and careful component selection to
minimize harmonic distortion in the amplifier's output.
9. Use an EDA software to simulate the amplifier circuit and analyze its performance. Make necessary
adjustments and optimizations to improve efficiency, frequency response, and distortion levels.
10. Once the design is finalized through simulation, construct a physical prototype of the amplifier circuit.
11. Conduct thorough testing of the prototype to ensure it meets all the specified requirements, including
power output, efficiency, frequency response, distortion levels, and handling the maximum microphone
power output.
12. If any issues or deviations are found during testing, iterate on the design, making necessary adjustments
and refinements to address them.
Calculations:
Schematic:

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Simulation results:

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  GANTT CHART:

 Conclusion:
In conclusion, the designed class AB audio power amplifier system meets the requirements of delivering 6
watts of output power to an 8 Ω speaker over a frequency range of 70 Hz to 5 kHz with high efficiency and
minimal harmonic distortion. The system is capable of amplifying an input microphone signal with a
dynamic range of up to 40 mV without significant noise interference or clipping. To achieve high efficiency,
the class AB amplifier employs a push-pull configuration, combining the advantages of class A and class B
amplifiers. This allows for reduced power dissipation and improved power utilization compared to other
amplifier classes.
 References:
 https://electronics.stackexchange.com/questions/529475/design-a-class-ab-audio-amplifier
 Basic_Elements_and_Components_of_an_Amplifier.pdf (idc-online.com)

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 Power amplifier classes - Wikipedia

 (PDF) An Introductory Analysis of Class AB and Class B Audio Power Amplifiers | Eric Sims -
Academia.edu

 Electronic Devices- Floyd 9th edition

https://rec.audio.tubes.narkive.com/3z8mQKWB/darlington-and-sziklai-
pair#:~:text=Darlington%20pairs%2C%20or%20triples%20are%202%20or%203,fairly
%20simple%20direct%20coupled%202%20stage%20cascaded%20amp.

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