Research Methodology and

Statistics

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What is Research: Meaning, Purpose, and

Dimensions, Research problems, Variables and
Operational Definitions, Hypothesis, Sampling,
Ethics in conducting and reporting research?

Research: Meaning, Purpose, and Dimensions, Research

problems, Variables and Operational Definitions, Hypothesis,
Sampling ,Ethics in conducting and reporting research
The Research Meaning of Psychology

Psychologists try to answer these questions, develop the principles

to explain them, and use those principles to solve various problems.
The range of application of psychology is very wide. A cognitive
psychologist may like to know the causes of
forgetting. An organisational psychologist may try to find out nature
of resistance among the employees to introduction of new
performance appraisal system. A health psychologist may like to
examine the relationship between smoking behaviour and coronary
heart disease.
While evaluating major areas of psychological researches, a
psychologist uses the principles and practices of scientific methods.
This unit attempts to acquaint you with nature and relevance of
psychological research. This is followed by the process of
psychological research within the context of discovery and context
of justification as well as distinctive goal of psychological
researches.
OBJECTIVES

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After reading this unit, you will be able to: Describe the research
process in terms of how to conduct sound research and

 how to evaluate critically the research of others; Understand why

people behave as they do;

 Discuss how to maintain objectivity and minimize the research

bias in psychology

 research; Tell others the role of theory, hypothesis and paradigm

in psychological research;

 Discuss the primary objectives and goals of psychological

research;

 Identify some of the problems one encounters in trying to do

reliable and valid
NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Importance and relevance of psychological research is well recogni
sed almost in every sphere of human life. Notable progress has
been reported in the field of organisational behaviour, applied
aspects of human being, medical sciences and education, through
application of psychological research findings. Empirical and
theoretical researches in psychology are taking place in various
fields, such as learning, motivation, perception, concept learning
and memory and so on.
In the quest of psychological facts, laws and theories, psychologists
have found research studies very helpful in gauging human and
animal behaviour. Psychological research attempts to understand
why people and animals behave as they do. Psychologists usually
define behaviour as overt activities, such as eating, recalling stories,
and so on. What about covert psychological processes, such as
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thinking and feeling? Although thoughts and feelings are not directly
observable, they influence such aspects of behaviour as reaction
time and blood pressure, which are often used to measure these
covert processes.
Practical gains of psychological research are many, yet include
discoveries such as improved methods of treating psychologically
disordered people, better designs of vehicles to make them easier
and safe to use, and new ways of enhancing the performance and
happiness of workers. Before we examine what researchers have
found in the major areas of psychology, we need to identify the
ways psychologists gather data about behaviour and mental
processes.
You may be a daily consumer of mass media reports on research
findings. Some of these are valuable, some are worthless, and
others are confusing and misleading. You will become a wiser
consumer of research-based conclusions as you develop your
understanding of how psychological research is conducted and why
the scientific view of knowledge dictates such methods. Let us turn
now how psychologists know what they know.
Recall that psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and
mental functioning of individuals. It is scientific because it uses the
principles and practices of the scientific method.
Role of Theories, Hypotheses and Paradigms in Psychological
Research
Psychological research focuses on four sets of concerns:
i) the stimulus events that cause a particular response to start,
stop, or change in quality of quantity;

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ii) the structure of behaviour that links certain actions in predictable,

orderly ways to other actions;
iii) the relationships between internal psychological processes or
psychological mechanisms and observable behaviour patterns; and
iv) the consequences that behaviour has on the individual’s social
and physical environment. Researchers begin with the assumption
of determinism, the idea that all events (physical, mental and
behavioural) result from specific causal factors.
Researchers also assume that behaviour and mental processes
follow set patterns of relationships that can be discovered and
revealed through research. Psychological theories, in general,
attempt to understand how brain, mind, behaviour, and environment
function and how they may be related.
Any particular theory focuses on a more specific aspect of this
broad conception, using a body of interrelated principles to explain
or predict some psychological phenomenon. The value of a theory
is often measured in terms of the new ideas, or hypotheses, that
can be derived from it and tested.
A hypothesis is a tentative and testable explanation of the
relationship between two or more events or variables. A variable is
any factor that changes, or varies, in size or quality. To illustrate this
mood may be a variable, since people’s moods may vary from one
situation to another. Test performance is another variable, since a
person’s score may vary from one test to the next.
A hypothesis is a testable explanation of the relationship between
variables, it is a tentative proposition based on observations, or it
could be a hunch about how ideas go together. An instructor, for
example, may have a hypothesis about how varying teaching

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techniques will cause changes in students’ test scores. Thus,

instructor may have formed this hypothesis by observing students;
idea about better teaching techniques is also generated from
research in educational psychology.
Research Biases
One of the challenges, while doing research is to remain objective
and free from biases. Most of your ideas and beliefs are probably
linked with certain bias because they are influenced by your
opinions or values. A variety of biases have been found to distort
people’s impressions of collected data. External influences such as
one’s culture or the media can influence people to accept a
particular world view.
Personal bias distorts estimating or evaluating processes as a result
of personal beliefs, attributes, or past experiences. Observer bias
operates when one’s biases act as “filters” through which some
events are noticed or seen as meaningful while others are not. It
must be kept in mind that researchers themselves were raised in
certain cultures and societies. They also might have been exposed
to certain gender role expectations. These background factors can
all affect the way that researchers observe and interpret events in
their lives.
Expectancy bias can affect observations of behaviour by triggering
reactions to the events being observed. Researchers sometimes
expect to find specific outcomes, and being only human, they may
see what they expect to see rather than remain objective.
Unfortunately, if one is not alert to the possibility of expectancy bias,
it may seem as though the observed events are being “discovered”
instead of created by the observer’s expectations.

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Purpose and Dimensions of Psychology

GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Every science has goals. In physics, the goals are concerned with
learning how the physical world works. In astronomy, the goals are
to chart the universe and understand both how it came to be and
what it is becoming.
The goals of psychologist conducting basic research are to
describe, explain, and predict and control behaviour. The applied
psychologist has a fifth goal also, that is application of psychological
techniques and principles to improve the quality of human life.
Most applied psychologist are able to conduct their own basic
research, scientifically studying particular problem in order to solve
them. The process of accomplishing one goal and moving on to the
next is ideally a natural , flowing , experience, energized, by the
psychologist’s interest in the question being studied.
The first step in understanding anything is to give it a name.
Description involves observing a behaviour and noting everything
about it, as for example, what is happening, where it happens, to
whom it happens, and under what circumstances it happens.
Explanation:
To find out why the girl is not behaving properly, the teacher would
most likely ask the school counselor to administer some tests. Her
parents might be asked to take her to a pediatrician to make sure
that there is no physical illness, such as an allergy. They might also
take here to a psychologist to be assessed. In other words, the
teacher and others are looking for an explanation for the young girl’s
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behaviour. Finding explanation for behaviour is a very important

step in the process of forming theories of behaviour. A theory is a
general explanation of a set of observations or facts.
The goal of description provides the observations, and the goal of
explanation helps to build the theory. If all the tests seem to indicate
that the young girl has a learning problem, such as dyslexia (an
inability to read at expected levels for a particular age and degree of
intelligence), the next step would be trying to predict what is likely to
happen if the situation stays the same.
Prediction:
When Will it Happen Again? Determining what will happen in the
future is a prediction. In the example, the psychologist or counselor
would predict (based on previous research into similar situations),
that this little girl will probably continue to do poorly in her
schoolwork and may never to be able to reach her full learning
potential.
Clearly, something needs to be done to change this prediction, and
that is the point of the last of the four goals of psychology: changing
or modifying behaviour.
Control :
How can it be Changed ? Control, or the modification of some
behaviour, has been somewhat controversial in the past. Some
people hear the word control and think it is brainwashing, but that is
not the focus of this goal. The goal is to change a behaviour from an
undesirable one (such as failing in school) to a desirable one (such
as academic success).

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Such efforts also include attempts at improving the quality of life. In

the example of the young girl, there are certain learning strategies
that can be used to help a child (or an adult) who has dyslexia . She
can be helped to improve her reading skills.(Aylward
etal,2003;Shaywitz,1996). The psychologist and educators would
work together to find a training strategy that works best for this
particular girl.
Application
Improving the quality of life Psychological research are often
conducted to solve various problems faced by the society at
different levels such as individual, organisation, or community.
Psychological applications to solve problems in diverse settings,
such as in a classroom in a school, or in an industry, or in a
hospital, or even in a military establishment, demand professional
help.
Applications in the health sector are remarkable. Because of these
efforts quality of life becomes a major concern for psychologists.
Not all psychological investigations will try to meet all five of these
goals. In some cases, the main focus might be on description and
prediction, as it would be for a personality theorist who wants to
know what people are like (description) and what they might do in
certain situation (prediction).
Some psychologists are interested in both description and
explanation, as is the case with experimental psychologists who
design research to find explanations for observed (described)
behaviour. Therapists, of course, would be more interested in
control, although the other four goals would be important in getting
to that goal.

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dimensions of psychological well-being

The six dimensions reflected within psychological well-being are as
follows:
1. Self-acceptance
This dimension speaks of the acceptance of every aspect of an
individual and of one’s own past, just as it happened. This
means without falling into a pit of impotence for wanting to modify or
intervene in what happened.
Think about whether you accept your body, your emotions and your
thoughts. If you do, you’ll have a more positive view of yourself.
Instead, if you have low self-esteem and struggle to accept who you
are, it’s possible that due to this dissatisfaction, you’ll feel so
overwhelmed that you don’t even know where to begin
changing those aspects you actually can intervene in.
2. Control over your surroundings
This dimension refers to the ability to deal with a difficult
environment, having the ability to adapt to adverse
circumstances.
If you have a high perception of your control over your
surroundings, you’ll feel capable of influencing your environment
and managing complicated situations. Instead, if you have low
control over your surroundings, according to the psychological well-
being questionnaire, you’ll have greater difficulty overcoming the
adversities which arise in your day-to-day life.
3. Positive relationships with others

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This dimension measures the ability people have to interact

with others in an open and sincere way.
If you’re capable of having satisfactory relationships with others, you
will promote bonds which will provide you with better emotional
quality. This implies having a greater capacity of empathy and
openness towards people. If you have a lower score on this scale,
it’s possible you struggle to interact with others. You might have
difficulties opening up and trusting others, as well as difficulties
maintaining your relationships.
4. Autonomy
This dimension evaluates the independence of people in
different aspects of their lives. The sensation of being able to
choose and make their own decisions, of maintaining a personal
criteria and personal and emotional independence despite others
not being in agreement.
A high degree of autonomy implies that you’re able to deploy a
greater force of resistance against social pressure and your own
impulses. If, instead, you have a low degree of autonomy, you
might be letting other people’s opinions guide you. You also
might pay attention to what others say or think about you and might
let yourself be led by social pressure within your social circle.
5. Personal growth
This dimension measures the ability people have of learning
from themselves, being open to new experiences and
challenges.
If you promote your personal growth, it’s possible you feel that
you’re on a continuous journey of learning. You might feel that you

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have the ability to learn from what you receive and know that you
have the resources needed to improve. If this whole personal
growth thing is not your style, you might feel stuck, bored and
demotivated. You might not really want to develop new lessons
and new growth behaviors. Or, you might simply feel incapable of it.
6. Life purpose
This measures the need people have of finding a purpose that
will give meaning to their lives. People need to set clear and
acceptable goals for themselves. These need to be realistic
objectives.
If have a high score in this dimension, it means that you feel your
life has meaning. You give meaning to your past, present and
future. If, instead, you score poorly in this dimension, you don’t
have a clear purpose. It’s possible you feel that your life lacks
direction or you might even feel disoriented and lost.
7. Social support: the best pillar of our well-being
Social support is a protective factor against various diseases. It’s
very important how our social relationships are and also how we
perceive them to be.
 People who are emotionally intelligent are more
optimistic, have higher self-esteem and have a greater
capacity for empathy. This contributes to the improvement of
our psychological well-being. People who know how to identify
their emotions feel more satisfied with themselves. Therefore,
they feel a greater sense of overall well-being. Find your
passion

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It might be at work, since that’s where you spend many hours of

your day. And it’s best if you spend them doing something that
motivates you. But you can also find something you like in a hobby
which makes you feel fulfilled. For example, music, a sport or
craftsmanship.
 Don’t try to change yourself
Accept yourself in the dimensions you cannot change. Trying to
change yourself is going to generate unease and rejection. You will
improve your well-being is you give yourself and your own nature a
chance. This way, all of the positive things you find will serve to
improve your self-esteem, because you will acknowledge it as your
own. The same thing will happen with the negative things you find.
 Surround yourself with people who have a good energy
Positive relationships, being with people you like and who fulfill you
is an important factor which directly influences you physical and
emotional well-being. Toxic people will reduce your
psychological well-being and add stress to your life.

Research problems in Psychology

Research problems in Psychology

Your thesis in Psychology should ask and answer a specific
question, rather than broadly discuss a large topic area.
Furthermore, your research problem should suggest one or more
subsequent questions to your readers.
The statement of the research problem should
be precise and concise. It should be coherent enough that you can

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readily discuss it with family or friends - and that they

will understand it.
It is recommended that you go over the four key parts (Research
Question, Hypothesis, Evidence, Conclusions & Broader
Implications) in an outline before you start to write your proposal.
 You may find it easier to write the Research Problem last, after
you have already reviewed the literature in the Background of
the Problem section, and fleshed out your Research Method
 This may help you to focus your research problem and
keep it concise
Nature and Meaning
A scientific inquiry starts when a researcher has already collected
some information/ knowledge and that knowledge indicates that
there is something we do not know. It may be that we simply do not
have enough information to answer a question, or it may be that the
knowledge that we have is in such state of distorted form that it
cannot be adequately related to the question. Here a problem
arises.
The formulation of a problem is especially important, as it guides us
in our inquiry. According to Townsend (1953) ‘a problem is a
question proposed for solution’. According to Kerlinger (1964) ‘A
problem is interrogative sentence of statement that asks: What
relation exists between two or more variables’. According to
McGuigan (1964) ‘A solvable problem is one that posses a question
that can be answered with the use of man’s normal capacities’.
Characteristics of a Scientific Problem

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After analysing above written definitions of a problem statement, it

can be said there are certain characteristics of a problem statement:
i) A problem statement is written clearly and unambiguously, usually
in question form.
ii) A problem expresses the relationship between two or more than
two variables. This kind of problem permits the investigator to
manipulate two or more than two variables to examine the effects
upon the other variables. For example: Do teacher reinforcement
cause improvement in student performance? In this example, one
variable is teacher reinforcement and the other variable is student
performance. It illustrates the problem found in a scientific study
because the problem statement explores the effect of teacher’s
reinforcements on student performance. The conditions for a
problem statement are:
The problem should be testable by empirical methods

 A problem statement should be solvable

. The data of a scientific problem should be quantitative

. The variable relating to the problem should be clear and definite

Ways in which a Problem is Manifested
A problem is said to exist when we know enough that there is
something we do not know really. There are atleast three ways in
which a problem is said to be manifested: Gap in knowledge: A
problem is manifested when there is a noticeable gap or absence of
information. Suppose a community or group intents to provide
psychotherapeutic services, two questions arise, viz.,
(i) What kind of psychotherapy they should offer and

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(ii) Which one of the different forms of therapeutic methods is most

effective for a given type of mental disease. In this example, there
exists a noticeable gap in the knowledge, and hence the collection
of necessary data and their explanation are needed for filling the
gap in knowledge. Contradictory results:
When several investigations done in the same field are not
consistent and therefore, at times, contradictory, a problem is to find
out a new answer and settle the controversy. Explaining a Fact:
Another way in which we become aware of a problem is when we
are in possession of a ‘fact’, and we ask ourselves, “Why is this so
?” When the facts in any field are found in terms of unexplained
information, a problem is said to exist.
The Importance of Formulating a Research Problem
The formulation of a research problem is the first and most
important step of the research process. It is like the identification of
a destination before undertaking a journey. As in the absence of a
destination, it is impossible to identify the shortest route, so also in
the absence of a clear research problem, a clear and economical
plan is impossible. A research problem is like the foundation of a
building.
The type and design of the building is dependent upon the
foundation. If the foundation is well designed and strong you can
expect the building to be also strong and well designed. In the case
of research, the research problem serves as the foundation of a
research study. If it is well formulated, you can expect a good study
to follow.
Variables Used in Psychology Research

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Meaning of Variable
A variable, as the name implies, is something which varies. This is
the simplest and the broadest way of defining a variable. Webster
says that a variable is “a thing that is changeable” or “a quantity that
may have a number of different values.” True, a variable is
something that has at least two values, however, it is also important
that the values of the variable be observable.
Thus, if what is being studied is a variable, it has more than one
value and each value can be observed. For example, the outcome
of throwing a die is a variable. That variable has six possible values
(each side of the die has from one to six dots on it), each of which
can be observed. In psychology, the variables of interest are often
behaviours or the causes of behaviours. Many psychologists have
adopted a theoretical viewpoint or model called the S-O-R model to
explain all behaviour.

A variable is something that can be changed or varied, such as a

characteristic or value. Variables are generally used in psychology
experiments to determine if changes to one thing result in changes
to another.
Variables play a critical role in the psychological research process.
By systematically varying some variables and measuring the effects
on other variables, researchers can determine if changes to one
thing result in changes in something else.
The Dependent and Independent Variables
In a psychology experiment:1

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 The independent variable is the variable that is controlled

and manipulated by the experimenter. For example, in an
experiment on the impact of sleep deprivation on test
performance, sleep deprivation would be the independent
variable.
 The dependent variable is the variable that is measured by
the experimenter. In our previous example, the scores on the
test performance measure would be the dependent variable.
Extraneous and Confounding Variables
It is important to note that the independent and
dependent variables are not the only variables present in many
experiments. In some cases, extraneous variables may also play a
role. This type of variable is one that may have an impact on the
relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
For example, in our previous description of an experiment on the
effects of sleep deprivation on test performance, other factors such
as age, gender, and academic background may have an impact on
the results. In such cases, the experimenter will note the values of
these extraneous variables so this impact on the results can be
controlled for.
There are two basic types of extraneous variables:
1. Participant Variables: These extraneous variables are related
to individual characteristics of each participant that may impact
how he or she responds. These factors can include
background differences, mood, anxiety, intelligence,
awareness and other characteristics that are unique to each
person.

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2. Situational Variables: These extraneous variables are related

to things in the environment that may impact how each
participant responds. For example, if a participant is taking a
test in a chilly room, the temperature would be considered an
extraneous variable. Some participants may not be affected by
the cold, but others might be distracted or annoyed by the
temperature of the room.
Other extraneous variables include the following:
 Demand characteristics: Clues in the environment that
suggest how a participant should behave
 Experimenter effects: When a researcher unintentionally
suggests clues for how a participant should behave
In many cases, extraneous variables are controlled for by the
experimenter. In the case of participant variables, the experiment
might select participants that are the same in background and
temperament to ensure that these factors do not interfere with the
results.
Confounding Variables
If a variable cannot be controlled for, it becomes what is known as
a confounding variable. This type of variable can have an impact
on the dependent variable, which can make it difficult to determine if
the results are due to the influence of the independent variable, the
confounding variable or an interaction of the two.
Operationally Defining a Variable Psychology

Before conducting a psychology experiment, it is essential to create

firm operational definitions for both the independent variable and

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dependent variable. An operational definition describes how the

variables are measured and defined in the study.1

For example, in our imaginary experiment on the effects of sleep

deprivation on test performance, we would need to create very
specific operational definitions for our two variables. If
our hypothesis is "Students who are sleep deprived will score
significantly lower on a test," then we would have a few different
concepts to define. First, what do we mean by students? In our
example, let’s define students as participants enrolled in an
introductory university-level psychology course.
Next, we need to operationally define the sleep deprivation variable.
In our example, let’s say that sleep deprivation refers to those
participants who have had less than five hours of sleep the night
before the test. Finally, we need to create an operational definition
for the test variable. For this example, the test variable will be
defined as a student’s score on a chapter exam in the introductory
psychology course.
Students often report problems with identifying the independent and
dependent variables in an experiment. While the task can become
more difficult as the complexity of an experiment increases, there
are a few questions you can ask when trying to identify a variable.
What is the experimenter manipulating? The things that change,
either naturally or through direct manipulation from the
experimenter, are generally the independent variables. What is
being measured? The dependent variable is the one that the
experimenter is measuring.

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Every good psychology study contains an operational definition for

the variables in the research. An operational definition allows the
researchers to describe in a specific way what they mean when they
use a certain term. Generally, operational definitions are concrete
and measurable. Defining variables in this way allows other people
to see if the research has validity. Validity here refers to if the
researchers are actually measuring what they intended to measure.
Example One:
A researcher wants to measure if age is related to addiction.
Perhaps their hypothesis is: the incidence of addiction will increase
with age. Here we have two variables, age and addiction. In order to
make the research as clear as possible, the researcher must define
how they will measure these variables. Essentially, how do we
measure someone’s age and how to we measure addiction?
Variable One: Age might seem straightforward. You might be
wondering why we need to define age if we all know what age is.
However, one researcher might decide to measure age in months in
order to get someone’s precise age, while another researcher might
just choose to measure age in years. In order to understand the
results of the study, we will need to know how this researcher
operationalized age. For the sake of this example lets say that age
is defined as how old someone is in years.
Variable Two: The variable of addiction is slightly more complicated
than age. In order to operationalize it the researcher has to decide
exactly how they want to measure addiction. They might narrow
down their definition and say that addiction is defined as going
through withdrawal when the person stops using a substance. Or
the researchers might decide that the definition of addiction is: if
someone currently meets the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for any

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substance use disorder. For the sake of this example, let’s say that
the researcher chose the latter.
Final Definition: In this research study age is defined as
participant’s age measured in years and the incidence of addiction
is defined as whether or not the participant currently meets the
DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for any substance use disorder.
Need Operational Definitions
There are a number of reasons why researchers need to have
operational definitions including:
 Validity
 Replicability
 Generalizability
 Dissemination
The first reason was mentioned earlier in the post when reading
research others should be able to assess the validity of the
research. That is, did the researchers measure what they intended
to measure? If we don’t know how researchers measured
something it is very hard to know if the study had validity.
The next reason it is important to have an operational definition is
for the sake of replicability Research should be designed so that if
someone else wanted to replicate it they could. By replicating
research and getting the same findings we validate the findings. It is
impossible to recreate a study if we are unsure about how they
defined or measured the variables.
Another reason we need operational definitions is so that we can
understand how generalizable the findings are. In research, we

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want to know that the findings are true not just for a small sample of
people. We hope to get findings that generalize to the whole
population. If we do not have operational definitions it is hard to
generalize the findings because we don’t know who they generalize
to.
Finally, operational definitions are important for the dissemination of
information. When a study is done it is generally published in a
peer-reviewed journal and might be read by other psychologists,
students, or journalists. Researchers want people to read their
research and apply their findings. If the person reading the article
doesn’t know what they are talking about because a variable is not
clear it will be hard to them to actually apply this new knowledge.

Hypothesis of Psychology

In conducting research, the second important consideration after the

formulation of a research problem is the construction of hypothesis.
As you know any scientific inquiry starts with the statement of a
solvable problem, when the problem has been stated, a tentative
solution in the form of testable proposition is offered by the
researcher.
The testable proposition and potential answer are termed a
hypothesis Therefore a hypothesis is nothing but a suggested,
testable and proposed answer to a problem. By stating a specific
hypothesis, the researcher narrows the focus of the data collection
effort and is able to design a data collection procedure which is
aimed at testing the plausibility of the hypothesis as a possible
statement of the relationship between the terms of the research
problem.

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Definition of Hypothesis Several experts have defined hypothesis

more or less in the same way. According to Kerlinger (1973), a
hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relation between two or
more variables. According to Mcquigan (1970) hypothesis is a
testable statement having the potential relationship between two or
more variables. In other words, the hypothesis in one way is
advanced as a potential solution to problem.
On the basis of these definitions two criteria for good hypothesis
and hypothesis statement can be suggested: i) Hypotheses are
statements about the relation between variables. ii) Hypotheses
carry clear implication for testing the stated relations. These criteria
mean that hypothesis contains two or more variables which are
measurable or potentially measurable and hypothesis exhibits either
a general or specific relationship between the variables.
Characteristics of a Hypothesis
There are a number of considerations one should keep in mind
when constructing a hypothesis, as they are important for valid
verification. Hypothesis should be simple, specific and conceptually
clear.
There is no place of ambiguity in the construction of a hypothesis it
should be ‘unidimensional i.e. it should test only one relationship at
a time. For example; the average scores in maths subjects of the
male students in the class is higher than the female students.
Suicides rates very inversely with the social cohesion (Black &
Champion 1976).
A Hypothes thus should be capable of verification: methods and
techniques must be available for data collection. A hypothesis
should be operationlisable. This means that it can be expressed in

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terms that can be measured. If it cannot be measured and tested

and, hence, no conclusions can be drawn.
A Hypothesis should be related to the existing body of knowledge.
A hypothesis has equal chances of confirmation and rejection.
A hypothesis should be parsimonious. (economical)
A hypothesis should be method oriented. In the construction of
hypotheses the student must observe the above mentioned rules.
Forming acceptable hypotheses is not difficult if the problem giving
rise to the hypotheses has been carefully stated and defined. The
form of a hypothesis can be a declarative statement containing a
suggested answers to the problem, and which obeys the formal
conditions of hypothesis. Following are two examples of problems
and their respective hypothesis. Problem
1: Does practice with the preferred hand improve the proficiency of
the nonpreferred hand in the mirror drawing experiment ?
Hypothesis: Practice with the preferred hand significantly improves
the proficiency of the nonpreferred hand in the mirror drawing
experiment. Problem
2: Are male rats more active than the same strain of female rats
during a 6- day period spent in an activity cage ? Hypothesis: Male
rats are not significantly more active than the same strain of female
rats during a 6-day period spent in an activity cage.
Functions of Hypothesis A hypothesis serves the following
functions:
i) The formulation of a hypothesis provides a study with focus.

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ii) It tells you what specific aspects of a research problem to

investigate
iii) It tells what data to collect and what not to collect
iv) The construction of a hypothesis enhances objectivity in a study.
The process of testing a hypothesis goes through 3 phases as given
below (Kumar, 2002 : Research methodology))
Phase
I: Formulate your hunch or assumption Phase
II: Collect the required data Phase
III: Analyse data to draw conclusion about the hunch – true or false.
A hypothesis may enable you to add to the formulation of theory. It
enables you to specifically conclude what is true or what is false.
Let’s consider a hypothesis that many teachers might subscribe to:
that students work better on Monday morning than they do on a
Friday afternoon (IV=Day, DV=Standard of work).
Now, if we decide to study this by giving the same group of students
a lesson on a Monday morning and on a Friday afternoon and then
measuring their immediate recall on the material covered in each
session we would end up with the following:
 The alternative hypothesis states that students will recall
significantly more information on a Monday morning than on a
Friday afternoon.
 The null hypothesis states that there will be no significant
difference in the amount recalled on a Monday morning
compared to a Friday afternoon. Any difference will be due to
chance or confounding factors.

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Sampling of Psychology

 Sampling is the process of selecting a representative group

from the population under study.
 The target population is the total group of individuals from
which the sample might be drawn.
 A sample is the group of people who take part in the
investigation. The people who take part are referred to as
“participants”.
 Generalisability refers to the extent to which we can apply the
findings of our research to the target population we are
interested in.

The Purpose of Sampling

In psychological research we are interested in learning about large
groups of people who all have something in common. We call the
group that we are interested in studying our 'target population'.
In some types of research the target population might be as broad
as all humans, but in other types of research the target population
might be a smaller group such as teenagers, pre-school children or
people who misuse drugs.
It is more or less impossible to study every single person in a target
population so psychologists select a sample or sub-group of the
population that is likely to be representative of the target population
we are interested in.
This is important because we want to generalize from the sample to
target population. The more representative the sample, the more

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confident the researcher can be that the results can be generalized

to the target population.
One of the problems that can occur when selecting a sample from a
target population is sampling bias. Sampling bias refers to situations
where the sample does not reflect the characteristics of the target
population.
Many psychology studies have a biased sample because they have
used an opportunity sample that comprises university students as
their participants (e.g. Asch).
OK, so you’ve thought up this brilliant psychological study and
designed it perfectly. But who are you going to try it out on and how
will you select your participants?
There are various sampling methods. The one chosen will depend
on a number of factors (such as time, money etc.).
Random Sampling
Random sampling is a type of probability sampling where everyone
in the entire target population has an equal chance of being
selected.
This is similar to the national lottery. If the “population” is everyone
who has bought a lottery ticket, then each person has an equal
chance of winning the lottery (assuming they all have one ticket
each).
Random samples require a way of naming or numbering the target
population and then using some type of raffle method to choose
those to make up the sample. Random samples are the best
method of selecting your sample from the population of interest.

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The advantages are that your sample should represent the target
population and eliminate sampling bias, but the disadvantage is
that it is very difficult to achieve (i.e. time, effort and money).
Opportunity Sampling
Uses people from target population available at the time and willing
to take part. It is based on convenience.
An opportunity sample is obtained by asking members of the
population of interest if they would take part in your research. An
example would be selecting a sample of students from those
coming out of the library.

Ethics in conducting and reporting research of Psychology

Ethics refers to the correct rules of conduct necessary when

carrying out research. We have a moral responsibility to protect
research participants from harm.
However important the issue under investigation psychologists need
to remember that they have a duty to respect the rights and dignity
of research participants. This means that they must abide by certain
moral principles and rules of conduct.
In Britain, ethical guidelines for research are published by the British
Psychological Society and in America by the American
Psychological Association. The purpose of these codes of conduct
is to protect research participants, the reputation of psychology, and
psychologists themselves.
Ethical Issues in Psychology
1. Informed Consent

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2. Debrief
3. Protection of Participants
4. Deception
5. Confidentiality
6. Withdrawal
Moral issues rarely yield a simple, unambiguous, right or wrong
answer. It is therefore often a matter of judgment whether the
research is justified or not. For example, it might be that a study
causes psychological or physical discomfort to participants, maybe
they suffer pain or perhaps even come to serious harm.
On the other hand, the investigation could lead to discoveries that
benefit the participants themselves or even have the potential to
increase the sum of human happiness. Rosenthal and Rosnow
(1984) also talk about the potential costs of failing to carry out
certain research. Who is to weigh up these costs and benefits? Who
is to judge whether the ends justify the means?
Finally, if you are ever in doubt as to whether research is ethical or
not it is worthwhile remembering that if there is a conflict of interest
between the participants and the researcher it is the interests of the
subjects that should take priority.
Studies must now undergo an extensive review by an institutional
review board (US) or ethics committee (UK) before they are
implemented. All UK research requires ethical approval by one or
more of the following:
(a) Department Ethics Committee (DEC): for most routine research.
(b) Institutional Ethics Committee (IEC): for non routine research.

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(c) External Ethics Committee (EEC): for research that is externally

regulated (e.g. NHS research).
Committees review proposals assess if the potential benefits of the
research are justifiable in the light of the possible risk of physical or
psychological harm. These committees may request researchers
make changes to the study's design or procedure, or in extreme
cases deny approval of the study altogether.
The British Psychological Society (BPS) and American
Psychological Association (APA) have both issued a code of ethics
in psychology that provides guidelines for the conduct of research.
Some of the more important ethical issues are as follows:
Informed Consent
Whenever possible investigators should obtain the consent of
participants. In practice, this means it is not sufficient to simply get
potential participants to say “Yes”. They also need to know what it is
that they are agreeing to. In other words, the psychologist should,
so far as is practicable explain what is involved in advance and
obtain the informed consent of participants.
Before the study begins the researcher must outline to the
participants what the research is about, and then ask their consent
(i.e. permission) to take part. An adult (18ys +) capable of giving
permission to participate in a study can provide consent.
Parents/legal guardians of minors can also provide consent to allow
their children to participate in a study.
However, it is not always possible to gain informed consent. Where
it is impossible for the researcher to ask the actual participants, a
similar group of people can be asked how they would feel about

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taking part. If they think it would be OK then it can be assumed that

the real participants will also find it acceptable.
In order that consent be ‘informed’, consent forms may need to be
accompanied by an information sheet for participants setting out
information about the proposed study (in lay terms) along with
details about the investigators and how they can be contacted.
Participants must be given information relating to:
 A statement that participation is voluntary and that refusal to
participate will not result in any consequences or any loss of
benefits that the person is otherwise entitled to receive.
 Purpose of the research.
 All foreseeable risks and discomforts to the participant (if there
are any). These include not only physical injury but also
possible psychological.
 Procedures involved in the research.
 Benefits of the research to society and possibly to the
individual human subject.
 Length of time the subject is expected to participate.
 Person to contact for answers to questions or in the event of
injury or emergency.
 Subjects' right to confidentiality and the right to withdraw from
the study at any time without any consequences.

Debrief

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After the research is over the participant should be able to discuss

the procedure and the findings with the psychologist. They must be
given a general idea of what the researcher was investigating and
why, and their part in the research should be explained.
Participants must be told if they have been deceived and given
reasons why. They must be asked if they have any questions and
those questions should be answered honestly and as fully as
possible.
Debriefing should take place as soon as possible and be as full as
possible; experimenters should take reasonable steps to ensure
that participants understand debriefing.
“The purpose of debriefing is to remove any misconceptions and
anxieties that the participants have about the research and to leave
them with a sense of dignity, knowledge, and a perception of time
not wasted” (Harris, 1998).
The aim of the debriefing is not just to provide information, but to
help the participant leave the experimental situation in a similar
frame of mind as when he/she entered it (Aronson, 1988).

Protection of Participants
Researchers must ensure that those taking part in research will not
be caused distress. They must be protected from physical and
mental harm. This means you must not embarrass, frighten, offend
or harm participants.
Normally, the risk of harm must be no greater than in ordinary life,
i.e. participants should not be exposed to risks greater than or
additional to those encountered in their normal lifestyles.

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The researcher must also ensure that if vulnerable groups are to be

used (elderly, disabled, children, etc.), they must receive special
care. For example, if studying children, make sure their participation
is brief as they get tired easily and have a limited attention span.

What is Paradigms of research: Quantitative,

Qualitative, Mixed methods approach Methods of
research: Observation, Survey [Interview,
Questionnaires], Experimental, Quasi-
experimental, Field studies, Cross-Cultural
Studies, Phenomenology, Grounded theory, Focus
groups, Narratives, Case studies, Ethnography?

Paradigms of research: Quantitative, Qualitative, Mixed

methods approach Methods of research: Observation, Survey
[Interview, Questionnaires], Experimental, Quasi-experimental,
Field studies, Cross-Cultural Studies, Phenomenology,
Grounded theory, Focus groups, Narratives, Case studies,
Ethnography

The Paradigms of research: Quantitative, Qualitative, Mixed

methods approach
Methods of research:

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The aim of this paper is to discuss the philosophical tenets of the

major research frameworks which postgraduate students in
educational research work with but which they are often confused
about. Such a clarification is important inasmuch as it determines
not only the research methodology which will be followed but also
the choice of the appropriate research methods and the procedure
used for the analysis of the collected data. The various research
schemes and their corresponding philosophical background will be
discussed and concrete examples will be provided to help research
students better understand the issues at stake.
These definitions of educational research point at some important
issues: First and foremost, the research procedure must answer the
canons of ‘science’ then, the information provided must be reliable,
and finally, what is being investigated should be of interest to
educators who may carry out their research within or outside the
educational institution. Also implicit in these definitions is the fact
that educational research must use the same methods as those
used in natural sciences in order to come up with answers aimed at
improving teaching and learning as well as identifying the conditions
for testing and verifying this knowledge and the conditions under
which it should occur.
It is thus of paramount importance for research students to grasp
the fundamentals of these issues since they determine the choices
they have to make at all stages of their research which invariably
include the following: the choice of a research framework, the
selection of the appropriate research tools for the collection of the
data, the procedure(s) to be followed for their analysis, and
ultimately, the nature of the conclusions they will have to draw. They
must be aware that all existing research frameworks reflect shifts in

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scientific thought which can be traced back to the debate among

leading Greek philosophers as to how new knowledge is acquired.
These philosophers challenged earlier explanations based on
theological tenets and argued that a better and more systematic
understanding of the world could be obtained either through our
senses as the empiricist school claimed , or through logical
reasoning as the rationalist school believed. Subsequent shifts in
scientific thought, as we shall see, will lead to new perceptions as to
how knowledge can be derived from, leading thus to new research
paradigms.
justify the choice of a particular framework or paradigm. The latter is
defined by Chalmers (1982:11) as being "made up of the general
theoretical assumptions and laws, and techniques for their
application that the members of a particular scientific community
adopt”, and by Willis (2007:8) as “a comprehensive belief system,
world view, or framework that guides research and practice in a
field” Such understanding will hopefully help them make the
appropriate choices about :
(1) Their research question(s) or hypothesis
(2) the type of the research instruments to be used,
(3) the steps involved in the collection of the data, and ultimately
(4) the procedure used for the analysis and discussion of the
collected data We shall briefly explain how these shifts in scientific
thought have occurred and how they have led to the major shifts in
research paradigms and then, we shall show how these shifts had
an impact on research methods and methodologies.

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It will be reminded that the term ‘method’ is used to refer to the

research instruments used to collect and analyse data, e.g. a
questionnaire, interview, checklist, data analysis software etc.
Research Philosophy: Historical
Background The type of research methodology the researcher
chooses is determined by the research philosophy which the
researcher adheres to and this choice will determine the research
objective(s) and the research instruments developed and used as
well as the quest for the solution to the problem he is investigating.
So far, Empiricism and Rationalism have been the most prevailing
research philosophies.
These can be traced back to the debate we mentioned earlier
between the Empiricists who were inductivists and the Rationalists
who were deductivists. These two opposing views will follow
different ways in explaining how knowledge is acquired: either
through inductive reasoning as the Empiricists believed or by
reasoning as the Rationalists maintained. Therefore, the
Inductive/Deductive distinction can be considered as the first major
paradigm in science.
The Inductive reasoning (or bottom-up process) starts from specific
observations and moves towards a general conclusion or theory.
For example, I observe that all the elephants I have seen (repeated
observations) have a trunk, therefore I conclude that ALL existing
elephants, even those I have not seen, HAVE a trunk (conclusion,
or generalisation). Whereas deductive reasoning (also known as
top-down process) proceeds differently. The starting point is a
general statement (called the first premise, or theory) followed by a
more specific statement inferred from this (the second premise, or
the observed phenomenon) and, through logical reasoning, reaches

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a specific conclusion. As an illustration, I know that all planets orbit

around the sun (first premise), a new planet is discovered (second
premise), therefore I can conclude that this planet also orbits the
sun.
This debate was revisited after the Renaissance and witnessed a
heated dispute between the Rationalists represented by the French
philosopher René Descartes (1596–1650) who argued that Reason
was the only mode through which one could arrive at truth and
assumed thus, that knowledge could only be acquired if the
appropriate reasoning procedure was used, and the Empiricists
represented by the British philosophers John Locke (1632–1704)
and David Hume (1711–1776) who argued that experience was the
basis for acquiring all new knowledge.
It was Locke who put forward the well known formula that each
person is born as a blank slate upon which the environment writes.
For these philosophers our knowledge derives from our senses
(sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste) which then imprint ideas in
our brain which are further worked upon through cognitive
processes. However, it must be stressed that both trends were
primarily concerned with natural sciences since at that time social
sciences had no place as they were considered as being subjective
and thus, not treated as real sciences.
Research Paradigms and Types of Studies
We shall now turn to discussing the implications that each paradigm
has for the design of the various types of research studies in
educational research. This is summarised in Figure 2 below, while
Figure 3 lists the criteria to be used for identifying the various types
of research, and Figure 4 lists all the research instruments which
can be used in all three paradigms and for ensuring triangulation.

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Quantitative research studies

There are two types of quantitative studies: either experimental or
non experimental 3.1.1 Experimental studies Experimental studies
can be either a true experiment, a quasi experiment or a single case
study.
The latter is very rarely used in educational research because it is
concerned with only one subject. However, one must keep in mind
that the single-subject study may be seen as a true experiment
because it as a long and respected tradition in empirical research
particularly in psychology.
According to Kazdin (2003:273), single-subject studies “can
demonstrate causal relationships and can rule out or make
implausible threats to validity with the same elegance of group
research”. The single subject design has objectives similar to other
experimental designs, in that
(1) it looks at the changes in the dependent variable following the
manipulation of the independent variable and
(2) it tries to identify the causes of the differences brought about by
the variations in the conditions of the study. As far as the other two
types are concerned, what differentiates a true experiment from a
quasi experiment study is the fact that in the former, the researcher
can manipulate the variables under stringent and controlled
conditions to study the effect or the impact of one variable (the
independent, also called predictor one) on the other variable (the
dependent, or outcome variable) to make statements of causality.
This type of research has weaker validity and poor reliability
because the researcher cannot establish cause-and-effect

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relationships and cannot manipulate the predictor variables. Here

are some examples for each type of research:
(i) True experimental :
a) The effect of small classes on instruction
b) The use of intensive mentoring to help beginning teachers
develop balanced instruction
(ii) Quasi Experiment
a) Are lectures given in the morning memorized better than when
given in the afternoon?
b) Do teachers’ teaching styles play a role in students’ motivation for
learning?
Non experimental studies These are research studies in which there
is no manipulation of the independent variable by the experimenter
either for ethical reasons (for example the impact of smoking on
health) or because of their abstract nature (for example age, gender
, ethnicity opinions etc.). Non experimental research covers a wide
variety of studies, such as
(i) descriptive,
(ii) causal-comparative,
(iii) correlational,
(iv) ex post facto research, and
(v) surveys
(i) Descriptive research, as the name suggests, helps the
researcher to collect data about conditions, situations, and events
that occur in the present. For example:
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a) Attitudes of parents toward introducing school outings on

Sundays.
b) How do university teachers spend their time?
c) How do parents feel about a four day school schedule?
(ii) Causal-comparative research aims investigates the relation
between the variables under study in order to identify possible
causal relationships between them. For example :
a) Effect of birth order on academic achievement
b) The effect of having a working mother on school achievements
c) The effect of age on achievements in learning a foreign language
(iii) Correlational research is concerned with establishing possible
but not necessarily present relationships between variables.
Examples of correlational studies:
a) Do male students perform better than female in scientific
subjects?
b) The relationship between parents’ socio-economic status and
their children’s school achievements
c) The relationship between stress and achievement
(iv) Ex post facto research: Ex-post facto literally means “from what
is done afterwards”. It focuses first on the effect, then tries to
determine possible causes and questions will remain about the
effect following the cause, or vice versa. In this type of research, the
researcher cannot control the variables; his role is limited to
reporting the outcome of an action or what is happening.
Qualitative research studies

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a means for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or

groups ascribe to a social or human problem.
The process of research involves emerging questions and
procedures. Data typically collected in the participant's setting. data
analysis inductively building from particulars to general themes. and
the researcher making interpretations of the meaning of the data.
This type of research relies primarily on collecting qualitative data
(i.e., non-numerical or categorical data such as words and pictures
etc.), and can be either interactive or non interactive (i.e. whether
the researcher is personally.
Interactive

In educational research there is very little room for a personal

involvement or immersion of the researcher with the participants of
the study, as his role is mostly that of an observer. However, there
may be instances where such research can be carried out. The first
of these is phenomenology which is the descriptive study of how
individuals experience a phenomenon. In this type of research the
researcher aims at understanding how individuals' lives are
organised and structured. For example:
a) What are students’ attitudes towards an uncaring teacher?
b) What are teachers’ attitudes and beliefs towards teaching?
The second major approach to qualitative research is ethnography
(i.e., the discovery and description of the culture of a group of
people). Because it is deeply rooted in anthropology the concept of
culture is of central importance in this type of research. In the case

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of educational research one can study the culture in a classroom.

