i Complete Balen forts ; Peeled to improve : ratte ills 9) ( p)Discover more of our complete manuals on Readly today... The Complete The Complete The Complete owe | Ubuntull | Linux Mint ICI Manual Manual Y Sapient MW iryey:y ve The Complete Building Your Own PC Manual (a droid The Complete An ao fe} ress ncrol Google Manual Manual Manwal yy ‘The Complete Outdoor Photography Manual it a iF pe Layer) Velale rel(Wf Black Dog i-Tech Series “That's what makes Linux so good: you put in something and that effort multiplies. It’s a positive Feedback cycle.” Linus Torvalds (developer of the Linux kernel) Linux is everywhere. It powers the Internet as the main operating system behind the Web's servers, it powers spacecraft, it's the operating system for the fastest supercomputers in the world and it’s used in smart TVs and mobile devices. Why? Because it’s ultra stable, lightning fast and completely free of charge. However, there’s more to Linux than simply being a free to use operating system. Its unique configuration allows the user to customise and personalise the OS into any form they wish. A Linux user can change their OS look and feel from one day to the next, install thousands of freely available apps and programs. and take back control of their computer. Linux is about freedom. Freedom from the walled-garden approach of other restrictive operating systems, freedom to choose what you want on your computer, freedom to alter it and use it how you please. It’s a worldwide community of like- minded users, all striving to get the best development from this incredible OS. With this book, you too can becomea part of the open community of Linux users. The tutorials within these pages will help you get to grips with Linux, show you how it works, what you can do with it and how you can code with it to take your Linux experience to even greater heights. Discover Linux. Discover freedom. 8 @bdmpubs fi BDM Publications www.bdmpublications.comContents * CPS The Complete Linux Manual 8 Why Linux? 10 The Best Linux Distributions 12 Equipment You Will Need 14 Desktop Environments 16 Which Distro? 18) Getting Started with Linux 20 Creating a Linux installer on Windows 22 _ Installing Linux on a PC 24 Installing a Virtual Environment 26 Installing Linux in a Virtual Environment. CPt aaah t) 30 Introduction to the Cinnamon Menu 32__ Navigating the Cinnamon Desktop 34 10 Things to do After Installing Linux Mint 36 _DidyouKnow...Apollo 11 38 Creating Users 40 _Customising the Desktop 42 Becoming Anonymous Online a 46 Basics of the Terminal 48 Update Mint via the Terminal 50 _Install Apps via the Terminal - Part 1 52__Install Apps via the Terminal - Part 2 54 Did you Know...Linux Kernel 0.01 56 Creating a File Using the Terminal 58 Creating and Removing Directories 60 Fun Things to do in the Terminal 62 _ More Fun Things to do in the Terminal 64 LinuxTips and Tricks 66 Did you Know...Linux and the Big Bang 68 Creating Bash Scripts- Part 1 70 Creating Bash Scripts —Part 2 72 Creating Bash Scripts — Part 3 74 Creating Bash Scripts~Part 4 76 Creating Bash Scripts~Part 5 7B PixLinux= The Perfect Combination 80 Command Line Quick Reference 82 AZof Linux Commands 84 Did you Know...Good enough for NASA CORT aratn 88 WhyPython? 90 Howto Set Up Python in Linux 92 Starting Python for the First Time 94 Your First Code 96 Saving and Executing Your Code 98 Executing Code from the Terminal 100. Did you Know...Space Invaders102 104 106 108 110 112 114 16 Numbers and Expressions Using Comments Working with Variables User Input Creating Functions Conditions and Loops Python Modules Did you Know...Debugging 120 WhyC+4? wn dmpublcationscom 122 124 126 128 130 132 134 136 138 140 142 144 Your First C++ Program Structure of a C++ Program Compile and Execute Did you know...Virus! Using Comments, Variables Data Types Strings C++ Maths User interaction Did you Know...The Hobbit Common Coding Mistakes ee:TY index “How did you know’so much about computers Kelemen aa lol ae ~ Admiral Grace Hopper (pioneer programmer) DM ay ee el ee blackDop Tech Series ~2nd Etonwn bmpublcatonscom Say Hello to Linux “vy Why Linux? Whatis it? Where do | get it? Why are there so many different versions of it? Most beginners ask these, and many more, questions when starting out. I's true that Linux is an incredibly versatile and powerful operating system but where do you start? Thankfully, you can Find the answers in this section, ‘There is so much you can do with Linux but you need to know where to start; we're here to help you out. In this section you can learn what Linux is, what a distro is and what a desktop environments. You can also begin to explore how Linux works and how it can work For you. 8 WhyLinux? 10 The Best Linux Distributions 12 Equipment You Will Need 14 Desktop Environments Which Distro? ack og Tech Series 2nd EtonZz Say Hello to Linux Why Linux? For many of its users, Linux means Freedom. Freedom from the walled garden Erkan Molen ReLle(eTeR aan LOSE Roe) Eire Kne gd Cease Kole CN eee Clee eon aT aera) you may think though. FREE AND OPEN Linux is a Fantastic it For those who want something different. The efficiency of the system, the availablity of applications and stability are ust a few good reasons. ‘The First thing you need to know is that there sno such operating system called Linux. Linux in Fact the operating system kernel, the ore component of an OS. When talking about Linux what we, and ‘others are referring to are one of the many distributions, or distros, that use the Linux kemel. No doubt you've heard of atleast one of the current popular distros: Ubuntu, Linux Mint, Fedora, openSUSE, Debian, Raspbian, the lst goes on. Each one of these distros offer, something a itle different for the user. While each has the Linux kemel atits core, they provide the user with a different looking desktop environment, different preloaded applications different \ways in which to update the system and get more apps installed anda sightly different look and Feel throughout the entre system. However, atthe centre lies Linux, which i why we say Linux Linuxis a great operating system on which to start coding. Linux works considerably differently to Windows or macOS. I's Free Fora stat: Free to download, Free to install on as many computers asyou lke, Free to use for an unlimited amount oftime and free to upgrade and extend with, equally, Free programs