Chapter 16.

The Reproductive System

Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System
Testes
- Plum-sized and approximately 4 cm or 1½ inches long and 2.5 cm or
1 inch wide
- Sperm-producing and hormone-producing functions are carried out by
completely different cell populations
o Tunica albuginea
 A fibrous connective tissue capsule
 Surrounds each testis
o Septa
 Extensions of the tunica albuginea capsule
 Plunge into the testis and divide it into many wedge-
shaped lobules containing 1 to 4 tightly coiled seminiferous tubules
o Seminiferous tubules
 The actual “sperm-forming factories”
 Empty sperm into another set of tubules, the rete testis
o Rete testis
 Located at one side of the testis
 Where sperm first travel through to enter the first part of the duct system, the epididymis
which hugs the external surface of the testis
o Interstitial cells
 Lying in the soft connective tissue surrounding the seminiferous tubules
 Functionally distinct cells that produce androgens, the most important of which is testosterone

Duct System
- Transports sperm from the body
- Formed by accessory organs:
1) Epididymis
2) Ductus deferens
3) Urethra
Epididymis
- Cup-shaped highly coiled tube
- About 6 meters or 20 feet long
- Hugs the posterior side of the testis
- The first part of the male duct system
- Provides a temporary storage site for the immature sperm that enter it from the testis
- While the sperm make their way along the tortuous course of the epididymis, which takes about 20 days, they
mature, gaining the ability to swim
- When a man is sexually stimulated and ejaculates, the walls of the epididymis contract to expel the sperm into
the next part of the duct system, the ductus deferens
Ductus Deferens
- Also called "vas deferens"
- Propels live sperm from their storage sites, the epididymis and distal part of the ductus deferens, into the
urethra
- Enclosed along with blood vessels and nerves in a connective tissue sheath called the "spermatic cord" which
travels upward through the inguinal canal
- Runs upward from the epididymis through the inguinal canal into the pelvic cavity and arches over the
superior aspect of the urinary bladder
- Loops medially over the ureter and descends along the posterior bladder wall
- Its end expands as the ampulla and then empties into the ejaculatory duct, which passes through the prostate
gland to merge with the urethra
- At the moment of ejaculation, the thick layers of smooth muscle in its walls create peristaltic waves that
rapidly squeeze the sperm forward
- Part of the ductus deferens lies in the scrotum, a skin sac that hangs outside the body cavity and
- holds the testes
- Some men voluntarily opt to take full responsibility for birth control by having a vasectomy
o Vasectomy
 A minor operation
 The surgeon makes a small incision into the scrotum and then cuts through and ligates (ties
off) the ductus deferens
 Sperm are still produced, but they can no longer reach the body exterior, and eventually they
deteriorate and are phagocytized
 A man is sterile after this procedure, but because testosterone is still produced, he retains his
sex drive and secondary sex characteristics
Urethra
- Extends from the base of the urinary bladder to the tip of the penis
- The terminal part of the male duct system
- Has three named regions:
1) Prostatic urethra
 Surrounded by the prostate gland
2) Membranous urethra
 Intermediate part
 Spanning the distance from the prostatic urethra to the penis
3) Spongy/penile urethra
 Running within the length of the penis
 Opening to the body exterior via the external urethral orifice
- Carries both urine and sperm to the body exterior as a part of both the urinary and reproductive systems
o Urine and sperm never pass at the same time
o When ejaculation occurs and sperm enter the prostatic urethra from the ejaculatory ducts, the bladder
sphincter (internal urethral sphincter) constricts
o This event not only prevents urine from passing into the urethra but also prevents sperm from entering
the urinary bladder
- Internally surrounded by three elongated areas of erectile tissue, a spongy tissue that fills with blood during
sexual excitement
o Erection
 When the penis enlarges and becomes rigid
  Helps the penis serve as a penetrating organ to deliver semen into the female’s reproductive
tract

Accessory Glands and Semen

- Includes the following glands that produce the bulk of semen:
o Paired seminal vesicles
o Single prostate
o Bulbo-urethral glands