Examples of these would be :
a) How do learners react to cultural differences in foreign language
classes?
b) How do teachers deal with cultural conflicts in their classes?
Non Interactive
Non interactive qualitative studies are mainly concerned with
historical analysis or content analysis. In historical analysis the
researcher aims at establishing descriptions, and coming up,
whenever possible, with explanations, of what has occurred. For
example, a study can document
(i) the changes in the assessment procedures in EFL classes over
the past ten years, or
(ii) the developments in the testing procedures of English in the
Baccalaureate over the past twenty years. In content analysis the
researcher analyzes written documents or other communication
media (e.g., photographs, movies, advertisements) in a given topic
in order to identify
the information and symbols they contain . The researcher
identifies a body of material to analyze (e.g., school textbooks,
television programs, newspaper articles etc ) and then posits a
system for recording specific aspects of its content. Content
analysis is a nonreactive method because the researcher didn’t
know about the content beforehand.
For example a researcher might be interested in investigating how
school violence is reported in the media or how women are
represented in school textbooks.

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Mixed Methods research

This research paradigm is used extensively in educational research
for its many merits. Thus, in mixed methods researchers use both
types of data because these combined provide the best
understanding of a research problem. It has been defined variously
by many researchers.
For Janice Morse it is a plan for a scientifically rigorous research
process comprised of a qualitative or quantitative core component
that directs the theoretical drive, with qualitative or quantitative
supplementary components. These components of the research fit
together to enhance description, understanding and can either be
conducted simultaneously or sequentially
Conclusion
Research is the acquisition of knowledge in a systematic and
organised way. However, the routes leading to the discovery of this
new knowledge varies according to the philosophical tenets to
which the researcher adheres. This is why the research paradigms
which determine the existing research methodologies cannot be
fully grasped without a thorough understanding of the
epistemological issues which underpin each of them . The inductive-
deductive debate which will grow into the quantitative-qualitative
methodologies is the direct result of evolving beliefs as to what
constitutes the most efficient and most reliable way of carrying the
research.
It is true however, that the nature of the data, either natural or
social and psychological will direct the researcher to a great extent
towards one or another methodology. The frontier between the two
is becoming blurred and justifies the resort to a methodology which

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uses the strengths of the of the two major paradigms, i.e. a mixed
method approach. As far as educational research is concerned the
choice of one or another methodology depends very much on the
nature of the variables being investigated and the more the
researcher is aware of the philosophical tenets of the methodology
he intends to use the easier the choice of the appropriate research
process will be.
Qualitative Inquiry in the History of Psychology
The great irony of qualitative inquiry in psychology is that, despite
and in part due to its ubiquity, little history has been written. As our
knowledge moves further into the past, it becomes murkier even
though qualitative research has been practiced long before and
continually since the establishment of psychology as an
independent science. Studying historical roots is especially difficult
because qualitative inquiry is performed in all fields and predates
the current organization of knowledge by means of the various
sciences, humanities, arts and professions. Moreover, an
interdisciplinary cross fertilization of qualitative methods continues
to flourish wildly today.
The historian, in the face of qualitative inquiry in psychology, must
be awe struck. Such awe can inspire creative scholarship about the
history of qualitative inquiry, and there is no better time than the
present, which is more hospitable than ever before to such efforts.
One of the aims of this article is to begin to address the question of
what qualitative research is--what it looks like in psychology, by
recognizing past instances of such practices that have not
previously been identified as such.
Understanding these modes of inquiry will be greatly enhanced if we
develop our sensitivities and bring this work out of the shadows,

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from the bottom up, with deliberately open naiveté. A second aim is
to provide a rough sketch of a history of qualitative inquiry in
psychology that differentiates phases from the founding of
psychology to the present.
This sketch highlights landmark events as an invitation to appreciate
such moments and identify others rather than to bring any closure to
what is historically important. Finally, several examples of
psychology conducted before the term “qualitative research”
entered our vocabulary are presented in order to illustrate the
potential of historical exploration of the hidden treasures of this field.
Now that these practices have finally become a thematic object of
scientific interest, such reconnaissance work will inform and benefit
present and future generations of psychologists, better positioning
them to understand and use all available means of inquiry.
It is misleading to speak of “the” history of qualitative inquiry in light
of the diversity and complexity of the field, which is virtually
coextensive with psychology itself. The genealogy of qualitative
research is not well represented by a tree with roots denoting
precursors, a single trunk depicting a great inventor/pioneer, and
many large and smaller branches extending in directions signifying
the progress of followers to their most recently budding
contributions. Rather, qualitative methods in psychology are better
represented as an expansive forest with many trees of various ages
and distances from each other,
some growing symbiotically, some competing for sunlight and
others ascending in isolation as they rise fromsubterranean root
systems that intermingle in an invisible community from common
and different kinds of nourishing soil.

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Qualitative inquiry is ubiquitous because of its fundamental

necessity and place in the enterprise of science. Scientific
knowledge is inconceivable without some rational determination of
what its subject matter is, and answers to the ‘what’ question
require some manner of qualitative inquiry. Hypothesis testing and
measurement, for instance, cannot proceed except on the basis of
some conceptualization of what the hypothesis is about, what is to
be observed and measured. The logic and practice of empirical
science requires evidence, and the determination of its relevance
and validity requires qualitative knowledge and judgment.
The equation of science with hypothesis testing has led to an
emphasis on measurement issues and statistical reasoning, with
little attention to inductive, interpretive, and other rational means of
defining constructs, even though it is a crucial and indispensible part
of all scientific research.
Qualitative inquiry and knowledge can range from being highly
implicit and taken for granted, even free wheeling and unsystematic,
to being rigorously established and accounted for with specially
designed and critically evaluated research procedures. Qualitative
reasoning and practices have not long been a part of our discipline’s
formal methodology, and even today there is limited if any
presentation of them in the education and training of research
psychologists. The present examination focuses primarily on the
self-conscious and deliberate scientific practice of qualitative
research.
Qualitative Research Practice Without Methodology
Qualitative inquiry can certainly be traced back to ancient times, for
instance in the work of Aristotle. The qualitative tradition of
naturalism was developed and applied in psychology by Darwin

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(1871 & 1872), in his classic comparative investigations of emotions

and moral sense. The tradition of case history, as a means of
establishing general knowledge, had long been employed in
medicine when Freud used it in his research on psychopathology
(Freud & Breuer, 1895). Although the official founding of psychology
in 1879 is marked by the first psychological laboratory, Wundt’s
experimental work was only a part of the psychology he conceived
and practiced. Recent historians (Danziger, 1983, 2003) inform us
that Wundt viewed his 10 volume Völkerpsychologie (1900-1920, &
1916) translated as “social psychology,” “folk psychology,” or
“cultural psychology”),
involving qualitative research on language, expressive movement,
imagination, art, mythology, religion, and morality, as equally
important to laboratory research in the science of psychology.
Psychologists of no less stature than Sigmund and Anna Freud,
Carl Jung, William James, E.B. Tichener, Max Wertheimer and the
Gestalt school, Kurt Lewin, John Watson, Wilhelm Stern, Jean
Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, Frederick Bartlett, John Dollard, Abraham
Maslow, Lawrence Kohlberg, Carol Gilligan, Leon Festinger,
Stanley Schacter, Philip Zimbardo, and David Rosenhan have also
contributed ground breaking, well known research in psychology
without their qualitative methods receiving much attention even to
this date.
It is significant that the two psychologists who were awarded Nobel
Prizes (in Economics)--Herbert Simon and Daniel Kahneman, both
won their distinction by carrying out inquiries on thinking and
problem solving by developing mathematical models based on
verbal description and a qualitative analysis of everyday problem
solving (Ericcson & Simon, 1993 & Kahneman, 2003). There can be

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little question that qualitative inquiry has played a very important

part in the history of psychology.
The Call for Qualitative Methodology In 1940, the Social Science
Research Council, charged with improving the quality of research in
the social sciences, enlisted the Committee on Appraisal of
Research, chaired by Edmund Day, to appraise research on
psychological and social life focusing on “the subjective factor” by
using “human documents” as source materials.
The Committee asked Gordon Allport to investigate the use in
psychology of “any self revealing record that intentionally or
unintentionally yields information about the structure, dynamics, or
functioning of the author’s mental life” (Allport, 1942, p. xii). Allport’s
survey and evaluation, published in a 1942 monograph, addressed
such questions as the nature of this first person materials (e.g.,
autobiographies, questionnaires, verbatim recordings such as
interviews, diaries/journals, letters, and expressive/artistic
productions);
the history of the employment of such documents; attempts to
establish the reliability and validity of procedures; howinvestigators
accounted for their methods; the kind(s) of analyses used; the
employment of induction, illustration and hypotheses; how
inferences were generalized; and the biases or frames of reference
of investigators. Allport estimated that although two or three
hundred psychological authors had employed personal documents,
no more than a dozen had given thought to the method they had
employed, and there were very few critical studies of these
methods.
The Development of Qualitative Methodologies

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Qualitative research continued in psychology unabated, but Allport’s

monograph did not result in a widespread recognition of the value of
these methods for more than a generation. In the next decade and
through the 1960s, qualitative research was practiced and even
developed, but the vast majority of researchers who continued to
use these methods did so without accounting systematically for their
procedures or asserting their scientific value. As mentioned above,
one noteworthy example of such innovative studies is Kohlberg’s
1954 dissertation. The details of his method were not reported in his
subsequent publications and became available only when the actual
dissertation was published in 1994, when qualitative research was
becoming a common concern of psychologists. Only recently has
this work begun to receive methodological attention (Wertz et al,
2011).
Other good examples of the continuing innovation and development
of qualitative inquiry are Maslow’s studies of the self-actualized
personality (1954, 1968), which Maslow initially hesitated to publish
because he himself viewed his method as of purely personal
interest and insufficiently scientific. After Maslow submitted the self-
actualization study for publication because he viewed the findings
as important, the manuscript was rejected for publication by leading
psychological journals.
A persistent Maslow delivered his very methodologically interesting
study of self actualization as his presidential address to APA in
1958 and bitterly refused any further submission his work for
publication in psychology’s top tier journals. He viewed his methods
as being of sufficient scientific value to continue and extend them in
his fruitful investigation of peak experiences (1959), for which he
gathered participants’ descriptions of their best experiences, and

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disseminated his very influential research on self actualization and

peak experiences in his books.

Methods of research: Observation, Survey [Interview,

Questionnaires]

Primary Research: Definitions and Overview How research is

defined varies widely from field to field, and as you progress through
your college career, your coursework will teach you much more
about what it means to be a researcher within your field.* For
example, engineers, who focus on applying scientific knowledge to
develop designs, processes, and objects, conduct research using
simulations, mathematical models, and a variety of tests to see how
well their designs work. Sociologists conduct research using
surveys, interviews, observations, and statistical analysis to better
understand people, societies, and cultures.
Graphic designers conduct research through locating images for
reference for their artwork and engaging in background research on
clients and companies to best serve their needs. Historians conduct
research by examining archival materials— newspapers, journals,
letters, and other surviving texts—and through conducting oral
history interviews.
Rather, individuals conducting research are producing the articles
and reports found in a library database or in a book. Primary
research, the focus of this essay, is research that is collected
firsthand rather than found in a book, database, or journal. Primary
research is often based on principles of the scientific method, a
theory of investigation first developed by John Stuart Mill in the
nineteenth century in his book Philosophy of the Scientific Method.

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Although the application of the scientific method varies from field to

field, the general principles of the scientific method allow
researchers to learn more about the world and observable
phenomena. Using the scientific method, researchers develop
research questions or hypotheses and collect data on events,
objects, or people that is measurable, observable, and replicable.
The ultimate goal in conducting primary research is to learn about
something new that can be confirmed by others and to eliminate our
own biases in the process.
Essay Overview and Student
Examples The essay begins by providing an overview of ethical
considerations when conducting primary research, and then covers
the stages that you will go through in your primary research:
planning, collecting, analyzing, and writing. After the four stages
comes an introduction to three common ways of conducting primary
research in first year writing classes:
• Observations. Observing and measuring the world around you,
including observations of people and other measurable events.
• Interviews. Asking participants questions in a one-on-one or small
group setting.
• Surveys. Asking participants about their opinions and behaviors
through a short questionnaire.
In addition, we will be examining two student projects that used
substantial portions of primary research: Derek Laan, a nutrition
major at Purdue University, wanted to learn more about student
eating habits on campus. His primary research included
observations of the campus food courts, student behavior while in
the food courts, and a survey of students’ daily food intake. His

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secondary research included looking at national studenteating

trends on college campuses, information from the United States
Food and Drug Administration, and books on healthy eating. Jared
Schwab, an agricultural and biological engineering major at Purdue,
was interested in learning more about how writing and
communication took place in his field. His primary research included
interviewing a professional engineer and a student who was a
senior majoring in engineering. His secondary research included
examining journals, books, professional organizations, and writing
guides within the field of engineering.
Ethics of Primary Research
Both projects listed above included primary research on human
participants; therefore, Derek and Jared both had to consider
research ethics throughout their primary research process. As Earl
Babbie writes in The Practice of Social Research, throughout the
early and middle parts of the twentieth century researchers took
advantage of participants and treated them unethically.
During World War II, Nazi doctors performed heinous experiments
on prisoners without their consent, while in the U.S., a number of
medical and psychological experiments on caused patients undue
mental and physical trauma and, in some cases, death. Because of
these and other similar events, many nations have established
ethical laws and guidelines for researchers who work with human
participants.
In the United States, the guidelines for the ethical treatment of
human research participants are described in The Belmont Report,
released in 1979. Today, universities have Institutional Review
Boards (or IRBs) that oversee research. Students conducting
research as part of a class may not need permission from the

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university’s IRB, although they still need to ensure that they follow
ethical guidelines in research. The following provides a brief
overview of ethical considerations:
Voluntary participation
The Belmont Report suggests that, in most cases, you need to get
permission from people before you involve them in any primary
research you are conducting. If you are doing a survey or interview,
your participants must first agree to fill out your survey or to be
interviewed. Consent for observations can be more complicated,
and is discussed later in the essay.
Confidentiality and anonymity
Your participants may reveal embarrassing or potentially damaging
information such as racist comments or unconventional behavior. In
these cases, you should keep your participants’ identities
anonymous when writing your results. An easy way to do this is to
create a “pseudonym” (or false name) for them so that their identity
is protected.
Researcher bias
There is little point in collecting data and learning about something if
you already think you know the answer! Bias might be present in the
way you ask questions, the way you take notes, or the conclusions
you draw from the data you collect.
Planning Your Primary Research Project
The primary research process is quite similar to the writing process,
and you can draw upon your knowledge of the writing process to
understand the steps involved in a primary research project. Just
like in the writing process, a successful primary research project

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begins with careful planning and background research. This section

first describes how to create a research timeline to help plan your
research. It then walks you through the planning stages by
examining when primary research is useful or appropriate for your
first year composition course, narrowing down a topic, and
developing research questions.
The Research Timeline
When you begin to conduct any kind of primary research, creating a
timeline will help keep you on task. Because students conducting
primary research usually focus on the collection of data itself, they
often overlook the equally important areas of planning (invention),
analyzing data, and writing. To help manage your time, you should
create a research timeline, such as the sample timeline presented
here.
When Primary Research Is Useful or Appropriate In
Evaluating Scientific Research:
Separating Fact from Fiction, Fred Leavitt explains that primary
research is useful for questions that can be answered through
asking others and direct observation. For first year writing courses,
primary research is particularly useful when you want to learn about
a problem that does not have a wealth of published information.
This may be because the problem is a recent event or it is
something not commonly studied. For example, if you are writing a
paper on a new political issue, such as changes in tax laws or
healthcare, you might not be able to find a wealth of peer-reviewed
research because the issue is only several weeks old. You may find
it necessary to collect some of your own data on the issue to
supplement what you found at the library.

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Primary research is also useful when youare studying a local

problem or learning how a larger issue plays out at the local level.
Although you might be able to find information on national statistics
for healthy eating, whether or not those statistics are representative
of your college campus is something that you can learn through
primary research.
Developing Research
Questions or Hypotheses As John Stuart Mill describes, primary
research can use both inductive and deductive approaches, and the
type approach is usually based on the field of inquiry.
Some fields use deductive reasoning, where researchers start with
a hypothesis or general conclusion and then collect specific data to
support or refute their hypothesis.
Other fields use inductive reasoning, where researchers start with a
question and collect information that eventually leads to a
conclusion. Once you have spent some time reviewing the
secondary research on your topic, you are ready to write a primary
research question or hypothesis. A research question or hypothesis
should be something that is specific, narrow, and discoverable
through primary research methods. Just like a thesis statement for a
paper, if your research question or hypothesis is too broad, your
research will be unfocused and your data will be difficult to analyze
and write about. Here is a set of sample research questions:
Observations
Observations have lead to some of the most important scientific
discoveries in human history. Charles Darwin used observations of
the animal and marine life at the Galapagos Islands to help him
formulate his theory of evolution that he describes in On the Origin

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of Species. Today, social scientists, natural scientists, engineers,

computer scientists, educational researchers, and many others use
observations as a primary research method. Observations can be
conducted on nearly any subject matter, and the kinds of
observations you will do depend on your research question. You
might observe traffic or parking patterns on campus to get a sense
of what improvements could be made. You might observe clouds,
plants,
or other natural phenomena. If you choose to observe people, you
will have several additional considerations including the manner in
which you will observe them and gain their consent. If you are
observing people, you can choose between two common ways to
observe: participant observation and unobtrusive observation.
Participant observation is a common method within ethnographic
research in sociology and anthropology. In this kind of observation,
a researcher may interact with participants and become part of their
community.
Margaret Mead, a famous anthropologist, spent extended periods of
time living in, and interacting with, communities that she studied.
Conversely, in unobtrusive observation, you do not interact with
participants but rather simply record their behavior. Although in
most circumstances people must volunteer to be participants in
research, in some cases it is acceptable to not let participants know
you are observing them. In places that people perceive as public,
such as a campus food court or a shopping mall, people do not
expect privacy, and so it is generally acceptable to observe without
participant consent. In places that people perceive as private, which
can include a church,
Eliminating Bias in Your Observation Notes

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The ethical concern of being unbiased is important in recording

your observations. You need to be aware of the difference between
an observation (recording exactly what you see) and an
interpretation (making assumptions and judgments about what you
see). When you observe, you should focus first on only the events
that are directly observable. Consider the following two example
entries in an observation log:
1. The student sitting in the dining hall enjoys his greasy, oilsoaked
pizza. He is clearly oblivious of the calorie content and damage it
may do to his body.
2. The student sits in the dining hall. As he eats his piece of pizza,
which drips oil, he says to a friend, “This pizza is good.”
Surveys and Interviews:
Question Creation Sometimes it is very difficult for a researcher to
gain all of the necessary information through observations alone.
Along with his observations of the dining halls, Derek wanted to
know what students ate in a typical day, and so he used a survey to
have them keep track of their eating habits.
Likewise, Jared wanted to learn about writing and communication in
engineering and decided to draw upon expert knowledge by asking
experienced individuals within the field. Interviews and surveys are
two ways that you can gather information about people’s beliefs or
behaviors. With these methods, the information you collect is not
first-hand (like an observation) but rather “self-reported” data, or
data collected in an indirect manner.
William Shadish, Thomas Cook, and Donald Campbell argued that
people are inherently biased about how they see the world and may
report their own actions in a more favorable way than they may

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actually behave. Despite the issues in self-reported data, surveys

and interviews are an excellent way to gather data for your primary
research project.
Survey or Interview? How do you choose between conducting a
survey or an interview? It depends on what kind of information you
are looking for.
You shoulduse surveys if you want to learn about a general trend in
people’s opinions, experiences, and behavior. Surveys are
particularly useful to find small amounts of information from a wider
selection of people in the hopes of making a general claim.
Interviews are best used when you want to learn detailed
information from a few specific people. Interviews are also
particularly useful if you want to interview experts about their
opinions, as Jared did. In sum, use interviews to gain details from a
few people, and surveys to learn general patterns from many
people.
Writing Good Questions
One of the greatest challenges in conducting surveys and interviews
is writing good questions. As a researcher, you are always trying to
eliminate bias, and the questions you ask need to be unbiased and
clear. Here are some suggestions on writing good questions:
Ask about One Thing at a Time
A poorly written question can contain multiple questions, which can
confuse participants or lead them to answer only part of the
question you are asking. This is called a “double-barreled question”
in journalism. The following questions are taken from Jared’s
research: Poor question: What kinds of problems are being faced in

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the field today and where do you see the search for solutions to
these problems going?
Revised question #1 : What kinds of problems are being faced in
the field today?
Revised question #2: Where do you see the search for solutions to
these problems going?
Understand When to Use Open and Closed Questions
Closed questions, or questions that have yes/no or other limited
responses, should be used in surveys. However, avoid these kinds
of questions in interviews because they discourage the interviewee
from going into depth.
The question sample above, “Do you believe the economy currently
is in a crisis?” could be answered with a simple yes or no, which
could keep a participant from talking more about the issue. The
“why or why not?” portion of the question asks the participant to
elaborate. On a survey, the question “Do you believe the economy
currently is in a crisis?”
is a useful question because you can easily count the number of
yes and no answers and make a general claim about participant
responses.
Interviews
Interviews, or question and answer sessions with one or more
people, are an excellent way to learn in-depth information from a
person for your primary research project. This section presents
information on how to conduct a successful interview, including
choosing the right person, ways of interviewing, recording your
interview, interview locations, and transcribing your interview.

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Choosing the Right Person One of the keys to a successful

interview is choosing the right person to interview. Think about
whom you would like to interview and whom you might know. Do not
be afraid to ask people you do not know for interviews. When
asking, simply tell them what the interview will beabout, what the
interview is for, and how much time it will take. Jared used his
Purdue University connection to locate both of the individuals that
he ended up interviewing—an advanced Purdue student and a
Purdue alum working in an Engineering firm.
Face-to-Face and Virtual Interviews
When interviewing, you have a choice of conducting a traditional,
face-to-face interview or an interview using technology over the
Internet. Face-to-face interviews have the strength that you can ask
follow-up questions and use non-verbal communication to your
advantage. Individuals are able to say much more in a face-to-face
interview than in an email, so you will get more information from a
face-to-face interview. However, the Internet provides a host of new
possibilities when it comes to interviewing people at a distance. You
may choose to do an email interview, where you send questions
and ask the person to respond.
You may also choose to use a video or audio conferencing program
to talk with the person virtually. If you are choosing any Internet-
based option, make sure you have a way of recording the interview.
You may also use a chat or instant messaging program to interview
your participant—the benefit of this is that you can ask follow-up
questions during the interview and the interview is already
transcribed for you. Because one of his interviewees lived several
hours away, Jared chose to interview the Purdue student faceto-
face and the Purdue alum via email.

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Transcribing Your Interview Once your interview is over, you will

need to transcribe your interview to prepare it for analysis. The term
transcribing means creating a written record that is exactly what
was said—i.e. typing up your interviews. If you have conducted an
email or chat interview, you already have a transcription and can
move on to your analysis stage.
Analyzing and Writing About Primary
Research Once you collect primary research data, you will need to
analyze what you have found so that you can write about it. The
purpose of analyzing your data is to look at what you collected
(survey responses, interview answers to questions, observations)
and to create a cohesive, systematic interpretation to help answer
your research question or examine the validity of your hypothesis.
When you are analyzing and presenting your findings, remember to
work to eliminate bias by being truthful and as accurate as possible
about what you found, even if it differs from what you expected to
find. You should see your data as sources of information, just like
sources you find in the library, and you should work to represent
them accurately. The following are suggestions for analyzing
different types of data.
Observations

If you’ve counted anything you were observing, you can simply add
up what you counted and report the results. If you’ve collected
descriptions using a double-entry notebook, you might work to write
thick descriptions of what you observed into your writing. This could
include descriptions of the scene, behaviors you observed, and your
overall conclusions about events. Be sure that your readers are
clear on what were your actual observations versus your thoughts
or interpretations of those observations.

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Interviews
If you’ve interviewed one or two people, then you can use your
summary, paraphrasing, and quotation skills to help you accurately
describe what was said in the interview. Just like in secondary
researchwhen working with sources, you should introduce your
interviewees and choose clear and relevant quotes from the
interviews to use in your writing. An easy way to find the important
information in an interview is to print out your transcription and take
a highlighter and mark the important parts that you might use in
your paper. If you have conducted a large number of interviews, it
will be helpful for you to create a spreadsheet of responses to each
question and compare the responses, choosing representative
answers for each area you want to describe. Surveys
Surveys
can contain quantitative (numerical) and qualitative (written
answers/descriptions) data. Quantitative data can be analyzed
using a spreadsheet program like Microsoft Excel to calculate the
mean (average) answer or to calculate the percentage of people
who responded in a certain way. You can display this information in
a chart or a graph and also describe it in writing in your paper. If you
have qualitative responses, you might choose to group them into
categories and/or you may choose to quote several representative
responses.

Experimental

Experimental psychology can be defined as the scientific and

empirical approach to the study of the mind. The experimental

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approach means that tests are administered to participants, with

both control and experimental conditions.
This means that a group of participants are exposed to a stimulus
(or stimuli), and their behavior in response is recorded. This
behavior is compared to some kind of control condition, which could
be either a neutral stimulus, the absence of a stimulus, or against a
control group.
Experimental psychology is concerned with testing theories of
human thoughts, feelings, actions, and beyond – any aspect of
being human that involves the mind. This is a broad category that
features many branches within it (e.g. behavioral psychology,
cognitive psychology). Below, we will go through a brief history of
experimental psychology, the aspects that characterize it, and
outline research that has gone on to shape this field.
A Brief History of Experimental Psychology
As with anything, and perhaps particularly with scientific ideas, it’s
difficult to pinpoint the exact moment in which a thought or approach
was conceived. One of the best candidates with which to credit the
emergence of experimental psychology with is Gustav Fechner who
came to prominence in the 1830’s. After completing his Ph.D in
biology at the University of Leipzig [1], and continuing his work as a
professor, he made a significant breakthrough in the conception of
mental states.
As Schultz and Schultz recount [2]: “An increase in the intensity of a
stimulus, Fechner argued, does not produce a one-to-one increase
in the intensity of the sensation … For example, adding the sound
of one bell to that of an already ringing bell produces a greater
increase in sensation than adding one bell to 10 others already

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ringing. Therefore, the effects of stimulus intensities are not

absolute but are relative to the amount of sensation that already
exists.”
The next scientist to advance the field of experimental psychology
was influenced directly by reading Fechner’s book “Elements of
Psychophysics”. Hermann Ebbinghaus, also a German scientist,
carried out the first properly formalized research into memory and
forgetting, by using long lists of (mostly) nonsense syllables (such
as: “VAW”, “TEL”, “BOC”) and recording how long it took for people
to forget them.
Experiments using this list, concerning learning and memory, would
take up much of Ebbinghaus’ career, and help cement experimental
psychology as a science. There are many other scientists’ whose
contributions helped pave the way for the direction, approach, and
success of experimental psychology (Hermann von Helmholtz,
Ernst Weber, and Mary Whiton Calkins, to name just a few), yet
their work is beyond the scope of this post.
Defining any scientific field is in itself no exact science – there are
inevitably aspects that will be missed. However, experimental
psychology features at least three central components that define it:
empiricism, falsifiability, and determinism. These features are
central to experimental psychology but also many other fields within
science.
Empiricism refers to the collection of data that can support or refute
a theory. In opposition to purely theoretical reasoning, empiricism is
concerned with observations that can be tested. It is based on the
notion that all knowledge stems from sensory experience – that
observations can be perceived and data surrounding them can be
collected to form experiments.

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Falsifiability is a foundational aspect of all contemporary scientific

work. Karl Popper, a 20th century philosopher, formalized this
concept – that for any theory to be scientific there must be a way to
falsify it.
Classic Studies in Experimental Psychology
Little Albert
One of the most notorious studies within experimental psychology
was also one of the foundational pieces of research for behaviorism.
Popularly known as the study of “Little Albert”, this experiment,
carried out in 1920, focused on whether a baby could be made to
fear a stimulus through conditioning (conditioning refers to the
association of a response to a stimulus) [3].
The psychologist, John B. Watson, devised an experiment in which
a baby was exposed to an unconditioned stimulus (in this case, a
white rat) at the same time as a fear-inducing stimulus (the loud,
sudden sound of a hammer hitting a metal bar). The repetition of
this loud noise paired with the appearance of the white rat
eventually led to the white rat becoming a conditioned stimulus –
inducing the fear response even without the sound of the hammer.
Asch’s Conformity Experiment
Three decades following Watson’s infamous experiment, beliefs
were studied rather than behavior. Research carried out
by Solomon Asch in 1951 showed how group pressure could make
people say what they didn’t believe.
The goal was to examine how social pressures “induce individuals
to resist or to yield to group pressures when the latter are perceived
to be contrary to fact” [6]. Participant’s were introduced to a group of

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seven people in which, unbeknownst to them, all other individuals

were actors hired by Asch. The task was introduced as a perceptual
test, in which the length of lines was to be compared.
The Future of Experimental Psychology
The majority of this article has been concerned with what
experimental psychology is, where it comes from, and what it has
achieved so far. An inevitable follow-up question to this is – where is
it going?
While predictions are difficult to make, there are at least indications.
The best place to look is to experts in the field. Schultz and Schultz
refer to modern psychology “as the science of behavior and mental
processes instead of only behavior, a science seeking to explain
overt behavior and its relationship to mental processes.” [2].
The Association for Psychological Science (APS) asked for
forecasts from several prominent psychology researchers (original
article available here), and received some of the following
responses.
Quasi-Experimental Research

The prefix quasi means “resembling.” Thus quasi-experimental

research is research that resembles experimental research but is
not true experimental research. Although the independent variable
is manipulated, participants are not randomly assigned to conditions
or orders of conditions (Cook & Campbell, 1979). Because the
independent variable is manipulated before the dependent variable
is measured, quasi-experimental research eliminates the
directionality problem. But because participants are not randomly
assigned—making it likely that there are other differences between
conditions—quasi-experimental research does not eliminate the
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problem of confounding variables. In terms of internal validity,

therefore, quasi-experiments are generally somewhere between
correlational studies and true experiments.
Quasi-experiments are most likely to be conducted in field settings
in which random assignment is difficult or impossible. They are
often conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of a treatment—
perhaps a type of psychotherapy or an educational intervention.
There are many different kinds of quasi-experiments, but we will
discuss just a few of the most common ones here.
Nonequivalent Groups Design
Recall that when participants in a between-subjects experiment are
randomly assigned to conditions, the resulting groups are likely to
be quite similar. In fact, researchers consider them to be equivalent.
When participants are not randomly assigned to conditions,
however, the resulting groups are likely to be dissimilar in some
ways. For this reason, researchers consider them to be
nonequivalent.
Imagine, for example, a researcher who wants to evaluate a new
method of teaching fractions to third graders. One way would be to
conduct a study with a treatment group consisting of one class of
third-grade students and a control group consisting of another class
of third-grade students.
This design would be a nonequivalent groups design because the
students are not randomly assigned to classes by the researcher,
which means there could be important differences between them.
For example, the parents of higher achieving or more motivated
students might have been more likely to request that their children
be assigned to Ms. Williams’s class. Or the principal might have

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assigned the “troublemakers” to Mr. Jones’s class because he is a

stronger disciplinarian. Of course, the teachers’ styles, and even the
classroom environments, might be very different and might cause
different levels of achievement or motivation among the students. If
at the end of the study there was a difference in the two classes’
knowledge of fractions, it might have been caused by the difference
between the teaching methods—but it might have been caused by
any of these confounding variables.
Of course, researchers using a nonequivalent groups design can
take steps to ensure that their groups are as similar as possible. In
the present example, the researcher could try to select two classes
at the same school, where the students in the two classes have
similar scores on a standardized math test and the teachers are the
same sex, are close in age, and have similar teaching styles. Taking
such steps would increase the internal validity of the study because
it would eliminate some of the most important confounding
variables. But without true random assignment of the students to
conditions, there remains the possibility of other important
confounding variables that the researcher was not able to control.
If the average posttest score is better than the average pretest
score, then it makes sense to conclude that the treatment might be
responsible for the improvement. Unfortunately, one often cannot
conclude this with a high degree of certainty because there may be
other explanations for why the posttest scores are better. One
category of alternative explanations goes under the name
of history. Other things might have happened between the pretest
and the posttest. Perhaps an antidrug program aired on television
and many of the students watched it, or perhaps a celebrity died of
a drug overdose and many of the students heard about it. Another
category of alternative explanations goes under the name
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of maturation. Participants might have changed between the

pretest and the posttest in ways that they were going to anyway
because they are growing and learning. If it were a yearlong
program, participants might become less impulsive or better
reasoners and this might be responsible for the change.
Natural Experiment
Natural experiments are conducted in the everyday (i.e. real life)
environment of the participants, but here the experimenter has no
control over the independent variable as it occurs naturally in real
life.
For example, Hodges and Tizard's attachment research
(1989) compared the long term development of children who have
been adopted, fostered or returned to their mothers with a control
group of children who had spent all their lives in their biological
families.
 Strength: behavior in a natural experiment is more likely to
reflect real life because of its natural setting, i.e. very high
ecological validity.
 Strength: There is less likelihood of demand characteristics
affecting the results, as participants may not know they are
being studied.
 Strength: Can be used in situations in which it would be
ethically unacceptable to manipulate the independent variable,
e.g. researching stress.
 Limitation: They may be more expensive and time consuming
than lab experiments.

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 Limitation: There is no control over extraneous variables that

might bias the results. This makes it difficult for another
researcher to replicate the study in exactly the same way.
Field Study
A field study is a general method for collecting data about users,
user needs, and product requirements that involves observation and
interviewing. Data are collected about task flows, inefficiencies, and
the organizational and physical environments of users.
Investigators in field studies observe users as they work, taking
notes on particular activities and often asking questions of the
users. Observation may be either direct, where the investigator is
actually present during the task, or indirect, where the task is
viewed by some other means like a video recorder set up in an
office. The method is useful early in product development to gather
user requirements. It is also useful for studying currently executed
tasks and processes.

The Focus of Cross-Cultural Psychology

Cross-cultural psychology is a branch of psychology that looks at

how cultural factors influence human behavior. While many aspects
of human thought and behavior are universal, cultural differences
can lead to often surprising differences in how people think, feel,
and act.
Some cultures, for example, might stress individualism and the
importance of personal autonomy. Other cultures, however, may
place a higher value on collectivism and cooperation among

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members of the group. Such differences can play a powerful role in

many aspects of life.
Cross-cultural psychology is also emerging as an increasingly
important topic as researchers strive to understand both the
differences and similarities among people of various cultures
throughout the world. The International Association of Cross-
Cultural Psychology (IACCP) was established in 1972, and this
branch of psychology has continued to grow and develop since that
time.1 Today, increasing numbers of psychologists investigate how
behavior differs among various cultures throughout the world.
Why Cross-Cultural Psychology Is Important
After prioritizing European and North American research for many
years, Western researchers began to question whether many of the
observations and ideas that were once believed to be universal
might apply to cultures outside of these areas. Could their findings
and assumptions about human psychology be biased based on the
sample from which their observations were drawn?
Cross-cultural psychologists work to rectify many of the biases that
may exist in the current research2 and determine if the phenomena
that appear in European and North American cultures also appear
in other parts of the world.
For example, consider how something such as social
cognition might vary from an individualist culture such as the United
States versus a collectivist culture such as China. Do people in
China rely on the same social cues as people in the U.S. do? What
cultural differences might influence how people perceive each
other? These are just some of the questions that a cross-cultural
psychologist might explore.

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Many cross-cultural psychologists choose to focus on one of two

approaches:
 The etic approach studies culture through an "outsider"
perspective, applying one "universal" set of concepts and
measurements to all cultures.
 The emic approach studies culture using an "insider"
perspective, analyzing concepts within the specific context of
the observed culture.
Some cross-cultural psychologists take a combined emic-etic
approach.
Meanwhile, some cross-cultural psychologists also study something
known as ethnocentrism.
Ethnocentrism refers to a tendency to use your own culture as the
standard by which to judge and evaluate other cultures.6 In other
words, taking an ethnocentric point of view means using your
understanding of your own culture to gauge what is "normal." This
can lead to biases and a tendency to view cultural differences as
abnormal or in a negative light. It can also make it difficult to see
how your own cultural background influences your behaviors.
Psychologists are also concerned with how ethnocentrism can
influence the research process. For example, a study might be
criticized for having an ethnocentric bias.
Major Topics in Cross-Cultural Psychology
 Emotions
 Language acquisition
 Child development

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 Personality
 Social behavior
 Family and social relationships
Cross-Cultural Psychology Differs From Other Branches of
Psychology
 Many other branches of psychology focus on how parents,
friends, and other people impact human behavior, but most do
not take into account the powerful impact that culture may
have on individual human actions.
 Cross-cultural psychology, on the other hand, is focused on
studying human behavior in a way that takes the effects of
culture into account.
 According to Walter J. Lonner, writing for Eye on Psi Chi,
cross-cultural psychology can be thought of as a type of
research methodology rather than an entirely separate field
within psychology.

