Materials & Construction Technoogy

Foundations
In general, any structure is considered to have two parts, the sub-structure and the super-
structure. The sub-structure transmits the load of super structure to the underlying soil
and is termed as foundation.

In general, all foundations consist of three essential parts: the foundation bed, which
consists of the soil or rock upon which the building or structure rests; the footing, which
is normally widened and rests on the foundation bed; and the foundation wall, which
rises from the foundation to a location somewhere above the ground. The foundation
wall, contrary to its name, may be a column or a pedestal instead of a wall. But, when it is
a wall, it forms what is known as a continuous foundation. Figure shows common types
of wall and column foundations

Figure `1 – Types of footings

Objectives of foundation

Foundation is provided for the following purposes;

1. To distribute the load of the structure, on large area, so that the intensity of load
does not exceed the safe bearing capacity of the underlying soil.
2. To distribute the load on underlying soil evenly and thus to prevent unequal
settlement of the foundation.
3. To provide a level and hard surface for the superstructure to be built over it.
4. o increase the stability of the structure as a hole, against sliding, overturning or
other disturbing forces like wind, rain etc.
5. To prevent lateral movement of the supporting material, so that the safety of the
structure is not endangered.

Types of foundations

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Foundations can be broadly classified in to two types

• Shallow foundations
• Deep foundations

Shallow Foundations

When the foundation is placed immediately beneath the lowest part of the superstructure,
it is termed as shallow foundation. The object of this type of foundation is to distribute
the structural loads over a wider horizontal area at shallow depth below the ground level.
Mainly the following types of foundations can be categorized under shallow foundations.

• Spread Footing Foundation

• Mat or Raft foundation

Spread Footing Foundation

In case of spread footing, the base of the member transmitting load to the soil is made
wider so that load of the structure is distributed on sufficient area of the soil in such a
way that the safe bearing capacity of the soil not exceeded. Following footings are
described under this category;

• Strip Footing
• Pad Footing
• Combined Footing

Strip Footing Foundation (Wall Footing)

Strip Footing foundation consist of a continuous strip, under walls. Generally, this strip
consists of a concrete footing which is normally widened and rests on the foundation bed;
and the foundation wall, which rises from the foundation to a location somewhere above
the ground. This foundation wall may be constructed either by using rubble or brick.

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Figure 2 – Strip Footing

Pad Footing Foundation

Pad foundation are used to support an individual point loads such as in columns.

In general, pad foundations are in rectangular shape and consist of a slab of uniform
thickness.

Figure 3a – Pad Foundation

G.L

4Yd1-02
4'

P
P
Y12@150 c/c
Bothways
1'

3"

Grade-15
concrete
A
2"

Figure 3b – Reinforcement arrangement for pad foundation

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Combined footing foundation

A common footing provided for two or more columns is known as a combined footing.
The footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal in plan. This footing is provided under the
following circumstances :

1. When columns are very near to each other and their individual footings overlap.

2. When bearing capacity of the soil is less, requiring more area under individual footing.

3. When the end column is located at or near the property line and its footing cannot be
extended on the side of the property line.

In providing combined footing, It should be ensured that there is a uniform pressure

distribution under the footing. To achieve this object, the centre of gravity of the footing
area should coincide with the centre of gravity of the combined loads of the two columns.
A rectangular footing may be preferred for this purpose. But, If the outer column near the
boundary line carries heavier load, provision of trapezoidal footing becomes essential for
uniform pressure distribution.

Figure 4 – Combined Foundation

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Mat or Raft Foundation

Mat foundations are used to distribute heavy column and wall loads across the entire
building area, to lower the contact pressure compared to conventional spread footings.
Mat-slab foundations can be constructed near the ground surface, or at the bottom of
basements. In high-rise buildings, mat-slab foundations can be several meters thick, with
extensive reinforcing to ensure relatively uniform load transfer.

Following are some of the

advantages of this foundation:

1. This foundation type is suitable for when the soil at site is soft and marshy having
uncertain behaviour. Raft foundation eliminates the possibility of differential
settlement.
2. Overall settlement of the structure is reduced, as the total load of the structure is
distributed over a large area and thus intensity of pressure on the foundation soil
is reduced to minimum.
3. Distribution of load on entire area of foundation is uniform.

Raft foundations also are constructed in various forms depending on soil condition
and intensity of loading.

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Deep Foundations
In case of bearing capacity of the soil is very poor and depending on some other
conditions, the structure has to be taken deep in to the soil. There are mainly two types of
deep foundations;

1. Pile foundations
2. Caisson foundations

In building construction most commonly used type of deep foundation is pile foundation.

Pile Foundations
What is a pile?