and applications. This Free to use element is one ofthe biggest draws for the ‘developer, While a Windows license can cost upto £100, and a Mac considerably more, a user, be they a developer, gamer or someone ‘who wants to put an older computer to use, can quickly download a distro and get to work in a matter of minutes. ‘Alongside the free to use aspect comes a level of freedom to customise and mould the system to your own uses. Each ofthe available distros avallable on the Internet havea certain spin,‘There are thousands of free packages available for programmers under Linux. in that some offer increased security, a Fancy looking desktop, ‘8 gaming speci spin, or something directed toward students This extensibility makes Linuxa more desirable platform to use, ‘you can quickly mould the system into a development base, including many different kinds of IDES forthe likes of Python, web development, C++, Java and so on; or create a base for online anonymity, perhaps asa Minecraft server, media centre and. ‘much more, ‘Another remarkable advantage for those looking to learn how to.code, is that Linux comes with mst ofthe popular coding environments builtin, Both Python and C+ are preinstalled in a high percentage of Linux distros available, which means you can start to pragram almost as soon as you install the system and boot it up For the Fist time, Generally speaking, Linux doesn't take up as many system resources ‘as Windows or macOS; by system resources we mean memory, hard drive space and CPU load. The Linux code has been streamlined {andi ree from third-party ‘bloatware’ which hogs those systems. resources. A more efficient system of course means more available resources For the coding and testing environment and the programs you eventually create. Less use of resources also means you can Use Linux on older hardware that would normally struggle or even Se Ol Mandriva stackrsre @ = Each distro offers something unique to the user butall have Linuxatthe core. refuse to run the latest versions of Windows or macOS; so rather than throwing away an old computer, it can be reused with a Linux distro, It’s not all about C++, Python or any ofthe other more popular programming languages though, Using the commandline of Linux, also called the Terminal, you're ableto create Shell scripts, ‘which are programs that ae designed to run from the command line and made up of scripting languages. They are used mainly to ‘automate tasks or offer the user some form of input and output For ‘certain operation, Finally, although there are many more advantages we can lst, there are thousands and thousands of free programs and apps avaliable that cover nearly every aspect of computing, Known as packages, there are (atthe time of writing) over 8,700 specific programming applications just on Linux Mint alone and an incredible 62,000 overall packages catering or everything from Amateur Radio to WWW tools Linux then, isa great resource and environment for programming in. It’s perfectly suited For developers ands continually improving ‘and evolving. If you're serious about getting into coding, or you just ‘want to try something new, give Linux a try and see how it works Foryou ‘A Linux programming environment can be as simple or as complexas you need itto be. wndmpublcationscom sucoesitesever-insecinZz Say Hello to Linux The Best Linux Distributions BU 1d Col eLo meson elm MUN TC Lol MOOTED enol een So Te EE) Ciclo) kere eC Melee eal eee CoM RUA Cole) can get them. GOING LINUX ‘The installation process for most distributions is similar. You download a disk image from the website and burn it to an optical disk or create a USB Flash Drive installer. Just be careful to get the right distribution For your hardware and read the instructions carefull. Tae By ar the most popular Linux astro (distribution) i Linux Mine. Mint began ife back in 2006, as an alternative tothe then most popular distro, Ubuntu. Although based on Ubuntu’s Long Term Support bud, Linux Mint took different direction and offered the user a better overall experience. Linux Mint has three main desktop versions avaliable with each new version ofthe core OSit releases. This may sound confusing at first butt’s quit simple. Currently, Linux Mint tses the Cinnamon Desktop Environment as its Flagship model; there's MATE and xfce models available too. Cinnamon sa graphically rch desktop environment, MATE uses less Fancy graphics, and is more stable ona wider variety of desktop systems, and XFce san extremely streamlined desktop environment that’s built for speed and ultimate stability “Throughout this tite well be using the Cinnamon version; however, you can try out any ofthe ather desktop environments asyou ish. fact, it's recommended that you do spend some time trying different environments, and even different distros, tosee which suits you and your computer best ‘wwwilinuxmint.com TN) ‘The second most popular distro available is Ubuntu, which Isan ancient African word meaning ‘humanity to others Ubuntu’s popularity has fluctuated overits fourteen year ie ‘ALone time, itwas easy the most used Linux-based operating systemin the world but some wrong choices along the way with regards toits presentation, and some unfavourable, controversial elements involving privacy, sadly sawit topple from the number one spot. ‘That sai, Ubuntu has since made amends and isslowing crawting its way back up the Linux leader board. The latest versions of the OS use the GNOME 3 desktop environment, an impressive environment, although itcan be alitle confusing For Former Windows users and isalittle heavy on systern resources especialy if you're planning on installing ton an colder computer. Ubuntu, forallits Faults is good Linux distro to start experimenting wth, I’ a clean interface, easy to use and install {and offers the user a complete Linux experience. www.ubuntu.comArch is one of longest running Linux ‘Arch s a distro For when you're more distributions and Forms the basis oF experienced with Linux. You start with many other versions of Linux. Why install nothing but the command line and From Mint or Ubuntu when you can install there you have to manually partition your ‘Arch? Many users do exactly that but i's hard drive, set where the installation notideal for beginners. Ubuntu and Mint files go, create a user, set the OS locale both offer an easier installation path and and finally