Phenomenology
Phenomenology is commonly understood in either of two ways: as a
disciplinary field in philosophy, or as a movement in the history of
philosophy.
The discipline of phenomenology may be defined initially as the
study of structures of experience, or consciousness. Literally,
phenomenology is the study of “phenomena”: appearances of
things, or things as they appear in our experience, or the ways we
experience things, thus the meanings things have in our experience.
Phenomenology studies conscious experience as experienced from

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the subjective or first person point of view. This field of philosophy is

then to be distinguished from, and related to, the other main fields of
philosophy: ontology (the study of being or what is), epistemology
(the study of knowledge), logic (the study of valid reasoning), ethics
(the study of right and wrong action), etc.
The historical movement of phenomenology is the philosophical
tradition launched in the first half of the 20th century by Edmund
Husserl, Martin Heidegger, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Jean-Paul
Sartre, et al. In that movement, the discipline of phenomenology
was prized as the proper foundation of all philosophy—as opposed,
say, to ethics or metaphysics or epistemology. The methods and
characterization of the discipline were widely debated by Husserl
and his successors, and these debates continue to the present day.
(The definition of phenomenology offered above will thus be
debatable, for example, by Heideggerians, but it remains the
starting point in characterizing the discipline.)
In recent philosophy of mind, the term “phenomenology” is often
restricted to the characterization of sensory qualities of seeing,
hearing, etc.: what it is like to have sensations of various kinds.
However, our experience is normally much richer in content than
mere sensation. Accordingly, in the phenomenological tradition,
phenomenology is given a much wider range, addressing the
meaning things have in our experience, notably, the significance of
objects, events, tools, the flow of time, the self, and others, as these
things arise and are experienced in our “life-world”.
Phenomenology as a discipline has been central to the tradition of
continental European philosophy throughout the 20th century, while
philosophy of mind has evolved in the Austro-Anglo-American
tradition of analytic philosophy that developed throughout the

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20th century. Yet the fundamental character of our mental activity is

pursued in overlapping ways within these two traditions.
Accordingly, the perspective on phenomenology drawn in this article
will accommodate both traditions. The main concern here will be to
characterize the discipline of phenomenology, in a contemporary
purview, while also highlighting the historical tradition that brought
the discipline into its own.
The Discipline of Phenomenology
The discipline of phenomenology is defined by its domain of study,
its methods, and its main results.
Phenomenology studies structures of conscious experience as
experienced from the first-person point of view, along with relevant
conditions of experience. The central structure of an experience is
its intentionality, the way it is directed through its content or
meaning toward a certain object in the world.
We all experience various types of experience including perception,
imagination, thought, emotion, desire, volition, and action. Thus, the
domain of phenomenology is the range of experiences including
these types (among others). Experience includes not only relatively
passive experience as in vision or hearing, but also active
experience as in walking or hammering a nail or kicking a ball. (The
range will be specific to each species of being that enjoys
consciousness; our focus is on our own, human, experience. Not all
conscious beings will, or will be able to, practice phenomenology, as
we do.)
Conscious experiences have a unique feature: we experience them,
we live through them or perform them. Other things in the world we
may observe and engage. But we do not experience them, in the

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sense of living through or performing them. This experiential or first-

person feature—that of being experienced—is an essential part of
the nature or structure of conscious experience: as we say, “I see /
think / desire / do …” This feature is both a phenomenological and
an ontological feature of each experience: it is part of what it is for
the experience to be experienced (phenomenological) and part of
what it is for the experience to be (ontological).
From Phenomena to Phenomenology
The Oxford English Dictionary presents the following definition:
“Phenomenology. a. The science of phenomena as distinct from
being (ontology). b. That division of any science which describes
and classifies its phenomena. From the Greek phainomenon,
appearance.” In philosophy, the term is used in the first sense, amid
debates of theory and methodology. In physics and philosophy of
science, the term is used in the second sense, albeit only
occasionally.
In its root meaning, then, phenomenology is the study
of phenomena: literally, appearances as opposed to reality. This
ancient distinction launched philosophy as we emerged from Plato’s
cave. Yet the discipline of phenomenology did not blossom until the
20th century and remains poorly understood in many circles of
contemporary philosophy. What is that discipline? How did
philosophy move from a root concept of phenomena to the
discipline of phenomenology?
Originally, in the 18th century, “phenomenology” meant the theory of
appearances fundamental to empirical knowledge, especially
sensory appearances. The Latin term “Phenomenologia” was
introduced by Christoph Friedrich Oetinger in 1736. Subsequently,
the German term “Phänomenologia” was used by Johann Heinrich

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Lambert, a follower of Christian Wolff. Immanuel Kant used the term

occasionally in various writings, as did Johann Gottlieb Fichte. In
1807, G. W. F. Hegel wrote a book titled Phänomenologie des
Geistes (usually translated as Phenomenology of Spirit). By 1889
Franz Brentano used the term to characterize what he called
“descriptive psychology”. From there Edmund Husserl took up the
term for his new science of consciousness, and the rest is history.
The History and Varieties of Phenomenology
Phenomenology came into its own with Husserl, much as
epistemology came into its own with Descartes, and ontology or
metaphysics came into its own with Aristotle on the heels of Plato.
Yet phenomenology has been practiced, with or without the name,
for many centuries. When Hindu and Buddhist philosophers
reflected on states of consciousness achieved in a variety of
meditative states, they were practicing phenomenology. When
Descartes, Hume, and Kant characterized states of perception,
thought, and imagination, they were practicing phenomenology.
When Brentano classified varieties of mental phenomena (defined
by the directedness of consciousness), he was practicing
phenomenology.
When William James appraised kinds of mental activity in the
stream of consciousness (including their embodiment and their
dependence on habit), he too was practicing phenomenology. And
when recent analytic philosophers of mind have addressed issues
of consciousness and intentionality, they have often been practicing
phenomenology. Still, the discipline of phenomenology, its roots
tracing back through the centuries, came to full flower in Husserl.
Husserl’s work was followed by a flurry of phenomenological writing
in the first half of the 20th century. The diversity of traditional

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phenomenology is apparent in the Encyclopedia of

Phenomenology (Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1997, Dordrecht and
Boston), which features separate articles on some seven types of
phenomenology.
(1) Transcendental constitutive phenomenology studies how objects
are constituted in pure or transcendental consciousness, setting
aside questions of any relation to the natural world around us.
(2) Naturalistic constitutive phenomenology studies how
consciousness constitutes or takes things in the world of nature,
assuming with the natural attitude that consciousness is part of
nature.
(3) Existential phenomenology studies concrete human existence,
including our experience of free choice or action in concrete
situations.
(4) Generative historicist phenomenology studies how meaning, as
found in our experience, is generated in historical processes of
collective experience over time.
(5) Genetic phenomenology studies the genesis of meanings of
things within one’s own stream of experience.
(6) Hermeneutical phenomenology studies interpretive structures of
experience, how we understand and engage things around us in our
human world, including ourselves and others.
(7) Realistic phenomenology studies the structure of consciousness
and intentionality, assuming it occurs in a real world that is largely
external to consciousness and not somehow brought into being by
consciousness.
Phenomenology and Ontology, Epistemology, Logic, Ethics

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The discipline of phenomenology forms one basic field in philosophy

among others. How is phenomenology distinguished from, and
related to, other fields in philosophy?
Traditionally, philosophy includes at least four core fields or
disciplines: ontology, epistemology, ethics, logic. Suppose
phenomenology joins that list. Consider then these elementary
definitions of field:
 Ontology is the study of beings or their being—what is.
 Epistemology is the study of knowledge—how we know.
 Logic is the study of valid reasoning—how to reason.
 Ethics is the study of right and wrong—how we should act.
 Phenomenology is the study of our experience—how we
experience.
The domains of study in these five fields are clearly different, and
they seem to call for different methods of study.
Philosophers have sometimes argued that one of these fields is
“first philosophy”, the most fundamental discipline, on which all
philosophy or all knowledge or wisdom rests. Historically (it may be
argued), Socrates and Plato put ethics first, then Aristotle put
metaphysics or ontology first, then Descartes put epistemology first,
then Russell put logic first, and then Husserl (in his later
transcendental phase) put phenomenology first.
Consider epistemology. As we saw, phenomenology helps to define
the phenomena on which knowledge claims rest, according to
modern epistemology. On the other hand, phenomenology itself

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claims to achieve knowledge about the nature of consciousness, a

distinctive kind of first-person knowledge, through a form of intuition.
Consider logic. As we saw, logical theory of meaning led Husserl
into the theory of intentionality, the heart of phenomenology. On one
account, phenomenology explicates the intentional or semantic
force of ideal meanings, and propositional meanings are central to
logical theory. But logical structure is expressed in language, either
ordinary language or symbolic languages like those of predicate
logic or mathematics or computer systems. It remains an important
issue of debate where and whether language shapes specific forms
of experience (thought, perception, emotion) and their content or
meaning. So there is an important (if disputed) relation between
phenomenology and logico-linguistic theory, especially philosophical
logic and philosophy of language (as opposed to mathematical
logic per se).
Consider ontology. Phenomenology studies (among other things)
the nature of consciousness, which is a central issue in metaphysics
or ontology, and one that leads into the traditional mind-body
problem. Husserlian methodology would bracket the question of the
existence of the surrounding world, thereby separating
phenomenology from the ontology of the world. Yet Husserl’s
phenomenology presupposes theory about species and individuals
(universals and particulars), relations of part and whole, and ideal
meanings—all parts of ontology.
Now consider ethics. Phenomenology might play a role in ethics by
offering analyses of the structure of will, valuing, happiness, and
care for others (in empathy and sympathy). Historically, though,
ethics has been on the horizon of phenomenology. Husserl largely
avoided ethics in his major works, though he featured the role of

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practical concerns in the structure of the life-world or of Geist (spirit,

or culture, as in Zeitgeist), and he once delivered a course of
lectures giving ethics (like logic) a basic place in philosophy,
indicating the importance of the phenomenology of sympathy in
grounding ethics. In Being and Time Heidegger claimed not to
pursue ethics while discussing phenomena ranging from care,
conscience, and guilt to “fallenness” and “authenticity” (all
phenomena with theological echoes). In Being and
Nothingness Sartre analyzed with subtlety the logical problem of
“bad faith”,
yet he developed an ontology of value as produced by willing in
good faith (which sounds like a revised Kantian foundation for
morality). Beauvoir sketched an existentialist ethics, and Sartre left
unpublished notebooks on ethics. However, an explicitly
phenomenological approach to ethics emerged in the works of
Emannuel Levinas, a Lithuanian phenomenologist who heard
Husserl and Heidegger in Freiburg before moving to Paris.
In Totality and Infinity (1961), modifying themes drawn from Husserl
and Heidegger, Levinas focused on the significance of the “face” of
the other, explicitly developing grounds for ethics in this range of
phenomenology, writing an impression
Phenomenology and Philosophy of Mind
It ought to be obvious that phenomenology has a lot to say in the
area called philosophy of mind. Yet the traditions of phenomenology
and analytic philosophy of mind have not been closely joined,
despite overlapping areas of interest. So it is appropriate to close
this survey of phenomenology by addressing philosophy of mind,
one of the most vigorously debated areas in recent philosophy.

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The tradition of analytic philosophy began, early in the 20th century,

with analyses of language, notably in the works of Gottlob Frege,
Bertrand Russell, and Ludwig Wittgenstein. Then in The Concept of
Mind (1949) Gilbert Ryle developed a series of analyses of
language about different mental states, including sensation, belief,
and will. Though Ryle is commonly deemed a philosopher of
ordinary language, Ryle himself said The Concept of Mind could be
called phenomenology.
In effect, Ryle analyzed our phenomenological understanding of
mental states as reflected in ordinary language about the mind.
From this linguistic phenomenology Ryle argued that Cartesian
mind-body dualism involves a category mistake (the logic or
grammar of mental verbs—“believe”, “see”, etc.—does not mean
that we ascribe belief, sensation, etc., to “the ghost in the
machine”). With Ryle’s rejection of mind-body dualism, the mind-
body problem was re-awakened: what is the ontology of mind vis-à-
vis body, and how are mind and body related?
René Descartes, in his epoch-making Meditations on First
Philosophy (1641), had argued that minds and bodies are two
distinct kinds of being or substance with two distinct kinds of
attributes or modes: bodies are characterized by spatiotemporal
physical properties, while minds are characterized by properties of
thinking (including seeing, feeling, etc.).
Centuries later, phenomenology would find, with Brentano and
Husserl, that mental acts are characterized by consciousness and
intentionality, while natural science would find that physical systems
are characterized by mass and force, ultimately by gravitational,
electromagnetic, and quantum fields. Where do we find
consciousness and intentionality in the quantum-electromagnetic-

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gravitational field that, by hypothesis, orders everything in the

natural world in which we humans and our minds exist? That is the
mind-body problem today. In short, phenomenology by any other
name lies at the heart of the contemporary mind-body problem.
Grounded theory of psychology

Grounded theory is a well-known methodology employed in many

research studies. Qualitative and quantitative data generation
techniques can be used in a grounded theory study. Grounded
theory sets out to discover or construct theory from data,
systematically obtained and analysed using comparative analysis.
While grounded theory is inherently flexible, it is a complex
methodology. Thus, novice researchers strive to understand the
discourse and the practical application of grounded theory concepts
and processes.
Glaser and Strauss are recognised as the founders of grounded
theory. Strauss was conversant in symbolic interactionism and
Glaser in descriptive statistics.8–10 Glaser and Strauss originally
worked together in a study examining the experience of terminally ill
patients who had differing knowledge of their health status. Some of
these suspected they were dying and tried to confirm or disconfirm
their suspicions. Others tried to understand by interpreting treatment
by care providers and family members. Glaser and Strauss
examined how the patients dealt with the knowledge they were
dying and the reactions of healthcare staff caring for these patients.
Throughout this collaboration, Glaser and Strauss questioned the
appropriateness of using a scientific method of verification for this
study. During this investigation, they developed the constant
comparative method, a key element of grounded theory, while
generating a theory of dying first described in Awareness of

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Dying (1965). The constant comparative method is deemed an

original way of organising and analysing qualitative data.
Glaser and Strauss subsequently went on to write The Discovery of
Grounded Theory: Strategy for Qualitative Research (1967). This
seminal work explained how theory could be generated from data
inductively. This process challenged the traditional method of
testing or refining theory through deductive testing. Grounded
theory provided an outlook that questioned the view of the time that
quantitative methodology is the only valid, unbiased way to
determine truths about the world Glaser and Strauss challenged the
belief that qualitative research lacked rigour and detailed the
method of comparative analysis that enables the generation of
theory. After publishing The Discovery of Grounded Theory, Strauss
and Glaser went on to write independently, expressing divergent
viewpoints in the application of grounded theory methods.
Objective:
The aim of this article is to provide a contemporary research
framework suitable to inform a grounded theory study.
Result:
This article provides an overview of grounded theory illustrated
through a graphic representation of the processes and methods
employed in conducting research using this methodology. The
framework is presented as a diagrammatic representation of a
research design and acts as a visual guide for the novice grounded
theory researcher.
Discussion:

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As grounded theory is not a linear process, the framework illustrates

the interplay between the essential grounded theory methods and
iterative and comparative actions involved. Each of the essential
methods and processes that underpin grounded theory are defined
in this article.
Conclusion:
Rather than an engagement in philosophical discussion or a debate
of the different genres that can be used in grounded theory, this
article illustrates how a framework for a research study design can
be used to guide and inform the novice nurse researcher
undertaking a study using grounded theory. Research findings and
recommendations can contribute to policy or knowledge
development, service provision and can reform thinking to initiate
change in the substantive area of inquiry.
Keywords: Framework, grounded theory, grounded theory
methods, novice researcher, study design

Focus groups of Psychology

Focus group discussion requires a team consisting of a skilled

facilitator and an assistant (Burrows & Kendall, 1997; Krueger,
1994). The facilitator is central to the discussion not only by
managing existing relationships but also by creating a relaxed and
comfortable environment for unfamiliar participants. Similarly, the
assistant’s role includes observing non-verbal interactions and the
impact of the group dynamics, and documenting the general content
of the discussion, thereby supplementing the data (Kitzinger, 1994,
1995). Non-verbal data rely on the behaviour and actions of
respondent’s pre-focus group discussion, during and post-focus
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group discussion. Non-verbal data provide “thicker” descriptions and

interpretations compared to the sole use ofverbal data (Fonteyn,
Vettese, Lancaster, & Bauer-Wu, 2008). Gorden (1980) outlines
four non-verbal communication data sources based on participants’
behaviour reflected by body displacements and postures (kinesics);
use of interpersonal space to communicate attitudes (proxemics);
temporal speech markers such as gaps, silences, and hesitations
(chronemics); and variations in volume, pitch and quality of voice
(paralinguistic).
TYPES OF FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION
Five types of focus group discussion have been identified in the
literature, and a further two are emerging with the growth in access
and variety of online platforms.
Single focus group
The key feature of a single focus group is the interactive discussion
of a topic by a collection of all participants and a team of facilitators
as one group in one place. This is the most common and classical
type of focus group discussion (Morgan, 1996). It has been widely
used by both researchers and practitioners across different
disciplines (e.g. Lunt & Livingstone, 1996; Morgan, 1996; Wilkinson,
1998).
Two-way focus group
This format involves using two groups where one group actively
discusses a topic, whereas the other observes the first group
(Morgan, 1996; Morgan et al., 1998). Usually, this type of focus
group is conducted behind a one-way glass. The observing group
and the moderator can observe and note the interactions and
discussion of the first group without being seen. Hearing what the

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other group thinks (or by observing their interactions) often leads

the second group to different conclusions than those it may have
reached otherwise (Morgan, 1988). Dual moderator focus group |
3.3 Involves two moderators working together, each performing a
different role within the same focus group (Krueger & Casey, 2000).
The division of roles ensures a smooth progression of the session
and ensures that all topics are covered..
Duelling moderator focus group
This involves two moderators who purposefully take opposing
sides on an issue or topic under investigation (Krueger & Casey,
2000). Proponents believe that the introduction of contrary views to
the discussion by the moderators is critical to achieving more in-
depth disclosure of data and information (Kamberelis & Dimitriadis,
2005).
Respondent moderator focus group
In this type of focus group discussion, researchers recruit some
of the participants to take up a temporary role of moderators
(Kamberelis & Dimitriadis, 2005). Having one of the participants
lead the discussion is thought to impact on the dynamics of the
group by influencing participants’ answers, thereby increasing the
chances of varied and more honest responses.
Mini focus group
Researchers are usually faced with a situation where there is a
small potential pool of participants and are difficult to reach, yet the
research design requires that the topic must be discussed in a
group. Under these circumstances, researchers can only convene a
small group of between two and five participants (Kamberelis &

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Dimitriadis, 2005). Such groups are usually made up of individuals

with high level of expertise (Hague, 2002).
Online focus groups
Online focus groups are not a different type of focus group
discussion per se but one borne out of the introduction of the
Internet as an adaptation of traditional methods. It is applied within
the online environment, using conference calling, chat rooms or
other online means (Kamberelis & Dimitriadis, 2005). Online focus
groups boast an aura of dynamism, modernity and competitiveness
that transcends classic problems with face-to-face focus group
discussion (Edmunds, 1999). However, these discussion platforms
are only accessible to participants with access to the Internet and
are prone to technical problems such as poor or loss of connectivity
and failure to capture non-verbal data (Dubrovsky, Kiesler, &
Sethna, 1991).
MATERIALS AND METHODS

Our primary aim was to understand how focus group discussion has
been used as a methodological tool in conservation in the last 20
years. Using a stepwise, structured approach, we reviewed the
literature on the use of this method in biodiversity, ecology and
conservation research. We used a combination of “Focus Group
Discussion*” AND “conserv*,” OR “ecology,” OR “biodivers*,” where
“*” denotes a wild card to search for alternative word endings, in a
search query within the Scopus database
from 1996 to 2016 (accessed on 20th April 2016). A subsequent
search using the term “Focus Group” with the other terms was run
on 21st April 2017 in the same database. The search returned 438
peer reviewed articles excluding reviews. We screened the titles

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and abstracts to identify only those relevant to conservation,

biodiversity and ecology. Studies which had focused primarily on
soil or water conservation and did not have a direct bearing on
biodiversity conservation were discarded. This resulted in 196 peer-
reviewed papers. We retrieved all the relevant papers and scanned
the full text to check if they specifically used focus group discussion
as a method to answer a research question. All studies where the
technique was merely mentioned in the introduction or conclusion
section were eliminated. We developed a protocol (Appendix S1,
Supporting Information) for extracting data from the final list of
studies.
Introducing Narrative Psychology

It may seem obvious to turn towards psychology in order to throw

light on these complex questions regarding self and identity. After
all, most people are drawn towards the study of psychology
because they are interested in the ‘human condition’, what makes
us human, our loves, passions, hates and desires. But most of us
find ourselves only a few months into a psychology degree when we
realise that we are dealing with very little of this. Instead, you are
enmeshed in statistics, principles of learning, cognition, abstract
theories and theoretical models, all of which bear very little
resemblance to anything you were originally interested in studying.
Somewhat ironically, a great deal of contemporary psychology,
supposedly an area devoted to the study of human beings, has
become a totally ‘lifeless’ discipline. So where do we look, in the
discipline of psychology, if we want to examine these questions of
self and identity? In Introducing Narrative Psychology, I suggested
four main areas of psychology which address these issues. These
included:

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i) experimentally based social psychology;

ii) humanistic psychology;
iii) psychoanalytic/ psychodynamic psychology; and
iv) social constructivist approaches. Highlighting the limitations
associated with each of these four areas, I opened the way for a
new narrative psychology approach which, although influenced by
these approaches (especially humanistic and social constructivist),
had the potential to avoid the pitfalls endemic within them.
Narrative as an ‘Organising Principle’ for Human Life
But it is not just the fact that people tell stories in making sense of
themselves and others. A narrative psychological approach goes far
deeper than that. For, central to this approach, is the development
of a phenomenological understanding of the unique ‘order of
meaning’ constitutive of human consciousness (see Crossley,
2000a; Polkinghorne, 1988). One of the main features of this ‘order
of meaning’ is the experience of time and temporality. An
understanding of temporality associated with the human realm of
meaning is entirely different to that encountered in the natural
sciences.
This is because the human realm of meaning it is not related to a
‘thing’ or a ‘substance’ but to an ‘activity’ (Polkinghorne, 1988: 4).
Everything experienced by human beings is made meaningful,
understood and interpreted in relation to the primary dimension of
‘activity’ which incorporates both ‘time’ and ‘sequence’. In order to
define and interpret ‘what’ exactly has happened on any particular
occasion, the sequence of events is of extreme importance. Hence,
a valid portrayal of the experience of selfhood necessitates an

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understanding of the inextricable connection between temporality

and identity.
Human Experience and Narrative Structure
Carr (1986) argues that the reality of human experience can be
characterised as one which has a narrative or story-telling character
(ibid, p.18). What would it be, he asks, to experience life as a ‘mere’
or ‘pure’ sequence of isolated events, one thing after another? In
order to illustrate his thesis Carr draws upon phenomenological
approaches such as Husserl’s theory of time consciousness which
depicts the way in which humans ordinarily experience time. He
basically makes a distinction between three levels of human
experience:
passive experience, active experience and experience of self/life. At
each of these levels, human experience can be characterised by a
complex temporal structure akin to the configuration of the storied
form (see also Bruner, 1990; 1991). In the following exploration of
human time consciousness, we will look at each of these
experiential levels in turn.
Human Life Narratively Configured? In characterising psychological
life through the concept of narrative, however, are we not
overplaying the significance played by the storied form in human
experience? At the level of ‘personal’ experience, some researchers
have argued that although human experience may bear some
resemblance to the story,
the idea that it takes on a narrative structure is mistaken. The core
of this argument is that the coherent temporal unity lying at the heart
of stories (the connection between beginning, middle and end) is
something that is not at all intrinsic to real human events, real

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selves and real life. As literary theorist Frank Kermode argues, such
‘narrative properties cannot be ascribed to the real’ (cited in Wood,
1991: 160). The historian Louis Mink argues a similar point: ‘Stories
are not lived but told … Life has no beginnings, middles and
ends...Narrative qualities are transferred from art to life’ (cited in
Wood, 1991: 161).
Narrative Incoherence and the Breach of Trauma One good
example of disruptive traumatising experiences is that of chronic or
serious illness. In recent years numerous studies of chronic illness
have illustrated the potentially devastating impact they can have on
a person’s life. This has been characterised as an ‘ontological
assault’ in which some of the most basic, underlying existential
assumptions that people hold about themselves and the world are
thrown into disarray (Crossley, 2000b; Janoff Bulman, 1992;
Kleinman, 1988; Taylor, S., 1989).
Adapting to Trauma: Stories and Narrative Coherence
Research into the experience of chronic and serious illness
illustrates the way in which our routine, ‘lived’ sense of time and
identity is one of implicit connection and coherence. This sense is
severely disrupted in the face of trauma and it is in such contexts
that stories become important as a way of rebuilding a sense of
connection and coherence. As the recent proliferation of
autobiographies (especially in relation to diseases such as cancer
and HIV/AIDS) and self-help groups suggests, for people suffering
the trauma of illness, storytelling takes on a ‘renewed urgency’
(Mathieson and Stam, 1995: 284). Of course, such a narrative
understanding bears a strong affinity with Freud's work, which
equated mental ill health with an ‘incoherent story’ and narrative

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breakdown. From this perspective, psychotherapy constituted an

exercise in ‘story repair’ and, as Spence (1982) argued:
Freud made us aware of the persuasive power of a coherent
narrative - in particular of the ways in which an aptly chosen
reconstruction can fill the gap between two apparently unrelated
events, and in the process, make sense out of nonsense. There
seems no doubt but that a well constructed story possesses a kind
of narrative truth that is real and immediate and carries an important
significance for the process of therapeutic change.
Conclusion
This paper has aimed to introduce some of the main themes
underpinning a narrative approach towards psychology. Drawing on
some of dominant theories in this area, it has argued that human life
carries within it a narrative structure to the extent that the the
individual, at the level of tacit, phenomenological experience, is
constantly projecting backwards and forwards in a manner that
maintains a sense of coherence, unity, meaningfulness and identity.
From this perspective, the characterisation of human experience as
one of constant flux, variability and incoherence, as manifest in
many discursive and postmodern approaches, fails to take sufficient
account of the essential unity and integrity of everyday lived
experience. In accordance with this theoretical perspective, it has
been argued that the experience of traumatic events such as
serious illness are instrumental in facilitating an appreciation of the
way in which human life is routinely narratively configured.
This is because the experience of traumatisation often serves to
fundamentally disrupt the routine and orderly sense of existence,
throwing into radical doubt our taken-for-granted assumptions about
time, identity, meaning, and life itself. When this happens, it is

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possible to examine the way in which narratives become important

in another sense. This is in terms of the way in which they are used
to restore a sense of order and connection, and thus to re-establish
a semblance of meaning in the life of the individual. Accordingly,
narratives of illness are useful because they help to reveal
structures or meanings that typically remain implicit or
unrecognised, thus potentiating a transformation of life and
elevation to another level.

Case studies in Psychology

Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single person, group,

event or community. Typically, data are gathered from a variety of
sources and by using several different methods
(e.g. observations & interviews).
The case study research method originated in clinical medicine (the
case history, i.e. the patient’s personal history). In psychology, case
studies are often confined to the study of a particular individual.
The information is mainly biographical and relates to events in the
individual's past (i.e. retrospective), as well as to significant events
which are currently occurring in his or her everyday life.
The case study is not itself a research method, but researchers
select methods of data collection and analysis that will generate
material suitable for case studies.
Case studies are widely used in psychology and amongst the best
known were the ones carried out by Sigmund Freud, including Anna
O and Little Hans.

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Freud (1909a, 1909b) conducted very detailed investigations into

the private lives of his patients in an attempt to both understand and
help them overcome their illnesses. Even today case histories are
one of the main methods of investigation in abnormal
psychology and psychiatry.
This makes it clear that the case study is a method that should only
be used by a psychologist, therapist or psychiatrist, i.e. someone
with a professional qualification.
There is an ethical issue of competence. Only someone qualified to
diagnose and treat a person can conduct a formal case study
relating to atypical (i.e. abnormal) behavior or atypical development.
The procedure used in a case study means that the researcher
provides a description of the behavior. This comes from interviews
and other sources, such as observation.
The client also reports detail of events from his or her point of view.
The researcher then writes up the information from both sources
above as the case study, and interprets the information.
Strengths of Case Studies
 Provides detailed (rich qualitative) information.
 Provides insight for further research.
 Permitting investigation of otherwise impractical (or unethical)
situations.
Case studies allow a researcher to investigate a topic in far more
detail than might be possible if they were trying to deal with a large
number of research participants (nomothetic approach) with the aim
of ‘averaging’.

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Because of their in-depth, multi-sided approach case studies often

shed light on aspects of human thinking and behavior that would be
unethical or impractical to study in other ways.
Research which only looks into the measurable aspects of human
behavior is not likely to give us insights into the subjective
dimension to experience which is so important
to psychoanalytic and humanistic psychologists.
Case studies are often used in exploratory research. They can help
us generate new ideas (that might be tested by other methods).
They are an important way of illustrating theories and can help show
how different aspects of a person's life are related to each other.
The method is therefore important for psychologists who adopt
a holistic point of view (i.e. humanistic psychologists).
Limitations of Case Studies
 Lacking scientific rigour and providing little basis for
generalization of results to the wider population.
 Researchers' own subjective feeling may influence the case
study (researcher bias).
 Difficult to replicate.
 Time-consuming and expensive.
 The volume of data, together with the time restrictions in place,
impacted on the depth of analysis that was possible within the
available resources.
Because a case study deals with only one person/event/group we
can never be sure if the case study investigated is representative of
the wider body of "similar" instances. This means the the

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conclusions drawn from a particular case may not be transferable to

other settings.
Because case studies are based on the analysis of qualitative (i.e.
descriptive) data a lot depends on the interpretation the
psychologist places on the information she has acquired.
This means that there is a lot of scope for observer bias and it could
be that the subjective opinions of the psychologist intrude in the
assessment of what the data means.
For example, Freud has been criticized for producing case studies
in which the information was sometimes distorted to fit the particular
theories about behavior).
This is also true of Money’s interpretation of the Bruce/Brenda case
study (Diamond, 1997) when he ignored evidence that went against
his theory.

Ethnography

Ethnography, descriptive study of a particular human society or the

process of making such a study. Contemporary ethnography is
based almost entirely on fieldwork and requires the
complete immersion of the anthropologist in the culture and
everyday life of the people who are the subject of his study.
There has been some confusion regarding the terms ethnography
and ethnology. The latter, a term more widely used in
Europe, encompasses the analytical and comparative study
of cultures in general, which in American usage is the academic
field known as cultural anthropology (in British usage, social
anthropology). Increasingly, however, the distinction between the
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two is coming to be seen as existing more in theory than in fact.

Ethnography, by virtue of its intersubjective nature, is necessarily
comparative. Given that the anthropologist in the field necessarily
retains certain cultural biases, his observations and descriptions
must, to a certain degree, be comparative. Thus the formulating of
generalizations about culture and the drawing of comparisons
inevitably become components of ethnography.
The description of other ways of life is an activity with roots in
ancient times. Herodotus, the Greek traveler and historian of the 5th
century BC, wrote of some 50 different peoples he encountered or
heard of, remarking on their laws, social customs, religion, and
appearance. Beginning with the age of exploration and continuing
into the early 20th century, detailed accounts of non-European
peoples were rendered by European traders, missionaries, and,
later, colonial administrators. The reliability of such accounts varies
considerably, as the Europeans often misunderstood what they saw
or had a vested interest in portraying their subjects less than
objectively.
Modern anthropologists usually identify the establishment of
ethnography as a professional field with the pioneering work of both
the Polish-born British anthropologist Bronisław Malinowski in
the Trobriand Islands of Melanesia (c. 1915) and the American
anthropologist Margaret Mead, whose first fieldwork was in Samoa
(1925). Ethnographic fieldwork has since become a sort of rite of
passage into the profession of cultural anthropology. Many
ethnographers reside in the field for a year or more, learning the
local language or dialect and, to the greatest extent possible,
participating in everyday life while at the same time maintaining an
observer’s objective detachment. This method, called participant-
observation, while necessary and useful for gaining a thorough
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understanding of a foreign culture, is in practice quite difficult. Just

as the anthropologist brings to the situation certain inherent, if
unconscious, cultural biases, so also is he influenced by the subject
of his study. While there are cases of ethnographers who felt
alienated or even repelled by the culture they entered, many—
perhaps most—have come to identify closely with “their people,” a
factor that affects their objectivity. In addition to the technique of
participant-observation, the contemporary ethnographer usually
selects and cultivates close relationships with individuals, known
as informants, who can provide specific information on
ritual, kinship, or other significant aspects of cultural life. In this
process also the anthropologist risks the danger
of biased viewpoints, as those who most willingly act as informants
frequently are individuals who are marginal to the group and who,
for ulterior motives (e.g., alienation from the group or a desire to be
singled out as special by the foreigner), may provide other than
objective explanations of cultural and social phenomena. A final
hazard inherent in ethnographic fieldwork is the ever-present
possibility of cultural change produced by or resulting from the
ethnographer’s presence in the group.
Contemporary ethnographies usually adhere to a community, rather
than individual, focus and concentrate on the description of current
circumstances rather than historical events. Traditionally,
commonalities among members of the group have been
emphasized, though recent ethnography has begun to reflect an
interest in the importance of variation within cultural systems.
Ethnographic studies are no longer restricted to small primitive
societies but may also focus on such social units as urban ghettos.
The tools of the ethnographer have changed radically since
Malinowski’s time. While detailed notes are still a mainstay of

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fieldwork, ethnographers have taken full advantage of technological

developments such as motion pictures and tape recorders to
augment their written accounts.
Ethnomusicology, field of scholarship that encompasses the
study of all world musics from various perspectives. It is defined
either as the comparative study of musical systems and cultures or
as the anthropological study of music. Although the field
had antecedents in the 18th and early 19th centuries, it began to
gather energy with the development of recording techniques in the
late 19th century.
It was known as comparative musicology until about 1950, when
the term ethnomusicology was introduced simultaneously by the
Dutch scholar of Indonesian music Jaap Kunst and by several
American scholars, including Richard Waterman and Alan Merriam.
In the period after 1950, ethnomusicology burgeoned at academic
institutions. Several societies and periodicals were founded, the
most notable being the Society for Ethnomusicology, which
publishes the journal Ethnomusicology. Some ethnomusicologists
consider their field to be associated with musicology, while others
see the field as related more closely to anthropology.
Among the general characteristics of the field are dependence on
field research, which may include the direct study of music
performance, and interest in all types of music produced in a
society, including folk, art, and popular genres. Among the
field’s abiding concerns are whether outsiders can validly study
another culture’s music and what the researcher’s obligations are to
his informants, teachers, and consultants in colonial and
postcolonial contexts. Over time, ethnomusicologists have gradually
abandoned the detailed analytical study of music and increased

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their focus on the anthropological study of music as a domain

of culture. With this shift in emphasis has come greater concern with
the study of popular musics as expressions of the relationships
between dominant and minority cultures; of music as a reflection of
political, social-ethnic, and economic movements; and of music in
the context of the cultural meanings of gender. See
also anthropology: Ethnomusicology.

What is Statistics in Psychology: Measures of

Central Tendency and Dispersion. Normal
Probability Curve. Parametric [t-test] and Non-
parametric tests [Sign Test, Wilcoxon Signed rank
test, Mann-Whitney test, Kruskal-Wallis test,
Friedman]. Power analysis. Effect size?

Statistics in Psychology: Measures of Central Tendency and

Dispersion. Normal Probability Curve. Parametric [t-test] and
Non-parametric tests [Sign Test, Wilcoxon Signed rank test,
Mann-Whitney test, Kruskal-Wallis test, Friedman]. Power
analysis. Effect size

Statistics in Psychology: Measures of Central Tendency and

Dispersion.
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The following points highlight the three types of measures of central

tendency. The types are: 1. Mean 2. Median 3. Mode
Type # 1. Mean:
It is also known as arithmetic mean. It is the ordinary average in
Arithmetic.
According to Garrett, “The arithmetic mean, or more simply the
mean, is the sum of the separate scores or measures divided
by their number.”
Calculation of the Mean when Data are Ungrouped:
In ungrouped data, mean is the sum of separate scores or
measures divided by their number. If a man earns Rs. 5, Rs. 6 Rs.
4, Rs. 9 on four successive days his mean of daily wage (Rs. 6) is
obtained by dividing the sum of his daily earnings by the number of
days he has worked. The formula for the mean (M) of a series of
ungrouped measures is: M = ∑X/N (arithmetic mean calculated from
ungrouped data).
Where ∑ means the “sum of,”
X stands for a score of other measure,
N is the number of measures in the series.
Calculation of the Mean when Data are Grouped:
When data or measures have been grouped into a frequency
distribution, the mean may by calculated by a simple formula:

F stands for the frequency of each class-interval.

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X represents the mid-point in each class-interval.

N stands for the total number of frequencies.
The following example is given for calculating the mean from
grouped date:

In calculating mean we first of all find the mid-point (x) of various

class- intervals. After finding x we find the fx. Column fx is found by
multiplying the mid-point (x) of each interval by the number of
scores (f) on it; the mean (47.4) is then simply the sum of the fx
namely, (2607.5) divided by N (55).
This is known as long method of finding the mean.
Short Method of Finding the Mean:
The long method of finding the mean gives accurate results but
often requires the handling of large numbers and entails tedious
calculation. Because of this, short method or the “assumed mean”
method has been devised for computing the mean.
According to this method we shall find the mean as follows:
Mean = AM + Ci
AM stands for the assumed mean or guessed mean,
C stands for correction in terms of class-interval,
i stands for the length of class-intervals.
Ci stands for fx’/N x 1

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Now, we shall calculate the mean by short method from the

following data:

The various steps in calculating the mean by the short method

may be explained below:
1. In the first column, write the class-intervals.
2. After writing class-intervals, find the mid-points.
3. Then write the frequency.
4. Assume a mean as near the centre of the distribution as possible
and preferably on the interval containing the largest frequency.
5. After assuming the mean, find its deviation in terms of class-
interval from the assumed mean in units of interval.
6. Multiply each deviation (x’) by its appropriate f, the f opposite to it.
7. Find the algebric sum of the plus and minus of x’ and divide the
sum by N, number of cases. This gives C, the correction in units of
class interval.
8. Multiply C by the interval length (i) to get Ci, the score correction.
9. Add Ci algebraically to the AM. This will give the true mean.
Advantages of the Mean:
1. It utilises all the items in a group.
2. It is widely understood and easy to calculate.
3. It can be known even when number of items and their aggregate
values are known, but details of the different items are not available.

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4. It is always definite,
5. It is capable of further algebraic treatment.
6. It is less subject to chance variation. Hence it is more stable
measure of central tendency.
Limitations of the Mean:
1. It may not be an actual item in a series.
2. It cannot be computed by merely observing the series, unless the
series, is very simple.
3. It is essential to know the actual values of all the items before
computing the arithmetic mean, but in the case of median and mode
the items on the extreme may be ignored without understanding the
values of these measurements.
There are More Important Things:
Questioning American Psychology’s Commitment to Personal
Happiness and Self-esteem While I hope I am still too young to
write a retrospective of my career, I find myself reflecting on
recurring themes in both my professional career as a practicing and
teaching psychologist and my personal life. I hope that the reader
will indulge a certain personal focus and use of the personal “I”
pronoun even though this is a voice not used much in academic
psychology.
My focus in this article is on the commitment in American
psychology to the ideal of personal happiness and Self-esteem.
While for most Americans these aims seem self-evident, I have
grown increasingly uncomfortable with and skeptical of these mostly
unquestioned assumptions in my field. I hope that what I have to

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say can influence the reader both professionally and personally in

their pursuit of academic goals and the right kind of life. I will focus
on three primary assumptions made by modern American
psychology: first, that human beings should or ought to be happy;
second, that we should seek to be free of suffering; and third, that
humans beings should (and deserve to) feel good about
themselves.
Healthy People Suffer
Much of modern psychotherapy sets the goal for a healthy individual
to be free of suffering. Measures of mental health are almost always
organized as “symptom checklists” which add up negative
symptoms (like feelings of unhappiness or anxiety) to give you a
score reflecting the “amount” of suffering you areexperiencing. In
other words, each symptom of suffering is counted against your
mental health. This is universal enough that it must seem to most
psychologists to be self-evident that suffering is bad and a sign of
poor mental health.
I myself helped create one of these measures and also worked in a
clinic that used such a checklist to track the progress of
psychotherapy. I was certainly committed to ending the suffering of
my clients and believed that problems needed to be fixed so that a
person would be free of suffering and problems.
Feeling Good about Oneself
is to Encourage Illusory Thinking Perhaps the most provocative of
my professional disagreements has to do with theway that we
should think of ourselves. American psychology has long had an
obsession with positive Self-esteem and working to help
psychotherapy patients “feel good about themselves.” This kind of

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positive self-image is encouraged regardless of the kind of lifestyle

or decisions the person is making in their lives. People are
encouraged to think positively of themselves even if they are failing
miserably in their relationships, career, and personal lives. One of
my colleagues worked at a mental hospital where they treated youth
who were convicted of violent sexual assault. Even these youth
were taught to love themselves more, disregarding or separating
themselves from their horrific behavior. I believe that this focus in
psychology is counter-productive and I have a feeling that most of
us know that it is ultimately wrong. I will explain.
This article throws light upon the fifteen main principles of normal
probability curve. Some of the properties are: 1. The normal curve is
symmetrical 2. The normal curve is unimodal 3. Mean, median and
mode coincide 4. The maximum ordinate occurs at the centre 5.
The normal curve is asymptotic to the X-axis 6. The height of the
curve declines symmetrically and Others.
1. The normal curve is symmetrical:
The Normal Probability Curve (N.P.C.) is symmetrical about the
ordinate of the central point of the curve. It implies that the size,
shape and slope of the curve on one side of the curve is identical to
that of the other.
That is, the normal curve has a bilateral symmetry. If the figure is to
be folded along its vertical axis, the two halves would coincide. In
other words the left and right values to the middle central point are
mirror images.
2. The normal curve is unimodal:

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Since there is only one point in the curve which has maximum
frequency, the normal probability curve is unimodal, i.e. it has only
one mode.
Parametric [t-test] and Non-parametric tests [Sign Test
psychology

PARAMETRIC and NON-PARAMETRIC TESTS

In the literal meaning of the terms, a parametric statistical test is
one that makes assumptions about the parameters (defining
properties) of the population distribution(s) from which one's data
are drawn, while a non-parametric test is one that makes no such
assumptions.
PARAMETRIC TESTS:
Parametric tests normally involve data expressed in absolute
numbers or values rather than ranks; an example is the Student’s t-
test. The parametric statistical test operates under certain
conditions. Since these conditions are not ordinarily tested, they are
assumed to hold valid. The meaningfulness of the results of a
parametric test depends on the validity of the assumption. Proper
interpretation of parametric test based on normal distribution also
assumes that the scene being analysed results from measurement
in at least an interval scale. Let us try to understand the term
population. Population refers to the entire group of people which a
researcher intends to understand in regard to a phenomenon. The
study is generally conducted on a sample of the said population and
the obtained results are then applied to the larger population from
which the sample was selected.
Tests like t, z, and F are called parametrical statistical tests. T-tests:
A T-test is used to determine if the scores of two groups differ on a
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single variable. A t-test is designed to test for the differences in

mean scores. For instance, you could use t-test to determine
whether writing ability differs among students in two classrooms. It
may be mentioned here that the parametric tests, namely, t-test and
F-test, are considered to be quite robust and are appropriate even
when some assumptions are not met.
Assumptions of Parametric Statistics
Parametric tests like, ‘t and f’ tests may be used for analysing the
data which satisfy the following conditions :
The population from which the sample have been drawn should be
normally distributed.
Normal Distributions refer to Frequency distribution following a
normal curve, which is infinite at both the ends.
The variables involved must have been measured interval or ratio
scale. Variable and its types: characteristic that can have different
values.
Types of Variables Dependent Variable: Variable considered to be
an effect; usually a measured variable. Independent Variable:
Variable considered being a cause. The observation must be
independent.
The inclusion or exclusion of any case in the sample should not
unduly affect the results of study.
These populations must have the same variance or, in special
cases, must have a known ratio of variance. This we call
homosedasticity.

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The samples have equal or nearly equal variances. This condition is

known as equality or homogeneity of variances and is particularly
important to determine when the samples are small. The
observations are independent.
The selection of one case in the sample is not dependent upon the
selection of any other case.
Most of the statistical tests we perform are based on a set of
assumptions. When these assumptions are violated the results of
the analysis can be misleading or completely erroneous.
Normality:

Data have a normal distribution (or at least is symmetric)

Homogeneity of variances: Data from multiple groups have the
same variance Linearity: Data have a linear relationship
Independence: Data are independent We explore in detail what it
means for data to be normally distributed in Normal Distribution, but
in general it means that the graph of the data has the shape of a
bell curve. Such data is symmetric around its mean and has kurtosis
equal to zero.
In Testing for Normality and Symmetry we provide tests to
determine whether data meet this assumption. Some tests (e.g.
ANOVA) require that the groups of data being studied have the
same variance. In Homogeneity of Variances we provide some tests
for determining whether groups of data have the same variance.
Some tests (e.g. Regression) require that there be a linear
correlation between the dependent and independent variables.
Generally linearity can be tested graphically using scatter diagrams
or via other techniques explored in Correlation, Regression and
Multiple Regression.

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Introduction:
The t-test is a basic test that is limited to two groups. For multiple
groups, you would have

 to compare each pair of groups. For example with three groups

there would be three tests (AB, AC, BC) whilst with seven groups
there would be need of 21 tests.
The basic principle is to test the null hypothesis that means of the
two groups are equal
The t-test assumes:

A normal distribution (parametric data) Underlying variances are

equal (if not, use welch’s test) It is used when there is random
assignment and only two sets of measurement to compare. There
are two main types of t-test: Independent – measures – t- test:
when samples are not matched.