Piles are column like structural elements in a foundation. The function of piles is to
transfer superimposed loads through weak compressible strata or through water, onto
soils of adequate bearing capacity or onto rock strata. As the adequate bearing soil or
rock strata is at an uneconomic depth, the pile may carry the superimposed loads by skin
friction between the pile surface and the soil. Moreover, piles are required to anchor
structures against uplift loads and assist structures in resisting lateral and overturning
forces from winds or waves.

Reasons for selection of pile foundation

▪ Where weak strata over lies firm stratum, piles can be used to reach the firm
stratum by by-passing all the weak/stratum.
▪ Where concentration of loading occurs, it is best dealt with by piling because it is
most economical to transfer a load directly from the point of application to the
bearing stratum.
▪ When uplift to building may occur, friction piles may be used to overcome the
uplifting force.
▪ When the loading is so high that other foundation methods would not be
appropriate. Piles supported on rock create the greatest bearing capacity.
▪ When the ground floor slab has to be carried above the ground, e.g. on a sloping
site.

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Classification of Piles
Classification by method of installation

Displacement Piles

Displacement piles comprise solid-section piles or hollow-section piles with a closed end,
which are driven or forced into the ground and thus displace the soil.

Replacement Piles

Replacement piles are formed by first removing the soil by boring using a wide range of
drilling techniques. Concrete may be placed into an unlined or lined hole, or the lining
may be withdrawn as the concrete is placed.

Classification by method of load transmission

End Bearing Piles

The base of an end bearing pile rests on a relatively firm soil such as rock, very dense
sand or gravel. The load of the structure is transmitted through the pile into this firm soil.
Because the base of the pile bears the load of the structure, this type of pile is known as
an end bearing pile.

Friction Piles

If the firm soil is at a considerable depth, it may be very expensive to use end bearing
piles. In such situations, the piles are driven through the penetrable soil for some distance.
The piles transmit the load of the structure to the penetrable soil by means of skin friction
or cohesion between the soil and the embedded surface of the pile. This type of pile is
called friction piles.

In most cases, piles work on a combination of the two principles stated above: both the
base end and the friction of the pile bear the load of the structure. In order to classify a
pile as an end bearing pile or a friction pile, we must know which principle is the more
prominent in a particular case.

Piles may be constructed using concrete, steel, timber or composite of above materials.

The concrete piles may be categorized as precast or cast in-situ piles.

In Sri Lanka the main types of piles are Pre-cast concrete piles and concrete cast in-situ
piles.

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Concrete Piles

Reinforced Concrete piles can be divided mainly into two groups:

• Precast Concrete Piles

• Cast in-situ Piles

Precast Concrete Piles

General

Precast reinforced concrete piles are constructed of reinforced concrete with internal
reinforcement consisting of a cage made up of longitudinal bars and lateral or tie steel.
The piles are usually in the form of square but could be circular or octagonal. The lengths
of pile sections are often dictated by practical considerations.

The use of the main longitudinal bars is provided to prevent the bending moments
induced when the pile is lifted from its casting to the stacking area. On the other hand,
lateral steel in the form of hoops and links resist shattering or splitting of the pile during
driving.

Sometimes, it may be necessary to extend the pile by casting a length on to it in-situ. In

such situations, the concrete at the top of the original pile should be stripped to expose the
reinforcement. The new longitudinal reinforcement is then joined to the original
reinforcement.

Precast Concrete piles have following advantages,

1) The reinforcement is not disturbed from its actual position while concreting
2) Proper control in casting and curing can be exercised and if any defect is noticed
after casting, it can be rectified before piles are put to use.
3) They can be driven under water
4) They can be subjected to loading immediately after their driving and no time is
wasted

Disadvantages,

1) Being very heavy, it may be very difficult to transport, handle and drive them.
2) Extra steel has to be provided near top and bottom of the piles to resist stresses
developed during handling and driving.
3) Careless handling causes to breaking the piles.
4) If pile length is different from required length either it will have to be cut or part
of it has to be cast in-situ.

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Cast in-situ concrete piles

In constructing the cast in-situ concrete piles, various techniques could be used and two
main techniques are described below;

Bored piles supported by casing or bentonite

Truck or crane mounted drilling rigs with or without casing are used to excavate these
piles.

The four stages in the installation of these piles are described below.

Stage1
A short length of casing is pitched in the required position. Excavation is carried out
within the casing by means of a helical auger (or grab), and the casing is then inserted
into the ground. This short length of casing prevents surface water and debris from
entering the borehole. It also prevents the collapse of the loose surface soil at the mouth
of the borehole, and the loss of the bentonite through the loose surface soil.