installa desktop environment come with software packages to help along with the apps you want, you get started ‘The advantage though, foralthishard onthe other hand, is amore work isa dstrothat you have created. This ‘bare bones’ affair. Arch is committed to Free software and means your Arch ditro wor't come withthe unnecessary files and its repositories contain over 50,000 apps to instal, including apps that others have preinstalled t's custom made for you, by you, ‘multiple different Desktop environments, and use as you would with any other distro, sig 14sec NadoubtyueheardoftheRaspbenya. shad nottohine, | be hsaizant heer sail ask vuln Sere ae eee ‘There are several aspects to the Raspberry Pi that make it such asought after piece of the computing world, For ane it's cheap, costing around £25 for what s essentially a fully working computer. t's smal, measuring not much bigger than ‘creditcard, You can build electronics witht, using a Fully programmable interface; and it comes with Raspbian, its own custom-made, Debian-based operating system that includes an office suite alongside mary different programming languages and educational resources. Raspblan is exclusive to the Pi hardware, since the Raspberry Pluses an ARM processor to power it. However, the Raspberry i Foundation has since released a PC version of Raspbian: Raspberry i Desktop. ‘Most Linux distributions Fall into two camps. There are on with the latest features and technology lke Ubuntu and ‘Mint and those with few new features but rock solid relabil lke Debian. Just lke the Pi version, Raspberry Pi Desktop comes withthe allthe coding, educational and ather apps you wi Tes quick, stable and works superbly. you're stretching your Linux experience, then ths s certainly one of the top distros to consi “Meanwhile, openSUSE attempts to cover bath bases. (OpenSUSE Leap is the rock solid system. It's developed openiy bya community along with SUSE employees, wha develop an enterprise level operating system, SUSE; this powers the London Stock Exchange amongst other things. Itis designed For mission critical environments where there is no scope Forinstablty’. you Find all that too sensible, openSUSE Tumbleweed sa rolling release with all the latest Features, and the occasional crash ‘www raspberrypiorg/downloads/raspberry-pi-desktop eee = openSUSE s hight respected Linux distribution and mary ots core contributors work on the Linux Kernel, ubreOfTice, GGnome and other key Linares. inshore, openSUSE is where youll find the proshanging out wwrwopenSUSE.orgZz Say Hello to Linux ) Equipment You Will Need BO ene Mietunedotecr iM urea f en acer ery SU poracaiale WAR ooo emer ees ir Oreo ROT ar) MR en Kel ecom However, it’s worth checking you have everything in place before proceeding. MINTY INGREDIENTS Before we start working our way through this book, here's what you need to install and run Linux Mint. You have several choices available, so take your time and see which works best for you. SMe Vy Ty eeue) ‘Tae minimum system requirements for Linux Mint are ‘Yu can install Linux Mint onto your computer via USB or OVD. asfollows We lookinto each alittle ater on butf youre already familiar with the processor thinking of USB and just gathering the = hardware you need, then you're going to SR ee ‘need a minimum 4G8 USB Fish crive RAM/Memory—512MB to store the Linux Mint 150. Hard Drive space —9GB (20GB recommended) Display 1024 x 768 resolution ‘Obviously the better the system you have the better the ‘experience willbe and quicker too DVD INSTALLATION DVD installation of Linux Mint simply requires blank DYDR disc. OF course, you also need an optical drive (a DVD Writer drive) before youre able to transfer or burn the SO image tothedisc, FED eteck 009 rec Series and tion(Equipment You will Need vw Installation toa virtual environment i a Favourite method of testing and using Linux distros. Linux Mint works exceedingly well ‘when used ina virtual environment but more on that later. There are many different virtual environment apps available; however, VirtualBox, from Oracle, is one ofthe easiest to into. You can ind the latest version at www.virtualbox.org X Asatte BB cnange Desop ckround wr bdmpublcationscom Clckonthe Men andtype system settings and Ese) ‘open the resulting icon. This takes you to the system Setting options, romhere you able to conl and edt the way Lux Mint Cinamon os and works 2 well add new users manage the frewall and enable acess option. eageaea Be eaoana a ogesa aoee oees Oa PEPER 0 short Linux mint cinnamon can be configured tolook quite extraordinary. There are many examples available of how good it can get and what can be ‘achieved. You can go as complex or as simple as you want, adding ifferent component and animations or just keepingit plain and easy toread. ‘ack 0og Tech Series 2nd Etonmy Getting to Know Linux. ) 10 Things to do After Installing Linux Mint Linux Mintis a polished distro out of the box but, as with most Linux distros, there are some tweaks that can be applied to improve the way it works. Although these are Mint- specific tweaks, most can be applied to other distros. LINUX TWEAKS Some of these post installation actions are highly recommended, while others are just handy additions and simply tweak the system or add a customisation. The first, and most important, postnstallation Click the OK button and you can see a couple of actions to update the system. Clickon the shield ‘Updates ready for installation. Before you update icon in the Panel, found at the bottom right of the desktop next to though, click on the blue bar OK button to switch toa Lacal Miror. the time and date. This launches the Update Manager. This opens the Software Sources option. n the Mirrors section, click cn the Main and Base drop-down menus and selecta server closest toyour current location, PEPER Linux Mint offers the usera three level policy Bee ick the Update the Cache button and close the approach to updates: Don't Break My Computer, Software Sources window. Back n the Update Optimise Stability and Security and Always Update Everything Manager, click on the Install Updates ican and enter your password, The recommended options the Optimise Stability and Security, __The updates automatically apply themselves and relaunch Update which only updates safe, essential patches that won't impact critical Manager, this time with a lot more