 Match – pair – t-test: when samples appear in pairs (eg. before

and after)

 A single – sample t-test compares a sample against a known

figure. For example when measures of a manufactured item are
compared against the required standard.
APPLICATIONS:

To compare the mean of a sample with population mean. (Simple

t-test)

 To compare the mean of one sample with the independent

sample. (Independent Sample ttest)

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 To compare between the values (readings) of one sample but in

two occasions.

(Paired sample t-test) Independent Samples t-Test (or 2-Sample t-

Test) The independent samples t-test is probably the single most
widely used test in statistics. It is used to compare differences
between separate groups. In Psychology, these groups are often
composed by randomly assigning research participants to
conditions.
However, this test can also be used to explore differences in
naturally occurring groups. For example, we may be interested in
differences of emotional intelligence between males and females.
Any differences between groups can be explored with the
independent t-test, as long as the tested members of each group
are reasonably representative of the population.
NON-PARAMETRIC STASTISTICS The term non-parametric was
first used by Wolfowitz, 1942. To understand the idea of
nonparametric statistics it is required to have a basic understanding
of parametric statistics which we have already discussed.
A parametric test requires a sample to be normally distributed. A
nonparametric test does not rely on parametric assumptions like
normality. Nonparametric test create flexible demands of the data.
To make standard parametric legitimate, some provisions need to
fulfilled, especially for minor sample sizes. For example, the
requirement of the one sample t-test is that the observation must be
made from ordinarily distributed population. In case, the provision is
defined, then the resultants may not be credible. However, in case
of Wilcoxon Signed rank test to illustrate valid inference, normality is
not required. We can assume that the sampling distribution is
normal even if we are not sure that the distribution of the variable in
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the population is normal, as long as our sample is large enough, (for

example, 100 or more observations). However, if our selected
sample is too large, then those teats can only be utilized if we are
assured that the variable is disseminated normally. The applications
of tests that are based on the normality assumptions are restricted
by the deficiency of accurate measurement. For example, a study
measures Grade Point Average (GPA) in place of percentage
Marks. This measurement scale does not measure the exact
distance between the marks of two students. GPA allows us only to
rank the students from “good” to “poor” students. This measurement
is called the ordinal scale. Statistical techniques such as Analysis of
Variance, t-test etc. assume that the data are measured either on
interval or ratio scale. In such situations where data is measured on
nominal or ordinal scale nonparametric tests are more useful. Thus,
nonparametric tests are used when either: Sample is not normally
distributed

. Sample size is small

. The variables are measured on nominal or ordinal scale.

 There is at least one nonparametric equivalent for each

parametric general type of test. Broadly, these tests fall into the
following categories: Test of differences between groups
(independent samples

 Test of differences ( dependent samples)

 Test of relationships between variables.

 The concepts and procedure to undertake Run Test, Chi-Square

Test, Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test, Mann-Whitney Test and Kruskal-
Wallis Test are discussed here under: Run Test: Run Test is used to

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examine the randomness of data. Many statistical procedures

require data to be randomly selected.
Statistics is an Independent branch and its use is highly prevalent in
all the fields of knowledge. Many methods and techniques are used
in statistics. These have been grouped under parametric and and
non-parametric statistics. Statistical tests which are not based on a
normal distribution of data or on any other assumption are also
known as distribution-free tests and the data are generally ranked or
grouped. Examples include the chi-square test and Spearman’s
rank correlation coefficient.
The first meaning of non-parametric covers techniques that do not
rely on data belonging to any particular distribution. These include,
among others:
1) Distribution free methods: This means that there are no
assumptions that the data have been drawn from a normally
distributed population. This consists of non-parametric statistical
models, inference and statistical tests.
2) Non-parametric statistics: In this the statistics is based on the
ranks of observations and do not depend on any distribution of the
population.
3)No assumption of a structure of a model: In non-parametric
statistics, the techniques do not assume that the structure of a
model is fixed. In this, theindividual variables are typically assumed
to belong to parametric distributions, and assumptions about the
types of connections among variables are also made. These
techniques include, among others:
a) Non-parametric regression

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b) Non-parametric hierarchical Bayesian models.

In non-parametric regression, the structure of the relationship is
treated nonparametrically. In regard to the Bayesian models, these
are based on the Dirichlet process, which allows the number of
latent variables to grow as necessary to fit the data. In this the
individual variables however follow parametric distributions and
even the process controlling the rate of growth of latent variables
follows a parametric distribution.
Assumptions of Parametric Statistics
Parametric tests like, ‘t and f’ tests may be used for analysing the
data which satisfy the following conditions :
The population from which the sample have been drawn should be
normally distributed. Normal Distributions refer to Frequency
distribution following a normal curve, which is infinite at both the
ends.
The variables involved must have been measured interval or ratio
scale. Variable and its types:
characteristic that can have different values. Types of Variables
Dependent Variable: Variable considered to be an effect; usually a
measured variable. Independent Variable: Variable considered
being a cause.
The observation must be independent.
The inclusion or exclusion of any case in the sample should not
unduly affect the results of study.
These populations must have the same variance or, in special
cases, must have a known ratio of variance.

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This we call homosedasticity.

The samples have equal or nearly equal variances.
This condition is known as equality or homogeneity of variances and
is particularly important to determine when the samples are small.
The observations are independent.
The selection of one case in the sample is not dependent upon the
selection of any other case.
Assumptions of Non-parametric Statistics
We face many situations where we can not meet the assumptions
and conditions and thus cannot use parametric statistical
procedures. In such situation we are bound to apply non-parametric
statistics.
If our sample is in the form of nominal or ordinal scale and the
distribution of sample is not normally distributed, and also the
sample size is very small, it is always advisable to make use of the
non-parametric tests for comparing samples and to make inferences
or test the significance or trust worthiness of the computed
statistics.
In other words, the use of non-parametric tests is recommended in
the following situations: Where sample size is quite small. If the size
of the sample is as small as N=5 or N=6, the only alternative is to
make use of non-parametric tests.
When assumption like normality of the distribution of scores in the
population are doubtful, we use non-parametric tests.
When the measurement of data is available either in the form of
ordinal or nominal scales or when the data can be expressed in the

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form of ranks or in the shape of + signs or – signs and classification

like “good-bad”, etc., we use non-parametric statistics.
ADVANTAGES OF NON-PARAMETRIC STATISTICS
If the sample size is very small, there may be no alternative except
to use a nonparametric statistical test. Non-parametric tests typically
make fewer assumptions about the data and may be relevant to a
particular situation.
The hypothesis tested by the non-parametric test may be more
appropriate for research investigation. Non-parametric statistical
tests are available to analyse data which are inherently in ranks as
well as data whose seemingly numerical scores have the strength of
ranks. For example, in studying a variable such as anxiety,
we may be able to state that subject
A is more anxious than subject B without knowing at all exactly how
much more anxious
A is. Thus if the data are inherently in ranks, or even if they can be
categorised only as plus or minus (more or less, better or worse),
they can be treated by non-parametric methods.
Non-parametric methods are available to treat data which are
simply classificatory and categorical, i.e., are measured in nominal
scale. Samples made up of observations from several different
populations at times cannot be handled by Parametric tests.
Non-parametric statistical tests typically are much easier to learn
and to apply than are parametric tests. In addition, their
interpretation often is more direct than the interpretation of
parametric tests.

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DISADVANTAGES OF NON-PARAMETRIC STATISTICAL TESTS

If all the assumptions of a parametric statistical model are in fact
met in the data and the research hypothesis could be tested with a
parametric test, then non-parametric statistical tests are wasteful.
The degree of wastefulness is expressed by the power-efficiency of
the non-parametric test. It will be remembered that, if a non-
parametric statistical test has powerefficiency of say, 90 percent,
this means that when all conditions of parametric statistical test are
satisfied the appropriate parametric test would be just as effective
with a sample which is 10
percent smaller than that used in non-parametric analysis. Another
objection to non-parametric statistical test has to do with
convenience. Tables necessary to implement non-parametric tests
are scattered widely and appear in different formats (The same is
true of many parametric tests too).
Wilcoxon Signed rank Test

Wilcoxon signed-ranks test

a nonparametric statistical procedure used to determine whether a
single sample is derived from a population in which the median
equals a specified value. The data are values obtained using a ratio
scale, each is subtracted from the hypothesized value of the
population median, and the difference scores are then ranked. The
test takes into account the direction of the differences and gives
more weight to large differences than to small differences.
The Wilcoxon test, which can refer to either the Rank Sum test or
the Signed Rank test version, is a nonparametric statistical test that

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compares two paired groups. The tests essentially calculate the

difference between sets of pairs and analyzes these differences to
establish if they are statistically significantly different from one
another.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
 The Wilcoxon test is a nonparametric statistical test that
compares two paired groups, and comes in two versions the
Rank Sum test or the Signed Rank test.
 The goal of the test is to determine if two or more sets of pairs
are different from one another in a statistically significant
manner.
 Both versions of the model assume that the pairs in the data
come from dependent populations, i.e. following the same
person or share price through time or place.
The Basics of the Wilcoxon Test
The Rank Sum and Signed Rank tests were both proposed by
American statistician Frank Wilcoxon in a groundbreaking research
paper published in 1945. The tests laid the foundation
for hypothesis testing of nonparametric statistics, which are used for
population data that can be ranked but do not have numerical
values, such as customer satisfaction or music reviews.
Nonparametric distributions do not have parameters and cannot be
defined by an equation as parametric distributions can.
The types of questions that the Wilcoxon Test can help us answer
include things like:
 Are test scores different from 5th grade to 5th grade for the
same students?

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 Does a particular drug have an effect on health when tested on

the same individuals?
These models assume that the data comes from two matched, or
dependent, populations, following the same person or stock through
time or place. The data is also assumed to be continuous as
opposed to discrete. Because it is a non-parametric test it does not
require a particular probability distribution of the dependent variable
in the analysis.
Versions of the Wilcoxon Test
 The Wilcoxon Rank Sum test can be used to test the null
hypothesis that two populations have the same continuous
distribution. The base assumptions necessary to employ this
method of testing is that the data are from the same population
and are paired, the data can be measured on at least an
interval scale, and the data were chosen randomly and
independently.
 The Wilcoxon Signed Rank test assumes that there is
information in the magnitudes and signs of the differences
between paired observations. As the nonparametric equivalent
of the paired student's t-test, the Signed Rank can be used as
an alternative to the t-test when the population data does not
follow a normal distribution.
Calculating a Wilcoxon Test Statistic
The steps for arriving at a Wilcoxon Signed-Ranks Test
Statistic, W, are as follows:

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1. For each item in a sample of n items, obtain a difference score

Di between two measurements (i.e., subtract one from the
other).
2. Neglect then positive or negative signs and obtain a set
of n absolute differences |Di|.
3. Omit difference scores of zero, giving you a set of n non-zero
absolute difference scores, where n' ≤ n. Thus, n' becomes the
actual sample size.
4. Then, assign ranks Ri from 1 to n to each of the |Di| such that
the smallest absolute difference score gets rank 1 and the
largest gets rank n. If two or more |Di| are equal, they are each
assigned the average rank of the ranks they would have been
assigned individually had ties in the data not occurred.
5. Now reassign the symbol “+” or “–” to each of the n ranks Ri,
depending on whether Di was originally positive or negative.
6. The Wilcoxon test statistic W is subsequently obtained as the
sum of the positive ranks.
In practice, this test is easily performed using statistical analysis
software or a spreadsheet.
The Wilcoxon signed rank test (also called the Wilcoxon signed
rank sum test) is a non-parametric test. When the word “non-
parametric” is used in stats, it doesn’t quite mean that you know
nothing about the population. It usually means that you know the
population data does not have a normal distribution. The Wilcoxon
signed rank test should be used if the differences between pairs of
data are non-normally distributed.
Two slightly different versions of the test exist:

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 The Wilcoxon signed rank test compares your sample

median against a hypothetical median.
 The Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed rank test computes the
difference between each set of matched pairs, then follows the
same procedure as the signed rank test to compare the
sample against some median.
The term “Wilcoxon” is often used for either test. This usually isn’t
confusing, as it should be obvious if the data is matched, or not
matched.
The null hypothesis for this test is that the medians of
two samples are equal. It is generally used:

Mann-Whitney test

It is generally recognized that psychological studies often involve

small samples. For example, researchers in clinical psychology
often have to deal with small samples that generally include less
than 15 participants (Kazdin 2003; Shapiro & Shapiro, 1983;
Kraemer, 1981; Kazdin, 1986). Although the researchers aim at
collecting large normally distributed samples, they rarely have the
appropriate amount of resources (time and money) to recruit a
sufficient number of participants. It is thus useful, particularly in
psychology, to consider tests that have few constraints and allow
experimenters to test their hypotheses on small and poorly
distributed samples.
A lot of studies do not provide very good tests for their hypotheses
because their samples have too few participants (for a review of the
reviews, see Sedlmeier & Gigerenzer, 1989). Even tough small

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samples can be methodologically questionable (e.g. generalization

is difficult); they can be useful to infer conclusions on the population
if the adequate statistical test is applied.
The Mann‐Whitney

Hypotheses of the Test The Mann‐Whitney U test null hypothesis

(H0) stipulates that the two groups come from the same population.
In other terms, it stipulates that the two independent groups are
homogeneous and have the same distribution. The two variables
corresponding to the two groups, represented by two continuous
cumulative distributions, are then called stochastically equal.
In this case, the null hypothesis is rejected for values of the test
statistic falling into either tail of its sampling distribution (see Figure
1 for a visual illustration). On the other hand, if a one‐sided or
one‐tailed test is required, the alternative hypothesis suggests that
the variable of one group is stochastically larger than the other
group, according to the test direction (positive or negative). Here,
the null hypothesis is rejected only for values of the test statistic
falling into one specified tail of its sampling distribution (see Figure 1
for a visual illustration).
In more specific terms, let one imagine two independent groups that
have to be compared. Each group contains a number n of
observations. The Mann‐Whitney test is based on the comparison of
each observation from the first group with each observation from the
second group. According to this, the data must be sorted in
ascending order. The data from each group are then individually
compared together. The highest number of possible paired
comparisons is thus:(nxny ), where nx is the number of observations
in the first group and ny the number of observations in the second. If
the two groups come from the same population, as stipulated by the
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null hypothesis, each datum of the first group will have an equal
chance of being larger or smaller than each datum of the second
group, that is to say a probability p of one half (1/2). In technical
terms,
Assumptions of the Test In order to verify the hypotheses, the
sample must meet certain conditions. These conditions can be
easily respected. They are of three types:
(a) The two investigated groups must be randomly drawn from the
target population.
implies the absence of measurement and sampling errors (Robert et
al., 1988). Note that an error of these last types can be involved but
must remain small.
(b) Each measurement or observation must correspond to a
different participant. In statistical terms, there is independence
within groups and mutual independence between groups.
(c) The data measurement scale is of ordinal or continuous type.
The observations values are then of ordinal, relative or absolute
scale type.
Computing the Mann‐Whithney
U test using SPSS First of all, one needs to enter the data in SPSS,
not forgetting the golden rule which stipulates that each participant’s
observation must occupy a line. The numbers of the groups are
generally 1 and 2, except whenever it is more practical to use other
numbers. Following the entry of the data, open a new syntax
window and enter the following syntax.
Discussion

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Like any statistical test, the Mann‐Whitney U has forces and

weaknesses. In terms of forces, like any non‐parametric test, the
Mann‐Whitney U does not depend on assumptions on the
distribution (i.e. one does not need to postulate the data distribution
of the target population).
One can also use it when the conditions of normality neither are met
nor realisable by transformations. Moreover, one can use it when
his sample is small and the data are semi‐quantitative or at least
ordinal. In short, few constraints apply to this test.
The Mann‐Whitney U test is also one of the most powerful
non‐parametric tests (Landers, 1981), where the statistical power
corresponds to the probability of rejecting a false null hypothesis.
This test has thus good probabilities of providing statistically
significant results when the alternative hypothesis applies to the
measured reality.
Even if it is used on average‐size samples (between 10 and 20
observations) or with data that satisfy the constraints of the t‐test,
the Mann‐Whitney has approximately 95% of the Student’s t‐test
statistical power (Landers). By comparison with the t‐test, the
Mann‐Whitney U is less at risk to give a wrongfully significant result
when there is presence of one or two extreme values in the sample
under investigation (Siegel and Castellan, 1988).
the distributions of these populations do not meet the criteria of
normality (Zimmerman, 1985). On the other hand, very little
statistical power is lost if the Mann‐Whitney U test is used instead of
the t‐test and this, under statistically controlled conditions (Gibbons
and Chakraborti, 1991). In addition, the Mann‐Whitney U test is, in
exceptional circumstances, more powerful than the t‐test. Indeed, it
is more powerful in the detection of a difference on the extent of the
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possible differences between populations’ averages than the t‐test

when a small manpower is associated with a small variance
(Zimmerman, 1987). On the other hand, when the sample size is
similar or when the smallest manpower has the greatest variance,
the t‐test is more powerful on all the extent of the possible
differences (Zimmerman). Lastly, the Monte Carlo methods
showed that the Mann‐
Whitney U test can give wrongfully significant results, that is to say
the erroneous acceptance of the alternative hypothesis (Robert &
Casella, 2004). This type of results is at risk to be obtained
whenever one’s samples are drawn from two populations with a
same average but with different variances.
In this type of situations, it is largely more reliable to use the t‐test
which gives a possibility for the samples to come from distributions
with different variances. The alpha (α) error or of type I is to reject
H0 whereas this one is true. This error is thus amplified when
Mann‐Whitney U is applied in a situation of heteroscedasticity or
distinct variances. In addition, some solutions exist to this major
problem (see Kasuya, 2001).

Kruskal wallis anova test in Psychology

The Kruskal-Wallis test is a nonparametric (distribution free) test,

and is used when the assumptions of one-way ANOVA are not met.
Both the Kruskal-Wallis test and one-way ANOVA assess for
significant differences on a continuous dependent variable by a
categorical independent variable (with two or more groups). In the
ANOVA, we assume that the dependent variable is normally
distributed and there is approximately equal variance on the scores

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across groups. However, when using the Kruskal-Wallis Test, we

do not have to make any of these assumptions. Therefore, the
Kruskal-Wallis test can be used for both continuous and ordinal-
level dependent variables. However, like most non-parametric
tests, the Kruskal-Wallis Test is not as powerful as the ANOVA.
Null hypothesis: Null hypothesis assumes that the samples
(groups) are from identical populations.
Alternative hypothesis: Alternative hypothesis assumes that at
least one of the samples (groups) comes from a different population
than the others.
Example questions answered:
How do test scores differ between the different grade levels in
elementary school?
Do job satisfaction scores differ by race?
The distribution of the Kruskal-Wallis test statistic approximates a
chi-square distribution, with k-1 degrees of freedom, if the number
of observations in each group is 5 or more. If the calculated value
of the Kruskal-Wallis test is less than the critical chi-square value,
then the null hypothesis cannot be rejected. If the calculated value
of Kruskal-Wallis test is greater than the critical chi-square value,
then we can reject the null hypothesis and say that at least one of
the samples comes from a different population.
The Kruskal Wallis test is the non parametric alternative to the One
Way ANOVA. Non parametric means that the test doesn’t assume
your data comes from a particular distribution. The H test is used
when the assumptions for ANOVA aren’t met (like the assumption of
normality). It is sometimes called the one-way ANOVA on ranks, as

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the ranks of the data values are used in the test rather than the
actual data points.
The test determines whether the medians of two or more groups are
different. Like most statistical tests, you calculate a test statistic and
compare it to a distribution cut-off point. The test statistic used in
this test is called the H statistic. The hypotheses for the test are:
 H0: population medians are equal.
 H1: population medians are not equal.
The Kruskal Wallis test will tell you if there is a significant
difference between groups. However, it won’t tell you which groups
are different. For that, you’ll need to run a Post Hoc test.
Examples
1. You want to find out how test anxiety affects actual test scores.
The independent variable “test anxiety” has three levels: no
anxiety, low-medium anxiety and high anxiety. The dependent
variable is the exam score, rated from 0 to 100%.
2. You want to find out how socioeconomic status affects attitude
towards sales tax increases. Your independent variable is
“socioeconomic status” with three levels: working class, middle
class and wealthy. The dependent variable is measured on a
5-point Likert scale from strongly agree to strongly disagree.
Kruskal-Wallis H Test
The Kruskal-Wallis test is considered a nonparametric analogue to
the paramateric one-way ANOVA presented in Chapter 10. Just as
the one-way ANOVA is an extension of the two independent groups
t-test, the Kruskal-Wallis test is an extension of the Mann-W hitney

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U test. The Kruskal-Wallis test handles k-independent groups of

samples. Like the Mann-Whiteny U test, this test uses ranks.
The null and alternative hypotheses are stated verbally. For
example:
ho: The diet plans A, B and C are equally effective.
h1: At least one of the following is true: A is different from B, A is
different from C or B is different from C.
The test statistic for the Kruskal-Wallis H test is obtained through
the following steps:
 Rank all the data disregarding group membership, where a
rank of "1" is given to the highest score. For observations that
are tied (having the same value), compute the average rank
and assign this average to each of the tied observations.
 Add up the ranks for each group, designated as r(i), where i is
the group number..
Friedman]. Power analysis. Effect size in Psychology

The reporting of accurate and appropriate conclusions is an

essential aspect of scientific research, and failure in this endeavor
can threaten the progress of cumulative knowledge. This is
highlighted by the current reproducibility crisis, and this crisis
disproportionately affects fields that use behavioral research
methods, as in much lighting research. A sample of general and
topic-specific lighting research papers was reviewed for information
about sample sizes and statistical reporting.
This highlighted that lighting research is generally underpowered
and, given median sample sizes, is unlikely to be able to reveal
small effects. Lighting research most commonly uses parametric

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statistical tests, but assessment of test assumptions is rarely carried

out.
This risks the inappropriate use of statistical tests, potentially
leading to type I and type II errors. Lighting research papers also
rarely report measures of effect size, and this can hamper
cumulative science and power analyses required to determine
appropriate sample sizes for future research studies. Addressing
the issues raised in this article related to sample sizes, statistical
test assumptions, and reporting of effect sizes can improve the
evidential value of lighting research.
At the heart of publication bias and the reproducibility crisis is the
occurrence of type I errors (false-positive findings) and type II errors
(false-negative findings). We use statistical methods in science in
an attempt to avoid making claims that in reality may be a type I or
type II error. Null hypothesis statistical testing (Hubbard and
Ryan 2000) produces a P-value that represents the probability of
obtaining the result (or something more extreme) assuming that
there was no real effect or difference between the groups or
measures being tested (the “null” hypothesis).
The P-value does not explicitly refer to the probability of the null
hypothesis being true, but it does provide a “measure of the
strength of evidence against H0 (the null hypothesis)” (Dorey 2010,
p. 2297). Abelson (1995) referred to “discrediting the null
hypothesis” (p. 10) based on the P-value from a statistical test. A
smaller P-value provides stronger evidence against the null
hypothesis.
By convention, in the field of lighting research and most other
scientific disciplines, we use a threshold of P < 0.05 to indicate a
significant or “real” effect, based on proposals by Fisher (1925).

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However, Fisher himself recognizedthat this threshold was arbitrary

and debate is ongoing about its use. The reproducibility crisis has
led some researchers to suggest that a stricter threshold of 0.005
should be used (Benjamin et al. 2017), to reduce the number of type
I errors reported in the scientific literature.
Assessment of normality
Confirming whether the data collected within a study sufficiently
meets the assumption of a normal distribution should be seen as an
informed judgment based on a series of diagnostic checks, rather
than a definitive black and white decision. Note also that in
regression analyses, it is the residuals (errors between the
predicted and actual values) that are required to be normally
distributed, not the actual variable values themselves. Normality of
residuals may also be adequate for between-subjects ANOVAs and
independent t-tests (Williams et al. 2013).
Three types of checks should be carried out to perform a
comprehensive assessment of normality: (1) visual inspection of
graphical representations of the data; (2) assessment of descriptive
statistics; and (3) statistical tests of deviation from a normal
distribution. These methods are illustrated using two sets of
simulated data, representing normal and nonnormal distributions.
The normally distributed data have been generated using the
“rnorm” function within the R software package (Version 3.4.0, R
Core Team 2017), with the parameters of sample size = 100,
mean = 5, standard deviation = 1.5. The nonnormal data are based
on a positively skewed exGaussian distribution. This type of
distribution is frequently found in reaction time data (Palmer et
al. 2011), and reaction times are commonly used as a response

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measure in lighting research (e.g., Cengiz et al. 2015; Fotios et

al. 2017; He et al. 1997).
Reporting of effect sizes
When conducting research, we are generally interested in
discovering whether our variables of interest have some effect on
what we are studying. This effect may relate to a difference between
groups; for example, hazard detection rates under different lighting
conditions. Alternatively, it may relate to associations between
variables; for example, whether outdoor illuminance levels are
associated with perceived safety. If applied appropriately
(see Section 3), null hypothesis statistical testing and the P-value
produced can provide evidence toward an effect being present (or
at least that no effect, the null hypothesis, is implausible). As well as
knowing whether an effect may be present, we are also interested in
how big this effect is—do our variables have a big influence on what
we are measuring or only a trivial influence? A range of methods is
available to calculate the size of an effect, some of which are listed
in Table 4. Measures of effect size often produce a standardized
value that allows comparison between studies using different
metrics and a consistent “language” of effect magnitudes. Further
information about effect sizes and their calculation is available
elsewhere (e.g., Cohen 1988, 1992; Lakens 2013; Sullivan and
Feinn 2012).
The size of any effect revealed within a study is a valuable piece of
information when results are reported, for three reasons
(Lakens 2013). First it provides information about the magnitude of
the effect found, allowing its practical importance to be considered.
This information cannot be adequately gleaned from only a P-value
(Durlak 2009). Second, it can be incorporated into meta-analyses

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that combine the findings from multiple studies to provide holistic

evidence and more definitive conclusions about a research question
or area. Third, it can be used in the design of future related research
to estimate required samples sizes, through a priori power analyses,
as discussed above. However, despite the evidential and scientific
value of reporting effect sizes, this is rarely done in lighting
research. The review of recent lighting research papers and papers
related to spatial brightness (Section 2) showed that only 24% of the
50 studies included in the review reported effect sizes of some kind,
with the majority of effect size measures being R2 values from a
linear regression.
Sample size and power

As discussed in previous sections, key goals of any research study

are to discover whether an effect exists (which requires appropriate
application of statistical tests; see Section 3) and the magnitude of
any effect (which requires the calculation and reporting of a
measure of effect size; see Section 4).
The sample size used has implications for both of these objectives.
Sample size is an essential determinant of the size of the effect that
study will be able to reveal. It also contributes to determining the
power of the study—the probability that a significant effect will be
revealed through statistical testing when a true effect does really
exist (i.e., the probability of avoiding a type II error). Increasing the
sample size increases the power of a study, thus making it more
able to detect an effect of a smaller size, reducing the likelihood that
the null hypothesis will be incorrectly accepted.
Conclusions

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Publication bias and the reproducibility crisis are issues that pose a
significant risk to the evidential value of research within a number of
fields but particularly within lighting research. At the heart of these
issues lies the risk of making type I or type II errors. The statistical
methods employed in research are designed to reduce these errors,
and their role in determining the presence and importance of any
effect is critical to the veracity of published research. This article
reviewed a sample of general and topic-specific lighting research
papers. The review highlighted the relatively small samples used in
behavioral lighting research and the lack of power this introduces.
The sample sizes used in most lighting studies may only be capable
of revealing medium to large effects.
It is important to consider whether an effect of a certain size is of
practical significance. Depending on the specific research area and
question being investigated, a small effect size may be insufficiently
interesting or noteworthy to warrant investigation, and researchers
may only be interested in discovering effects equal to or greater
than a certain magnitude. With limited research funding and
resources available, the size of an effect that is worth detecting is
an important consideration when determining the sample size of a
study. Whatever size of effect is judged to be sufficiently large to be
of interest, it remains important to justify the sample size used.
However, the justification of sample sizes, based on anticipated or
targeted effect sizes, was virtually nonexistent within the papers
reviewed here.
One possible reason for this absence of sample size justification is
that the practice of reporting effect sizes in lighting research papers
is not commonplace and therefore it may be difficult to estimate
anticipated effect sizes with any confidence. Only 24% of reviewed
papers reported any kind of effect size measure. The American
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Psychological Association Task Force on Statistical Inference

(Wilkinson 1999) states that: “… reporting and interpreting effect
sizes in the context of previously reported effects is essential to
good research” (p. 599). Increased reporting of effect sizes should
be encouraged within lighting research, as should detailed,
accurate, and appropriate statistical analysis and reporting. This can
help reduce the promotion of unsupported findings within lighting
research literature.

Correlational Analysis: Correlation [Product Moment]

Are stock prices related to the price of gold? Is unemployment

related to inflation? Is the amount of money spent on research and
development related to a company’s net worth? Correlation can
answer these questions, and there is no statistical technique more
useful or more abused than correlation. Correlation is a statistical
method that determines the degree of relationship between two
different variables. It is also known as a “bivariate” statistic, with bi-
meaning two and variate indicating variable or variance.
The two variables are usually a pair of scores for a person or
object. The relationship between any two variables are can vary
from strong to weak or none. When a relationship is strong, this
means that knowing a person's or object’s score on one variable
helps to predict their score on the second variable.
In other words, if a person has a high score of variable A
(compared to all the other peoples’ scores on A, then they are likely
to have a high score on variable B (compared to the other peoples’
scores on B). The latter would be considered a strong positive
correlation.

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A correlation coefficient that is close to r = 0.00 (note that the typical

correlation coefficient is reported to two decimal places) means
knowing a person's score on one variable tells you nothing about
their score on the other variable. For example, there might be a zero
correlation between the number of letters in a person's last name
and the number of miles they drive per day. If you know the number
of letters in a last name, it tells you nothing about how many miles
they drive per day.
There is no relationship between the two variables; therefore, there
is a zero correlation. It is also important to note that there are no
hard rules about labeling the size of a correlation coefficient.
Statisticians generally do not get excited about a correlation until it
is greater than r = 0.30 or less than r = -0.30.
The correlational statistical technique usually accompanies
correlational designs. In a correlational design, the experimenter
typically has little or no control over the variables to be studied. The
variables may be statistically analyzed long after they were initially
produced or measured. Such data is called archival. The
experimenter no longer has any experimental power to control the
gathering of the data.
The data has already been gathered, and the experimenter now has
only statistical power in his or her control. Cronbach (1967), an
American statistician, stated well the difference between the
experimental and correlational techniques, “… the experimentalist
[is] an expert puppeteer, able to keep untangled the strands to half-
a-dozen independent variables. The correlational psychologist is a
mere observer of a play where Nature pulls a thousand strings.”
Correlation: Use and Abuse

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The crux of the nature and the problem with correlation is that, just
because two variables are correlated, it does not mean that one
variable caused the other. We mentioned earlier of a governor who
wanted to supply every parent of a newborn child in his state with a
classical CD or tape in order to boost the child’s IQ.
The governor supported his decision by citing studies, which have
shown a positive relationship between listening to classical music
and intelligence. In fact, the controversy has grown to the point
where it is referred to as the Mozart Effect. The governor is making
at least two false assumptions. First, he is assuming a causal
relationship between classical music and intelligence, that is,
classical music causes intelligence to rise. However, the technique
of correlation does not allow the implication of causation.
A Warning:
Correlation Does Not Imply Causation A major caution must be
reiterated. Correlation does not imply causation. Because there is a
strong positive or strong negative correlation between two variables,
this does not mean that one variable is caused by the other
variable. As noted previously, many statisticians claim that a strong
correlation never implies a cause-effect relationship between two
variables.
Yet, there are daily published abuses of the correlational design and
statistical technique, not only in newspapers but major scientific
journals! A sampling of these misinterpretations follows:
1. Marijuana use and heroin use are positively correlated. Some
drug opponents note that heroin use is frequently correlated with
marijuana use. Therefore, they reason that stopping marijuana use
will stop the use of heroin. Clear-thinking statisticians note that even

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a higher correlation is obtained between the drinking of milk in

childhood and later adult heroin use. Thus, it is just as absurd to
think that if early milk use is banned, subsequent heroin use will be
curbed, as it is to suppose that banning marijuana will stop heroin
abuse.
2. Milk use is positively correlated to cancer rates. While this is not a
popular finding within the milk industry, there is a moderately
positive correlation with drinking milk and getting cancer (Paulos,
1990). Could drinking milk cause cancer? Probably not. However,
milk consumptionis greater in wealthier countries. In wealthier
countries people live longer. Greater longevity means people live
long enough to eventually get some type of cancer. Thus, milk and
cancer are correlated but drinking milk does not cause cancer (nor
does getting cancer cause one to drink more milk).
3. Weekly church attendance is negatively correlated with drug
abuse. A recent study demonstrated that adolescents who attended
church weekly were much less likely to abuse illegal drugs or
alcohol. Does weekly church attendance cause a decrease in drug
abuse? If the Federal Government passed a law for mandatory
church attendance, would there be a decrease in drug abuse?
Probably not, and there might even be an increase in drug abuse.
This study is another example of the abuse of the interpretation of
the correlational design and statistical analysis. 4. Lead Levels are
positively correlated to antisocial behavior.
A 1996 correlational study (Needleman et al.) examined the
relationship of lead levels in the bones of 301 children and found
that higher levels of lead were associated with higher rates of
antisocial behavior. “This is the first rigorous study to demonstrate a
significant association between lead and antisocial behavior,” said

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one environmental health professor about the study. While the

studies authors may have been very excited, the study is still
correlational in design and analysis, thus, implications of causation
should have been avoided. Perhaps antisocial children have a
unique metabolic chemistry such that their bodies do not metabolize
lead like normal children. Perhaps lead is not a cause of antisocial
behavior but the result of being antisocial.
Therefore, the reduction of lead exposure in early childhood may
not reduce antisocial behavior at all. Also, note that there was a
statistically “significant” relationship. As you will learn later in this
chapter, with large samples (like 301 children in this study) even
very weak relationships can be statistically significant with
correlational techniques.
Correlation is a statistical technique that can show whether and how
strongly pairs of variables are related. For example, height and
weight are related; taller people tend to be heavier than shorter
people.
The relationship isn't perfect. People of the same height vary in
weight, and you can easily think of two people you know where the
shorter one is heavier than the taller one. Nonetheless, the average
weight of people 5'5'' is less than the average weight of people 5'6'',
and their average weight is less than that of people 5'7'', etc.
Correlation can tell you just how much of the variation in peoples'
weights is related to their heights.
Although this correlation is fairly obvious your data may contain
unsuspected correlations. You may also suspect there are
correlations, but don't know which are the strongest. An intelligent
correlation analysis can lead to a greater understanding of your
data.

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Techniques in Determining Correlation

There are several different correlation techniques. The Survey
System's optional Statistics Module includes the most common
type, called the Pearson or product-moment correlation. The
module also includes a variation on this type called partial
correlation. The latter is useful when you want to look at the
relationship between two variables while removing the effect of one
or two other variables.
Like all statistical techniques, correlation is only appropriate for
certain kinds of data. Correlation works for quantifiable data in
which numbers are meaningful, usually quantities of some sort. It
cannot be used for purely categorical data, such as gender, brands
purchased, or favorite color.
Rating Scales
Rating scales are a controversial middle case. The numbers in
rating scales have meaning, but that meaning isn't very precise.
They are not like quantities. With a quantity (such as dollars), the
difference between 1 and 2 is exactly the same as between 2 and 3.
With a rating scale, that isn't really the case. You can be sure that
your respondents think a rating of 2 is between a rating of 1 and a
rating of 3, but you cannot be sure they think it is exactly halfway
between. This is especially true if you labeled the mid-points of your
scale (you cannot assume "good" is exactly half way between
"excellent" and "fair").
Most statisticians say you cannot use correlations with rating scales,
because the mathematics of the technique assume the differences
between numbers are exactly equal. Nevertheless, many survey
researchers do use correlations with rating scales, because the

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results usually reflect the real world. Our own position is that you
can use correlations with rating scales, but you should do so with
care. When working with quantities, correlations provide precise
measurements. When working with rating scales, correlations
provide general indications.
Correlation Coefficient
The main result of a correlation is called the correlation
coefficient (or "r"). It ranges from -1.0 to +1.0. The closer r is to +1
or -1, the more closely the two variables are related.
If r is close to 0, it means there is no relationship between the
variables. If r is positive, it means that as one variable gets larger
the other gets larger. If r is negative it means that as one gets
larger, the other gets smaller (often called an "inverse" correlation).
While correlation coefficients are normally reported as r = (a value
between -1 and +1), squaring them makes then easier to
understand. The square of the coefficient (or r square) is equal to
the percent of the variation in one variable that is related to the
variation in the other. After squaring r, ignore the decimal point. An r
of .5 means 25% of the variation is related (.5 squared =.25). An r
value of .7 means 49% of the variance is related (.7 squared = .49).
A correlation report can also show a second result of each test -
statistical significance. In this case, the significance level will tell you
how likely it is that the correlations reported may be due to chance
in the form of random sampling error. If you are working with small
sample sizes, choose a report format that includes the significance
level. This format also reports the sample size.
A key thing to remember when working with correlations is never to
assume a correlation means that a change in one variable causes a

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change in another. Sales of personal computers and athletic shoes

have both risen strongly over the years and there is a high
correlation between them, but you cannot assume that buying
computers causes people to buy athletic shoes (or vice versa).
The second caveat is that the Pearson correlation technique works
best with linear relationships: as one variable gets larger, the other
gets larger (or smaller) in direct proportion. It does not work well
with curvilinear relationships (in which the relationship does not
follow a straight line). An example of a curvilinear relationship is
age and health care. They are related, but the relationship doesn't
follow a straight line. Young children and older people both tend to
use much more health care than teenagers or young adults. Multiple
regression (also included in the Statistics Module) can be used to
examine curvilinear relationships, but it is beyond the scope of this
article.

Correlational Analysis: Correlation [Product Moment of

Psychology]

An outlier (in correlation analysis) is a data point that does not fit the
general trend of your data, but would appear to be a wayward
(extreme) value and not what you would expect compared to the
rest of your data points. You can detect outliers in a similar way to
how you detect a linear relationship, by simply plotting the two
variables against each other on a graph and visually inspecting the
graph for wayward (extreme) points. You can then either remove or
manipulate that particular point as long as you can justify why you
did so (there are far more robust methods for detecting outliers in
regression analysis). Alternatively, if you cannot justify removing the
data point(s), you can run a nonparametric test such as Spearman's
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rank-order correlation or Kendall's Tau Correlation instead, which

are much less sensitive to outliers. This might be your best
approach if you cannot justify removing the outlier. The diagram
below indicates what a potential outlier might look like: Outliers can
have a very large effect on the line of best fit and the Pearson
correlation coefficient, which can lead to very different conclusions
regarding your data. This point is most easily illustrated by studying
scatterplots of a linear relationship with an outlier included and after
its removal, with respect to both the line of best fit and the
correlation coefficient. This is illustrated in the diagram below:
The present hypothesis can be stated more specifically as - “ The
scores of School Environment (SE) test & the scores of Reading
Comprehension (RC) test of the students will show the positive
correlation ’’ On the basis of researches done on the effect of SE &
RC in English, it has been evident that better the schools and their
academic climate with better facilities, the better the scholastic
achievement in the students.
The related findings have already been shown in the previous
chapter. On the basis of these research evidences, the present
directional hypothesis has been framed. With the view to putting this
hypothesis to test, Pearson’s Product Moment correlation (r)
between the scores of SE & the scores of RC in English of the
students have been computed.
Results of Differential Studies
The hypotheses hereafter are pertaining to see the differences of
the means of the variables and the interactional effects on the
dependent variables of the varied independent variables. Before
anyalysing and testing these hypotheses it was desirable to see the
variability of the values found for the dependent variable from the

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sample taken. To apply ANOVA for the (2x2x2) factorial design the
data were tested for homogeneity of the variance by employing
KolmogrovSmirnov Test of Goodness of Fit for the homogeneity of
variance.
As per the above table the value of 'D' is less than 0438 which
shows the significance limit at .05 level. This clearly shows that the
value of ‘D’ does not show significance which indicate that there
existed homogeneity of variance ensuring the application of ANOVA
and other differential hypotheses.
Beading Comprehension in English in
* n in . HYPOTESIS: DH 6 There is no significant difference in
Reading Comprehension in English in Boys & Girls." Stated in other
words - “No significant difference exists in the scores of Reading
comprehension in English in boys and girls." With the view to test
the tenability of the hypothesis, the scores of boys & girls separately
in Reading Comprehension in English are analysed on the basis of
the ‘means’ and 't-values.'
On the strength of the above results, we reject our hypothesis OH*
and conclude that there exists a significance difference in Reading
Comprehension in English in favour of girls.
“Relatively, School Environment would show the maximum main
effect and Anxiety would show the minimum main effect on Reading
Comprehension in English whereas Socio-Economic Status would
fall in between these two main effects."
Interpretation and Discussion
Results obtained in the present chapter shows the significant
association of the independent variables viz., Anxiety, Socio-

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Economic Status and School Environment with the Reading

Comprehension in English of the students of class XI, taken as a
dependent variable in the study.
From the three independent variables, taken under the present
study, the two variables SES & SE belong to the social variables
whereas the Anxiety comes under the psychological variables.
Thus, the independent variables cover the socio-psychological
variables. The association of all these independent variables on the
dependent variable noticed different variations in the findings which
needs different and separate interpretations.
Influence of Psychological Variable on Reading
Comprehension in English
Influence of Anxiety on Reading Comprehension in English The
results obtained on IH7 indicate that the Anxiety emerged as the
potent source variable interacting with Reading Comprehension in
English among the students of class XI. The Anxiety indicates a
negative correlation with Reading Comprehension in English (CHi)
though the correlation is not significant. These facts could be
discussed on the strength of the association of the socio-
psychological activities with the members and resources of the
schools.
Rank-Order Correlation using

The Spearman rank-order correlation coefficient (Spearman’s

correlation, for short) is a nonparametric measure of the strength
and direction of association that exists between two variables
measured on at least an ordinal scale. It is denoted by the
symbol rs (or the Greek letter ρ, pronounced rho). The test is used
for either ordinal variables or for continuous data that has failed the

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assumptions necessary for conducting the Pearson's product-

moment correlation. For example, you could use a Spearman’s
correlation to understand whether there is an association between
exam performance and time spent revising; whether there is an
association between depression and length of unemployment; and
so forth. If you would like some more background information about
this test, which does not include instructions for SPSS Statistics,
see our more general statistical guide: Spearman's rank-order
correlation. Possible alternative tests to Spearman's correlation
are Kendall's tau-b or Goodman and Kruskal's gamma.
This "quick start" guide shows you how to carry out a Spearman’s
correlation using SPSS Statistics. We show you the main procedure
to carry out a Spearman’s correlation in the Procedure section.
First, we introduce you to the assumptions that you must consider
when carrying out a Spearman’s correlation.
Assumptions
When you choose to analyse your data using Spearman’s
correlation, part of the process involves checking to make sure that
the data you want to analyse can actually be analysed using a
Spearman’s correlation. You need to do this because it is only
appropriate to use a Spearman’s correlation if your data "passes"
three assumptions that are required for Spearman’s correlation to
give you a valid result. In practice, checking for these three
assumptions just adds a little bit more time to your analysis,
requiring you to click of few more buttons in SPSS Statistics when
performing your analysis, as well as think a little bit more about your
data, but it is not a difficult task. These three assumptions are:
o Assumption #1: Your two variables should be measured on
an ordinal, interval or ratio scale. Examples of ordinal

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variables include Likert scales (e.g., a 7-point scale from

"strongly agree" through to "strongly disagree"), amongst other
ways of ranking categories (e.g., a 3-pont scale explaining how
much a customer liked a product, ranging from "Not very
much", to "It is OK", to "Yes, a lot"). Examples of interval/ratio
variables include revision time (measured in hours),
intelligence (measured using IQ score), exam performance
(measured from 0 to 100), weight (measured in kg), and so
forth. You can learn more about ordinal, interval and ratio
variables in our article: Types of Variable.
o Assumption #2: Your two variables represent paired
observations. For example, imagine that you were interested
in the relationship between daily cigarette consumption and
amount of exercise performed each week. A single paired
observation reflects the score on each variable for a single
participant (e.g., the daily cigarette consumption of "Participant
1" and the amount of exercise performed each week by
"Participant 1"). With 30 participants in the study, this means
that there would be 30 paired observations.
o Assumption #3: There is a monotonic relationship between
the two variables. A monotonic relationship exists when either
the variables increase in value together, or as one variable
value increases, the other variable value decreases. Whilst
there are a number of ways to check whether a monotonic
relationship exists between your two variables, we suggest
creating a scatterplot using SPSS Statistics, where you can
plot one variable against the other, and then visually inspect
the scatterplot to check for monotonicity. Your scatterplot may
look something like one of the following:

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Example
A teacher is interested in whether those who do better at English
also do better in maths. To test whether this is the case, the teacher
records the scores of her 10 students in their end-of-year
examinations for both English and maths. Therefore, one variable
records the English scores and the second variable records the
maths scores for the 10 pupils.