Stage2
The borehole is filled with bentonite suspension from storage tanks. Boring proceeds
through the bentonite, which is fed continuously into the hole during boring.

Stage3
Boring stops when the desired depth is reached. The auger is then withdrawn. A
reinforcement cage is lowered through the bentonite and concrete is placed through a
tremie pipe. The bentonite, which is displaced by the concrete, is pumped back into
storage tanks. The bentonite can be strained to remove soil particles, and then re-used.

Stage4
On completion of the concreting, the tremie pipe is removed and the short casing is
withdrawn. The pile length can be varied to suit site conditions, and piles can be as long
as 60m.

However, care must be taken to ensure that the reinforcement cage is correctly positioned
to provide adequate cover to all the reinforcement.

Driven and cast in-situ piles

Driven-and-cast-in-place piles are installed by driving to the desired penetration a heavy-

section steel tube with its end closed. A reinforcing cage is next placed in the tube.The
tube is withdrawn while placing the concrete or after it has been placed. In other types of
pile, thin steel shells or precast concrete shells are driven by means of an internal

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mandrel, and concrete, with or without reinforcement, is placed in the permanent shells
after withdrawing the mandrel.

Figure 9 – Piling using Mandrel

Comparison with pre-cast piles

Advantages,
1) Comparatively lighter reinforcement is required as there are no handling and
driving stresses.
2) The piles can be cast in required length and hence there is no wastage of any
materisl
3) It is easy to drive and maintain verticality of the casing pipe.
4) Transportation difficulty is eliminated

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Disadvantages,
1) Position of reinforcement may get disturbed while concreting the pile.
2) They are very difficult to be casted under water
3) It is difficult to have proper control in the construction of these piles
4) Any defect in form of voids if left unnoticed, may become cause of failure of
the structure.

Factors Affecting Choice of Pile type

▪ Depth to be reached.

▪ Loading requirements.

▪ Soil conditions regarding strength and ground movement, etc.

▪ Environmental restrictions e.g. noise and air pollution control.

▪ Access of site – may limit the use of long precast pile.

▪ Congested or open site – may limit the use of piling rigs.

▪ Headroom restriction e.g. under a bridge flyover.

▪ Effect on adjoining buildings, if adjoining buildings are unstable,

excessive vibrations is to be avoided.

▪ Piling plant and equipment available.

▪ Reliability of types of piles and the expertise and familiarity of the

specialist sub-contractor.

▪ Time available for completion of the piling contract.

▪ Cost per unit length of pile.

Pile Cap

A pile cap is defined as a concrete block cast on the head of a pile, or a group of piles, to
transmit the load from the structure to the pile or group of piles.

Generally, pile cap transfers the load form the structures to a pile / pile group, then the
load further transfers to firm soil.

The functions of a pile cap are:

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1. To distribute a single load equally over the pile group and thus over a greater area
of bearing potential.
2. To laterally stabilise individual piles thus increasing overall stability of the
ground.

Figure 10 – Pile cap

Other types of piles

• Sheet Piles
Used to act as retaining walls
• Fender piles
Used to protect concrete deck or other water front structures from impact
• Anchor piles
Provide anchorage against horizontal pulls and thrusts
• Batter piles
These piles are not vertical but driven inclined to resist horizontal and inclined
forces more effectively

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Reference

Thomlinson, M.J.(1994) Pile Design and Construction Practice. 4th ed., London: E & FN
Spon.

Bary,R(1999). The Construction of Buildings Volume 1. 7th ed., Oxford: Blackwell

Science Ltd.

Review

1. Explain the purpose of providing a foundation.

2. What are the types of foundations?
3. What are the factors that have to be considered in selecting a foundation type?
4. Why is most of property developers around this area using raft foundation in
their property development?
5. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of cast in-situ and pre-cast piles.

Glossary
Pile

A column like structure used in foundation construction.

Pile cap

A concrete block cast on the head of a pile, or a group of piles.

Casing:

A pipe used to line boreholes.

Cased Bore:

A bore in which a pipe, usually a steel sleeve, is inserted simultaneously with the boring
operation. Usually associated with Auger Boring.

Uncased Bore:

Any bore without a lining or pipe inserted, i.e., self-supporting, whether temporary or
permanent.

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Drill Bit:

A tool which cuts the ground at the head of a drill string

Drilling Fluid/Mud:

A mixture of water and usually bentonite and/or polymer continuously pumped to the
cutting head to facilitate cutting, reduce required torque, facilitate the removal of cuttings,
stabilize the borehole, cool the head and lubricate the installation of the product pipe.

Marshy

Soft and wet; boggy. E.g. Marshy land

Settlement

Sinking of all or part of a structure. Settlement may be uniform or differential.

Headroom

The vertical space available

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