updates, Again, click instal elements ofthe core OS, Read through the descriptions but choose Updates, OK any messages and wait for ther to Finish the middle, and recommended option.10 Things to do After Installing Linux Mint 4) SED the und: graded by level, 1 being alow level update, level 5 being a dangerous one. Stick to level 3 updates, is our advice; and click Replace For any messages -egarding overwriting a configuration file, With regards to the Software Rendering issue and lack of drivers for non-VirtualBox Users, click the Menu and type ‘river ina the search box. Be When asked to accept the changes, enter Y and also, when asked to configure ibdvd, Make sure OK is highlighted and press Enter, then Yes to any Further questions. Next up, stilin the Terminal, enter: cat’ /proc/sys/vm/snappiness; the result should be 60. IFyour computer has less than 4GB of RAM/ memory, then enter: gksudo xed /etc/sysctl.. conf. Click the Driver Manager app that appears asa result ofthe search and enter your password, Mint 10 analyse what's available and presents you with a selection of potential drivers based on your detected hardware. ‘Those with graphical problems, such as Software Rendering, should ‘optto use the latest, recommended Graphics drives Sy takes a moment PEPTSEM) A this point you'll probably need to restart Linux ‘Mint, sa do that now. Aftera reboot click the Menu button again, followed by the Terminal. The Terminal icon is found in the lefthand column, above the Files icon, With the Terminal open, enter: sudo apt-get install Libdvd-pkg, press Enter and type in your password. This enables encrypted DVD playback wr bdmpublcationscom ESTTSEDD This tweak helps speed up systems with less than 4G8 RAM/memory. Scroll down to the bottom of the file you just opened and add the following new lines: # Decrease snap usage to a more reasonable Level ‘vm. swappiness=10 Click File > Save, then File > Quit. Reboot Linux Mint and you should notice a slight hike in performance Security is always a concern in this modern digital age. While Linux Mintisa secure system, i's ‘advisable to always try and improve it. lick the Menu button and ‘earch for Firewall click the Firewall Configuration icon and enter, yur password. In the Firewall window, click the Status slider to On. BlackDog iTechseries-2ndestion EE4 Apollo 11 [DID YOU KNOW... PARRA Seer ea Ces aC) DUIS ne ue ua Beare oe eters Preece euros Peer ered tcc) from scratch. Using a new method of Pere eure cele eeay eee see a eee nee uN aE) Bere Incredibly, that code is freely available eeu eakelg Memes er Tee) researcher in 2003, you can view the code ER eR eine A ean Atco mees eso erate Mune a Ono Sea Sedu i ak ee Meo Sees Poe oad ce] Syetie) i: ae sence a humour, Seewhatelsel inthere1 One giant leap For \ mankind, and coding.Zz Getting to Know Linux Creating Users When you first install Linux Mint it is configured For use with a single user. While Birla eMac UTM Rn SCRE aC a MeO eRe RR elt) need to create separate users with their own unique Home folders. NEW USERS ‘on are separate, as with multiple users on other opers different users means each user has access to his or hers own areas on the system. Documents, pictures, videos and so systems. Clckonthe Linux Mint Menuand ype ‘Wes to Sua begin searching For the relevant console, From the search results, choose Users and Groups and eter you password, The Users nd Groups console squtebasiclookng, and thanifuly tasy tose. tis you canis see your own username rom when you tale Uno in PEPTIPD) To add a now user, click the Add button a the bottom of the console. There are two types of ser you can create, Standard and Administrator. Unies the new ser has need to install new apps or access pars ofthe filesystem ‘beyond their Home folder, then opt forthe Standard account type, (Otherwise, use the Administrator account type EX) sect op ech series 2nd ton Enter the new user's Full Name, Followed by the Sars Username they need when logging into Linux Mint. Make sure the username'sallin lower case, 2 and 0-9 characters, ‘only. You can have full stops, underscores or hyphens if you wish ‘lick the Add button when you're ready to continue. ‘The new user appears in the list of current Linux ‘Mint users, in alphabetical order. At present, there's no password set so click the user inthe lst of current users, then Click the No Password Set option under the user’ username. eran roups -0 entiFER vo nroncic sneer nvcn we displaying it. Naturally i's a good idea to come up with as strong a password as possible. when you're done, click the Change button, ‘age rset = re elf se al ber You can lose the Users and Groups console window SHEP now, as the new user has been created. IF you click the Mint Menu, followed by Logout, you are presented with the ‘Mint Login Manager. The new user is now present inthe ist of Currently avaliable users, Click on hier to log them in COMMAND LINE ACCOUNTS (_ Creating Users PEISED) Once logsed in the new useris required to set up their own desktop wallpaper, icons, Panel, Menu ‘and so on, Depending on what Account Type you set up For them, ‘Standard or Administrator, they won't beable to install any new ‘app5. This screenshot is From a Standard user account type. installing new software, that way you can keep track of what's on your system. Session Log out ofthis system now? Switch User Cancel ust as you'd expect, you can also create a new user within the command Line. Open up a Terminal session under the main ite cure tenie PRED the process for adding a new user fromthe command line is relatively imple. To begin with, ee Dipcusernane>); the new user's login name, You're then asked to create a new tga rte amine ee MeN ee hee see ort wn dmpublcatonscom PREM vou can check the details and account type for the new user from within the Users and Grou PI eee eee ‘enter: SURANGA TREATIES n the Terminal orcick the. Peer Maier enon anaoesitenseie-insecinZz) Getting to Know Linux.) Customising the Desktop Ce leolu I iiate en nein Le ale Bt Ke hve) ela NIZ ASOT MA el el) Roe Rec eeck ae ea eae RRO MLS CN eMC UC aad company logo. Whatever your reasons for having your own desktop, here's how it’s done. YOUR DESKTOP Linuxis probably one of the customisable operating systems there is, With just a Few tweaks, one or two extras installed and some imagination, you can create something incredible, Thefistotofceleopentoiatinsto — ERRERE vousatredtocckthe nalenags rom any Susy change the wallpaper. Right-click the desktop and BERS) of the locations provided to have them install as the choose change Dest backround Thsopensthe Backgrounds deskop walpaper neta you have ages sored in araher pinunoxMin remember other ditrosmay presenter locaton on ouster eto youcen a the cing nh Background walpaper selection took dierent, the Plusmo atthe betom ofthe Balground conse, sng thee managerto locate them PEPER) ore recent versions of LinuxMint display available EFM ay clicking on the Settings tab you can, instead, backgrounds depending on the version the user is play numerous images as slideshow or change the running. You normaly get three categories followed by afourth, aspect ofthe wallpapers toa variety of choices. Pictures, which fs separated from the others. The Pictures option 's different because it reads the image content from the Pictures Folder in your Home area,Casing the eston QE Kroneohhe alse walpaentateyou ETP Thenesalowsyoutochnoetie way etain SHEDS Fancy, open a browser and search For the type of sua aspects of the Mint desktop look: Window baclgroundimageouprefe whenyouve foundtheimageyeu Borders cons, Contos, Mouse Pointer an Delp, Inthe wantas the desltop walpaper ightlckitand choose Sets __Setngstabyou can extend the options witha fe on/off sider Desktop Background rom test of optors When the Set Desktop buttons, to, Background console ope, lc the Set Desktop Backround bon CS) BES a re SED cistern consent ese EEE rye ces one rarer steno console allows you to pick the layout, desktop icons and options __ default view from a numberof preinstalled themes. lckthe theme for multimonitor support you want. You can experiment with the you want, then click the Install (downward-pointing arrow) button ‘options For the best setup, according to your personal tastes. toenable't. ESTEE AD |" addition to changing the desktop wallpaper, BETS ERERD lick back on Themes, then Desktop and you can. and how the icans are displayed, you can also alter locate the newiy installed theme and apply to your the overall theme for Linux Mint.From the Mint Menu, search for _ desktop, ny installed Themes can also be uninstalled via the Add ‘themes’ and click the Themes app asit appears in the search results. Remove button. I's worth spending some time personalising your desktop how you want it and there are some incredible themes available too. inbnseisin snd ooiteseie-anscaion CIEZz) Getting to Know cr) Becoming Anonymous Online The digital age has led to many great advances in communications; however, it has Elrod reeltte eoa Met Rema R ee uleLe) Teme elmore ACOA frequent news stories of governments, secret organisations and underground hackers breaking our privacy but how can you combat this? ANONYMITY WITH MINT While it’s virtually impossible to become totally anonymous online, you can take measures to ensure our privacy is atits best. FETTER Setting withthe basics, use HTTPS instead of the [ENSINEM Atthoush using Gooale may seem tke the obvious standard HTTP when browsing. Tis means that choice for a modern Internet search, the company anything that's transmitted over HTTPS is secure (hencethe part does track all searches made by an individual. Instead, consider an atthe end) and encrypted. alternative search engine, such as DuckDuckGo, a search engine that doesn't store personal data or track you sreenumrese scart Eriieane icant ‘browse without the details being stored for later scrutiny by NoScript and Adblock Plus to block trackers, adverts and other data BT): 0cstensee-antation(Secming tones onine QE VPNS AND TOR The previous steps can ald your online privacy but to really become anonymous you need a Virtual Private Network and Tor. end resultisthatyourcomputersidentty on the Internets hidden Downloads/. Enter Lsto check the tax Toles present then behind the VEN remote server; soyou culdiveinthe UK buthave enter: tar =xF tor-browser-Linux64-6.0.4 en-US. tar aniPadéress he computer online ident) belonging tolcland. xz (Torls updated regularly of your versions diferent press Tab to autocomplete the tor-bronser-Tiename), When the files are unpacked, use ed tor-bronseren-US/ tocnter the new Folder. HowMM works? ie ” Be Be Be BETES Most g00d VPNs chargea monthly orannualfee ESE A quick Is revealsa couple of entries: afolder called butts worth the expense. We use CyberGhos, Browser anda file called start-tor browser desktop! \wwrw.cyberghostvpn.com, which offers VPN connections for ‘To start the Tor setup, type ./start-tor-bronser.desktop. \windows, Mac, Mint (as well as other Linux distros), Android and This command launches the Tor setup, where youare offered two 10S devices. Detals For each OS can be found at www-support. ‘options: Connect or Configure. For most users, the Connect option «yberghostvpn.com/hc/en-us/articles/213190329-Read-me-f will suffice. Click Connect when you're ready. Toe! Browser crtechost ON 70-unbored ESTEE 2 etherontionistouse Tor Torisanopennetwork EAM Aterthe connectionis established, the Tor Browser that you can attach to that hides your IP address launches. Thisisa customised version of Firefox behind countless nades around the world. k's available For Windows, and from here you can securely browse the internet without Fear of ‘Mac and Linux computers andis very easy to instal and use. Start being viewed or tracked. Mixing both a VPN and Tor makes for an bbynavigating to www.torproject.org/download/download-easy. extremely secure and private connection to the online worl. bhtmLen and clicking on the Download Linux 64-bit button, ST emi CCNY ieee sudo iteseie- scan CEA Index ) BA) stock op itech series 2nd tona “Linux: the operating system with a CLUE... Command Line User : Environment. — Anonymous (Posted on comp. software.testing) wr bdmpublcationscom (us .g the Terminal A The Linux command line, the Terminal, isan incredibly powerful environment. From it, you can bring the OS to its knees, or update it to something spectacular. You can hack into remote computers, look at an animated ASCII camp fire, install new apps and programs, watch Star Wars played out froma server in the Netherlands, and code intricate automated scripts. In this section you will explore the intricacies of the Terminal, and how it works with Linux. You will learn how to manipulate the Linux file system from the Terminal, and you will discover some odd, but fun things you can do in the Terminal. The Terminal rules supreme in the world of Linux. Learn how it works, and you can access all that power. 