Partial correlation Psychology

Partial correlation is the measure of association between two

variables, while controlling or adjusting the effect of one or more
additional variables. Partial correlations can be used in many cases
that assess for relationship, like whether or not the sale value of a
particular commodity is related to the expenditure on advertising
when the effect of price is controlled.
Assumptions
Useful in only small models like the models which involve three or
four variables.
Used in only those models which assume a linear relationship.
The data is supposed to be interval in nature.
The residual variables or unmeasured variables are not correlated
with any of the variables in the model, except for the one for which
these residuals have occurred.
Partial correlation measures the strength of a relationship
between two variables, while controlling for the effect of one or
more other variables. For example, you might want to see if there

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is a correlation between amount of food eaten and blood pressure,

while controlling for weight or amount of exercise. It’s possible to
control for multiple variables (called control variables or covariates).
However, more than one or two is usually not recommended
because the more control variables, the less reliable your test.
Semi-Partial Correlation
Semi-partial correlation is almost the same as partial. In fact, many
authors use the two terms to mean the same thing. However, others
do make the following subtle distinction:
With semi-partial correlation, the third variable holds constant
for either X or Y but not both; with partial, the third variable holds
constant for both X and Y.
For example, the semi partial correlation statistic can tell us the
particular part of variance, that a particular independent
variable explains. It explains how one specific independent variable
affects the dependent variable, while other variables are controlled
for to prevent them getting in the way.
To find it, calculate the correlation between the dependent variable
and the residual of the prediction of one independent variable by the
others.
Example
Suppose we use a set of data (from a 2002 paper from Abdi et al.)
which lists three variables over six children. Each child was tested
for memory span (Y) and speech rate (X2), and their age was also
noted. A correlation statistic was desired which predicts Y (memory
span) from X1 and X2 (age and speech rate).

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Normally, in a situation where X1 and X2 were independent random

variables, we’d find out how important each variable was by
computing a squared coefficient of correlation between X1 and
X2 and the dependent variable Y. We would know that these
squared coefficients of correlation were equal to the square multiple
coefficient of correlation. But in a case like ours, X1 and X2 are
anything but independent. Speech rate is highly dependent on age,
and so using the squared coefficient will count the contributions of
each variable several times over.
Multiple correlation Psychology

In statistics, regression analysis is a method for explanation of

phenomena and prediction of future events. In the regression
analysis, a coefficient of correlation r between random
variables X and Y is a quantitative index of association between
these two variables. In its squared form, as a coefficient of
determination r2, indicates the amount of variance in the criterion
variable Y that is accounted for by the variation in the predictor
variable X. In the multiple regression analysis, the set of predictor
variables X1, X2, ... is used to explain variability of the criterion
variable Y. A multivariate counterpart of the coefficient of
determination r2 is the coefficient of multiple determination, R2.
The square root of the coefficient of multiple determination is the
coefficient of multiple correlation.
Conceptualization of multiple correlation
An intuitive approach to the multiple regression analysis is to sum
the squared correlations between the predictor variables and the
criterion variable to obtain an index of the over-all relationship
between the predictor variables and the criterion variable. However,
such a sum is often greater than one, suggesting that simple
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summation of the squared coefficients of correlations is not a

correct procedure to employ. In fact, a simple summation of squared
coefficients of correlations between the predictor variables and the
criterion variable is the correct procedure, but only in the special
case when the predictor variables are not correlated. If the
predictors are related, their inter-correlations must be removed so
that only the unique contributions of each predictor toward
explanation of the criterion are included.
Fundamental equation of multiple regression analysis
Initially, a matrix of correlations R is computed for all variables
involved in the analysis. This matrix can be conceptualized as a
supermatrix, consisting of the vector of cross-correlations between
the predictor variables and the criterion variable c, its transpose c’
and the matrix of intercorrelations between predictor variables Rxx.
The fundamental equation of the multiple regression analysis is

R2 = c' Rxx−1 c.
The expression on the left side signifies the coefficient of multiple
determination (squared coefficient of multiple correlation). The
expressions on the right side are the transposed vector of cross-
correlations c', the matrix of inter-correlations Rxx to be inverted
(cf., matrix inversion), and the vector of cross-correlations, c. The
premultiplication of the vector of cross-correlations by its transpose
changes the coefficients of correlation into coefficients of
determination. The inverted matrix of the inter-correlations removes
the redundant variance from the of inter-correlations of the predictor
set of variables. These not-redundant cross-correlations are
summed to obtain the multiple coefficient of determination R2. The
square root of this coefficient is the coefficient of multiple
correlation R.

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Correlation means association - more precisely it is a measure of

the extent to which two variables are related. There are three
possible results of a correlational study: a positive correlation, a
negative correlation, and no correlation.
A positive correlation is a relationship between two variables in
which both variables move in the same direction. Therefore, when
one variable increases as the other variable increases, or one
variable decreases while the other decreases. An example of
positive correlation would be height and weight. Taller people tend
to be heavier.
A negative correlation is a relationship between two variables
in which an increase in one variable is associated with a decrease
in the other. An example of negative correlation would be height
above sea level and temperature. As you climb the mountain
(increase in height) it gets colder (decrease in temperature).
A zero correlation exists when there is no relationship between
two variables. For example their is no relationship between the
amount of tea drunk and level of intelligence.
Scattergrams
A correlation can be expressed visually. This is done by drawing a
scattergram (also known as a scatterplot, scatter graph, scatter
chart, or scatter diagram).
A scattergram is a graphical display that shows the relationships or
associations between two numerical variables (or co-variables),
which are represented as points (or dots) for each pair of score.
A scattergraph indicates the strength and direction of the correlation
between the co-variables.

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When you draw a scattergram it doesn't matter which variable goes

on the x-axis and which goes on the y-axis.
Remember, in correlations we are always dealing with paired
scores, so the values of the 2 variables taken together will be used
to make the diagram. Decide which variable goes on each axis and
then simply put a cross at the point where the 2 values coincide.
Some uses of Correlations
Prediction
 If there is a relationship between two variables, we can make
predictions about one from another.
Validity
 Concurrent validity (correlation between a new measure and
an established measure).
Reliability
 Test-retest reliability (are measures consistent).
 Inter-rater reliability (are observers consistent).
Theory verification
 Predictive validity.

Correlation Coefficients: Determining Correlation Strength

Instead of drawing a scattergram a correlation can be expressed
numerically as a coefficient, ranging from -1 to +1. When working
with continuous variables, the correlation coefficient to use is
Pearson’s r.

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The correlation coefficient (r) indicates the extent to which the pairs
of numbers for these two variables lie on a straight line. Values over
zero indicate a positive correlation, while values under zero indicate
a negative correlation.
A correlation of –1 indicates a perfect negative correlation, meaning
that as one variable goes up, the other goes down. A correlation of
+1 indicates a perfect positive correlation, meaning that as one
variable goes up, the other goes up.
There is no rule for determining what size of correlation is
considered strong, moderate or weak. The interpretation of the
coefficient depends on the topic of study.
When studying things that are difficult to measure, we should expect
the correlation coefficients to be lower (e.g. above 0.4 to be
relatively strong). When we are studying things that are more easier
to measure, such as socioeconomic status, we expect higher
correlations (e.g. above 0.75 to be relatively strong).)
In these kinds of studies, we rarely see correlations above 0.6. For
this kind of data, we generally consider correlations above 0.4 to be
relatively strong; correlations between 0.2 and 0.4 are moderate,
and those below 0.2 are considered weak.
When we are studying things that are more easily countable, we
expect higher correlations. For example, with demographic data, we
we generally consider correlations above 0.75 to be relatively
strong; correlations between 0.45 and 0.75 are moderate, and those
below 0.45 are considered weak.
Correlation vs Causation

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Causation means that one variable (often called the predictor

variable or independent variable) causes the other (often called the
outcome variable or dependent variable).
Experiments can be conducted to establish causation.
An experiment isolates and manipulates the independent variable to
observe its effect on the dependent variable, and controls the
environment in order that extraneous variables may be eliminated.
A correlation between variables, however, does not automatically
mean that the change in one variable is the cause of the change in
the values of the other variable. A correlation only shows if there is
a relationship between variables.
Correlation does not always prove causation as a third variable may
be involved. For example, being a patient in hospital is correlated
with dying, but this does not mean that one event causes the other,
as another third variable might be involved (such as diet, level of
exercise).
Strengths of Correlations
1. Correlation allows the researcher to investigate naturally
occurring variables that maybe unethical or impractical to test
experimentally. For example, it would be unethical to conduct an
experiment on whether smoking causes lung cancer.
2. Correlation allows the researcher to clearly and easily see if there
is a relationship between variables. This can then be displayed in a
graphical form

Limitations of Correlations

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1. Correlation is not and cannot be taken to imply causation. Even if

there is a very strong association between two variables we cannot
assume that one causes the other.
For example suppose we found a positive correlation between
watching violence on T.V. and violent behavior in adolescence. It
could be that the cause of both these is a third (extraneous) variable
- say for example, growing up in a violent home - and that both the
watching of T.V. and the violent behavior are the outcome of this.
2. Correlation does not allow us to go beyond the data that is given.
For example suppose it was found that there was an association
between time spent on homework (1/2 hour to 3 hours) and number
of G.C.S.E. passes (1 to 6). It would not be legitimate to infer from
this that spending 6 hours on homework would be likely to generate
12 G.C.S.E. passes.
Special Correlation Methods: Biserial, Point biserial,
tetrachoric, phi coefficient

This procedure calculates estimates, confidence intervals, and

hypothesis tests for both the point-biserial and the biserial
correlations. The point-biserial correlation is a special case of the
product-moment correlation in which one variable is continuous and
the other variable is binary (dichotomous).
The categories of the binary variable do not have a natural ordering.
For example, the binary variable gender does not have a natural
ordering. That is, it does not matter whether the males are coded as
a zero or a one. Such variables are often referred to as nominal
binary variables.
It is assumed that the continuous data within each group created by
the binary variable are normally distributed with equal variances and
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possibly different means. The biserial correlation has a different

interpretation which is may be explained with an example. Suppose
you have a set of bivariate data from the bivariate normal
distribution.
The two variables have a correlation sometimes called the product-
moment correlation coefficient. Now suppose one of the variables is
dichotomized by creating a binary variable that is zero if the original
variable is less than a certain variable and one otherwise.
The biserial correlation is an estimate of the original product-
moment correlation constructed from the point-biserial correlation.
For example, you may want to calculate the correlation between IQ
and the score on a certain test, but the only measurement available
with whether the test was passed or failed. You could then use the
biserial correlation to estimate the more meaningful product-
moment correlation.
Point-Biserial Correlation

Suppose you want to find the correlation between a continuous

random variable Y and a binary random variable X which takes the
values zero and one. Assume that n paired observations (Yk, Xk), k
are available. If the common product-moment correlation r is
calculated from these data, the resulting correlation is called the
point-biserial correlation.
Biserial Correlation
Suppose you want to find the correlation between a pair of bivariate
normal random variables when one has been dichotomized.
Sheskin (2011) states that the biserial correlation can be calculated
from the point-biserial.

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One or More Continuous Variables and a Binary Variable

The continuous data is in one variable (column) and the binary
group identification is in another variable. Each row contains the
values for one subject. If multiple continuous variables are selected,
a separate analysis is made for each. If the binary variable has
more than two levels (unique values), a separate analysis is made
for each pair.
Point-Biserial and Biserial Correlations
This report shows the point-biserial correlation and associated
confidence interval and hypothesis test on the first row. It shows the
biserial correlation and associated confidence interval and
hypothesis test on the second row.
Type
The type of correlation coefficient shown on this row. Note that,
although the names point-biserial and biserial sound similar, these
are two different correlations that come from different models.
Correlation
The computed values of the point-biserial correlation and biserial
correlation. Note that since the assignment of the zero and one to
the two binary variable categories is arbitrary, the sign of the point-
biserial correlation can be ignored. This is not true of the biserial
correlation.
Note that the point-biserial correlation demands that the variances
are equal but is robust to mild non-normality. On the other hand, the
biserial correlation is robust to unequal variances, but demands that
the data are normal. This report presents the usual descriptive

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statistics. This report displays a brief summary of a linear regression

of Y on X.
RANK ORDER CORRELATIONS
We have learned about Pearson’s correlation in earlier unit. The
Pearson’s correlation is calculated on continuous variables.
Pearson’s correlation is not advised under two circumstances: one,
when the data are in the form of ranks and two, when the
assumptions of Pearson’s correlation are not followed by the data.
In this condition, the application of Pearson’s correlations is
doubtful.
Under such circumstances, rank-order correlations constitute one
of the important options. The ordinal scale data is called as rank-
order data. Now let us look at these two aspects, rank-order and
assumption of Pearson’s correlations, in greater detail.
Rank-Order Data When the data is in rank-order format, then the
correlation that can be computed is called as rank order
correlations. The rank-order data present the ranks of the
individuals or subjects.
The observations are already in the rank order or the rank order is
assigned to them. Marks obtained in the unit test will constitute a
continuous data. But if only the merit list of the students is displayed
then the data is called as rank order data. If the data is in terms of
ranks, then Pearson’s correlation need not be done. Spearman’s
rho constitutes a good option.
Assumptions Underlying Pearson’s Correlation not Satisfied
The statistical significance testing of the Pearson’s correlation
requires some assumptions about the distributional properties of the

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variables. We have already delineated these assumptions in the

earlier unit. When the assumptions are not followed by the data,
then employing the Pearson’s correlation is problematic. It should
be noted that small violations of the assumptions does not influence
the distributional properties and associated probability judgments.
Hence it is called as a robust statistics. However, when the
assumptions are seriously violated, then application of Pearson’s
correlation should no longer be considered as a choice. Under such
circumstances, Rank order correlations should be preferred over
Pearson’s correlation.
It needs to be noted that rank-order correlations are applicable
under the circumstances when the relationship between two
variables is not linear but still it is a monotonic relationship. The
monotonic relationship is one where values in the data are
consistently increasing and never decreasing or consistently
decreasing and never increasing. Hence, monotonic relationship
implies that as X increases Y consistently increase or as X
increases Y consistently decrease. In such cases, rank-order is a
better option than Pearson’s correlation coefficient. However, some
caution should be observed while doing so.
A careful scrutiny of Figure 1 below indicates that, in reality, it is a
power function. So actually a relationship between X and Y is not
linear but curvilinear power function. So, indeed, curve-fitting is a
best approach for such data than using the rank order correlation.
The rank-order can be used with this data since the curvilinear
relationship shown in figure 1 is also a monotonic relationship. It
must be kept in mind that all curvilinear relationships would not be
monotonic relationships.

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THE PHI-COEFFICIENT, THE TETRACHORIC CORRELATION

COEFFICIENT, AND THE PEARSON-YULE DEBATE

The phi-coefficient and the tetrachoric correlation coefficient are two

measures of association for dichotomous variables. The association
between variables is of fundamental interest in most scientific
disciplines, and dichotomous variables occur in a wide range of
applications.
Consequently, measures of association for dichotomous variables
are useful in many situations. For example in medicine, many
phenomena can only be reliably measured in terms of dichotomous
variables. Another example is psychology, where many conditions
only can be reliably measured in terms of, for instance, diagnosed
or not diagnosed. Data is often presented in the form of 2 × 2
contingency tables.
A historically prominent example is Pearson’s smallpox recovery
data, see Table 1, studying possible association between
vaccination against, and recovery from, smallpox infection. Another
interesting data set is Pearson’s diphtheria recovery data, Table 2,
studying possible association between antitoxin serum treatment
and recovery from diphtheria. Measures of association for
dichotomous variables is an area that has been studied from the
very infancy of modern statistics. One of the first scholars to treat
the subject was Karl Pearson, one of the fathers of modern
statistics.
probabilities of the contingency table. The tetrachoric correlation
coefficient is then defined as that parameter, which, of course,
corresponds to the linear correlation of the bivariate normal
distribution.

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According to Pearson’s colleague Burton H. Camp (1933), Pearson

considered the tetrachoric correlation coefficient as being one of his
most important contributions to the theory of statistics, right besides
his system of continuous curves, the chi-square test and his
contributions to small sample statistics. However, the tetrachoric
correlation coefficient suffered in popularity because of the difficulty
in its computation.
While the tetrachoric correlation coefficient is the linear correlation
of a so-called underlying bivariate normal distribution, the phi-
coefficient is the linear correlation of an underlying bivariate discrete
distribution. This measure of association was independently
proposed by Boas (1909), Pearson (1900), Yule (1912), and
possibly others. The question of whether the underlying bivariate
distribution should be considered continuous or discrete is at the
core of the so-called Pearson-Yule debate. In the historical context
of the Pearson-Yule debate, though,
it is important to understand that no one at the time looked upon
these two measures of association as the linear correlations of
different underlying distributions, the framework in which both were
presented in the preceding paragraph. On the contrary, according to
Yule (1912) the tetrachoric correlation coefficient is founded upon
ideas entirely different from those of which the phi-coefficient is
founded upon.
The sentiment is echoed by Pearson & Heron (1913), which even
claims that the phi-coefficient is not based on a reasoned theory,
while at the same time arguing for the soundness of the tetrachoric
correlation coefficient. In fact, the point of view that both measures
of association are the linear correlations of underlying distributions
is one of the contributions of the present article.

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The Pearson-Yule debate

George Udny Yule, a former student of Pearson, favored the
approach of an inherently discrete underlying distribution. Yule
(1912) is a comprehensive review of the area of measures of
association for dichotomous variables, as well as a response to
Heron (1911), and contains blunt criticism of Pearson’s tetrachoric
correlation coefficient.
This standpoint Professor Pearson’s assumptions are quite
inapplicable, and do not lead to the true correlation between the
attributes. But this is not, apparently, the standpoint taken by
Professor Pearson himself.
The phi-coefficient
The phi-coefficient is the linear correlation between postulated
underlying discrete univariate distributions of X and Y . Formally, let
TX andTY be two mappings such that TXX(Ω) and TY Y (Ω) are
both subsets of R. For example, TX could be a + b1{pos.} , for some
real constants a and b, 1 being the indicator function. Furthermore,
denote TX(pos.) = α, TX(neg.) = β, TY (pos.) = γ and TY (neg.) = δ.
The technical conditions α ≠ β, γ ≠ δ and sign(α − β) = sign(γ − δ)
are also needed. The phi-coefficient is then defined as the linear
correlation of TXX and TY Y , i.e. rphi = Corr(TXX, TY Y ).
Corollary 2.
Except for its sign, the phi-coefficient does not depend on the
choice of mappings TX and TY . An implication of Corollary 2 is that
proliferation of phi-coefficients is avoided, and the amount of
subjectivism inserted into the phi-coefficient construction is limited.
Also, the phi-coefficient can be considered scale and origin free.
The only assumption needed is that it is possible to, without loss (or

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distortion) of information, map the values of X and Y into R. The

assumption is formalized as follows. Assumption A1. The values of
the dichotomous variables can without loss of information be
mapped into the real ordered field, R.
One possible interpretation of Assumption A1 is that the
dichotomous variables X and Y are inherently discrete and that both
values of X and Y , respectively, represent the same thing but of
different magnitudes. Note that Assumption A1 implies an order
relation between the values of X and Y , respectively,
i.e. that the variables are ordinal. Assumption A1 is not appropriate
if a dichotomous variable is strictly nominal, e.g. if the values are
Male and Female, Cross and Self-Fertilization, or Treatment A and
Treatment B. Pearson & Heron (1913) call these cases Mendelian.
The tetrachoric correlation
coefficient. The tetrachoric correlation coefficient is the linear
correlation between postulated underlying normal distributions of X
and Y . The 2×2 contingency table is thought of as a double
dichotomy of a bivariate normal distribution. One can visualize the
bell-shaped bivariate normal density function standing atop the
contingency table. Since the dichotomous variables are both scale
and origin free, and the family of normal distributions is closed
under linear transformations, the normal distribution can without
loss of generality be set to standard normal.
Changing the parameter value of the bivariate standard normal
distribution will change the shape of the bell-shaped bivariate
normal density function, and hence the probability masses over the
four rectangles that results from the double dichotomization.

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The parameter value of the bivariate standard normal distribution

equals, of course, the linear correlation of the postulated joint
normal distributuion. Since the contingency table is fully determined
by the marginal probabilities and one joint probability, it suffices to
choose parameter value such that, under given marginal
probabilities, one joint probability equals the corresponding volume.
Conventionally, that joint probability is chosen to be the probability
pa, corresponding to positive values of both dichotomous variables.
Since a volume of a normal distribution cannot be expressed in
closed form, computing the tetrachoric correlation coefficient
amounts to solving an integral equation.
There are several theories why Pearson (1900) for the purpose of
the above definition chose the parametric family of bivariate normal
distributions. At the time, the normal distribution was prevalent, and
according to Pearson & Heron (1913) there were no other bivariate
distribution that up until the time had been discussed effectively.
Furthermore, Pearson (1900) was primarily interested in
applications in the fields of evolution and natural selection, which is
evident from the article’s title, and such variables were generally
assumed to be normally distributed.
Pearson’s friend and mentor Francis Galton even had a
philosophical argument why all variables in nature ought to be
normally distributed. Also, the parameter of the parametric family of
bivariate normal distributions happens to be a measure of
association, and this in combination with other nice properties
makes the choice of the bivariate normal distribution most
convenient. Ekstr¨om (2009) has generalized the definition so that a
large class of parametric families of bivariate distributions can be
assumed.

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In particular, Assumption A2 implies that the values of the

dichotomous variables have an ordering, i.e. that the variables are
ordinal. In many of the examples of Pearson (1900), the
dichotomous variables are actual dichotomizations of continuous
variables such as the stature of fathers and sons.
In practice, however, such variables are most often measured with
greater precision than two categories, and for dichotomous
variables which cannot be measured with greater precision it is in
general not easy to make an assertion about the distribution of a
postulated underlying continuous variable. If a tetrachoric
correlation coefficient exists and is unique for every contingency
table, then the tetrachoric correlation coefficient is said to be well
defined. The following theorem is of theoretical and practical
importance, and has not been found in the literature.

Regression: Simple linear regression Psychology

Like correlation, regression also allows you to investigate the

relationship between variables. But while correlation is just used to
describe this relationship, regression allows you to take things one
step further; from description to prediction. Regression allows you to
model the relationship between variables, which enables you to
make predictions about what one variable will do based on another.
Or more specifically, it enables you to predict the value of one
variable based on the value of another. The variable you want to
predict is called the outcome variable (or DV)

 The variable you will base your prediction on is called the

predictor variable

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 (or IV) For this tutorial, we will use an example based on a fictional
study investigating the people’s recovery following brain damage.
After a brain injury,
plasticity enables different regions of the brain to compensate for
the regions that have been affected; taking over some of the
functions that the damaged regions were initially responsible for.
However, the extent to which this occurs is dependent on a number
of factors. For example, we know that people are much more likely
to recover cognitive function if they experience the brain injury when
they are young (all other things being equal, such as the severity of
the injury,
brain location and so on). So, if we know that brain injury recovery
might be related to age, can we predict the degree of brain function
someone might expect to recover, based on the age they
experienced the injury? This is what we will explore in this tutorial.
As with ANOVA, there are different types of regression. But this
tutorial will focus on regression in its simplest form: simple linear
regression. For simple linear regression, you only have two
variables that you are interested in: the predictor (IV) and outcome
(DV) variable. In this example our two variables are:

Age – the predictor variable

Proportion of brain function recovered

the outcome variable Imagine we carried out a study that

measured how much brain function patients recovered following an
accident. We could then input it into SPSS (along with their age) as
follows:
The final box is the Coefficients table. While the ANOVA table tells
us whether the model is a significant predictor of the outcome
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variable overall, this table tells us how the individual predictor

variables contribute to the model.
This table is most useful in situations where multiple variables have
been included as predictors – which is not the case in this example.
In this example, given that we only have one predictor variable in
our model (Age); and that we know the model is significant, we
would expect this table to tell us that Age is a significant predictor of
brain function recovery score.
When writing up your results there are certain statistics that you
need to report. First, you need to state the proportion of variance
that can be explained by your model. This is represented by the
statistic R2 and is a number between 0 and 1. It can either be
reported in this format (e.g. R 2 = .872) or it can be multiplied by
100 to represent the percentage of variance your model explains
(e.g. 87.2%). Second, you need to report whether or not your
model was a significant predictor of the outcome variable using the
results of the ANOVA. Finally, you need to include information
about your predictor variables.

In this case (as there is only one) you need to include your β1
value and the significance of its contribution to the model. While this
isn’t so important for simple linear regression, when you have
multiple predictors you would need to present this information for
each variable you have. You might also want to include your final
model here. So,
in this case we might say something like: A simple linear regression
was carried out to test if age significantly predicted brain function
recovery .
Example of simple linear regression

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The table below shows some data from the early days of the Italian
clothing company Benetton. Each row in the table shows Benetton’s
sales for a year and the amount spent on advertising that year. In
this case, our outcome of interest is sales—it is what we want to
predict.
If we use advertising as the predictor variable, linear regression
estimates that Sales = 168 + 23 Advertising.
That is, if advertising expenditure is increased by one million Euro,
then sales will be expected to increase by 23 million Euros, and if
there was no advertising we would expect sales of 168 million
Euros.
Example of multiple linear regression
Linear regression with a single predictor variable is known as simple
regression. In real-world applications, there is typically more than
one predictor variable. Such regressions are called multiple
regression. For more information, check out this post on why you
should not use multiple linear regression for Key Driver Analysis
with example data for multiple linear regression examples.
Returning to the Benetton example, we can include year variable in
the regression, which gives the result that Sales = 323 + 14
Advertising + 47 Year.
Checking the quality of regression models
Estimating a regression is a relatively simple thing. The hard bit of
using regression is avoiding using a regression that is wrong. Below
are standard regression diagnostics for the earlier regression.
The column labelled Estimate shows the values used in the
equations before. These estimates are also known as

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the coefficients and parameters. The Standard quantifies the

uncertainty of the estimates.
Multiple regression of Psychology

Multiple regression generally explains the relationship between

multiple independent or predictor variables and one dependent or
criterion variable. A dependent variable is modeled as a function of
several independent variables with corresponding coefficients,
along with the constant term. Multiple regression requires two or
more predictor variables, and this is why it is called multiple
regression.
The multiple regression equation explained above takes the
following form:
y = b1x1 + b2x2 + … + bnxn + c.
Here, bi’s (i=1,2…n) are the regression coefficients, which represent
the value at which the criterion variable changes when the predictor
variable changes.
As an example, let’s say that the test score of a student in an exam
will be dependent on various factors like his focus while attending
the class, his intake of food before the exam and the amount of
sleep he gets before the exam. Using this test one can estimate the
appropriate relationship among these factors.
Multiple regression in SPSS is done by selecting “analyze” from the
menu. Then, from analyze, select “regression,” and from regression
select “linear.”
Assumptions:

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 There should be proper specification of the model in multiple

regression. This means that only relevant variables must be
included in the model and the model should be reliable.
 Linearity must be assumed; the model should be linear in
nature.
 Normality must be assumed in multiple regression. This
means that in multiple regression, variables must have normal
distribution.
 Homoscedasticity must be assumed; the variance is constant
across all levels of the predicted variable.
There are certain terminologies that help in understanding multiple
regression. These terminologies are as follows:
 The beta value is used in measuring how effectively the
predictor variable influences the criterion variable, it is
measured in terms of standard deviation.
 R, is the measure of association between the observed value
and the predicted value of the criterion variable. R Square, or
R2, is the square of the measure of association which indicates
the percent of overlap between the predictor variables and the
criterion variable. Adjusted R2 is an estimate of the R2 if you
used this model with a new data set.

The regression model was conceptualized in the late nineteenth

century by Sir Francis Galton, who was studying how characteristics
are inherited from one generation to the next (e.g., Stanton, 2001;
Stigler, 1997). Galton’s goal was to model and predict the

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characteristics of offspring based on the characteristics of their

parents.
The term ‘regression’ came from the observation that extreme
values (or outliers) in one generation produced offspring that were
closer to the mean in the next generation; hence, ‘regression to the
mean’occurred (the original terminology used was regression to
‘mediocrity’). Galton also recognized that previous generations
(older than the parents) could influence the characteristics of the
offspring as well, and this led him to conceptualize the multiple-
regression model.
The residuals provide a measure of the goodness or accuracy of the
model’s predictions, as smaller (larger) residuals indicate more
accurate (inaccurate) predictions. The residuals, εi, are sometimes
labeled ‘errors’, but we find this terminology potentially misleading
since it connotes that (some of) the variables are subject to
measurement error.
In fact, the statistical model assumes implicitly that all
measurements are perfectly reliable, and the residuals are due to
sampling variance, reflecting the fact that the relationships between
Y and the various Xs are probabilistic in nature (e.g., in Galton’s
studies, not all boys born to fathers who are 180 cm tall, and
mothers who are 164 cm tall, have the same height). The more
complex structural equation models (SEM) combine the statistical
MR model with measurement models that incorporate the
imperfection of the measurement procedures for all the variables
involved.
These models are beyond the scope of this chapter, but are
covered in Part V (e.g., Chapter 21) of this book. This chapter
covers the wide variety of MR applications in behavioral research.

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Specifically, we will discuss the measurement, sampling and

statistical assumptions of the model, estimation of its parameters,
interrelation of its various results, and evaluation of its fit. We
illustrate the key results with several numerical examples.
Applications of the multiple-regression model The regression model
can be used in one of two general ways, referred to by some (e.g.,
Pedhazur, 1997) as explanation and prediction. The distinction
between these approaches is akin to the distinction between
confirmatory and exploratory analyses. The
explanatory/confirmatory use of the model seeks to confirm (or
refute) certain theoretical expectations and predictions derived from
a particular model (typically developed independently of the data at
hand).
The ultimate goal is to understand the specific process by which the
criterion of interest is produced by the (theoretically determined)
predictors. The explanatory regression model is used to confirm the
predictions of the theory in the context of a properly formulated
model, by using standard statistical tools. It can verify that those
predictors that are specified by theory are, indeed, significant and
others, which are considered irrelevant by the theory, are not.
Similarly, it could test whether the predictor that is postulated by the
theory to be the most important in predicting Y reproduces by itself
the highest amount of variance, produces the most accurate
predictions, and so forth.
Consider, for example, specific theories related to the process and
variables that determine an individual’s IQ. Some theories may
stress the hereditary nature of IQ and others may highlight the
environmental components.

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Thus, they would have different predictions about the significance

and/or relative importance of various predictors in the model. An
explanatory application of the model would estimate the model’s
parameters (e.g., regression coefficients), proceed to test the
significance of the relevant predictors, and/or compare the quality
and accuracy of the predictions of the various theories.
The predictive/exploratory analysis can be also guided, at least in
part, by theory but it is more open ended and flexible and, in
particular, relies on the data to direct the analysis. Such an analysis
seeks to identify the set of predictors that predicts best the outcome,
regardless of whether the model is the ‘correct’explanatory
mechanism by which the outcome is produced. Of course, it is
reassuring if the model makes sense theoretically,
but this is not a must. For example, to predict IQ one would start
with a large set of predictors that are theoretically viable and include
the predictors that optimally predict the observed values of IQ in the
regression model.
Thus, the decision in this case is data driven and more exploratory
in nature than the explanatory approach. While the model selected
using a prediction approach should yield highly accurate
predictions, the components of the model are not considered to be
any more ‘correct’ than those for other potential predictors that
would yield the same prediction accuracy.
To borrow an example from Pedhazur (1997), if one is trying to
predict the weather, a purely predictive approach is concerned with
the accuracy of the prediction regardless of whether the predictors
are the true scientific ‘causes’ of the observed-weather conditions.
The explanatory approach, on the other hand, would require a
model that can also provide a scientific explanation of how the

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predictors produce the observed-weather conditions. Therefore,

while the predictive approach may provide accurate predictions of
the outcome,
the explanatory approach also provides true knowledge about the
processes that underlie and actually produce the outcome. THE
VARIOUS FORMS OF THE MODEL Measurement level Typically,
all the variables (the response and predictors) are assumed to be
quantitative in nature; that is, measured on scales that have well
defined and meaningful units (interval or higher).
This assumption justifies the typical interpretation of the regression
coefficients as conditional slopes – the expected change in the
value of the response variable per unit change of the target
predictor, conditional on holding the values of the other (p − 1)
predictors fixed. This assumption is also critical for one of the key
properties of the MR model. MR is a
compensatory model in the sense that the same response value
can be predicted by multiple combinations of the predictors. In
particular, high values on some predictors can compensate for low
values on others.
Derivative predictors
Typically, the p predictors are measured independently from each
other by distinct instruments (various scales, different tests, multiple
raters, etc.). In some cases, researchers supplement these
predictors by additional measures that are derived by specific
transformations and/or combinations of the measured variables. For
example, polynomial-regression models include successive powers
(quadratic, cubic, quartic, etc.) of some of the original predictors,
and are designed to capture nonlinear

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trends in the relationship between the response and the relevant

predictors. Interactive-regression models include variables that are
derived by multiplying two, or more, of the measured variables (or
some simple transformations of these variables) in an attempt to
capture the joint (i.e., above and beyond the additive) effects of the
target variables. Computationally,
these models do not require any special treatment as one can treat
the product X1X2 or the quadratic term X2 1 as additional variables,
but we mention several subtle interpretational issues.
Sampling designs
The classical regression model assumes that the values of the
predictors are ‘fixed’; that is, chosen by various design
considerations (including, possibly, plain convenience) rather than
sampled randomly. Random samples (of equal, or unequal, size) of
the response variable are then obtained for each relevant
combination of the p predictors.
Thus, the data consist of a (possibly large) collection of distributions
of Y, conditional on particular predetermined combinations of X1,. .
., Xp. The X’s (predictors) are not random variables, and their
distributions in the sample are not necessarily expected to match
their underlying distributions in the population. Thus, no
distributional assumptions are madeabout the predictors. The
unknown parameters to be estimated in the model are the p
regression coefficients and the variance of the residuals.
Alternatively, in the ‘random’ design the researcher randomly
samples cases from the population of interest, where a ‘case’
consists of a vector of all p predictors and the response variable.

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The former is a fixed design and the latter is a random one. In both
cases one would have the same variables and, subject to minor
subtle differences, be able to address the same questions (e.g.,
Sampson, 1974). In general, the results of a fixed design can be
generalized only to the values of X included in the study while the
results of a random design can be generalized to the entire
population of X values that is represented (by a random sample of
values) in the study.

Factor analysis: Assumptions, Methods, Rotation and

Interpretation of psychology

Factor Analysis
Factor analysis is a technique that is used to reduce a large
number of variables into fewer numbers of factors. This technique
extracts maximum common variance from all variables and puts
them into a common score. As an index of all variables, we can use
this score for further analysis. Factor analysis is part of general
linear model (GLM) and this method also assumes several
assumptions: there is linear relationship, there is no multicollinearity,
it includes relevant variables into analysis, and there is true
correlation between variables and factors. Several methods are
available, but principal component analysis is used most commonly.
Types of factoring:
There are different types of methods used to extract the factor from
the data set:
1. Principal component analysis: This is the most common
method used by researchers. PCA starts extracting the maximum

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variance and puts them into the first factor. After that, it removes
that variance explained by the first factors and then starts extracting
maximum variance for the second factor. This process goes to the
last factor.
2. Common factor analysis: The second most preferred method
by researchers, it extracts the common variance and puts them into
factors. This method does not include the unique variance of all
variables. This method is used in SEM.
3. Image factoring: This method is based on correlation matrix.
OLS Regression method is used to predict the factor in image
factoring.
4. Maximum likelihood method: This method also works on
correlation metric but it uses maximum likelihood method to factor.
5. Other methods of factor analysis: Alfa factoring outweighs
least squares. Weight square is another regression based method
which is used for factoring.
Factor loading:
Factor loading is basically the correlation coefficient for the variable
and factor. Factor loading shows the variance explained by the
variable on that particular factor. In the SEM approach, as a rule of
thumb, 0.7 or higher factor loading represents that the factor
extracts sufficient variance from that variable.
Eigenvalues: Eigenvalues is also called characteristic roots.
Eigenvalues shows variance explained by that particular factor out
of the total variance. From the commonality column, we can know
how much variance is explained by the first factor out of the total
variance. For example, if our first factor explains 68% variance out
of the total, this means that 32% variance will be explained by the

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other factor.
Factor score: The factor score is also called the component score.
This score is of all row and columns, which can be used as an index
of all variables and can be used for further analysis. We can
standardize this score by multiplying a common term. With this
factor score, whatever analysis we will do, we will assume that all
variables will behave as factor scores and will move.
Criteria for determining the number of factors: According to the
Kaiser Criterion, Eigenvalues is a good criteria for determining a
factor. If Eigenvalues is greater than one, we should consider that a
factor and if Eigenvalues is less than one, then we should not
consider that a factor. According to the variance extraction rule, it
should be more than 0.7. If variance is less than 0.7, then we
should not consider that a factor.
Rotation method: Rotation method makes it more reliable to
understand the output. Eigenvalues do not affect the rotation
method, but the rotation method affects the Eigenvalues or
percentage of variance extracted. There are a number of rotation
methods available: (1) No rotation method, (2) Varimax rotation
method, (3) Quartimax rotation method, (4) Direct oblimin rotation
method, and (5) Promax rotation method. Each of these can be
easily selected in SPSS, and we can compare our variance
explained by those particular methods.
Assumptions:
1. No outlier: Assume that there are no outliers in data.
2. Adequate sample size: The case must be greater than the
factor.

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3. No perfect multicollinearity: Factor analysis is an

interdependency technique. There should not be perfect
multicollinearity between the variables.
4. Homoscedasticity: Since factor analysis is a linear function of
measured variables, it does not require homoscedasticity
between the variables.
5. Linearity: Factor analysis is also based on linearity
assumption. Non-linear variables can also be used. After
transfer, however, it changes into linear variable.
6. Interval Data: Interval data are assumed.

Key concepts and terms:

Exploratory factor analysis: Assumes that any indicator or
variable may be associated with any factor. This is the most
common factor analysis used by researchers and it is not based on
any prior theory.
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA): Used to determine the factor
and factor loading of measured variables, and to confirm what is
expected on the basic or pre-established theory. CFA assumes that
each factor is associated with a specified subset of measured
variables. It commonly uses two approaches:
1. The traditional method: Traditional factor method is based on
principal factor analysis method rather than common factor
analysis. Traditional method allows the researcher to know
more about insight factor loading.

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2. The SEM approach: CFA is an alternative approach of factor

analysis which can be done in SEM. In SEM, we will remove
all straight arrows from the latent variable, and add only that
arrow which has to observe the variable representing the
covariance between every pair of latents. We will also leave
the straight arrows error free and disturbance terms to their
respective variables. If standardized error term in SEM is less
than the absolute value two, then it is assumed good for that
factor, and if it is more than two, it means that there is still
some unexplained variance which can be explained by
factor. Chi-square and a number of other goodness-of-fit
indexes are used to test how well the model fits.