Seminal Glands
- Also called "seminal vesicles"
- Large hollow glands located at the base of the bladder
- Each 6 to 7 cm, about the shape and size of the little finger
- Produce about 60% of seminal fluid, the fluid volume of semen
- Produce thick, yellowish secretion rich in sugar (fructose), vitamin C, prostaglandins, and other substances,
which nourish and activate the sperm passing through the tract
- The duct of each seminal vesicle joins that of the ductus deferens on the same side to form the ejaculatory
duct, making sperm and seminal fluid enter the urethra together during ejaculation
Prostate
- A single doughnut-shaped gland about the size of a peach pit
- Encircles the upper prostatic part of the urethra just below the urinary bladder
- Produce a milky fluid secretion that plays a role in activating sperm
- During ejaculation, the fluid enters the urethra through several small ducts
- Because the prostate is located immediately anterior to the rectum, its size and texture can be palpated or felt
by digital or by finger examination through the anterior rectal wall
Bulbo-urethral Glands
- Are tiny, pea-sized glands inferior to the prostate gland
- Produce a thick, clear mucus that drains into the penile urethra
- This secretion is the first to pass down the urethra when a man becomes sexually excited
- It cleanses the urethra of traces of acidic urine prior to ejaculation, and it serves as a lubricant during sexual
intercourse
Semen
- A milky white, somewhat sticky mixture of sperm and accessory gland secretions
- Very sluggish under acidic conditions (below pH 6)
- Its relative alkalinity (pH 7.2–7.6) helps neutralize the acidic environment (pH 3.5–4) of the female’s vagina,
protecting the delicate sperm
- Mature sperm cells are streamlined cellular “missiles” containing little cytoplasm or stored nutrients
- The liquid portion acts as a transport medium for nutrients and chemicals that protect the sperm and aid their
movement
- The fructose in the seminal vesicle secretion provides essentially all their energy fuel
- The amount of semen propelled out of the male duct system during ejaculation is relatively small, only 2 to 5
ml (about a teaspoonful), but there are between 50 and 150 million sperm in each milliliter
- Dilutes sperm and without such dilution, sperm motility is severely impaired
- Contains antibiotic chemicals that destroy certain bacteria, the hormone relaxin, certain enzymes that enhance
sperm motility, and substances that inhibit an immune response in the female reproductive tract
External Genitalia
- Include the following:
1) Scrotum
 A divided sac of skin with sparse hairs that hang
outside the abdominal cavity, between the legs,
and at the root of the penis
 Necessary to produce healthy sperm
 Provides a temperature about 3°C or 5.4°F lower
 Under normal conditions, hangs loosely from its
attachments, providing the testes with a
temperature that is below body temperature
 This is a rather exposed location for a
man’s testes, which contain his entire
genetic heritage, but apparently, viable
sperm cannot be produced at normal
body temperature
 When the external temperature is very cold, it
becomes heavily wrinkled as it pulls the testes
closer to the warmth of the body wall
 Changes in scrotal surface area can maintain a
temperature that favors viable sperm production
2) Penis
 Skin-covered
 Designed to deliver sperm into the female reproductive tract
 Consists of a shaft, which ends in an enlarged tip called the "glans penis"
 The skin covering the penis is loose, and it folds downward to form a cuff of skin called the
"prepuce" or "foreskin" around the proximal end of the glans
 Circumcision
 Surgical removal of the foreskin shortly after birth