46 Basics of the Terminal 48 Update Mint via the Terminal 50 Install Apps via the Terminal - Part 1 52 _Install Apps via the Terminal Part 2 54 _ Did YouKnow...Linux Kernel 0.01 56 Creating a File Using the Terminal 58 Creating and Removing Directories 60 Fun Things to do in the Terminal 62 _ More Fun Things to do in the Terminal 64 LinuxTips and Tricks 66 _ Did You Know...Linux and the Big Bang 68 Creating Bash Scripts-Parts 1-5 7B PixLinux= The Perfect Combination 80 Command Line Quick Reference 82 AZof Linux Commands 84 Did YouKnow...Good enough for NASA —————£9 Using the Terminal Basics of the Terminal Most operating systems use two kinds of interface, the GUI, which is the desktop that Windows, macOS and Linux Mint boot into and the command line. While modern operating systems shy away from the command line, Mint uses the Terminal to give the user greater control of the system. TAKING COMMAND ‘The command line, or Terminal, is an extremely powerful interface. Everything you can do on the desktop can be done within the Terminal. Let's start by seeing how it works. ntly ee inthe Terminalisyour login Tete canbe acest yetterclciogon TERED visto cua) the Terminal icon on the Panel, located between sue name Followed by the name of the computer; as you {he Frefox and ies icons orlaunchedby opening the Menu and named. during setup wen you Fist installed Mint. Then then selecting i From the left-hand quick launch strip, ends with the current Folder name; at fist this isjust a tide ~, which means your Home Folder. CPC COSC Eras Eee The Terminal ives you access to the Linux Mint FETIP the fashing cursorat the very end ofthe line is Shell, called Bash, wihich gives you access to the where your text-based commands are entered, You underying operating system. Everything in Mint, including the can begin to experiment wth a simple command, Print Working desktop and GUI is 2 module running from the command line. Directory (pwd), which outputs the current Folder youre in to the screen. Type pad and press Enter. WB) stock op iech series 2nd onFETED Ailthe commands you enter work n the same ‘manner: you enter the command, include any parameters to extend the use ofthe command and press Enter to ‘execute the command line you've entered. Type into the Terminal uname a and press Enter This displays some system information regarding Mint Before we getinto entering commands ts take SUNS a moment to see what menus the Terminal has to offer, The File menu option alowsyouto open anew Terminal Create anew prof, where you can alter these, colours and Behaviour ofthe Terminal ada new tab, nd ove allcurent ete Terminal session PEPTED) The Edit option lets you copy and paste commands to.and from the Terminal and ather sources; handy For when you want to copy a very long and complex command froma web page. It also allows you to edit the current profile preferences. wr dmpublcationscom Basics of the Terminal ew ad Searchoptosletyou ale the sng of evans the Terminal window and of course search within. the Tetrinal for any partir key words From entering any commands into the Terminal: this is ood For when You need to permanently display the Terminal contents. PEPER Finally the Help option displays the help contents and version number ofthe Terminal, orto be more precise, GNOME Terminal well simply referto its Terminalin Future, The Contents are worth having a quick read through, tohelp familiarise yourself with how the Terminal works, BlackDogiTechSeries-2naeation (47A Using the Terminal Update Mint via the Terminal Up to now you've been using the shield icon to launch Mint Update Manager in order to update the system and upgrade the currently installed apps, tools and other elements. However, you can also accomplish a complete system update and upgrade From the Terminal. USING APT-GET ‘To update and upgrade via the Terminal you use the APT (Advanced Packaging Tool) command. It's a powerful command and combines different elements depending on its use. ESTEE Se2tbyopening anew Terminal orifyou already ESE) Apt get is used to update and uparade the have one opened clear its contents with the clear software in Mint, as well as Ubuntu and other ‘command. This tarts you off witha clean slate on which ta work. _Debiarrbased distros. Using the Update element retrieves new package lists and updates the list of source files. Uparade downloads and performs an upgrade tothe latest versions of those files. To start the entire Upgrade and Update process, enter: sudo ‘apt-get update, followed by your password. ESTEE Ester apt-get into the Terminal This brings upa [EES Notice now the addition ofthe sudo command. The list of the most used apt-get commands, along with sudo command once meant Super User Do; these brief description of what the command does.lt’s worth havinga__daysit’s more acceptable as Substitute User Do. It means that the laokat, even fit doesn't make a huge amount of sense at this time. administrative user (Super User) uses APT (Advanced Packaging Too!) to Get any Updates. Now try this: sudo apt-get. upgrade, WB) stock op ech series 2nd tonDepending onthe state of your updates, you SUEDE have any waiting to be installed, you might be asked youwant to aply he resuksof he sudo opt-get Upgrade commana, You cn pressy to accept and cannve, Whats happening here stat apget has some peated software to spp to mint and youe ckaying the action Update Mint via the Terminal 4 scent thas your systemis now uptodate suse according to the available list of packages From the apt-get update command, Youcan rn rough the process one tore Une justo check everything wet ay To ea ee: Sudo apt-get update, press Enter, tentype sudo apt-get Upgrade an pes Enter. TERMINAL VS UPDATE MANAGER? ‘Why use the Terminal to update and upgrade over the Update ‘Manager, regardless ofthe distro you're using? Some users ‘reatly prefer using the Terminal to update their Linux systems ‘and accompanying apps, in the belief that it’s better. However, that’s not often the case. Using the Terminal, apt-get upgrade, doesn't handle changing ‘dependencies between versions of packages, so if a package, thas ts dependent files changed from one version to another, then the upgrades held back. ‘The