Experimental Designs: ANOVA [One-way, Factorial],

Randomized Block Designs,

Design of experiment means how to design an experiment in the

sense that how the observations or measurements should be
obtained to answer a query in a valid, efficient and economical way.
The designing of the experiment and the analysis of obtained data
are inseparable. If the experiment is designed properly keeping in
mind the question, then the data generated is valid and proper
analysis of data provides the valid statistical inferences. If the
experiment is not well designed, the validity of the statistical
inferences is questionable and may be invalid. It is important to
understand first the basic terminologies used in the experimental
design.
Experimental unit:

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For conducting an experiment, the experimental material is divided

into smaller parts and each part is referred to as an experimental
unit. The experimental unit is randomly assigned to treatment is the
experimental unit. The phrase “randomly assigned” is very important
in this definition.
Experiment:
A way of getting an answer to a question which the experimenter
wants to know.
Treatment Different objects or procedures which are to be
compared in an experiment are called treatments.
Sampling unit:
The object that is measured in an experiment is called the sampling
unit. This may be different from the experimental unit.
Factor:
A factor is a variable defining a categorization. A factor can be fixed
or random in nature. A factor is termed as a fixed factor if all the
levels of interest are included in the experiment.
A factor is termed as a random factor if all the levels of interest are
not included in the experiment and those that are can be considered
to be randomly chosen from all the levels of interest.
Design of experiment: One of the main objectives of designing an
experiment is how to verify the hypothesis in an efficient and
economical way. In the contest of the null hypothesis of equality of
several means of normal populations having the same variances,
the analysis of variance technique can be used. Note that such
techniques are based on certain statistical assumptions.

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If these assumptions are violated, the outcome of the test of a

hypothesis then may also be faulty and the analysis of data may be
meaningless. So the main question is how to obtain the data such
that the assumptions are met and the data is readily available for
the application of tools like analysis of variance. The designing of
such a mechanism to obtain such data is achieved by the design of
the experiment.
After obtaining the sufficient experimental unit, the treatments are
allocated to the experimental units in a random fashion. Design of
experiment provides a method by which the treatments are placed
at random on the experimental units in such a way that the
responses are estimated with the utmost precision possible.
An ANOVA test is a way to find out if survey or experiment results
are significant. In other words, they help you to figure out if you
need to reject the null hypothesis or accept the alternate hypothesis.
Basically, you’re testing groups to see if there’s a difference
between them. Examples of when you might want to test different
groups:
 A group of psychiatric patients are trying three different
therapies: counseling, medication and biofeedback. You want
to see if one therapy is better than the others.
 A manufacturer has two different processes to make light
bulbs. They want to know if one process is better than the
other.
 Students from different colleges take the same exam. You
want to see if one college outperforms the other.
What Does “One-Way” or “Two-Way Mean?

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One-way or two-way refers to the number of independent

variables (IVs) in your Analysis of Variance test.
 One-way has one independent variable (with 2 levels). For
example: brand of cereal,
 Two-way has two independent variables (it can have multiple
levels). For example: brand of cereal, calories.
What are “Groups” or “Levels”?
Groups or levels are different groups within the same independent
variable. In the above example, your levels for “brand of cereal”
might be Lucky Charms, Raisin Bran, Cornflakes — a total of three
levels. Your levels for “Calories” might be: sweetened, unsweetened
— a total of two levels.
Let’s say you are studying if an alcoholic support group and
individual counseling combined is the most effective treatment for
lowering alcohol consumption. You might split the study participants
into three groups or levels:
 Medication only,
 Medication and counseling,
 Counseling only.
Your dependent variable would be the number of alcoholic
beverages consumed per day.
If your groups or levels have a hierarchical structure (each level has
unique subgroups), then use a nested ANOVA for the analysis.
What Does “Replication” Mean?

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It’s whether you are replicating (i.e. duplicating) your test(s) with
multiple groups. With a two way ANOVA with replication , you have
two groups and individuals within that group are doing more than
one thing (i.e. two groups of students from two colleges taking two
tests). If you only have one group taking two tests, you would
use without replication.
Types of Tests.
There are two main types: one-way and two-way. Two-way tests
can be with or without replication.
 One-way ANOVA between groups: used when you want to
test two groups to see if there’s a difference between them.
 Two way ANOVA without replication: used when you have one
group and you’re double-testing that same group. For
example, you’re testing one set of individuals before and after
they take a medication to see if it works or not.
 Two way ANOVA with replication: Two groups, and the
members of those groups are doing more than one thing.
For example, two groups of patients from different hospitals
trying two different therapies.
One Way ANOVA
A one way ANOVA is used to compare two means from two
independent (unrelated) groups using the F-distribution. The null
hypothesis for the test is that the two means are equal. Therefore,
a significant result means that the two means are unequal.
Examples of when to use a one way ANOVA

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Situation 1: You have a group of individuals randomly split into

smaller groups and completing different tasks. For example, you
might be studying the effects of tea on weight loss and form three
groups: green tea, black tea, and no tea.
Situation 2: Similar to situation 1, but in this case the individuals
are split into groups based on an attribute they possess. For
example, you might be studying leg strength of people according to
weight. You could split participants into weight categories (obese,
overweight and normal) and measure their leg strength on a weight
machine.
Limitations of the One Way ANOVA
A one way ANOVA will tell you that at least two groups were
different from each other. But it won’t tell you which groups were
different. If your test returns a significant f-statistic, you may need
to run an ad hoc test (like the Least Significant Difference test) to
tell you exactly which groups had a difference in means.
Two Way ANOVA
A Two Way ANOVA is an extension of the One Way ANOVA. With
a One Way, you have one independent variable affecting
a dependent variable. With a Two Way ANOVA, there are two
independents. Use a two way ANOVA when you have
one measurement variable (i.e. a quantitative variable) and
two nominal variables. In other words, if your experiment has a
quantitative outcome and you have two categorical explanatory
variables, a two way ANOVA is appropriate.
For example, you might want to find out if there is an interaction
between income and gender for anxiety level at job interviews. The
anxiety level is the outcome, or the variable that can be measured.

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Gender and Income are the two categorical variables. These

categorical variables are also the independent variables, which are
called factors in a Two Way ANOVA.
The factors can be split into levels. In the above example, income
level could be split into three levels: low, middle and high income.
Gender could be split into three levels: male, female, and
transgender. Treatment groups are all possible combinations of the
factors. In this example there would be 3 x 3 = 9 treatment groups.
Main Effect and Interaction Effect
The results from a Two Way ANOVA will calculate a main effect and
an interaction effect. The main effect is similar to a One Way
ANOVA: each factor’s effect is considered separately.
With the interaction effect, all factors are considered at the same
time. Interaction effects between factors are easier to test if there is
more than one observation in each cell. For the above example,
multiple stress scores could be entered into cells. If you do enter
multiple observations into cells, the number in each cell must be
equal.
Two null hypotheses are tested if you are placing one observation in
each cell. For this example, those hypotheses would be: H01: All
the income groups have equal mean stress. H02:
All the gender groups have equal mean stress. For multiple
observations in cells, you would also be testing a third hypothesis:
H03:
The factors are independent or the interaction effect does not exist.
An F-statistic is computed for each hypothesis you are testing.
Assumptions for Two Way ANOVA

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• The population must be close to a normal distribution.

• Samples must be independent.
• Population variances must be equal.
• Groups must have equal sample sizes.
MANOVA
MANOVA is just an ANOVA with several dependent variables. It’s
similar to many other tests and experiments in that it’s purpose is to
find out if the response variable (i.e. your dependent variable) is
changed by manipulating the independent variable. The test helps
to answer many research questions, including:
• Do changes to the independent variables have statistically
significant effects on dependent variables?
• What are the interactions among dependent variables?
• What are the interactions among independent variables?
MANOVA Example
Suppose you wanted to find out if a difference in textbooks affected
students’ scores in math and science. Improvements in math and
science means that there are two dependent variables, so a
MANOVA is appropriate. An ANOVA will give you a single
(univariate) f-value while a MANOVA will give you a multivariate F
value. MANOVA tests the multiple dependent variables by creating
new, artificial, dependent variables that maximize group differences.
These new dependent variables are linear combinations of the
measured dependent variables.
Interpreting the MANOVA

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results If the multivariate F value indicates the test is statistically

significant, this means that something is significant. In the above
example, you would not know if math scores have improved,
science scores have improved (or both). Once you have a
significant result, you would then have to look at each individual
component (the univariate F tests) to see which dependent
variable(s) contributed to the statistically significant result.
Advantages
1. MANOVA enables you to test multiple dependent variables.
2. MANOVA can protect against Type I errors. Disadvantages
1. MANOVA is many times more complicated than ANOVA,
making it a challenge to see which independent variables are
affecting dependent variables.
2. One degree of freedom is lost with the addition of each new
variable.
3. The dependent variables should be uncorrelated as much as
possible. If they are correlated, the loss in degrees of freedom
means that there isn’t much advantages in including more than one
dependent variable on the test.
Factorial ANOVA
A factorial ANOVA is an Analysis of Variance test with more than
one independent variable, or “factor“. It can also refer to more than
one Level of Independent Variable. For example, an experiment
with a treatment group and a control group has one factor (the
treatment) but two levels (the treatment and the control).
The terms “two-way” and “three-way” refer to the number of factors
or the number of levels in your test. Four-way ANOVA and above

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are rarely used because the results of the test are complex and
difficult to interpret.
• A two-way ANOVA has two factors (independent variables)
and one dependent variable. For example, time spent studying and
prior knowledge are factors that affect how well you do on a test.
• A three-way ANOVA has three factors (independent variables)
and one dependent variable. For example, time spent studying,
prior knowledge, and hours of sleep are factors that affect how well
you do on a test Factorial ANOVA is an efficient way of conducting
a test.
Instead of performing a series of experiments where you test one
independent variable against one dependent variable, you can test
all independent variables at the same time.
Variability In a one-way ANOVA, variability is due to the differences
between groups and the differences within groups. In factorial
ANOVA, each level and factor are paired up with each other
(“crossed”).
This helps you to see what interactions are going on between the
levels and factors. If there is an interaction then the differences in
one factor depend on the differences in another.
Let’s say you were running a two-way ANOVA to test male/female
performance on a final exam. The subjects had either had 4, 6, or 8
hours of sleep.
• IV1: SEX (Male/Female)
• IV2: SLEEP (4/6/8) • DV: Final Exam Score A two-way factorial
ANOVA would help you answer the following questions:

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1. Is sex a main effect? In other words, do men and women differ

significantly on their exam performance?
2. Is sleep a main effect? In other words, do people who have
had 4,6, or 8 hours of sleep differ significantly in their performance?
3. Is there a significant interaction between factors? In other
words, how do hours of sleep and sex interact with regards to exam
performance?
4. Can any differences in sex and exam performance be found in
the different levels of sleep? Assumptions of Factorial ANOVA
• Normality: the dependent variable is normally distributed.
• Independence: Observations and groups are independent from
each other.
• Equality of Variance: the population variances are equal
across factors/levels.

Complete and incomplete block designs:

In most of the experiments, the available experimental units are

grouped into blocks having more or less identical characteristics to
remove the blocking effect from the experimental error. Such design
is termed as block designs. The number of experimental units in a
block is called the block size. If size of block = number of treatments
and each treatment in each block is randomly allocated, then it is a
full replication and the design is called a complete block design. In
case, the number of treatments is so large that a full replication in
each block makes

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it too heterogeneous with respect to the characteristic under study,

then smaller but homogeneous blocks can be used. In such a case,
the blocks do not contain a full replicate of the treatments.
Experimental designs with blocks containing an incomplete
replication of the treatments are called incomplete block designs.
Completely randomized design (CRD)
The CRD is the simplest design. Suppose there are v treatments to
be compared. All experimental units are considered the same and
no division or grouping among them exist.
In CRD, the v treatments are allocated randomly to the whole set of
experimental units, without

 making any effort to group the experimental units in any way for
more homogeneity. Design is entirely flexible in the sense that any
number of treatments or replications may be used

. The number of replications for different treatments need not be

equal and may vary from treatment to

 treatment depending on the knowledge (if any) on the variability of

the observations on individual treatments as well as on the accuracy
required for the estimate of individual treatment effect.
Example:
Suppose there are 4 treatments and 20 experimental units,
then –
the treatment 1 is replicated, say 3 times and is given to 3
experimental units, -

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the treatment 2 is replicated, say 5 times and is given to 5

experimental units, - the treatment 3 is replicated, say 6 times and is
given to 6 experimental unitsand –
finally, the treatment 4 is replicated [20-(6+5+3)=]6 times and is
given to the remaining 6 experimental units.
Randomized Block Design
If a large number of treatments are to be compared, then a large
number of experimental units are required. This will increase the
variation among the responses and CRD may not be appropriate to
use. In such a case when the experimental material is not
homogeneous and there are v treatments to be compared, then it
may be possible to group the experimental material into blocks of
sizes v units.

 Blocks are constructed such that the experimental units within a

block are relatively homogeneous

 and resemble to each other more closely than the units in the
different blocks. If there are b such blocks, we say that the blocks
are at b levels. Similarly, if there are v treatments,

 we say that the treatments are at v levels. The responses from the
b levels of blocks and v levels of treatments can be arranged in a
two-way layout. The observed data set is arranged as follows:
Layout:
A two-way layout is called a randomized block design (RBD) or a
randomized complete block design (RCB) if, within each block, the v
treatments are randomly assigned to v experimental units such that
each of the v! ways of assigning the treatments to the units has the

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same probability of being adopted in the experiment and the

assignment in different blocks are statistically independent.
Randomization:
- Number the v treatments 1,2,…,v. - Number the units in each
block as 1, 2,...,v. - Randomly allocate the v treatments to v
experimental units in each block.
Replication
Since each treatment is appearing in each block, so every treatment
will appear in all the blocks. So each treatment can be considered
as if replicated the number of times as the number of blocks. Thus
in RBD, the number of blocks and the number of replications are
same.
Local control Local control is adopted in RBD in the following
way: -
First form the homogeneous blocks of the experimental units. -
Then allocate each treatment randomly in each block. The error
variance now will be smaller because of homogeneous blocks and
some variance will be parted away from the error variance due to
the difference among the blocks. Example: Suppose there are 7
treatments denoted as 12 7 TT T , ,.., corresponding to 7 levels of a
factor to be included in 4 blocks.
Latin Square Design

The treatments in the RBD are randomly assigned to b blocks such

that each treatment must occur in each block rather than assigning
them at random over the entire set of experimental units as in the
CRD.

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There are only two factors – block and treatment effects – which are
taken into account and the total number of experimental units
needed for complete replication are bv where b and v are the
numbers of blocks and treatments respectively.
If there are three factors and suppose there are b, v and k levels of
each factor, then the total number of experimental units needed for
a complete replication are bvk.
This increases the cost of experimentation and the required number
of experimental units over RBD. In Latin square design (LSD), the
experimental material is divided into rows and columns, each having
the same number of experimental units which is equal to the
number of treatments.
The treatments are allocated to the rows and the columns such that
each treatment occurs once and only once in each row and in each
column. In order to allocate the treatment to the experimental units
in rows and columns, we take help from
Latin squares
Latin Square: A Latin square of order p is an arrangement of p
symbols in 2 p cells arranged in p rows and p columns such that
each symbol occurs once and only once in each row and in each
column. For example, to write a Latin square of order 4, choose four
symbols – A, B, C and D.
These letters are Latin letters which are used as symbols. Write
them in a way such that each of the letters out of A, B, C and D
occurs once and only once in each row and each column. For
example, asThis is a Latin square. We consider first the following
example to illustrate how a Latin square is used to allocate the
treatments and in getting the response.

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Example:
Suppose different brands of petrol are to be compared with respect
to the mileage per litre achieved in motor cars. Important factors
responsible for the variation in mileage are - the difference between
individual
cars. - the difference in the driving habits of drivers. We have three
factors – cars,
drivers and petrol brands. Suppose we have –
4 types of cars denoted as
1, 2, 3, 4. - 4 drivers that are represented by
a, b, c, d. – 4
brands of petrol are indicated as
A, B, C, D. the number of experiments. We choose only
Now the complete replication will require 4 4 4 64 experiments. To
choose such 16 experiments, we take the help of the Latin square.
Suppose we choose the following Latin square:
Write them in rows and columns and choose rows for drivers,
columns for cars and letter for petrol brands. Thus 16 observations
are recorded as per this plan of treatment combination (as shown in
the next figure) and further analysis is carried out. Since such
design is based on Latin square, so it is called as a Latin square
design.
The LSD is an incomplete three-way layout in which each of the
three factors, viz, rows, columns and treatments, is at v levels each
and observations only on 2 v of the 3 v possible treatment

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combinations are taken. Each treatment combination contains one

level of each factor. The analysis of data in an LSD is conditional in
the sense it depends on which Latin square is used for allocating
the treatments. If the Latin square changes, the conclusions may
also change.
Standard form of Latin square
A Latin square is in the standard form if the symbols in the first row
and first columns are in the natural order (Natural order means the
order of alphabets like A, B, C, D,…). Given a Latin square, it is
possible to rearrange the columns so that the first row and first
column remain in a natural order.
Orthogonal Latin squares If two Latin squares of the same order but
with different symbols are such that when they are superimposed on
each other, every ordered pair of symbols (different) occurs exactly
once in the Latin square, then they are called orthogonal.
Mutually orthogonal Latin square A set of Latin squares of the same
order is called a set of mutually orthogonal Latin square (or a hyper
Graeco-Latin square) if every pair in the set is orthogonal. The total
number of mutually orthogonal Latin squares of order p is at most (p
- 1).
Analysis of LSD (one observation per cell) In designing an LSD of
order p, choose one Latin square at random from the set of all
possible Latin squares of order p

. Select a standard Latin square from the set of all standard Latin
squares with equal probability.

 Randomize all the rows and columns as follows:

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 - Choose a random number, less than p, say 1 n and then 2nd row
is the 1 n th row. - Choose another random number less than p, say
2 n and then 3rd row is the 2 th n row and so on. - Then do the
same for the column. For Latin squares of the order less than 5, fix
the first row and then randomize rows and then

 randomize columns. In Latin squares of order 5 or more, need not

to fix even the first row. Just randomize all rows and columns.

Measures design psychology

An independent measures design is a research method in which

multiple experimental groups are used and participants are only in
one group. Each participant is only in one condition of
the independent variable during the experiment.

An example would be a drug trial for a new pharmaceutical. To test

the effect on the disorder and discover any side effects an
independent measures design could be used. The researchers use
two different conditions: group A who receives the drug and group B
who receives a placebo (a fake pill). The participants would be
randomly assigned to one of the two groups- for it to be an
independent measures design each participant would either be in
group A or B, not both. Advantages of independent measures
design include less time/money involved than a within subjects
design and increased external validity because more participants
are used. A disadvantage is that individual differences in
participants can sometimes lead to differences in the groups'
results. This can lead to false conclusions that the different
conditions caused results when it was really just individual

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differences between the participants. Random sampling can help

with this problem.
This should be done by random allocation, which ensures that each
participant has an equal chance of being assigned to one group or
the other.
Independent measures involve using two separate groups of
participants; one in each condition. For example:
 Con: More people are needed than with the repeated
measures design (i.e., more time consuming).
 Pro: Avoids order effects (such as practice or fatigue) as
people participate in one condition only. If a person is involved
in several conditions, they may become bored, tired and fed up
by the time they come to the second condition, or becoming
wise to the requirements of the experiment!
 Con: Differences between participants in the groups may
affect results, for example; variations in age, gender or social
background. These differences are known as participant
variables (i.e., a type of extraneous variable).
 Control: After the participants have been recruited, they
should be randomly assigned to their groups. This should
ensure the groups are similar, on average (reducing participant
variables).
Repeated Measures:
Repeated Measures design is an experimental design where the
same participants take part in each condition of the independent
variable. This means that each condition of the experiment includes
the same group of participants.

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Repeated Measures design is also known as within groups, or

within-subjects design.
 Pro: As the same participants are used in each condition,
participant variables (i.e., individual differences) are reduced.
 Con: There may be order effects. Order effects refer to the
order of the conditions having an effect on the participants’
behavior. Performance in the second condition may be better
because the participants know what to do (i.e. practice effect).
Or their performance might be worse in the second condition
because they are tired (i.e., fatigue effect). This limitation can
be controlled using counterbalancing.
 Pro: Fewer people are needed as they take part in all
conditions (i.e. saves time).
 Control: To combat order effects the researcher counter
balances the order of the conditions for the participants.
Alternating the order in which participants perform in different
conditions of an experiment. Counterbalancing
 Suppose we used a repeated measures design in which all of
the participants first learned words in 'loud noise' and then
learned it in 'no noise.' We would expect the participants to
show better learning in 'no noise' simply because of order
effects, such as practice. However, a researcher can control
for order effects using counterbalancing.
 The sample would split into two groups experimental (A) and
control (B). For example, group 1 does ‘A’ then ‘B,’ group 2
does ‘B’ then ‘A’ this is to eliminate order effects. Although
order effects occur for each participant, because they occur

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equally in both groups, they balance each other out in the

results.

Cohort studies

Cohort design is a type of nonexperimental or observational study

design. In a cohort study, the participants do not have the outcome
of interest to begin with. They are selected based on the exposure
status of the individual. They are then followed over time to evaluate
for the occurrence of the outcome of interest. Some examples of
cohort studies are
(1) Framingham Cohort study,
(2) Swiss HIV Cohort study, and
(3) The Danish Cohort study of psoriasis and depression.
These studies may be prospective, retrospective, or a combination
of both of these types. Since at the time of entry into the cohort
study, the individuals do not have outcome, the temporality between
exposure and outcome is well defined in a cohort design. If the
exposure is rare, then a cohort design is an efficient method to
study the relation between exposure and outcomes. A retrospective
cohort study can be completed fast and is relatively inexpensive
compared with a prospective cohort study. Follow-up of the study
participants is very important in a cohort study, and losses are an
important source of bias in these types of studies. These studies are
used to estimate the cumulative incidence and incidence rate. One
of the main strengths of a cohort study is the longitudinal nature of
the data. Some of the variables in the data will be time-varying and
some may be time independent. Thus, advanced modeling

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techniques (such as fixed and random effects models) are useful in

analysis of these studies.
Cohort studies are important in research design. The term “cohort”
is derived from the Latin word “Cohors” – “a group of soldiers.” It is
a type of nonexperimental or observational study design. The term
“cohort” refers to a group of people who have been included in a
study by an event that is based on the definition decided by the
researcher. For example, a cohort of people born in Mumbai in the
year 1980. This will be called a “birth cohort.” Another example of
the cohort will be people who smoke. Some other terms which may
be used for these studies are “prospective studies” or “longitudinal
studies.”
In a cohort study, the participants do not have the outcome of
interest to begin with. They are selected based on the exposure
status of the individual. Thus, some of the participants may have the
exposure and others do not have the exposure at the time of
initiation of the study. They are then followed over time to evaluate
for the occurrence of the outcome of interest.
As seen in at baseline, some of the study participants have
exposure (defined as exposed) and others do not have the
exposure (defined as unexposed). Over the period of follow-up,
some of the exposed individuals will develop the outcome and some
unexposed individuals will develop the outcome of interest. We will
compare the outcomes in these two groups.
Framingham cohort study
This cohort study was initiated in 1948 in Framingham.
Framingham, at the time of initiation of the cohort, was an industrial
town 21 miles west of Boston with a population of 28,000. This

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Framingham Heart Study recruited 5209 men and women (30–62-

year-old) in the study to assess the factors associated with
cardiovascular disease (CVD). The researchers also recruited
second generation participants (children of original participants) in
1971 and the third general participants in 2002. This has been one
of the landmark cohort studies and has contributed immensely to
our knowledge of some of the important risk factors for CVD. The
investigators have published 3064 publications using the
Framingham Heart Study data.
Swiss HIV cohort study
This cohort study was initiated in 1988. It was a longitudinal study of
HIV-infected individuals to conduct research on HIV pathogenesis,
treatment, immunology, and coinfections. They also work on the
social aspects of the disease and management of HIV-infected
pregnant women. The study started with a recruitment of individuals
≥16 years. The cohort was gradually expanded to include the Swiss
Mother and Child HIV Cohort Study. The cohort has provided useful
information on various aspects of HIV and published 542
manuscripts on these aspects.
The Danish cohort study of psoriasis and depression (Jensen,
2015)

This is another large cohort study that evaluated the association

between psoriasis and onset of depression. The participants in the
cohort were enrolled from national registries in Denmark. None of
the included participants had psoriasis or depression at baseline.
The outcome of interest was the initiation of antidepressants or
hospitalization for depression. The authors compared the incidence
rates of hospitalization for depression in psoriasis and reference
population. The psoriasis group was further classified as mild and

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moderate psoriasis. The authors found that psoriasis was an

independent risk factor for new-onset depression in young people.
However, in the elderly, it was mediated through comorbid
conditions.
We have presented examples of some large cohort studies. It will
be worthwhile to read the design and conduct of these studies, and
it will help the readers understand the practical aspects of
conducting and analyzing cohort studies.
Types of Cohort Studies
Prospective cohort study
In this type of cohort study, all the data are collected prospectively.
The investigator defines the population that will be included in the
cohort. They then measure the potential exposure of interest. The
participants are then classified as exposed or unexposed by the
investigator. The investigator then follows these participants. At
baseline and during follow-up, the investigator also collects
information on other variables that are important for the study (such
as confounding variables). The investigator then assesses the
outcome of interest in these individuals. Some of these outcomes
may only occur once (for example, death), and some may occur
multiple times (for example, conditions which may recur in the same
individual – diarrhea, wheezing episodes, etc.).
Retrospective cohort study
In this type of cohort study, the data are collected from records.
Thus, the outcomes have occurred in the past. Even though the
outcomes have occurred in the past, the basic study design is
essentially the same. Thus, the investigator starts with the exposure

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and other variables at baseline and at follow-up and then measures

the outcome during the follow-up period.
Sometimes, the direction may not be as well defined as prospective
and retrospective. One may analyze retrospective data on a group
of people well as collect prospective data from the same individuals.
Examples of prospective and retrospective cohort studies
Example 1
Our objective is to estimate the incidence of cardiovascular events
in patients with psoriasis. We have decided to conduct a 10-year
study. All the individuals who are diagnosed with psoriasis are
eligible for being included in this cohort study. However, one has to
ensure that none of them have cardiovascular events at baseline.
Thus, they should be thoroughly investigated for the presence of
these events at baseline before including them in the study. For this,
we have to define all the events we are interested in the study (such
as angina or myocardial infarction). The criteria for identifying
psoriasis and cardiovascular outcomes should be decided before
initiating the study. All those who do not have cardiovascular
outcomes should be followed at regular intervals (predecided by the
researcher and as required for clinical management). This will be a
prospective cohort study.
Example 2
Our objective is to assess the survival in HIV-infected individuals
and the factors associated with survival. We have clinical data from
about 430 HIV-infected individuals in the center. The follow-up
period ranges from 3 months to 4 years, and we know that 33
individuals have died in this group. We decide to perform the
survival analysis in this group of individuals. We prepare a clinical

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record form and abstract data from these clinical forms. This design
will be a retrospective cohort study.
Outcomes in a Cohort Study
A cohort study may have different types of outcomes. Some of the
outcomes may occur only once. In the above mentioned
retrospective study, if we assess the mortality in these individuals,
then the outcome will occur only once. Other outcomes in the cohort
study may be measured more than once. For instance, if we assess
CD4 counts in the same retrospective study, then the values of CD4
counts may change at every visit. Thus, the outcome will be
measured at every visit.
Strengths of a Cohort Study
 Temporality: Since at the time of entry into the cohort study,
the individuals do not have outcome, the temporality between
exposure and outcome is well defined
 A cohort study helps us to study multiple outcomes in the
same exposure. For example, if we follow patients of
hypercholesterolemia, we can study the incidence of melasma
or psoriasis in them. Thus, there is one exposure
(hypercholesterolemia) and multiple outcomes (melasma and
psoriasis). However, we have to ensure that none of the
individuals have any of the outcomes at the baseline
 If the exposure is rare, then a cohort design is an efficient
method to study the relation between exposure and outcomes
 It is generally said that a cohort design may not be efficient for
rare outcomes (a case-control design is preferred). However, if
the rare outcome is common in some exposures, then it may

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be useful to follow a cohort design. For example, melanoma is

not a common condition in India. Hence, if we follow
individuals to study the incidence of melanoma, then it may not
be efficient. However, if we know that, theoretically, a
particular chemical may be associated with melanoma, then
we should follow a cohort of individuals exposed to this
chemical (in occupational settings or otherwise) and study the
incidence of melanoma in this group
 In a prospective cohort study, the exposure variable, other
variables, and outcomes may be measured more accurately.
This is important to maintain uniformity in the measurement of
exposures and outcomes. This is also useful for exposures
that may require subjective assessment or recall by the
patient. For example, dietary history, smoking history, or
alcoholic history, etc. This may help in reducing the bias in
measurement of exposure
 A retrospective cohort study can be completed fast and is
relatively inexpensive compared with a prospective cohort
study. However, it also has other strengths of the prospective
cohort study.
Limitations of a Cohort Study

 One major limitation of a prospective cohort design is that is

time consuming and costly. For example, if we have to study
the incidence of cardiovascular patients in patients of
psoriasis, we may have to follow them up for many years
before the outcome occurs
 In a retrospective cohort study, the exposure and the outcome
variables are collected before the study has been initiated.

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Thus, the measurements may not be very accurate or

according to our requirements. In addition, the some of the
exposures may have been assessed differently for various
members of the cohort
 As discussed earlier, cohort studies may not be very efficient
for rare outcomes except in some conditions.
Additional Points in Cohort Studies
Multiple cohort study
Sometimes, we may be interested to compare the outcomes in two
or more groups of individuals. Thus, we may have a multiple cohort
study. It is important the exposure, outcome, and other variables
should be measured similarly in both the study and the comparison
group.
Measurement of exposure and outcome
Since the individuals are included in the study based on the
exposure status, this has to be well defined and accurate. The
outcomes also have to be well defined and measured similarly in all
the participants. If you have more than one group in the cohort (as
in multiple cohorts or reference population), you should ensure that
the follow-up protocols are similar in all the groups.
It is quite possible that individuals participating in a cohort study
may not be correctly classified – some exposed individuals may be
classified as unexposed and the other way round. If the
misclassification of the exposure or the outcome is random or
nondifferential, then the two groups will be similar and the estimates
from the study will be biased towards the null. Thus, we will
underestimate the association between the exposure and the

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outcome. If, however, the misclassification is differential or

nonrandom, then the estimates may be biased toward the null,
away from the null, or may be an appropriate estimate.
Follow-up
Follow-up of the study participants is very important in a cohort
study and losses are an important source of bias in these types of
studies. Some patients are lost to follow-up in large cohorts;
however, if the proportion is very high (>30%), then the validity of
the results from this study are doubtful. This loss to follow-up
becomes all the more important if it is related to the exposure or
outcome of interest. For example, in our prospective study, majority
of the patients who were lost to follow-up had severe psoriasis at
the baseline, then we will get biased estimates from the study.
Thus, managing follow-ups and minimizing losses are an important
component of the design of a cohort study.
Nested case-control study

This is a specific type of study design nested within a cohort study.

In this, the investigator will match the controls to the cases within a
specific cohort.
The exposure of interest will be assessed in these selected cases
and controls. For example, our hypothesis is that there is a
biological marker that in present/elevated (to begin with) in
individuals who develop cardiovascular events in psoriatic patients.
It is expensive to assess this marker in all patients. Thus, we select
all those who develop the outcomes (cases) in our cohort and a
sample of individuals who do not develop the outcomes (controls).
An important aspect, however, is that we should have stored the
biological material that we have collected at baseline, and the

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biological marker should be assessed in this sample. This

procedure maintains the temporal strength of the cohort study.

Time Series

The purpose of the present paper is to present a methodological

approach to such research areas as psychotherapy, education,
psychophysiology, operant research, etc., where the data consist of
dependent observations over time. Existing methodologies are
frequently inappropriate to research in these areas; common field
methodologies are unable to control irrelevant variables and
eliminate rival hypotheses, while traditional parametric laboratory
designs relying on control groups are often unsuitable. New data-
analysis techniques have made possible the development of a
different methodological approach which can be applied in either the
laboratory or in natural (field) settings. This approach is responsive
to ecological considerations (Willems, 1965) while permitting
satisfactory experimental control. Control is achieved by a network
of complementary control strategies, not solely by control-group
designs.
INTERRUPTED TIME SERIES DESIGN
A variant of the pretest-posttest design is the interrupted time-
series design. A time series is a set of measurements taken at
intervals over a period of time. For example, a manufacturing
company might measure its workers’ productivity each week for a
year. In an interrupted time series-design, a time series like this one
is “interrupted” by a treatment.
In one classic example, the treatment was the reduction of the work
shifts in a factory from 10 hours to 8 hours (Cook & Campbell,
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1979). Because productivity increased rather quickly after the

shortening of the work shifts, and because it remained elevated for
many months afterward, the researcher concluded that the
shortening of the shifts caused the increase in productivity.
Notice that the interrupted time-series design is like a pretest-
posttest design in that it includes measurements of the dependent
variable both before and after the treatment. It is unlike the pretest-
posttest design, however, in that it includes multiple pretest and
posttest measurements.
Figure 8.1 shows data from a hypothetical interrupted time-series
study. The dependent variable is the number of student absences
per week in a research methods course. The treatment is that the
instructor begins publicly taking attendance each day so that
students know that the instructor is aware of who is present and
who is absent.
The top panel of Figure shows how the data might look if this
treatment worked. There is a consistently high number of absences
before the treatment, and there is an immediate and sustained drop
in absences after the treatment.
The bottom panel of Figure shows how the data might look if this
treatment did not work. On average, the number of absences after
the treatment is about the same as the number before. This figure
also illustrates an advantage of the interrupted time-series design
over a simpler pretest-posttest design.
If there had been only one measurement of absences before the
treatment at Week 7 and one afterward at Week 8, then it would
have looked as though the treatment were responsible for the
reduction. The multiple measurements both before and after the

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treatment suggest that the reduction between Weeks 7 and 8 is

nothing more than normal week-to-week variation.
THE USE OF TIME SERIES IN DESIGN
The most persuasive experimental evidence comes from a
triangulation of research designs as well as from a triangulation of
measurement processes. The following three designs, when used in
conjunction, represent such a triangulation:
(a) the one-group pretest-posttest design;
(b) the time-series design; and
(c) the multiple time-series design. These designs need not be
applied simultaneously;
The One-Group Pretesl-FosUest Design
This design, although inadequate when used alone, makes a
significant and unique contribution to the total design package. It
provides an external criterion measure of the outcome of a
programmed intervention. Each subject serves as his own control,
and the difference between his pre- and posttest scores represents
a stringent measure of the degree to which "real life" program goals
have been achieved.2
For example, the ultimate success of psychotherapy is best
evaluated in terms of extratherapeutic behavior change. This
design, then, documents the fact of outcome-change without
pinpointing the process producing the change.
The Time-Series Design This design
involves successive observations throughout a programmed
intervention and assesses the characteristics of the change

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process. It is truly the mainstay of the proposed design package

because it serves several simultaneous functions. First, it is
descriptive.
The descriptive function of the time series is particularly important
when the intervention extends over a considerable time period. The
time series is the only design to furnish a continuous record of
fluctuations in the experimental variables over the entire course of
the program.
Second, the time-series design functions as an heuristic device.
When coupled with a carefully kept historical log of potentially
relevant nonexperimental events, the time series is an invaluable
source of post hoc hypotheses regarding observed, but unplanned,
changes in program variables.
Moreover, where treatment programs require practical
administrative decisions, the time series serves as a source of
hypotheses regarding the most promising decisions, and later as a
feedback source regarding the consequences and effectiveness of
such decisions.
Finally, the time series can function as a quasi-experimental design
for planned interventions imbedded in the total program when a
control group is implausible.
depicts a time-series experiment with an extended intervention ; of
course, in some cases, the intervention might simply be a discrete
event. A time-series analysis must demonstrate that the
perturbations of a system are not uncontrolled variations, that is,
noise in the system. It is precisely this problem of partitioning noise
from "effect" that has discouraged the use of time series in the
social sciences

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The Multiple Time-Series Design

This design is basically a refinement of the simple time series. It is
yet a more precise method for investigating specific program
hypotheses because it allows the time series of the experimental
group to be compared with that of a control group. As a result, it
offers a greater measure of control over unwanted sources of rival
hypotheses.
THE ANALYSIS OF TIME-SERIES DATA
The data resulting from the best of experimental designs is of little
value unless subsequent statistical analyses permit the investigator
to test the extent to which obtained differences exceed chance
fluctuations. The above design package, with its emphasis on time-
series designs, is a realistic possibility only because of recent
developments in the field of mathematics. Appropriate analysis
techniques have evolved from work in such diverse areas as
economics, meteorology,
industrial quality control, and psychology. Historically, the time-
series design has been neglected due to the lack of such
appropriate analytical techniques. Two statistical methods for
solving the problem of time-series analyses are presented below.
MANOVA

Multivariate ANOVA (MANOVA) extends the capabilities of analysis

of variance (ANOVA) by assessing multiple dependent
variables simultaneously. ANOVA statistically tests the differences
between three or more group means. For example, if you have
three different teaching methods and you want to evaluate
the average scores for these groups, you can use ANOVA.
However, ANOVA does have a drawback. It can assess only
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one dependent variable at a time. This limitation can be an

enormous problem in certain circumstances because it can prevent
you from detecting effects that actually exist.
MANOVA provides a solution for some studies. This statistical
procedure tests multiple dependent variables at the same time. By
doing so, MANOVA can offer several advantages over ANOVA.
Multivariate ANOVA (MANOVA) extends the capabilities of analysis
of variance (ANOVA) by assessing multiple dependent
variables simultaneously. ANOVA statistically tests the differences
between three or more group means. For example, if you have
three different teaching methods and you want to evaluate
the average scores for these groups, you can use ANOVA.
However, ANOVA does have a drawback. It can assess only
one dependent variable at a time. This limitation can be an
enormous problem in certain circumstances because it can prevent
you from detecting effects that actually exist.
MANOVA provides a solution for some studies. This statistical
procedure tests multiple dependent variables at the same time. By
doing so, MANOVA can offer several advantages over ANOVA.
MANOVA Assesses the Data
Let’s see what patterns we can find between the dependent
variables and how they are related to teaching method. I’ll graph the
test and satisfaction scores on the scatterplot and use teaching
method as the grouping variable. This multivariate approach
represents how MANOVA tests the data. These are the same data,
but sometimes how you look at them makes all the difference.
The graph displays a positive correlation between Test scores and
Satisfaction. As student satisfaction increases, test scores tend to

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increase as well. Moreover, for any given satisfaction score,

teaching method 3 tends to have higher test scores than methods 1
and 2. In other words, students who are equally satisfied with the
course tend to have higher scores with method 3. MANOVA can
test this pattern statistically to help ensure that it’s not present by
chance.
In your preferred statistical software, fit the MANOVA model so that
Method is the independent variable and Satisfaction and Test are
the dependent variables.
MANOVA Provides Benefits
Use multivariate ANOVA when your dependent variables are
correlated. The correlation structure between the dependent
variables provides additional information to the model which gives
MANOVA the following enhanced capabilities:
o Greater statistical power: When the dependent variables are
correlated, MANOVA can identify effects that are smaller than
those that regular ANOVA can find.
o Assess patterns between multiple dependent variables:
The factors in the model can affect the relationship between
dependent variables instead of influencing a single dependent
variable. As the example in this post shows, ANOVA tests with
a single dependent variable can fail completely to detect these
patterns.
o Limits the joint error rate: When you perform a series of
ANOVA tests because you have multiple dependent variables,
the joint probability of rejecting a true null hypothesis increases
with each additional test. Instead, if you perform one MANOVA
test, the error rate equals the significance level.

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(1) reading, (2) mathematics, and (3) moral reasoning skills. Using
MANOVA the psychologist could examine how the two groups differ
on a linear combination of the three measures. Perhaps the Catholic
school children score higher on moral reasoning skills relative to
reading and math when compared to the public school children?
Perhaps the Catholic school children score higher on both moral
reasoning skills and math relative to reading when compared to the
public school children? These potential outcomes, or questions, are
multivariate in nature because they treat the quantitative measures
simultaneously and recognize their potential inter-relatedness. The
goal of conducting a MANOVA is thus to determine how quantitative
variables can be combined to maximally discriminate between
distinct groups of people, places, or things.
As will be discussed below this goal also includes determining the
theoretical or practical meaning of the derived linear combination
or combinations of variables.
CONDUCTING THE MANOVA
Returning to the Big Five trait example, let us decide to pursue a
truly multivariate approach. In other words, let us commit to
examining the linear combinations of personality traits that might
differentiate between the European American (EA), Asian American
(AA), and Asian International (AI) students. Assuming that no a
priori model for combining the Big Five traits is available, these six
steps will consequently be followed:
APPLIED MULTIVARIATE RESEARCH
1. Conduct an omnibus test of differences among the three groups
on linear combinations of the five personality traits.

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2. Examine the linear combinations of personality traits embodied in

the discriminant functions.
3. Simplify and interpret the strongest linear combination.
4. Test the simplified linear combination (multivariate composite) for
statistical significance.
5. Conduct follow-up tests of group differences on the simplified
multivariate composite.
6. Summarize results in APA style If an existing model for
combining the traits were available, a priori, then an abbreviated
approach, which will be discussed near the end of this paper, would
be undertaken.
Step 1: Conducting the Omnibus MANOVA. The omnibus null
hypothesis for this example posits the EA, AA, and AI groups are
equal with regard to their population means on any and all linear
combinations of the Big Five personality traits.
This hypothesis can be tested using any one of the major computer
software packages. In SPSS for Windows the General Linear Model
(GLM) procedure can be used or the dated MANOVA routine can be
run through the syntax editor.
Single-Factor ANCOVA
In this model a single-factor ANOVA model is extended by
specifying one or more additional continuous (quantitative) variables
called covariates. The resulting single-factor analysis of covariance
(ANCOVA) model explains variation in a dependent variable by
combining a categorical (qualitative) independent variable with one
or more continuous (quantitative) variables. If a covariate is linearly
related to the dependent variable, it will reduce pre-existing

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variability between subjects. In effect, the variance component in

the dependent variable which is due to covariation with the
covariate is removed ("partialed out") from the dependent variable.
This reduces the variance of the error term in the model, which
increases the sensitivity of the ANCOVA as compared to the same
model without the covariate (ANOVA model). A higher test
sensitivity means that smaller mean differences between groups will
become significant as compared to a standard ANOVA model.
Note that ANCOVA has a similar goal as repeated measures
ANOVA, namely to remove pre-existing differences between
subjects. In repeated measures ANOVA models, this is achieved by
measuring the same subjects under various conditions (within-
subjects) instead of assigning different subjects to different
conditions. From the obtained data, changes of the dependent
variable across conditions are only analyzed within each subject
completely removing between-subjects variability. In ANCOVA
models, the reduction of inter-subject variability depends on the
strength of correlation of the covariate with the dependent variable.
This consideration implies that ANCOVA models are only useful for
designs with between-subjects factors but provide no benefits in
pure within-subjects factorial designs.
The obvious difference between ANOVA and ANCOVA is the the
letter "C", which stands for 'covariance'. Like ANOVA, "Analysis of
Covariance" (ANCOVA) has a single continuous response variable.
Unlike ANOVA, ANCOVA compares a response variable by both a
factor and a continuous independent variable (e.g. comparing test
score by both 'level of education' and 'number of hours spent
studying'). The term for the continuous independent variable (IV)
used in ANCOVA is "covariate".