Male Reproductive Functions

Spermatogenesis
- Sperm production
- Begins during puberty and continues throughout life
- Sperm are formed in the seminiferous tubules of the testis
- Every day a man makes millions of sperm and only one sperm fertilizes an egg
- The process is begun by spermatogonia
o Spermatogonia
 Primitive stem cells
 Found in the outer edge, or periphery, of each tubule
 Go through rapid mitotic divisions to build up the stem cell
line
 From birth until puberty: all divisions produce more stem cells
 During puberty: follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is secreted
in increasing amounts by the anterior pituitary gland
 From puberty onwards: each division produces two kinds of
stem cells:
a) Type A daughter cell
 Remains at the tubule periphery to maintain
the stem cell population
b) Type B daughter cell
 Pushed toward the
tubule lumen
 Becomes a primary spermatocyte
 Destined to undergo meiosis and form four sperm
- As meiosis occurs, the dividing cells (primary and secondary spermatocytes) are
pushed toward the lumen of the tubule, and we can follow the progress from the
tubule periphery to the lumen
 o Meiosis
 A special type of nuclear division
 Results in four daughter cells or four gametes
 Occurs mostly only in the gonads: testes and ovaries
 Consists of two successive divisions of the nucleus: meiosis I and II
- The spermatids, produced by meiosis, are not functional sperm but are nonmotile and have too much excess
baggage to function well in reproduction and must undergo further changes, in which their excess cytoplasm
is stripped away, and a tail is formed
o Spermatids
 The gametes in spermatogenesis
 Have only half as much genetic material as other body cells
 In humans, this is 23 chromosomes rather than the usual 46
 When the sperm and the egg, which also has 23 chromosomes, unite, forming the fertilized
egg or zygote, the normal 2n number of 46 chromosomes is reestablished and is maintained in
subsequent body cells by the process of mitosis
- The process ends with spermiogenesis
o Spermiogenesis
 Last stage of sperm development
 All the excess cytoplasm is sloughed off
 What remains is compacted into the three regions of the mature sperm:
a) Head
b) Midpiece
c) Tail
o Mature sperm
 Greatly streamlined cell
 Equipped with a high rate of metabolism and a
means of propelling itself, enabling it to move long
distances in a short time to get to the egg
 Sperm head
 The nucleus of the spermatid
 Contains compacted DNA, the
genetic material
 Acrosome
 Helmetlike
 Anterior to the nucleus
 Produced by the Golgi apparatus and similar to a large lysosome
 When sperm comes into close contact with an egg (or more precisely, an
oocyte), the acrosomal membrane breaks down and releases enzymes that
help the sperm penetrate through the capsule of follicle cells that surround the
egg
 Filaments
 Form the long tail
 Arise from centrioles in the midpiece
 Mitochondria
 Wrapped tightly around these filaments
 Provide the ATP needed for the whiplike movements of the tail that propel
the sperm along its way in the female reproductive tract
- The entire process from the formation of a primary spermatocyte to the release of immature sperm
- in the tubule lumen takes 64 to 72 days
- Sperm in the lumen is still unable to “swim” and are incapable of fertilizing an egg and are moved by
peristalsis through the tubules of the testes into the epididymis where they undergo further maturation, which
results in increased motility and fertilizing power

Testosterone Production
- Interstitial cells produce testosterone, the most important hormonal product of the testes
- During puberty, as the seminiferous tubules are being prodded by FSH to produce sperm, the interstitial cells
are being activated by luteinizing hormone (LH), which is also released by the anterior pituitary gland
- From this time on, testosterone is produced continuously more or less for the rest of a man’s life
 - The rising blood level of testosterone in the young man stimulates the adolescent growth spurt, prompts his
reproductive organs to develop to their adult size, underlies the sex drive, and causes the secondary male sex
characteristics to appear
- Secondary sex characteristics are features induced in nonreproductive organs by sex hormones and include the
following:
1) Deepening of the voice as the larynx enlarges
2) Increased hair growth all over the body, particularly in the axillary and pubic regions and on the face
(the beard and mustache)
3) Enlargement of skeletal muscles to produce the heavier muscle mass typical of the male physique
4) Increased heaviness of the skeleton due to bone growth and increase in density
- Because testosterone is responsible for the appearance of these typical masculine characteristics, it is often
referred to as the “masculinizing hormone"

Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System

Ovaries
Duct System
Uterine/Fallopian Tubes
Uterus
Vagina
External Genitalia and Female Perineum
Female Reproductive Functions and Cycles
Oogenesis and the Ovarian Cycle
Uterine/Menstrual Cycle
Hormone Production by the Ovaries
Mammary Glands
Pregnancy and Embryonic Development
Accomplishing Fertilization
Events of Embryonic and Fetal Development
Effects of Pregnancy on the Mother
Anatomical Changes
Physiological Changes
Childbirth
Initiation of Labor
Stages of Labor

Developmental Aspects
Homeostatic Imbalances