Update Manager, or Software Manager (depending on the distro), often phases its updates and marks those packages wn dmpublcatonscom ‘with changed dependencies for updating. However, and this is ‘where Linux can often get confusing, sometimes it doesnt. Itall bolls down to the developer of the package being updated and the way the package is held in the distro’s repositories and whether the update is classified as stable ‘or not, In essence, From the point of view of the user, if you ‘update and upgrade using both the Terminal and the Update Manager regularly, then you will be as up to date as possible, ‘and get the essential and necessary stable versions of the packages and core software. If you're looking for cutting edge package updates, then it's best to opt Fora rolling release distro instead. BlackOog Tech Series-2nd ection (49)A Using the Terminal Install Apps via the Terminal—Part 1 There are different ways to install apps and programs on Linux. You can opt for the graphical route, using a Software Manager, or you can use the Terminal. Often, the Terminal provides better control over the software being installed and sometimes, you have no choice in the matter. COMMAND LINE INSTALLS Installing an app with the Terminal may require some nifty keyboard work but you get a better sense of what's being installed and where, ESTEE ERD stalling apps form the Terminalisoften relatively EASE You need to entery to confirm the instalation, simple. First though, you need to make sure that which takes up around 5.SMB of storage inthe the system is up to date. To dothis open up the Terminal and enter: system. Once Stellais installed, you can see again that Mint has sudo apt-get update && sudo apt-get upgrade. Enter automaticaly created the Games category n the Menu as well as your password and accept any necessary updates. the app shortcut. ESTEE ust asyouveseen,sudoaptgetupdate/upgrade ES ESIPER Sometimes, when instaling software, you need to and so on are designed to upgrade the software dd the app's Repository. The repository, or repo, that's already installed on the system. How do you installore apps _ is simply the remote server location where the software isheld, though? Iejust so happens that i's extraordinary simple. Frstyou along withallts dependencies (the vital ibraries and such it need: need an app to install so let's use Stella again. Enter: sudo apt- to function). Start by typing inthis sudo add-apt-repository get install stella pa: peter Levi /ppa. Press Enter when asked to and add the PPA (Personal Package Archive), BO) stock op iech series2nd tonInstall Apps via the Terminal—Part 1 4 BETTER) Thisadds the repo forthe app Variety Wallpaper ESTED Now toinstall variety, enter: sudo apt-get Changer, an Ubuntu-based app that works in Mint install variety. Press to confirm and accept {and changes the wallpaper automatically. Now that the repos added, the installation, and to continue with the install, Once installed, you enter: sudo apt-get update, to update the new information and can type variety into the Terminal torun the app. ‘add the contents ofthe repo to the package database, REMOVING APPS In addition to installing apps, the apt command can also be used to remove any apps and helps keep the system tidy and free up resources. PEPER To uninstall orremove, the Variety app enter the EEN when you remove apps From the system you're following: sudo apt-get remove variety. be informed that some packages that were fer to continue with the uninstall ofthe app; notice also that automatically installed are no longer required, You already saw in You're informed af how much space you'e Freeing up on the hard the previous tutorial, that you can tidy things up withthe following driveas a result of removing the app. command: sudo apt-get autoremove, followed by pressing y toaccept the process. ie tat ven Seach Temi He PEPER wile the apt-get remove’ command uninstals an BAAR Finally, to tidy upallthe non-used packages in app, it doesn get rd ofthe extra clutter that comes, the system, and toremove elements that the with an app, such as configuration and library files. To completely __autoremove command didn't, you can enter: sudo apt-get remove the clutter,enter:sudo apt-get purge variety. ‘autocLean, These last Few steps are vital fr keeping your Linux Mint setup in good working order and to trim off the unnecessary cnanano ‘excess caused by installations and upgrades. ie ttt ven Semi Tern Heb wrdmpublcationscom ‘ack Tech Series-2ndstion (1A Using the Terminal Install Apps via the Terminal—Part 2 Most of the time you'll get to install apps from the Terminal using the standard apt- get command. However, sometimes an app demands a little more work. This means installing an app From its source code, which isn’t as scary as it First sounds. FROM THE SOURCE ‘The commands you'll need to become familiar with here are Configure, Make and Install. You'l Find a lot of apps use installing from source, so it’s certainly a skill worth investing time in. Source code files for Linux usually come in the Fo The wget command retrieves content from the Of TAR.GZ or TAR.822, Both are compressed files internet, in this case the 872 file For Vim. To check holding allthe core files needed to ‘make’ the app. Start off this _therfle was downloaded successfully, enter: Is. According to Mint’s tutorial by creating anew folder in Home: mkdir Vim Filesystem colour ke, the compressed file should be displayed in red BEPIPR) view bythe way, isan advanced text editorwhich WAR weneed to uncompress the contents ofthe file well use as an example to instal. Enter the new now, so enter: tar -xF vim-7.4.tar.b22 into folder, cd Vim, then from within the new Vim folder, enter the the Terminal. Note: you can type in tar =xF vand pressthe Tab following command into the Terminal wget ftp://Ftp.vim. key to autofil the remaining file name. org/pub/vin/unix/vim-7.4.tar.bz2, BB) stock op iech series 2nd tionInstall Apps via the Terminal—Part 2 4 for the main app, then as you upgrade apps through this method _with an error you can continue to the next stage ofthe installation, the individual versions will each have their own Folder. Note: you may need to search online for some error messages, Feat Vow Search Terminal Help SED veinct viasiocne vei ndtsonin ED wena est /ongure nese of fies reser: mostoretie appscorefles whdeathersllbe enterng:make