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ANCOVA is also commonly used to describe analyses with a single

response variable, continuous IVs, and no factors. Such an analysis
is also known as a regression. In fact, you can get almost identical
results in SPSS by conducting this analysis using either the
"Analyze > Regression > Linear" dialog menus or the "Analze >
General Linear Model (GLM) > Univariate" dialog menus.
A key (but not only) difference in these methods is that you get
slightly different output tables. Also, regression requires that user
dummy code factors, while GLM handles dummy coding through the
"contrasts" option. The linear regression command in SPSS also
allows for variable entry in hierarchical blocks (i.e. stages).

Single subject design psychology

Single subject research design is a type of research methodology

characterized by repeated assessment of a particular phenomenon
(often a behavior) over time and is generally used to evaluate
interventions. Repeated measurement across time differentiates
single subject research design from case studies and group
designs, as it facilitates the examination of client change in
response to an intervention. Although the use of single subject
research design has generally been limited to research, it is also
appropriate and useful in applied practice.
A wide variety of valid, useful designs exist for the measurement of
a single case. These designs are either classified as qualitative or
quasi experimental designs as they do not contain the provisions of
random, representative samples or randomization to
treatment/intervention. This classification convention also occurs

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because traditional statistical analyses based classical theorems

are not used.
With focus currently on evidenced-based practice/medicine in health
care, more exacting measurements of treatment are needed. The
purposeful, visible emphasis on process and outcome date provides
the participant/client with an ongoing view of the validity of the
intervention approach. The evidence-based practice movement can
be addressed easily with the low cost (i.e., low expense and time
expenditure).
The Scientist Practitioner Model guides clinicians to use data
collected in laboratory to guide decisions of treatment
implementation. In turn, treatment implementation, according to
the Scientist Practitioner Model, influences the direction of research.
Research evidence of treatment effectiveness is valued. In single
case designs, the systematic monitoring and evaluation positions
the participant/client to adopt a problem-solving experiment,
conjointly with the practitioner/field researcher on herself/himself. In
so doing, the findings are immediate and directly applicable to their
situation In some cases, these approaches promote the generation
of alternative interpretations of collected data and quite possibly,
causal explanations of behaviors. The clinical practices of
establishing support, setting up a conceptual/ethical concept of
clients’ situation, identification of areas of
change/strength/weakness, selection and implementation of
treatment, evaluation of change/plan for relapse and follow-up are
conducted within the simple case design context.
All single case designs involve training the participant/client in
observation practices. This training of the individual to understand
what behavior to record, how to record the behavior and when to

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record the behavior is central to single case design. It is common for

the practitioner/field researcher to work with the participant/client in
their selection of a behavior to change and thereby,
record.This becomes important as this descriptive data will
ultimately become the pivotal source of information about
the functional relationship between the target behavior for change
and those behaviors that precede and follow (i.e., antecedent
consequences) as they are typically interdependent. In fact, this
circumstance is what is termed the functional assessment. Some
representative target behaviors often used in an ABA single case
design are: nutrition; hydration – amount of water;
weight gain or loss; medication compliance; adherence to
treatment; smoking cessation; substance use cessation. Client’s
values are incorporated
in the choice of targets and goal setting procedures. The baseline
measurement is followed by the implementation of a change in a
target behavior such as the examples listed above. After the
implementation period, the participant/client returns to an adlib or no
intervention schedule.
The ABA design, like other single case designs, allows the client
values to be incorporated into the choice of targets and goal setting
procedures.In the AB design, the intervention is followed by a
baseline period.
Conclusions
We find that single case designs are powerful measurement tools of
behavior. The challenges and need for quantification that occurs in
field settings can be uniquely and precisely addressed with single
case designs.

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Research Methodology and
Statistics MCQs
1.

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1. Who authored the book “methods 5. Ethical Neutrality is a feature of

in Social Research” A. Deduction
A. Wilkinson B. Scientific method
B. CR Kothari C. Observation
C. Kerlinger D. Experience
D. Goode and Halt Ans:- B
Ans:- D
6. Scientific method is committed to
2. “Research is an organized and ……………….
systematic enquiry” Defined by A. Objectivity
A. Marshall B. Ethics
B. P.V. Young C. Proposition
C. Emory D. Neutrality
D. Kerlinger Ans:- A
Ans:- C
7. “One of the methods of logical
3. Research is a “Scientific reasoning process” is called
undertaking” opined by A. Induction
A. Young B. Deduction
B. Kerlinger C. Research
C. Kothari D. Experiment
D. Emory Ans:- A
Ans:- A
8. An essential Criterion of Scientific
4. “A systematic step-by-step study is
Procedure following logical process A. Belief
of reasoning” called B. Value
A. Experiment C. Objectivity
B. Observation D. Subjectivity
C. Deduction Ans:- C
D. Scientific method Ans:- D

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9. “Reasoning from general to to explain and Predict phenomena”

particular “is called defined by
A. Induction A. Jack Gibbs
B. deduction B. PV Young
C. Observation C. Black
D. experience D. Rose Arnold
Ans:- B Ans:- B

10. “Deduction and induction are a 13. Theory is “ a set of systematically

part of system of reasoning” – stated related propositions specifying
by casual relationship among variables”
A. Caroline is defined by
B. P.V.Young A. Black James and Champion
C. Dewey John B. P.V. Young
D. Emory C. Emory
Ans:- B D. Gibbes
Ans:- A
11. “ A system of systematically
interrelated concepts definitions and 14. “Empirically verifiable
propositions that are advanced to observation” is
explain and predict phenomena” … A. Theory
is B. Value
A. Facts C. Fact
B. Values D. Statement
C. Theory Ans:- C
D. Generalization
Ans:- C 15. Fact is “empirically verifiable
observation” --- is defined by
12. “ A system of systematically A. Good and Hatt
interrelated concepts, definitions B. Emory
and propositions that are advanced C. P.V. Young
D. Claver Ans:- A

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E. Objectives
16. ……….. is “systematically Ans:- A
conceptual structure of inter related
elements in some 20. Social Science Research …………….
A. schematic form” Problems
B. Concept A. Explain
C. Variable B. diagnosis
D. Model E. Facts C. Recommend
Ans:- C D. Formulate
Ans:- B
17. Social Science deals with ………..
A. Objects 21. Social research aims at
B. Human beings ……………….
C. Living things A. Integration
D. Non living things B. Social Harmony
Ans:- B C. National Integration
D. Social Equality
18. Science is broadly divided into Ans:- A
……………….
A. Natural and Social 22. The method by which a sample is
B. Natural and Physical chosen
C. Physical and Mental A. Unit
D. Social and Physical B. design
Ans:- A C. Random
D. Census
19. Social Science try to explain Ans:- B
…………. Between human activities
and natural laws 23. Basing conclusions without any
A. governing them bias and value judgment is ……………
B. Causal Connection A. Objectivity
C. reason B. Specificity
D. Interaction C. Values

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D. Facts D. Pilot study Ans:- C

Ans:- A
28. Research conducted to find
24. Research is classified on the basis solution for an immediate problem
of …….. and methods is ………….
A. Purpose A. Fundamental Research B.
B. Intent Analytical Research
C. Methodology C. Survey
D. Techniques D. Action Research
Ans:- B Ans:- D

25. Research undertaken for 29. Fundamental Research is

knowledge sake is otherwise called
A. Pure Research A. Action Research
B. Action Research B. Survey
C. Pilot study C. Pilot study
D. Survey D. Pure Research
Ans:- A Ans:- D

26. Example for fact finding study is 30. Motivation Research is a type of
A. Pure Research …………… research
B. Survey A. Quantitative
C. Action Research B. Qualitative
D. Long term Research C. Pure
Ans:- B D. Applied
Ans:- B
27. Facts or information’s are
analyzed and critical evaluation is 31. Research related to abstract
made in ideas or concepts is
A. Survey A. Empirical research
B. Action research B. Conceptual Research
C. Analytical research C. Quantitative research

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D. Qualitative research Ans:- A

Ans:- B
36. The author of “ The Grammar of
32. A research which follows case Science” is
study method is called A. Ostle
A. Clinical or diagnostic B. Richard
B. Causal C. Analytical C. Karl Pearson
D. Qualitative D. Kerlinger
Ans:- A Ans:- C

33. Research conducted in class 37. “The Romance of Research” is

room atmosphere is called authored by
A. Field study A. Redmen and Mory
B. Survey B. P.V.Young
C. Laboratory Research C. Robert C meir
D. Empirical Research D. Harold Dazier
Ans:- C Ans:- A

34. Research through experiment 38. ………….. is a way to

and observation is called systematically solve the research
A. Clinical Research problem
B. Experimental Research A. Technique
C. Laboratory Research B. Operations
D. Empirical Research C. Research methodology
Ans:- D D. Research Process
Ans:- C
35. Population Census is an example
of ………….. Research 39. Good Research is always
A. Survey ……………
B. Empirical A. Slow
C. Clinical B. Fast
D. Diagnostic C. Narrow

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D. Systematic Ans:- B
Ans:- D
44. ………… helps in social planning
40. Good research is …………… A. Social Science Research
A. Logical B. Experience Survey
B. Non logical C. Problem formulation
C. Narrow D. diagnostic study
D. Systematic Ans:- A
Ans:- A
45. “Foundations of Behavioral
41. “Criteria of Good Research” is Research” is written by
written by A. P.V. Young
A. Delta Kappan B. Kerlinger
B. James Harold Fox C. Emory
C. P.V.Young D. Clover Vernon
D. Karl Popper Ans:- B
Ans:- B
46. Methods and issues in Social
42. Research method is a part of Research” is written by
………….. A. Black James and Champions
A. Problem B. P.V. Young
B. Experiment C. Mortan Kaplan
C. Research Techniques D. William Emory
D. Research methodology Ans:- A
Ans:- D
47. “Scientific Social Survey and
43. Identifying causes of a problem Research” is written by
and possible solution to a problem is A. Best John
A. Field Study B. Emory
B. diagnosis tic study C. Clover
C. Action study D. P.V. Young
D. Pilot study Ans:- D

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Ans:- C
48. “Doubt is often better than
……………….” 52. Major drawback to researchers
A. Belief in India is …………….
B. Value A. Lack of sufficient number of
C. Confidence Universities
D. Overconfidence B. Lack of sufficient research guides
Ans:- D C. Lack of sufficient Fund
D. Lack of scientific training in
49. Research help in explaining the research
………… with which something Ans:- D
operates.
A. Velocity 53. ICSSR stands for
B. Momentum A. Indian Council for Survey and
C. Frequency Research
D. gravity B. Indian Council for strategic
Ans:- C Research
C. Indian Council for Social Science
50. …………… is a motivation for Research
research in students D. Inter National Council for Social
A. Research degree Science Research
B. Research Academy Ans:- C
C. Research Labs
D. Research Problems 54. UGC Stands for
Ans:- A A. University Grants Commission
B. Union Government Commission
51. Which of the following is an C. University Governance Council
example of primary data? D. Union government Council
A. Book Ans:- A
B. Journal
C. News Paper 55. JRF is for
D. Census Report A. Junior Research Functions

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B. Junior Research Fellowship Ans:- B

C. Junior Fellowship
D. None of the above 60. Converting a question into a
Ans:- B Researchable problem is called
56. ………….. is the first step of …………
Research process A. Solution
A. Formulation of a problem B. Examination
B. Collection of Data C. Problem formulation
C. Editing and Coding D. Problem Solving
D. Selection of a problem Ans:- C
Ans:- D
61. While Selecting a problem,
57. A problem well put is ………………. problem which is ………….. is no
A. Fully solved taken
B. Not solved A. Very Common
C. Cannot be solved B. Overdone
D. half- solved C. Easy one
Ans:- D D. rare
Ans:- B
58. ……………. is a source of problem
A. Schools and Colleges 62. The first step in formulating a
B. Class Room Lectures problem is
C. Play grounds A. Statement of the problem
D. Infra structures B. Gathering of Data
Ans:- B C. Measurement
D. Survey
59. A question which requires a Ans:- A
solution is ………….
A. Observation 63. …………….. will help in finding out
B. Problem a problem for research
C. Data A. Professor
D. Experiment B. Tutor

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C. HOD A. Survey
D. Guide B. Discussion
Ans:- D C. Literature survey
D. Re Phrasing the Research problem
64. Second step in problem Ans:- D
formulation is
A. Statement of the problem 68. In the formulation of the
B. Understanding the nature of the problem we need to give a ………….
problem A. Title
C. Survey B. Index
D. Discussions C. Bibliography
Ans:- B D. Concepts
Ans:- A
65. Third step in problem
formulation is 69. Objectives in problem
A. Statement of the problem formulation means
B. Understanding the nature of the A. Questions to be answered
problem B. methods
C. Survey the available literature C. Techniques
D. Discussion D. methodology
Ans:- C Ans:- A

66. Fourth step in problem 70. The problem selected must have
formulation is A. Speed
A. Develop ideas through discussion B. Facts
B. Survey C. Values
C. Statement of problem D. Novelty
D. Enactment Ans:- D
Ans:- A
71. The formulated problem should
67. Last step in problem formulation have
is A. Originality

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B. Values B. Age
C. Coherence C. Money
D. Facts D. time
Ans:- A Ans:- A

72. The purpose of Social Science 76. Social Science Research in India
Research is aims at a ………. State
A. Academic and Non academic A. Secular
B. Cultivation B. Totalitarian
C. Academic C. democratic
D. Utilitarian D. welfare
Ans:- B Ans:- D

73. The Academic purpose is to have 77. A ……………… is an abstraction

………………. formed by generalization from
A. Information particulars
B. firsthand knowledge A. Hypothesis
C. Knowledge and information B. Variable
D. models C. Concept
Ans:- C D. facts
Ans:- C
74. Social Science Research creates
Social …………… 78. Concept is of two types
A. Alienation A. Abstract and Coherent
B. Cohesion B. Concrete and Coherent
C. mobility C. Abstract and concrete
D. Integration D. None of the above
Ans:- B Ans:- C

75. ………… is a quality of Good 79. Concepts are of ……………….types

Researcher A. 4
A. Scientific temper B. 6

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C. 10 D. Models
D. 2 Ans:- C
Ans:- D
84. Concepts represent various
80. There is a concept by degree of ……………..
…………………… A. Formulation
A. Observation B. Calculation
B. formulation C. Abstraction
C. Theory D. Specification
D. Postulation Ans:- C
Ans:- D
85. Concepts which cannot be given
81. Another concept is by operational definitions are …………
……………….. concepts
A. Formulation A. Verbal
B. Postulation B. Oral
C. Intuition C. Hypothetical
D. Observation D. Operational
Ans:- C Ans:- C

82. Concepts are ……………. of 86. “Concept is in reality a definition

Research in short hand or a class or group of
A. guide facts” –defined by
B. tools A. Kerlinger
C. methods B. P.V. Young
D. Variables C. Aurthur
Ans:- B D. Kaplan
Ans:- B
83. Concepts are ………………….
A. Metaphor 87. Different people hold …………….
B. Simile of the same thing
C. Symbols A. Same and different

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B. Same A. Lund berg

C. different B. Emory
D. None of the above C. Johnson
Ans:- C D. Good and Hatt
Ans:- D
88. Many concepts find their origin
from 92. “ A tentative generalization”
A. Greek stated by
B. English A. Good and Hatt
C. Latin B. Lund berg
D. Many languages C. Emory
Ans:-D D. Orwell
Ans:- B
89. A tentative proposition subject
to test is 93. Propositions which describe the
A. Variable characteristics are ………….
B. Hypothesis Hypothesis
C. Data A. Descriptive
D. Concept B. Imaginative
Ans:- B C. Relational
D. Variable
90. Analogies are sources of Ans:- A
……………….
A. Data 94. A Hypothesis which develops
B. Concept while planning the research is
C. Research A. Null Hypothesis
D. Hypothesis B. Working Hypothesis
Ans:- D C. Relational Hypothesis
D. Descriptive Hypothesis
91. “A Proposition which can be put Ans:- B
to test to determine its validity”
Defined by

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95. When a hypothesis is stated

negatively it is called 99. Null means
A. Relational Hypothesis A. One
B. Situational Hypothesis B. Many
C. Null Hypothesis C. Zero
D. Casual Hypothesis D. None of these
Ans:- C Ans:- C

96. The first variable is …………….. 100. …………………. Represent

variable common sense ideas
A. Abstract A. Statistical Hypothesis
B. Dependent B. Complex Hypothesis
C. Independent C. Common sense Hypothesis
D. Separate D. Analytical Hypothesis
Ans:- C Ans:- C

97. The second variable is called 101. Which one of the following is
………… regarded as the very breath of an
A. Independent experiment?
B. Dependent (a) Independent Variable
C. Separate (b) Dependent Variable
D. Abstract (c) Controlled Variable
Ans:- B (d) Experimental Control
(e) None of the above
98. Hypothesis which explain Ans:- D
relationship between two variables
is 102. When large groups of
A. Causal interconnected facts are considered
B. Relational together in a consistent manner, we
C. Descriptive get a/an:
D. Tentative (a) Scientific theory
Ans:- B (b) Non-scientific theory

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(c) Social theory 106. We find a true zero in a/an:

(d) Authentic theory (a) Interval Scale
(e) None of the above (b) Ordinal Scale
Ans:- A (c) Rating Scale
(d) Ratio Scale
103. Experimental method starts (e) None of the above
with some problems which have: Ans:- D
(a) No solution for a brief time span
(b) No adequate solution 107. Method of rating or Method of
(c) An immediate solution successive catagories is otherwise
(d) No hypothesis called as:
(e) None of the above (a) Interval Scale
Ans:- B (b) Method of Introspection
(c) Method of Observation
104. When we assign numbers to (d) Method of graded dichotomies
objects, events or mental (e) None of the above
phenomena, we obtain a: Ans:- D
(a) Scale
(b) Rule 108. The first rating scale was
(c) Test developed by:
(d) Measure (a) Starch (1910)
(e) None of the above (b) Diggory (1953)
Ans:- A (c) Ebbinghaus (1885)
(d) Galton (1883)
105. Interval Scales have: (e) J. B. Watson (1913)
(a) Equal appearing units Ans:- D
(b) No equal appearing units
(c) No statistical value 109. The method of ranking was
(d) No mathematical Design formerly known as the method of:
(e) None of the above (a) Order of Merit
Ans:- A (b) Order of Steps
(c) Sequential Order

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(d) Constant Intervals (d) Francies Galton

(e) None of the above (e) William Mc Dougall
Ans:- A Ans:- D

110. The method of ‘paired 113. The term “mental tests” was
comparison’ was introduced by: first employed by:
(a) Watson (a) Spearman
(b) Galton (b) Binet
(c) Cohn (c) James
(d) Weber (d) Cattell
(e) Fechner (e) Mc Daugall
Ans:- C Ans:- A

111. While studying colour 114. According to P. T. Young, a

preferences, the method of ‘paired’ comprehensive study of a social unit
comparison’ was introduced by Cohn be that a person, a group, a social
in: institution, a district or a community
(a) 1148 AD is called a:
(b) 1481 AD (a) Case study
(c) 1984 AD (b) Cultural study
(d) 1894 AD (c) Class study
(e) 1418 AD (d) Group Study
Ans:- D (e) None of the above
Ans:- A
112. From the following, who is the
first scientist to undertake 115. Ex-Post Facto Research is a
systematic and statistical systematic empirical enquiry in
investigations of individual which the scientist does not have
differences? direct control of:
(a) 1. P. Pavlov (a) Independent Variables
(b) C. E. Spearman (b) Dependent Variables
(c) J. B. Watson

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(c) Both Independent and

Dependent Variables 118. The variables in a field
(d) Controlled Variables experiment operate more strongly
(e) None of the above than those used in:
Ans:- A (a) Case study
(b) Introspective method
116. A laboratory experiment is a (c) Laboratory Experiment
research study in which the variance (d) Observational Method
of all the possible influential (e) None of the above
independent variables not pertinent Ans:- C
to the immediate problem of the
investigations is kept at a: 119. The field experiments have the
(a) Maximum advantage of investigating more
(b) Constant level fruitfully the dynamics of
(c) Highest Point interrelationships of:
(d) Minimum (a) Small groups of Variables
(e) None of the above (b) Large groups of Variables
Ans:- D (c) Both small and large groups of
Variables
117. A research study in a realistic (d) Independent Variables
situation in which one or more (e) Dependent Variables
independent variables are Ans:- A
manipulated by the experimenter
under as carefully controlled 120. Which type of research is
conditions as the situation permit is approached through the methods of
known as: personal interviews, mailed
(a) A field experiment questionnaires and personal discus-
(b) A situational experiment sions besides indirect oral
(c) A case study investigation?
(d) Observational study (a) Case Study
(e) None of the above (b) Field Study
Ans:- A (c) Survey Research

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 Research Methodology and Statistics MCQs 2020

(d) Observation (a) Variable

(e) Experimentation (b) Error
Ans:- C (c) Hypothesis
(d) Problem
121. Which type of research is a (e) None of the above
product of developmental Ans:- C
programming that has been adopted
on a very large scale in the recent 124. The least noticeable value of a
years more practically particularly stimulus is called:
after Second World War when most (a) Stimulus Threshold
of the Third World Countries (b) Response Threshold
emerged on the development scene? (c) Hypothesis
(a) Case Study (d) Problem
(b) Survey Research (e) None of the above
(c) Experimentation Ans:- A
(d) Evaluation Research
(e) None of the above 125. Which method is regarded as
Ans:- D the most preferred method of
psychology?
122. A research through launching of (a) Observation
a direct action with the objective of (b) Introspection
obtaining workable solutions to the (c) Case Study
given problems is known as: (d) Experimental Method
(a) Action Research (e) Action Research
(b) Survey Research Ans:- D
(c) Evaluation Research
(d) Experimentation 126. “I bet this will happen if I do
(e) None of the above this” design of experimentation
Ans:- A otherwise known as:
(a) Exploratory Experimentation
123. A proposition which can be put (b) Case Study
to determine its validity is called: (c) Hypothesis Testing

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(d) Survey Research

(e) None of the above 130. Which scale represents the
Ans:- C lowest level of measurement and
imparts the least information?
127. To ensure that the influence of (a) Nominal Scale
all relevant variables is the same for (b) Ordinal Scale
all the subjects and does not change (c) Interval Scale
during the experimental period is (d) Ratio Scale
the main objective of: (e) None of the above
(a) Experimental Error Ans:- A
(b) Experimental Control
(c) Experimental Variables 131. Which Scale has an absolute
(d) Hypothesis Testing zero at the point of origin?
(e) None of the above (a) Ordinal Scale
Ans:- B (b) Interval Scale
(c) Nominal Scale
128. Field Study method is the (d) Ratio Scale
method of: (e) None of the above
(a) Laboratory Observation Ans:- D
(b) Situational Observation
(c) Naturalistic Observation 132. The method of selecting a
(d) Occasional Observation portion of the universe with a view
(e) None of the above to drawing conclusion about the
Ans:- C universe ‘in toto’ is known as:
(a) Scaling
129. In studying the public opinion: (b) Leveling
(a) Field Study method is applied (c) Randomizing
(b) Action Research is applied (d) Sampling
(c) Survey Research is applied (e) None of the above
(d) Scaling method is applied Ans:- D
(e) None of the above
Ans:- A

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133. How many samples out of 100 136. The men of medicine of the
samples drawn from a given ancient as well as the modern tribal
population, the researcher wants, groups are masters in the techniques
should represent the true population of:
estimates is known as: (a) Suggestion and Hypnosis
(a) The confidence level (b) Experimentation
(b) The sampling level (c) Introspection
(c) The situational level (d) Field Study
(d) The experimental level (e) None of the above
(e) None of the above Ans:- A
Ans:- A
137. In India, the first psychological
134. The most common method of laboratory was started in the year
sampling in marketing researches 1916 in Calcutta University and the
and election polls is: second in 1923 in Mysore University.
(a) Random Sampling Both these laboratories are the
(b) Stratified Random Sampling result of the endeavour of:
(c) Quota Sampling (a) Prof. K. Kautilya
(d) Proportionate Stratified Sampling (b) Prof. B. Sinha
(e) Cluster Sampling (c) Prof. B. N. Seal
Ans:- C (d) Prof. R. N. Rath
(e) None of the above
135. Itemized rating scales are Ans:- C
otherwise known as:
(a) Numerical Scales 138. In Observation Method, there is
(b) Rank Order Scales a tendency to read one’s own
(c) Graphic rating Scales thought and feeling into other’s
(d) Comparative Scales mind. This may be otherwise called:
(e) None of the above (a) Projection
Ans:- A (b) Sublimation
(c) Identification
(d) Rationalization

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(e) None of the above 141. There are some people in the
Ans:- A world who can move objects which
are away from them without using
139. In the field of sensation, any form of physical force. In
psychologists can easily gather psychology, this phenomenon is
valuable information’s by the help called:
of: (a) Psychoanalysis
(a) Survey Method (b) Telepathy
(b) Introspection Method (c) Precognition
(c) Experimentation (d) Psychokinesis
(d) Clinical Method (e) Leviation
(e) None of the above Ans:- D
Ans:- B
142. The story of the Bible affirms
140. When a person is becoming that St. Peter walked on the surface
angry, if he starts observing and of water. Among the Indian mystics,
studying his state of mind Padmapada, a disciple of Adi Sankar
simultaneously, he will not be able is reported to have walked across
to show his anger. The moment he water, his steps being supported by
starts observing his own anger, it lotus flowers. In psychology, this
may subside. This problem can be form of mysterious behaviour is
partially solved by observing the popularly known as:
experience after it is over. This is (a) Leviation
popularly known as: (b) Telepathy
(a) Retrospection (c) Psychokinesis
(b) Introjection (d) Precognition
(c) Projection (e) None of the above.
(d) Identification Ans:- A
(e) None of the above
Ans:- A 143. Some people are able to know
and predict events long before

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others can. This process is popularly (a) Community Psychology

known as: (b) Group Psychology
(a) Telepathy (c) Educational Psychology
(b) Precognition (d) Criminal Psychology
(c) Leviation (e) None of the above
(d) Psychokinesis Ans:- A
(e) None of the above
Ans:- B 146. Non-naturalistic observations
on children may be contrived in a:
144. Some people in this world who (a) Society
are able to understand the thought (b) Group
processes of other individuals who (c) Laboratory
are far away and perhaps even (d) School
influence them without any form of (e) None of the above
contact. In psychology, this Ans:- C
phenomenon is popularly known as:
(a) Telepathy 147. Projective test is a:
(b) Precognition (a) Non-naturalistic Observation
(c) Leviation (b) Naturalistic Observation
(d) Psychokinesis (c) Self Observation
(e) None of the above (d) Internal Observation
Ans:- A (e) None of the above
Ans:- A
145. A recent development of
“Applied Social Psychology” which is 148. The qualitative changes
concerned with the application of occurring in behavioural
psychology in solving the problems characteristics of the child leading
of particular communities of people towards maturity is otherwise
like village community, the urban known as:
community and the socially (a) Development
backward community etc. is (b) Growth
popularly known as: (c) Maturation

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(d) Learning (d) Attitude

(e) Intelligence (e) None of the above
Ans:- A Ans:- A

149. The earlier concepts of “Child 152. When large groups of

Development” started with the: interconnected facts are considered
(a) Birth of the Child together in a consistent manner, we
(b) Death of the Child get a:
(c) Conception (a) Scientific Theory
(d) Phallic Stage (b) Critical Problem
(e) Second year of the Child (c) Combined Result
Ans:- A (d) Confirmed Fact
(e) None of the above
150. The concept which refers to the Ans:- A
consistency of scores obtained by
the same persons when re-examined 153. Suppose you have a glass of
with the same test on different milk and with a measuring glass you
occasions is known as: continue to add half a c.c. of plain
(a) Validity tea at every step, till your friend
(b) Reliability reports a change in judgement in the
(c) Standard Error colour of the milk. The quantity of
(d) Error Variance tea added, has just crossed what is
(e) None of the above just termed as:
Ans:- B (a) Illusion
(b) Absolute Threshold
151. Experimental Analysis enables (c) Colour Blindness
us to discern lawful relationships (d) Just Noticeable Difference
between antecedents and (e) None of the above
consequents involved in: Ans:- B
(a) Behaviour
(b) Experience 154. Suppose one Experimenter (E)
(c) Habit in psychology firmly believes that

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Brahmin children are inherently (a) Wholistic Approach

superior to the Harijan children. (b) Stimulus-Response-
Naturally he would never think of Behaviouristic Approach
home environment as an (c) Dynamic and Psychoanalytic
explanation. This is a very obvious Approach
example of: (d) Cognitive Approach
(a) Experimenter’s Bias (e) None of the above
(b) Subject’s Bias Ans:- D
(c) Stimulus Error
(d) Response Error 157. Which approach emphasises
(e) None of the above the role of instinctual processes and
Ans:- A their modification in the course of
interaction with the society?
155. Which one of the following (a) Dynamic and Psychoanalytic App-
approaches tries to analyze human roach
behaviour in terms of stimulus- (b) Cognitive Approach
response units acquired through the (c) Wholistic Approach
process of learning, mainly through (d) Stimulus-Response-
instrumental conditioning? Behaviouristic Approach
(a) Cognitive Approach (e) None of the above
(b) Dynamic and Psychoanalytic Ans:- A
Approach
(c) Stimulus-Response-Behaviouristic 158. Which approach placed
Approach emphasis on human existence—the
(d) Existential Approach need to establish a sense of personal
(e) Organismic, Wholistic and Self identity and to build meaningful
Approach links with the world?
Ans:- C (a) Cognitive Approach
(b) Dynamic and Psychoanalytic
156. The approach which has its Approach
roots in Gestalt Psychology is (c) Wholistic Approach
popularly known as: (d) Existential Approach

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(e) None of the above striving entity trying to master the

Ans:- D environment and also master itself?
(a) Organismic, Wholistic and Self
159. Existentialism tries to reach Approaches
modern man, offer him help in terms (b) Dynamic and Psychoanalytic
of clarifying his values, work out a Approach
meaningful and purposive existence. (c) Cognitive Approach
Psychologists who shaped this (d) Existential Approach
approach were: (e) None of the Above
(a) Rollo May, R. D. Laing and Erick Ans:- A
Fromm
(b) G. W. Allport, R. B. Catell and H. 162. Psychologists are sometimes
J. Eysenk interested to study consciousness
(c) Erickson and Sullivan even though they have no method of
(c) Piaget, Bruner and Witkin observing it directly except by using:
(e) None of the above (a) ‘Inference’ as the only tool
Ans:- A (b) ‘Experimentation’ as the only
tool
160. The system which still survives (c) ‘Observation’ technique
very nearly in its rigid forms is: (d) ‘Introspection’ technique
(a) Cognitive Approach (e) None of the above
(b) Dynamic and Psychoanalytic Ans:- A
Approach
(c) Wholistic Approach 163. The term “unconscious
(d) Existential Approach motivation” describes the key idea
(e) None of the above of:
Ans:- B (a) Structuralism
(b) Functionalism
161. Which approach tells us that (c) Psychoanalysis
under normal conditions the (d) Behaviourism
Organism is not a passive recipient (e) None of the above
of stimuli but an active, seeking and Ans:- C

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personnel, to improving
164. The psychologists who are communication within the
especially concerned with increasing organization, to counselling em-
the efficiency of learning in school ployees and to alleviating industrial
by applying their psychological strife. The applied psychologists who
knowledge about learning and do this work are sometimes called:
motivation to the curriculum are (a) Personnel Psychologists
popularly known as : (b) Organizational Psychologists
(a) Experimental Psychologists (c) Experimental Psychologists
(b) Clinical Psychologists (d) Social Psychologists
(c) Physiological Psychologists (e) None of the above
(d) Educational Psychologists Ans:- A
(e) Social Psychologists
Ans:- D 167. A person who uses the
particular psychotherapeutic
165. In some developed countries techniques which originated with
like U.S A. and U.K. many Sigmund Freud and his followers is
psychologists are engaged for called:
diagnosing learning difficulties and (a) A psychoanalyst
trying to remedy them. These (b) A psychiatrist
psychologists are popularly called: (c) A child psychologist
(a) School Psychologists (d) A clinical psychologist
(b) Social Psychologists (e) None of the above
(c) Experimental Psychologists Ans:- A
(d) Industrial Psychologists
(e) Organisational Psychologists 168. Finding the causes of behaviour
Ans:- A from a number of observations is
called:
166. Today, private and public (a) Inductive reasoning
organizations also apply psychology (b) Observational technique
to problems of management and (c) Deductive reasoning
employee training, to supervision of (d) Introspection

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(e) None of the above

Ans:- A 172. A little girl Leny pushed Bapula,
her brother, off his tricycle. She
169. The clinical method is ordinarily learned to behave this way because
used only when people come to the behaviour paid off in the past, in
psychologists with: other words, she learned to act
(a) Social problems aggressively in certain situations
(b) Personal Problems because she was rewarded for such
(c) Organizational problems behaviour in the past. With which
(d) Internal problems perspective, a psychologist can study
(e) None of the above this type of problem?
Ans:- B (a) Biological Perspective
(b) Behavioural Perspective
170. The technique of regulating (c) Cognitive Perspective
various variables in an experiment is (d) Social Perspective
called: (e) Developmental Perspective
(a) Independent Variable Ans:- B
(b) Dependent variable
(c) Experimental control 173. The perspective which is
(d) Controlled variable concerned with characteristic
(e) None of the above changes that occur in people as they
Ans:- C mature is known as:
(a) Developmental Perspective
171. Psychologists with the (b) Biological Perspective
Biological perspective try to relate (c) Humanistic Perspective
behaviour to functions of: (d) Psychoanalytic Perspective
(a) Body (e) Cognitive Perspective
(b) Mind Ans:- A
(c) Soul
(d) Unconscious 174. A person’s sense of self is
(e) Subconscious emphasized by:
Ans:- A (a) Psychoanalytic Perspective

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(b) Biological Perspective (d) A clinical psychologist has a

(c) Developmental Perspective special training in psychotherapy
(d) Cognitive Perspective and a psychitrist holds M.A. degree
(e) Humanistic Perspective in Psychology
Ans:- E (e) A clinical psychologist holds an
M.A. degree in Psychology and a
175. A key psychodynamic idea is psychiatrist holds Ph.D. degree in
that when unconscious impulses are Psychology
unacceptable or when they make us Ans:- A
anxious; to reduce anxiety, we use:
(a) Defense Mechanisms 177. The Subject “Psychology” was
(b) Super ego formally recognised in Germany in
(c) Instincts the year:
(d) Dreams (a) 1789
(e) Frustration (b) 1668
Ans:- A (c) 1879
(d) 1897
176. The distinction between a (e) 1968
clinical psychologist and a Ans:- C
psychiatrist is that:
(a) A clinical psychologist normally 178. To study Abnormal Psychology
holds a Ph.D. or M.A. degree or Psy. means, to study mainly the nature
D. (Doctor in Psychology) and a of:
psychiatrist holds an MD degree (a) Conscious Mind
(b) A clinical psychologist holds a (b) Unconscious Mind
Ph.D. degree in Psychology and a (c) Subconscious Mind
psychiatrist holds both Psy. D. (d) Normal Mind
degree and Ph.D. degree (e) Abnormal Mind
(c) A clinical psychologist holds a Ans:- B
special degree in Psychology and a
psychitrist holds a Ph.D. degree in 179. Sigmund Freud is regarded as
Psychology the father of:

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(a) Psychoanalysis (d) E. B. Titchener

(b) Behaviourism (e) William James
(c) Functionalism Ans:- A
(d) Gestalt Psychology
(e) Stnicturalism 183. For the first time, the word
Ans:- A ‘Psychology’ was used by:
(a) Rudolf Goeckle
180. The unit of Sociology is the (b) Sigmund Freud
‘Group’, whereas the unit of (c) William James
Psychology is the: (d) E. B. Titchener
(a) Stimulus (e) C.G. Jung
(b) Individual Ans:- A
(c) Animal
(d) Institution 184. The literal meaning of
(e) None of the above ‘Psychology’ is:
Ans:- B (a) Science of Behaviour
(b) Science of Soul
181. The branch of psychology which (c) Science of Consciousness
(teals with the study of animal (d) Science of Mind
behaviour is known as: (e) Science of Temperament
(a) Social Psychology Ans:- B
(b) Abnormal Psychology
(c) Differential Psychology 185. Rudolf Goekle used the word
(d) Comparative Psychology ‘Psychology’ for the first time in:
(e) None of the alxrve (a) 1590 AD
Ans:- D (b) 1950 AD
(c) 1095 AD
182. The father of ‘Experimental (d) 1509 AD
Psychology’ is: (e) 1905 AD
(a) Wilhelm Wundt Ans:- A
(b) Sigmund Freud
(c) C.G. Jung

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186. Psychology as the ‘Science of (c) Mind

Mind’ was defined by: (d) Consciousness
(a) Psychoanalysis (e) Experience
(b) Behaviourists Ans:- B
(c) Functionalists
(d) Ancient Greek Philosophers 190. Psychology was defined as the
(e) None of the above “Science of Behaviour” by:
Ans:- D (a) Functionalists
(b) Structuralists
187. Scientific Psychology came into (c) Gestalt Psychologists
existence during: (d) Behaviourists
(a) 19th Century (e) None of the above
(b) 20th Century Ans:- D
(c) 18th Century
(d) 17th Century 191. Who defined ‘Psychology’ as
(e) 15th Century the scientific study of activities of
Ans:- A the organism in relation to its
environment?
188. E. B. Titchener (1867-1927) (a) J. B. Watson
defined ‘Psychology’ as the science (b) Sigmund Freud
of: (c) C. G. Jung
(a) Soul (d) William James
(b) Mind (e) Woodworth
(c) Experience Ans:- E
(d) Conscious Experience
(e) Behaviour 192. Any systematically organised
Ans:- D body of verified knowledge about a
certain class of facts and events is
189. J. B. Watson defined known as:
‘Psychology’ as the science: (a) Science
(a) Soul (b) Experiment
(b) Behaviour (c) Hypothesis

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(d) Fact (a) Stimulus

(e) Theory (b) Thing
Ans:- A (c) Situation
(d) Incidence
193. Psychology is: (e) None of the above
(a) A social Science Ans:- A
(b) A Natural Science
(c) A Biological Science 197. A systematic study of facts
(d) Both Natural and Social Science according to a reliable and correct
(e) None of the above method of study is called a:
Ans:- A (a) Biological Study
(b) Social Technique
194. Behaviouristic School was (c) Scientific Study
established by: (d) Methodology
(a) William James (e) None of the above
(b) W. Kohler Ans:- C
(c) J.B. Watson
(d) K. Koffka 198. That, which cannot be observed
(e) I. P. Pavlov by another person, is called:
Ans:- C (a) Experience
(b) Activity
195. The most effective method of (c) Action
studying psychology is: (d) Exercise
(a) Experimental Method (e) Event
(b) Observation Method Ans:- A
(c) Introspection Method
(d) Survey Method 199. The first psychological
(e) Clinical Method laboratory was established in Leipzig
Ans:- A by Wilhelm Wundt in the year:
(a) 1789
196. Anything which evokes a (b) 1879
response in the Organism is called: (c) 1899

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(d) 1798
(e) 1897 202. Which of the following
Ans:- B contribute to the development of
knowledge and theory in
200. “S-R” concept was first psychology? [TY2.2]
established by: a. Evidence that supports a
(a) J. B. Watson hypothesis.
(b) Wilhelm Wundt b. Evidence that contradicts a
(c) William James hypothesis.
(d) C. G. Jung c. Evidence that tests a
(e) 1. P. Pavlov hypothesis.
Ans:- A d. All of the above.
e. Answers (a) and (c) only.
201. Which of the following is not Answer: D
associated with use of the scientific
method in psychological research? 203. Which of the following
[TY2.1] statements is true? [TY2.3]
a. A commitment to producing a. If a finding is reliable it should
knowledge through be easy to replicate using the
observation and experiment. same procedures.
b. A commitment to basing b. If a finding is reliable it will
knowledge exclusively on also be valid.
common sense and opinion. c. If a finding is reliable it will be
c. A commitment to basing important.
knowledge on empirical d. If a finding is reliable it must
evidence. be an example of good
d. A commitment to discovering scientific practice.
truth. e. If a finding is reliable it has
e. A commitment to ensuring been correctly interpreted.
that findings are correctly Answer: A
interpreted.
Answer: B

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204. After reading some research on d. It occurred for the reason

the topic of students’ attitudes to hypothesised by the
university courses, Mark does a researcher
study to find out what students’ e. It will make a demonstrable
favourite subject at university is. In contribution to scientific
this he finds that final-year knowledge
psychology students prefer studying Answer: D
psychology to any other subject. On
this basis he concludes that 206. Which of the following
psychology is the most popular would not be of interest to a
subject. However, Jane argues that behaviourist?
this conclusion is wrong as the a. A person's reaction to a
research actually shows that flashing light.
students prefer the subject they end b. Differences in various people's
up studying. What is the basis of her responses to a flashing light.
objection to Mark’s research? c. The cognitive processes
[TY2.7] associated with reaction to a
a. The study is invalid. stimulus.
b. The study is unreliable. d. The impact of a particular
c. The study is non-cumulative. stimulus on behaviour.
d. The study is unparsimonious. e. The different behaviours that
e. None of the above. arise from exposure to
Answer: A different stimuli.
Answer: A
205. If an experimental finding is
valid, which of the following 207. Which of the following is a
statements is true? physiological measure?
a. It should be easy to replicate a. A measure of blood flow
b. It supports a researcher's through a person's brain.
experimental predictions b. Details of a person's family
c. It supports a researcher's tree.
theory

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c. A person's response to
questions on a survey. 209. “An argument in which the
d. A person's response to thing to be explained is presented as
questions in an experiment. the explanation (e.g. where memory
e. The preference a person ability is used to explain memory
shows for one stimulus rather performance).” What type of
than another. argument is this a glossary definition
Answer: A of?
a. Conceptual argument
208. Theory A explains phenomenon b. Convenient argument
L, phenomenon M and phenomenon c. Causal argument
N using principles J and K. Theory B d. Circular argument
explains phenomenon L, e. Casual argument
phenomenon M, and phenomenon N Answer: D
using only principle K. Theory C
explains phenomenon L and 210. “The goal of accounting for the
phenomenon N using principles J maximum number of empirical
and K. Which of the following findings in terms of the smallest
statements is true? number of theoretical principles.”
a. Theory A is the most This a glossary definition of which
parsimonious. principle?
b. Theory B is the most a. Maximization.
parsimonious. b. Parsimony.
c. Theory C is the most c. Reliability.
parsimonious. d. Validity.
d. Theory A and Theory C are e. External validity.
equally and most Answer: B
parsimonious.
e. Theory A and Theory B are 211. “Formally, a statement about
equally and most the causal relationship between
parsimonious. particular phenomena (i.e. in the
Answer: B form ‘A causes B’). This is usually

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derived from a particular theory and a. Psychological measurement

designed to be tested in research.” can involve the measurement
Which construct is this a glossary of phenomena believed to be
definition of? related to a given
a. Prediction. psychological state or process.
b. Deduction. b. Psychological measurement
c. Hypothesis. can involve the measurement
d. Conventional reasoning. of behaviour believed to result
e. Deductive reasoning. from a given psychological
Answer: C state or process.
c. Psychological measurement
212. “Treating an abstraction as if it can involve self-reports of
were a real concrete thing. In behaviour believed to be
psychology this refers to the process related to a given
and outcome of treating an psychological state or process.
empirical finding as if it were the d. Psychological measurement
straightforward expression of an can involve the self-reports of
underlying psychological process a sample drawn from a
(e.g. seeing performance on particular sub-population.
intelligence tests as the expression e. Psychological measurement
of intelligence).” This a glossary can involve direct examination
definition of which process? of psychological states and
a. Reification. processes.
b. Refutation Answer: E
c. Concretization.
d. False consensus. 214. A researcher conducts an
e. Exprimental artifice. experiment that tests the hypothesis
Answer: A that ‘anxiety has an adverse effect
on students’ exam performance’.
213. Which of the following Which of the following statements is
statements is not true? [TY3.1] true? [TY3.2]

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a. Anxiety is the dependent a. The reliability of the

variable, exam performance is questionnaire that she uses to
the independent variable. establish psychological health.
b. Anxiety is the dependent b. The size of the space in which
variable, students are the the participants are confined.
independent variable. c. The susceptibility of the
c. Anxiety is the independent experimental group to altitude
variable, students are the sickness.
dependent variable. d. The susceptibility of the
d. Anxiety is the independent control group to altitude
variable, exam performance is sickness.
the dependent variable. e. The age of people in
e. Students are the dependent experimental and control
variable, exam performance is groups.
the independent variable. Answer: B
Answer: D
216. What distinguishes the
215. An experimenter conducts a experimental method from the
study in which she wants to look at quasi-experimental method? [TY3.4]
the effects of altitude on a. The scientific status of the
psychological well-being. To do this research.
she randomly allocates people to b. The existence of an
two groups and takes one group up independent variable.
in a plane to a height of 1000 metres c. The existence of different
and leaves the other group in the levels of an independent
airport terminal as a control group. variable.
When the plane is in the air she d. The sensitivity of the
seeks to establish the psychological dependent variable.
well-being of both groups. Which of e. The random assignment of
the following is a potential participants to conditions.
confound, threatening the internal Answer: E
validity of the study? [TY3.3]

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217. Which of the following is not an c. Case studies have none of the
advantage of the weaknesses and all of the
survey/correlational method? strengths of larger studies.
[TY3.5] d. Case studies should only be
a. It allows researchers to conducted if every other
examine a number of different option has been ruled out.
variables at the same time. e. None of the above.
b. It allows researchers to Answer: E
examine the relationship
between variables in natural 219. An experimenter, Tom,
settings. conducts an experiment to see
c. It allows researchers to make whether accuracy of responding and
predictions based on observed reaction time are affected by
relationships between consumption of alcohol. To do this,
variables. Tom conducts a study in which
d. It allows researchers to students at university A react to
explain observed relationships pairs of symbols by saying ‘same’ or
between variables. ‘different’ after consuming two
e. It is often more convenient glasses of water and students at
than experimental methods. university B react to pairs of symbols
Answer: D by saying ‘same’ or ‘different’ after
consuming two glasses of wine. Tom
218. Which of the following predicts that reaction times will be
statements is true? [TY3.6] slower and that there will be more
a. Case studies have played no errors in the responses of students
role in the development of who have consumed alcohol. Which
psychological theory. of the following statements
b. Case studies have all of the is not true? [TY3.7]
weaknesses and none of the a. The university attended by
strengths of larger studies. participants is a confound.
b. The experiment has two
dependent variables.

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c. Reaction time is the question and the research

independent variable. environment.
d. Tom’s ability to draw firm b. Good experiments all involve a
conclusions about the impact large number of participants.
of alcohol on reaction time c. Experiments should be
would be improved by conducted in laboratories in
assigning participants order to improve
randomly to experimental experimental control.
conditions. d. Surveys have no place in good
e. This study is actually a quasi- psychological research.
experiment. e. Case studies are usually
Answer: C carried out when researchers
are too lazy to find enough
220. What is an extraneous variable? participants.
[TY3.8] Answer: A
a. A variable that can never be
manipulated. 222. A piece of research that is
b. A variable that can never be conducted in a natural (non-
controlled. artificial) setting is called: [TY3.10]
c. A variable that can never be a. A case study.
measured. b. A field study.
d. A variable that clouds the c. A quasi-experiment.
interpretation of results. d. A survey.
e. None of the above. e. An observational study.
Answer: D Answer: B

221. Which of the following 223. “Measures designed to gain

statements is true? [TY3.9] insight into particular psychological
a. The appropriateness of any states or processes that involve
research method is always recording performance on particular
determined by the research activities or tasks.” What type of

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measures does this glossary entry c. Reference sample.

describe? d. Reference group.
a. State measures. e. Population.
b. Behavioural measures. Answer: E
c. Physiological measures.
d. Activity measures. 226. “Either the process of reaching
e. Performance measures. conclusions about the effect of one
Answer: B variable on another, or the outcome
of such a process.” What does this
224. “An approach to psychology glossary entry define?
that asserts that human behaviour a. Causal inference.
can be understood in terms of b. Induction.
directly observable relationships (in c. Deduction.
particular, between a stimulus and a d. Inductive reasoning.
response) without having to refer to e. Inferential accounting.
underlying mental states.” Which Answer: A
approach to psychology is this a
glossary definition of? 227. “The extent to which the effect
a. Behaviourism. of an independent variable on a
b. Freudianism. dependent variable has been
c. Cognitivism. correctly interpreted.” Which
d. Radical observationism. construct is this a glossary definition
e. Marxism. of?
Answer: A a. Internal inference.
b. External inference.
225. “The complete set of events, c. External validity.
people or things that a researcher is d. Holistic deduction.
interested in and from which any e. Internal validity.
sample is taken.” What does this Answer: E
glossary entry define?
a. Total sample. 228. What is a manipulation check
b. Complete sample. and what is its purpose? [TY4.1]

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a. A dependent measure used to c. Unless dependent variables

check that manipulation of an are sufficiently sensitive they
independent variable has been will not reveal the effects of
successful. manipulating an independent
b. An independent variable used variable.
to check that measurement of d. Unless dependent variables
a dependent variable has been are sufficiently relevant they
successful. will not reveal the effects of
c. A measure used to check that manipulating an independent
an experiment has an variable.
independent variable. e. None of the above.
d. An independent measure used Answer: C
to check that the
operationalization is relevant. 230. A team of researchers is
e. A dependent measure used to interested in conducting an
check that an independent experiment in order to test an
variable is sufficiently important theory. In order to draw
relevant. appropriate conclusions from any
Answer: A experiment they conduct, which of
the following statements is true?
229. Which of the following [TY4.3]
statements is true? [TY4.2] a. The experimental sample must
a. Dependent variables that do be representative of the
not measure the most population to which they want
relevant theoretical variable to generalize the research on
are pointless. dimensions of age, sex and
b. A study that employs intelligence.
dependent variables that are b. The experimental sample must
sensitive enough to detect be representative of the
variation in the independent population to which they want
variable is a quasi-experiment. to generalize the research on
all dimensions.

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c. The experimental sample must validity of any conclusions she may

be representative of the seek to draw? [TY4.4]
population to which they want a. History effects.
to generalize the research on b. Maturation effects.
all dimensions that can be c. Mortality effects.
measured in that population. d. Regression to the mean.
d. The experimental sample must e. Testing effects.
be representative of the Answer: D
population to which they want
to generalize the research on 232. Which of the following can
all dimensions relevant to the increase a researcher’s ability to
process being studied. generalize findings from a particular
e. None of the above. piece of research? [TY4.5]
Answer: D a. Cheating.
b. Experimenter bias.
231. An experimenter conducts a c. Deception and concealment.
study examining the effects of d. Participants’ sensitivity to
television violence on children’s demand characteristics.
aggressiveness. To do this she asks e. The use of unrepresentative
40 schoolboys who display normal samples.
levels of aggressiveness to watch Answer: C
one violent video a week for 40
weeks. On a standard measure of 233. A researcher conducts an
aggressiveness, which she experiment to investigate the effects
administers both before and after of positive mood on memory. Mood
each video over the 40-week is manipulated by giving participants
treatment, she finds that the boys a gift. In the experiment, before they
are much more aggressive in the last are given a memory test, half of the
10 weeks of the study. Without participants are randomly assigned
knowing anything more about this to a condition in which they are
study, which of the following can be given a box of chocolates, and the
ruled out as a threat to the internal other half are given nothing. Which

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of the following statements e. To ensure that groups of

is not true? [TY4.6] participants do not differ in
a. Mood is a between-subjects intelligence.
variable. Answer: A
b. The experiment has two
conditions. 235. Which of the following threats
c. The experiment includes a to validity is the most difficult to
control condition. control by improving experimental
d. The independent variable is design? [TY4.8]
manipulated within subjects. a. Maturation effects.
e. Experimental control b. Cheating by experimenters.
eliminates potential threats to c. History effects.
the internal validity of the d. Sensitivity to demand
experiment. characteristics.
Answer: D e. Experimenter bias.
Answer: B
234. Which of the following is a
researcher’s overall objective in 236. Some researchers decided to
using matching? [TY4.7] conduct an experiment to
a. To control for extraneous investigate the effects of a new
variables in quasi- psychological therapy on people’s
experimental designs. self-esteem. To do this they asked all
b. To increase participants’ their clients who were currently
enjoyment of correlational receiving treatment for low self-
research. esteem to continue using an old
c. To ensure that participants are therapy but treated all their new
randomly assigned to clients with the new therapy. A year
conditions. later they found that clients
d. To ensure that groups of subjected to the new therapy had
participants do not differ in much higher self-esteem. Which of
age and sex. the following statements is true?
[TY4.9]

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a. The greater self-esteem of the 237. An experimenter conducts an

clients exposed to the new experiment to see whether people's
therapy resulted from the reaction time is affected by their
superiority of that therapy. consumption of alcohol. To do this,
b. The greater self-esteem of the she conducts a study in which
clients exposed to the new students from University A describe
therapy resulted from the fact symbols as ‘red’ ‘green’ or
that the new clients were ‘blue’ before they consume two
more optimistic than those glasses of wine and students from
who were previously receiving University B describe symbols as
treatment. ‘red’ ‘green’ or ‘blue’ after they
c. The greater self-esteem of the consume two glasses of wine. She
clients exposed to the new hypothesizes that reaction times will
therapy resulted from the fact be slower and that there will be
that the new clients were less more errors in the responses of
disillusioned with therapy students who consume alcohol
than those who were before reacting to the symbols.
previously receiving Which of the following statements
treatment. is false?
d. The greater self-esteem of the a. It is appropriate to analyse the
clients exposed to the new results using independent
therapy resulted from the fact sample t-tests
that the new clients were b. Type of University is a
more intelligent than those potential experimental
who were previously receiving confound
treatment. c. The experiment has two
e. It is impossible to establish the dependent variables
validity of any of the above d. The experiment has three
statements based on the independent variables
results of this study. e. The experiment has a
Answer: E between-subjects design.
Answer: D

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interested, the less sensitive it may

238. “Both (a) the process of be to variation in the independent
constructing experiments and (b) the variable.” What is this a glossary
resulting structure of those definition of?
experiments.” What research a. Systematic desensitization.
feature is this a glossary definition b. Random variation.
of? c. Meaurement error.
a. Experimental design. d. Relevance–sensitivity trade-
b. Constructive design. off.
c. Experimental structuration. e. Inferential uncertainty.
d. Solidification. Answer: D
e. Experimental procedure.
Answer: A 241. “The extent to which a research
finding can be generalized to other
239. “A system for deciding how to situations.” What is this a glossary
arrange objects or events in a definition of?
progressive series. These are used to a. External validity
assign relative magnitude to b. Generalization.
psychological and behavioural c. Induction.
phenomena (e.g. intelligence or d. Extendability.
political attitudes).” What is this a e. Empirical applicability.
glossary definition of? Answer: A
a. A scale.
b. A measure. 242. “Systematic change to an
c. A measurement. independent variable where the
d. A callibration. same participants are exposed to
e. A test. different levels of that variable by
Answer: A the experimenter.” What procedure
is this a glossary definition of?
240. “The principle that the more a. Random assignment.
relevant a dependent variable is to b. Within-subjects manipulation.
the issue in which a researcher is

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c. Between-subjects the survey show that 83% of the

manipulation. 20,000 viewers who ring in are in
d. Variable assignment. favour of the death penalty. Which
e. Experimenter manipulation. of the following statements is true?
Answer: B [TY5.2]
a. The results of this study can
243. Surveys are preferred in some only be generalized to people
areas of psychology for which of the who watch news programmes.
following reasons? [TY5.1] b. The results of this study can
a. They are usually cheaper. only be generalized to people
b. They allow researchers to infer who own a television.
causal relationships. c. The results of this study can
c. They are more scientific only be generalized to people
because similar methods are who care about the death
used in astronomy and penalty.
geology. d. The results of this study can
d. It is often impossible to only be generalized when we
manipulate the independent know much more about the
variables the researchers are sampling method.
interested in. e. The results of this study can
e. They use randomization to only be generalized if the bias
achieve random sampling. created by showing the
Answer: D grieving parents is eliminated.
Answer: D
244. A television news programme
shows a murder case including video 245. Which of the following can be a
footage of the grieving parents of threat to the internal validity of
the victim. The television station longitudinal studies? [TY5.3]
then conducts an opinion poll in a. Testing effects.
which it asks viewers to phone in b. The IQ of the participants.
and vote for or against the death c. Sample size.
penalty for murder. The results of d. Maturation effects.

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e. Both (a) and (d). c. The sampling procedure is

Answer: E similar to that used in most
experimental research.
246. Which of the following d. Both (a) and (b).
statements is true? [TY5.4] e. None of the above.
a. Questionnaires should not ask Answer: A
people to provide personal
information. 248. Which of the following
b. Questionnaires should aim to statements about convenience
obtain as much information sampling is true? [TY5.6]
from people as possible. a. It should always be avoided.
c. The order of items in a b. It is appropriate providing the
questionnaire is not sample size is extremely large.
particularly important. c. It can be used under some
d. Questionnaires should contain circumstances.
a mixture of open-ended and d. It is a non-probability
forced-choice items. sampling technique.
e. None of the above. e. Both (c) and (d).
Answer: E Answer: E

247. In a survey where the results 249. Which of the following is likely
are obtained from a representative to be a problem for non-reactive
random sample of a population, studies that use non-obtrusive
which of the following is true? measures? [TY5.7]
[TY5.5] a. Social desirability effects.
a. The results can be generalized b. Defining the probability of
to that population. maturation for each member
b. The sample can only be of the population.
obtained by simple random c. Appropriate
sampling. operationalization of
variables.
d. Behavioural traces.

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e. Both (c) and (d). a. The use of unobtrusive

Answer: C measures in surveys helps deal
with reactivity.
250. A team of researchers conducts b. The use of unobtrusive
a study in which they ask boys and measures in surveys helps deal
girls from a local high school to with standardization.
complete a battery of psychological c. The use of unobtrusive
tests that investigate their social measures in surveys helps deal
skills and levels of sociability. Ten with social desirability.
years later they ask boys and girls d. The use of unobtrusive
from the same school to perform the measures in surveys helps deal
same tests. Which of the following with reactivity and social
statements is false? [TY5.8] desirability.
a. The study has a successive e. The use of unobtrusive
cross-sectional design. measures in surveys helps deal
b. The research is invalid because with reactivity,
developmental studies should standardization and social
not include psychological desirability.
tests. Answer: D
c. Testing effects are eliminated
by using a between-subjects 252. A researcher conducts a
design. research project in which she
d. Mortality effects are surveys all the members of her local
eliminated by using a golf club. This is most likely to be an
between-subjects design. example of which of the following?
e. Maturation effects are a. Purposive sampling.
eliminated by using a b. Random sampling.
between-subjects design. c. Simple random sampling.
Answer: B d. Split ballot sampling.
e. None of the above.
251. Which of the following Answer: A
statements is most correct?

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253. “The extent to which people’s prior to the investment of time and
behaviour appears acceptable to money in a full study.” What type of
other people. If behaviour is affected study does this glassary entry
by people trying to behave in ways define?
that they perceive to be desirable to a. A sampling study.
the researcher then this threatens b. A replication study.
both the internal and external c. A pre-test.
validity of research.” What construct d. A pilot study.
does this glossary entry define? e. A viability study.
a. Social desirability. Answer: D
b. Self-presentation.
c. Deception. 256. “Studies where the same
d. Experimenter bias. sample of participants is measured
e. Participant bias. on more than one occasion.” What
Answer: A type of study is this a glossary
definition of?
254. “A listing of all members of the a. Longitudinal surveys
population of interest.” What is this b. Carry-over surveys
a glossary definition of? c. Repeated-measures surveys
a. A sample brochure. d. Cohort surveys
b. A population directory. e. Population censuses
c. A sampling directory. Answer: A
d. A sampling frame.
e. A full sample specification. 257. “Questionnaire items where a
Answer: D respondent has to select one
response from two or more
255. “A preliminary piece of research options.” What type of response is
designed to ‘road-test’ various this a glossary definition of?
design elements (e.g. independent a. Selective response.
variables, dependent variables, b. Forced-choice response.
details of procedure), in order to c. Free response.
establish their viability and utility d. Likert-scale response.

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e. Double-barrelled response. a. The mean number of visits is

Answer: B 2.
b. The median number of visits is
258. A researcher conducts an 2.
experiment in which she assigns c. The median number of visits is
participants to one of two groups 4.
and exposes the two groups to d. The modal number of visits is
different doses of a particular drug. 4.
She then gets the participants to e. The modal number of visits is
learn a list of 20 words and two days 7.
later sees how many they can recall. Answer: C
In the experiment the dependent
measure is simply the number of 260. Which of the following
words recalled by each participant. statements is most likely to be true
What type of dependent measure is if the distribution of a variable is
this? [TY6.1] severely skewed? [TY6.3]
a. Nominal. a. The mean will be the best
b. Ordinal. measure of central tendency.
c. Interval. b. The median will be as
d. Ratio. misleading as the mean.
e. None of the above. c. The mode will no longer be
Answer: D the most common response.
d. The median will be the best
259. A researcher conducts a study measure of central tendency.
to find out how many times people e. The mode will be the best
had visited a doctor in the previous measure of central tendency.
year. Five people participated in the Answer: D
study and the numbers of visits they
had made were 2, 5, 7, 4 and 2. 261. If X is a variable, which of the
Which of the following statements is following is not measured in the
true? [TY6.2] same units as X? [TY6.4]
a. The mean of X.

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b.The range of X. c. The modal value of a set of

c.The standard deviation of X. values.
d.The variance of X. d. The median response on a
e.The difference between scale.
minimum and maximum e. An average score.
values of X. Answer: B
Answer: D
264. The shaded bars in the
262. If scores on a variable are histogram below represent the times
normally distributed, which of the (rounded to the nearest 10
following statements is false? milliseconds) that 50 people take to
a. All scores on the variable will react to a loud noise. Which of the
have been observed with following statements is not true?
equal frequency. a. The distribution of reaction
b. The distribution of scores is times is negatively skewed.
symmetrical about the mean. b. The modal reaction time is 240
c. Similar distributions are ms.
commonly observed in data c. The median reaction time is
obtained from psychological greater than 240 ms.
research. d. The mean reaction time will
d. There will be relatively few be greater than the modal
extreme scores. reaction time.
e. The mean, median and modal e. The mean is an ambiguous
scores will be equal. measure of central tendency.
Answer: A Answer: A

263. Which of the following is not a 265. ‘Root mean squared deviate’
measure of central tendency? could be used as another name for
a. The mean of a distribution. which measure of dispersion?
b. The mean squared deviation a. Range.
of some data. b. Skewness
c. Variance.

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d. Standard deviation. b. The mean deviation of some

e. Squared deviation from the data.
root. c. Standard deviation.
Answer: D d. The range of a set of values.
e. None of the above.
266. A researcher measures a Answer: E
variable whose distribution she
observes to be normally distributed. 268. The SPSS output below is from a
On this basis which of the following study in which the scores for the
statements is most likely to be true? variable “Survey_Point” could vary
a. The distribution's mean will be between 0 and 30. Looking at the
greater than its median and distribution of frequencies, which of
mode. the following statements is true?
b. The distribution's median will
be greater than its mean and a. The distribution of scores is
mode. positively skewed.
c. The distribution's mean will be b. The distribution of scores is
similar to its median and negatively skewed.
mode. c. There is a uniform distribution
d. The distribution's mean will be of scores.
less than its median and d. The data have a bimodal
mode. distribution.
e. The distribution's mean will be e. None of the above.
greater than its median but Answer: B
less than its mode.
Answer: C 269. The SPSS output below is from a
study in which the scores for the
267. Which of the following is a variable “Survey_Point” could vary
measure of central tendency? between 0 and 30. Looking at the
a. The variance in scores distribution of frequencies, which of
obtained on a dependent the following statements is true?
measure.

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a. The mean will be higher than b. A nominal measure.

the mode. c. A scale measure.
b. The mode will be higher than d. A desperate measure.
the mean. e. A ratio measure.
c. The mean will be the same as Answer: B
the mode.
d. The median will be lower than 272. “The spread of scores across
the mean. levels of a variable.” What is this a
e. The median will be higher glossary definition of?
than the mode. a. Distribution.
Answer: B b. Range.
c. Variance.
270. “A variable that can be treated d. Covariance.
as if there were no breaks or steps e. Standard deviation.
between its different levels (e.g., Answer: A
reaction time in milliseconds).”
What type of variable is this a 273. “Scores that are very different
glossary definition of? from the typical value for a
a. A logical variable. distribution. Because they are very
b. A discrete variable. different from the central tendency
c. A scale variable. of a distribution they contribute a
d. A continuous variable. great deal to the amount of
e. A measurement variable. dispersion in the distribution.” What
Answer: D does this glossary entry define?
a. Deviates.
271. “A measure reflecting distinct b. Mean deviates.
categories that have different names c. Outliers
but the categories are not d. Non-respondents.
numerically related to one another.” e. Missing data.
What type of measure is this a Answer: C
glossary definition of?
a. An ordinal measure.

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274. Which of the following samples of 100 men from a

statements is/are true about the t- population similar to the 1914
distribution? [TY8.1] population would produce a
a. Its shape changes with the sample of 180 cm or taller.
number of degrees of d. All of the above.
freedom. e. Answers (a) and (b) only.
b. Its expected value is 0. Answer: D
c. It can be used to test
differences between means 276. Which of the following
providing that the population is not relevant to a between-
standard deviation is known. subjects t-test? [TY8.3]
d. Both (a) and (b). a. The pooled variance estimate.
e. All of the above. b. A difference score D.
Answer: D c. An information term.
d. A sampling distribution of the
275. The mean height of a sample of differences between means.
100 men in 2014 is 180 cm, with a e. A probability that a difference
standard deviation of 10 cm. The of the same size or larger
mean for the same population in could be obtained by a
1914 was 170 cm. Imagine that we random process.
want to use the 2014 sample to test Answer: B
whether the height of the
population has changed over the 277. If an experimenter conducts a t-
intervening 100 years. Which of the test to see whether the responses of
following statements is true? [TY8.2] participants in a control group differ
a. The number of degrees of from those of an experimental
freedom for the test in this group, which of the following
case is 99. outcomes will yield the highest t-
b. The t-value is 10.0. value? [TY8.4]
c. The t-value corresponds to a a. If there are 10 participants in
very small probability that a each condition and the
random process of taking difference between the mean

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responses of the control group Answer: D

and the experimental group is
2 and both have standard 278. Which of the following must be
deviations of 1. true of a statistically significant
b. If there are 10 participants in result of a t-test? [TY8.5]
each condition and the a. The probability that a
difference between the mean difference at least as large as
responses of the control group the observed difference could
and the experimental group is be produced by a particular
2 and both have standard random process will be less
deviations of 2. than the alpha level.
c. If there are 20 participants in b. The obtained value of t will
each condition and the exceed the alpha level.
difference between the mean c. The rejection regions must be
responses of the control group significantly different from
and the experimental group is each other.
1 and both have standard d. Both (a) and (c).
deviations of 1. e. Alpha must be set at .05.
d. If there are 20 participants in Answer: A
each condition and the
difference between the mean 279. Researchers conduct a t-test
responses of the control group and obtain a p-value of .0012. Which
and the experimental group is of the following is an appropriate
2 and both have standard conclusion on the basis of the
deviations of 1. information provided? [TY8.6]
e. If there are 20 participants in a. The result is significant.
each condition and the b. The effect size will be large.
difference between the mean c. Both (a) and (b).
responses of the control group d. A 99% confidence interval for
and the experimental group is the differences between the
2 and both have standard means will include the
deviations of 2. observed difference.

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e. A 95% confidence interval for a. It will be appropriate to

the differences between the analyse results using a
means will not include the between-subjects t-test.
observed difference. b. Any statistical analysis will be
Answer: E based on pairs of responses.
c. If a t-test is performed to
280. Researchers conduct a t-test to analyse the results, it will
compare two groups and find that have n − 1 degrees of
one of the groups has a much larger freedom.
standard deviation than the other. d. The experiment involves two
Which of the following statements is related samples.
true? [TY8.7] e. Both (a) and (c).
a. The variances are robust. Answer: A
b. The assumption of equal
variance may have been 282. John, a second-year psychology
violated. student, is using the hypothesis-
c. The researchers should make testing approach and an alpha level
sure that their distributions of .05 to examine a difference
are free of parameters. between two means. He discovers
d. The standard deviations are that this difference is associated
not normal. with a t-value of 3.46. If the critical t-
e. Both (b) and (d). value with α = .05 is 2.056 what
Answer: B should he conclude? [TY8.9]
a. That the difference between
281. If an experimenter were to the means is statistically
conduct an experiment in which significant.
participants were randomly assigned b. That the alpha level is too
to either a control condition or an high.
experimental condition, which of the c. That the alpha level is not high
following statements would be true? enough.
[TY8.8]

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d. That the experiment did not a. A high alpha level.

contain enough participants to b. A large sample size.
draw a strong conclusion. c. High power.
e. That no conclusion can be d. Low random error.
made about the nature of the e. A small difference between
underlying populations. means.
Answer: A Answer: E

283. Which of the following suggests 285. An experimenter conducts an

that the assumptions underlying a experiment using a control group
between-subjects t-test have been containing 8 subjects and an
violated? [TY8.10] experimental group containing 8
a. Evidence that the dependent subjects. How many degrees of
variable is normally freedom are there in this
distributed. experimental design?
b. Evidence that the samples a. 7
being compared have unequal b. 8
variances. c. 14
c. Evidence that the d. 15
manipulation of the e. 16
independent variable had no Answer: C
effect.
d. Evidence that sampling was 286. The graph below was generated
random, and that scores were by SPSS and plots participants’
independent. scoreson the variable
e. None of the above. “Survey_Point” which can vary
Answer: B between 0 and 30. Looking at this
graph, what might make these data
284. Which of the following inappropriate to analyse using a t-
increases the likelihood of a Type II test?
error when conducting a t-test?
[TY8.11]

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a. The assumption of Which construct is this a glossary

independence is violated. definition of?
b. The assumption of normality is a. Statistical significance.
violated. b. Power.
c. The assumption of equal c. Type I error.
variance is violated. d. Type II error .
d. Both (a) and (b). e. Random error.
e. Both (b) and (c). Answer: A
Answer: B
289. “The mistaken idea that
287. “The probability, as revealed by random events are not independent.
a statistical test, that a random A gambler may believe that a long
process (involving taking random run of good or bad luck has to
samples of a particular size from a change. The gambler’s fallacy arises
particular population) could produce from a misunderstanding of the law
some outcome.” What is this a of large numbers. The idea that a
glossary definition of? random process will behave in a
a. Random error predictable way on average over a
b. Sampling error long run of observations can be
c. The random value misunderstood to imply that there is
d. The p-value ‘a law of averages’ that serves
e. The q-value to change the probability of random
Answer: D events based on past events.
However, coins, dice and other
288. “An outcome where the things that generate random
probability that an effect at least as outcomes do not have memories.”
large as that observed could be What type of fallacy is this a glossary
produced by a random process is definition of?
less than a predetermined alpha a. The significance fallacy.
level. This means that it is b. The gambler’s fallacy.
implausible that a random process c. The causal fallacy.
could have produced the effect.” d. The operational fallacy.

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e. The psychological fallacy. d. This correlation is useful for

Answer: B predictive purposes.
e. Points on a scatterplot would
290. Which of the following resemble a straight line.
statements is true? [TY9.1 Answer: B
a. A negative correlation is the
same as no correlation. 292. As part of a psychology
b. Scatterplots are a very poor assignment Kate has to calculate
way to show correlations. Pearson’s r to measure the strength
c. If the points on a scatterplot of association between two
are close to a straight line variables. She finds that r = −.2 and
there will be a positive that this is significant at her selected
correlation. alpha level of .05. What should she
d. Negative correlations are of conclude? [TY9.3]
no use for predictive a. That there is a significant but
purposes. small relationship between
e. None of the above. the two variables.
Answer: E b. That there is a non-significant
but large relationship between
291. If a calculation of the variables.
Pearson’s r yields a value of −.96, c. That there is a significant and
which of the following statements moderate relationship
is false? [TY9.2] between the variables.
a. The observed correlation d. That the two variables are
between variables is negative. unrelated.
b. There is a small amount of e. That variation in one variable
negative covariance between is associated with most of the
variables relative to random variation in the other.
error. Answer: A
c. A high score on one variable is
associated with a low score on 293. The correlational fallacy refers
the other. to which of the following? [TY9.4]

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a. The idea that a correlation can

be statistically significant 295. A group of researchers conducts
without being psychologically some research in which they identify
meaningful. a significant positive correlation (r =
b. The idea that a strong .42) between the number of children
correlation between variables people have and their life
does not mean that one satisfaction. Which of the following
predicts the other. is it inappropriate to conclude from
c. The idea that a correlation this research? [TY9.5]
between variables does not a. That having children makes
mean that one variable is people more satisfied with
responsible for variation in the their life.
other. b. That someone who has
d. The idea that correlation does children is likely to be happier
not justify prediction. than someone who does not.
e. Both (a) and (c) c. That the causes of life
Answer: C satisfaction are unclear.
d. That the consequences of
294. “Effects which reflect the having children are unclear.
impact of one independent variable e. That it is possible to predict
averaged across all levels of other someone’s life happiness
independent variables, rather than partly on the basis of the
the impact of an interaction number of children they have.
between two or more independent Answer: A
variables.” What is is this a glossary
definition of? 296. Which of the following
a. Main effects. statements is true of the problem of
b. Average effects. restricted range? [TY9.6]
c. Significant effects. a. Restricted range can reduce
d. Non-interaction effects. the size of correlations.
e. Isolation effects.
Answer: A

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b. Restricted range can lead to a their psychological well-being is .40,

violation of the assumption of how much of the variation in their
bivariate normality. scores on the well-being measure
c. Restricted range can produce will be associated with variation in
regression to the mean. their wealth? [TY9.8]
d. All of the above. a. 60%
e. Answers (a) and (b) only. b. 40%
Answer: D c. 16%
d. 4%
297. If an experimenter observes a e. It is impossible to say without
correlation of −1 between two information about how
variables, which of the following psychological well-being is
is false? [TY9.7] defined.
a. One variable is completely Answer: C
predictive of the other.
b. One variable is completely 299. A researcher conducts some
responsible for variation in the research in which they identify a
other. significant positive correlation (r =
a. Knowledge of the value of one .42) between the number of children
variable allows one to know a person has and their life
with certainty the value of the satisfaction. Which of the following
other. is it inappropriate to conclude from
a. A higher score on one variable this research?
is associated with a lower a. That having children makes
score on the other. people more satisfied with
b. All the variation in one their life.
variable is associated with b. That someone who has
variation in the other. children is likely to be more
Answer: B happy than someone who
doesn't.
298. If the correlation between c. That the causes of life
people’s wealth and a measure of satisfaction are unclear.

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d. That the consequences of b. A bar graph

having children are unclear. c. A scatterplot
e. That it is possible to predict d. An angiogram
someone's life happiness e. A scattergram
partly on the basis of the Answer: C
number of children they have.
Answer: A 302. “A relationship between two
variables that can be described by a
300. A researcher conducts a survey straight line. The equation for such a
with 221 participants who each line is y = a + bx, where b is the slope
complete 24 measures designed to of the line (its gradient) and a is
assess the impact of social and the y intercept (where it cuts the
psychological factors (such as vertical axis).” Which type of
demands, social support and role relationship is this a glossary
clarity) on stress in the workplace. definition of?
As part of her analysis she a. A straight-line relationship
investigates the correlations b. An a + b relationship
between pairs of these variables. c. A bx relationship
How many degrees of freedom will d. A curvilinear relationship
her analysis have? e. A short-term relationship
a. 221 Answer: A
b. 220
c. 219 303. “A measure of the degree of
d. 24 linear association between two
e. 23 variables.” What is this a glossary
Answer: C definition of?
a. A correlation coefficient.
301. “A graph plotting the scores on b. A covariance coefficient.
one variable against the scores on c. Covariance.
another.” What type of graph is this d. A product-moment coefficient.
a glossary definition of? e. A linear coefficient.
a. A line graph Answer: A

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a. The between-cells mean

304. “The amount of variation in one square (MSB).
variable associated with variation in b. The mean of the sampling
another variable (or variables). In distribution.
the bivariate case this is given by r2.” c. The sum of the deviations
What is this a glossary definition of? from the grand mean.
a. Variance. d. The grand mean.
b. Covariance. e. The within-cells mean square
c. Common variance. (MSW).
d. Linear correlation. Answer: E
e. Estimated variance.
Answer: C 307. Which of the following
statements is true? [TY10.2]
305. “A barrier to the correct a. In one-way ANOVA the total
interpretation of results that arises sum of squares comprises two
when the range of scores is limited main sources of variance:
because they are clustered in the within-groups variance and
region of the maximum scale value.” between-groups variance.
What specific type of effect is this a Each has the same number of
glossary definition of? degrees of freedom.
a. Restricted range effect. b. In one-way ANOVA the total
b. Maximum value effect. sum of squares comprises two
c. Floor effect. main sources of variance:
d. Ceiling effect. within-groups variance and
e. Doppler effect between-groups variance.
Answer: D Each has its own number of
degrees of freedom.
306. Which of the following is a c. In one-way ANOVA the total
pooled variance estimate that sum of squares comprises
constitutes the denominator of an F- three main sources of
ratio? [TY10.1] variance: within-groups
variance, between-groups

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variance and error variance. b. η2 is the square of α and can

Each has the same number of tell us whether a particular p-
degrees of freedom. value is significant.
d. In one-way ANOVA the total c. η2 is a measure of effect size
sum of squares comprises that can tell us whether a
three main sources of particular F-value is
variance: within-groups significant.
variance, between-groups d. η2 is a measure of effect size
variance and information that can tell us whether a
variance. Each has the same particular p-value is
number of degrees of significant.
freedom. e. η2 is a measure of effect size
e. In one-way ANOVA the total that can tell us how much
sum of squares comprises variance a particular effect
three main sources of accounts for.
variance: within-groups Answer: E
variance, between-groups
variance and information 309. A researcher, Isobel, conducts
variance. Each has its own one-way analysis of variance in
number of degrees of which she compares the final marks
freedom. of students who have studied
Answer: B psychology at one of five different
institutions, A, B, C, D and E. The
308. What is the point of calculating study looks at the marks of 100
the value of η2 in relation to students, 20 from each institution.
particular F- and p-values? [TY10.2] On the basis of a given theory, the
a. η2 is a hypothesis-testing researcher plans to make four
measure that can tell us comparisons: between A and B, A
whether a particular F-value is and C, C and D, and C and E. Three
significant. other researchers make the
following observations:

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X: ‘If Isobel used an experimentwise are as follows: equal symmetrical

alpha level of .01, a Bonferroni (M = 132 ms), unequal symmetrical
adjustment would mean that each of (M = 148 ms), unequal asymmetrical
these tests had an alpha level of (M = 142 ms), unequal asymmetrical
.0025.’ (M = 182 ms). Which of the following
Y: ‘If Isobel used an experimentwise is true? [TY10.5]
alpha level of .05, a Bonferroni a. A line graph in which these
adjustment would mean that each of data are plotted suggests that
these tests had an alpha level there might only be a main
of.0025.’ effect for size.
Z: ‘If Isobel used an experimentwise b. A line graph in which these
alpha level of .05, a Bonferroni data are plotted suggests that
adjustment would mean that each of there might only be a main
these tests had an alpha level of effect for symmetry.
.0125.’ c. A line graph in which these
Who is correct? [TY10.4] data are plotted suggests that
a. Only X. there might only be a main
b. Only Y. effect for size and an
c. Only Z. interaction between size and
d. X and Y. symmetry.
e. X and Z. d. A line graph in which these
Answer: E data are plotted suggests that
there might only be a main
310. An experimental psychologist effect for symmetry and an
conducts a study examining whether interaction between size and
the speed with which two shapes symmetry.
can be identified as similar or e. A line graph in which these
different depends on whether the data are plotted suggests that
stimuli are (a) of equal or unequal there might be main effects
size and (b) symmetrical or for size and symmetry and an
asymmetrical. The mean reaction interaction between size and
times for the four cells of the design symmetry.

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Answer: E
312. A researcher conducts a study
311. Which of the following examining the impact of social
statements is false? [TY10.6] support on depression in which he
a. One difference between studies how four independent
ANOVA and t-tests is that groups that each receive a different
ANOVA allows researchers to type of social support (financial,
compare responses of more emotional, intellectual, none) react
than two groups. to a stressful experience. There are
b. One difference between 20 people in each group. Which of
ANOVA and t-tests is that the following statements is true?
ANOVA does not make [TY10.7]
assumptions about a. There are 4 degrees of
homogeneity, normality and freedom for the between-cells
independence. variance.
c. One difference between b. There are 78 degrees of
ANOVA and t-tests is that freedom for the within-cells
ANOVA can be used to variance.
examine simultaneously the c. If ANOVA yielded a between-
impact of more than one groups F-value of −2.18 this
variable. would be significant with
d. One difference between alpha set at .05.
ANOVA and t-tests is that d. If ANOVA yielded a between-
ANOVA is based on analysis of groups F-value of 0.98 this
the ratios of variances. would be significant with
e. One difference between alpha set at .01.
ANOVA and t-tests is that e. None of the above statements
ANOVA uses two separate is true.
degrees of freedom (one for Answer: E
between-cells variance, one
for within-cells variance).
Answer: B

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313. Which of the following b. With an alpha level of .01,

statements about the F-distribution ANOVA reveals a significant
is false? [TY10.8] effect for Instruction.
a. The distribution is c. As groups are randomly
asymmetrical. assigned, we need to compute
b. The distribution is one-tailed. a z-score in order to gauge the
c. Higher values of F are size of these effects relative to
associated with a higher chance.
probability value. d. Both (a) and (b).
d. The distribution is positively Answer: B
skewed.
e. If the amount of between-cells 315. The SPSS ANOVA output below
variance is equal to the is from a study in which participants
amount of within-subjects were randomly assigned to one of
variance, the value of F will be four conditions in which they were
1.00. given different instructions to
Answer: C encourage them to continue. Which
of the following statements is true?
314. The SPSS ANOVA output below
is from a study in which participants a. ANOVA shows that there was
were randomly assigned to one of no effect for Instruction.
four conditions in which they were b. With an alpha level of .05,
given different instructions to ANOVA reveals a significant
encourage them to continue. Which effect for the Instruction.
of the following statements is true? c. With an alpha level of .01,
There is no possibility at all that the ANOVA reveals a significant
results are due to chance. effect for Instruction.
a. It would be useful to d. With an alpha level of .05,
supplement the p-value with a ANOVA reveals a significant
measure of effect size. effect for Intercept.

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e. With an alpha level of .01,

ANOVA reveals a significant
effect for Intercept.
Answer: B

316. “A hypothetical model in which

mean responses differ across the
conditions of an experimental
design. This represents an
alternative to the null hypothesis
that the mean response is the same
in all conditions.” What is this a
glossary definition of?
a. Hypothetical model.
b. Hypothetical difference
model.
c. Difference model.
d. Effects model.
e. Experimental model.
Answer: D

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