nto te Tera Tsay take awe depending labelled README or INSTALL I's always wise toreadthese fllesfrst on the sizeof the app, asthey provide valuable information regarding the installation, FETED The frst part oftheinstallationrequiresyouto enter [ESET Finally, you need to enter: sudo make install /configure. The /configure command will check ino the Terminal. Ths wil install the app, and yur system for any missing dependencies associated withthe app. IF make itready fr use inthe system, When complete you can execute you received an error regarding aC Compile, then enter: sudo apt- the app in this case by entering vim into the Terminal or searching get install build-essential. The third-party app Neurses __Foritvia the Dash, \was recorded as missing. We need to instal that with: sudo apt get install Libncurses5-dev LibncursesnS-dev. wbdmpublcationscom flackDog Tech Series-2ndestion (83)Kernel command line: block2ntd.block2mtd=/dev /hda2,131072, rootfs root=/dev/mtdbl lockO rootfstype=jffs2 init=/etc/preinit noinitrd console=tty0 console=ttyS0, 38 Cee ote Gece mC Eee eae Ce mec ra Enabling unmasked SIMD FPU exception support... done Hibbet iets Mente PID hash table entries ee Bac eae CORA console: colour VGA+ 80x console [tty0] enabled Cieaemtss ome tt Seances Cec OT eee eS Heese CCR eters Roe ac) Memory: 5112k/8128k available (14: Te PP ae a ee) kk init, Ok highnen) Cane ner mors fixmap + Oxfffb9000 ml a) CCE ee kB) ote (1497 kB) checking if this processor honours the WP bit even in supervisor mode. . .Ok calibrating delay using tiner specific routine.. 4047.64 BogoMIP 1238210) Ce eyDID YOU KNOw. eee eerZY) Using the Terminal Creating a File Using the Terminal Using the Terminal, you're able to create folders, files and even execute Linux Mint apps. In truth, if you didn’t have the GUI at hand, you could still accomplish the same From the Terminal. MORE TERMINAL WORK Creating content using the Terminal isn’t quite as strenuous as it may first appear. Yes, the Terminal can look a daunting place for the newcomer, but once mastered it’s really quite intuitive. SEED cust terintansmtearesaieinte BIER) ver conmantinshoudtrgtothe ele ¥youto the Home folder From wherever you're currently located, bbe nothing within the Folder, as you've just created it. The mkdir commands fairly selF explanatory: Make Directory Followed by the aaseanneniar name of your choosing ie en seach Temes) He PePTSE DD et’ start by creating a new folder within Home, PPD To create an empty text file, called Test.txt, enter and call it Test. The command youtl need is inthe Terminal touch Test. txt. You can then mkdir Test. Press Enter to create the folder when you've typed _—_use Ls to view the new file inthe folder. Touch sa standard Linux inthe command, then cd Test and press Enter. This will Change command that allows the creation of files without the need to open Directory (hence €D) to the newly created Test Folder. text editor, save the file, then close the editor, BB) stock op iech serias2nd tonPEPER 2t's say you now wanted to create a text file, well callitTest2.tx, complete with some content. To do so,enter:cat > Test2. txt. Thiswill create the file Test2.txt and put the Terminal into an editing mode. aevideaon Fleet View Search Terminal Help Youll notice thatthe cursors lashing below the cat > Test2.txt command, without the usual ‘prompt. This editing mode wl allow you enter the text thatthe file ‘will contain. Enter some text, then press CtrleD to ext and write the contents to the fe PEPTSED) f course you don't always have to use the Terminal to-enter text into ale. Mint comes with atext editor called Xed, whichis similar to Windows’ Notepad. To view the previously created file in Xed, type into the Terminal-xed Test2.. ress Enter, wn bdmpublcationscom (Creating a File Using the Terminal 4 koa as F however, you prefer to remain workngin the Pe Terminal to edit/save/create files, you can use Nano, Nanots simple Terminal basedtext edo, To ty eth the example, enter nano Test2, txt There's 3 ent long the bottom ofthe screen, Toexitand save any contentin Nano, press tite ad Folow the onscreen structions FETSETR) We've used the Terminal to launch a Mint app, ed, but any app can be launched from within the Terminal. For example, ty: Firefox, and press Enter. Close Firefox toretum to the Terminal. Providing you know the name ofthe app, itcan run from the Terminal, Additionally, entering fireFox8 opens Firefox, AND lets youstil use the Terminal “Caeaty “Gavens ESI Phone “Eee ‘lackOogTechSeries-2ndestion (87!+ Using the Terminal Creating and Removing Directories As with creating files in the Terminal, you can also create and delete directories, or Folders if you prefer. Directories form the structure of your file system, without logical directories the filing system would be in utter chaos. MANAGING FOLDERS Learning how to create and delete Folders in the Terminal is an important Mint, and indeed Linux overall, skill to master. Here's the basics for you to try out. SR Terrinal open enter dt make sure you were to enter he command aah nk toview he crentfldesyouhavehowedhtheHome dreciory. camot ereate directory “eastair’s Five exists t Yeu notice thtfolersarelabeledinsantincjan (ght ble). goesuthovtsain the, thar yore ony ble to have oneuiguely Let's start by creating anew directory. Enter:mkdir testdir, named directory within the current directory, However, as Linux is case-sensitive, you can have Testdir, TestDir, testDir and soon, ESTEE | younow enteris again, youll see that the new PRIM You can create directories within directories youve directory, testdir, has been created alongside the already ceated. For example, enter the testdir ‘ther directories in the Home area. Obviously the commandmkdir directory with ed testdir/ followed by sto list the folder structure. iswhat creates the directory, and no doubt you've already quessed _Naturallythere's nothing present, as you've|ust created the directory. itstands For Make Directory Now drap back to Home with ed ~ and entermkdir testdir/ reports. Gobackto the testdir.cd testdir/, and Ls again BB) stock op ech series 2nd tonThe command to create directories is quite logical, therefore. You'l create the directory, and any sub- directories within, However, what iFyou want to create a directory and a sub-directory ina single command? Make sure you're at Home (cd~)andentecmkdir -p Temp/fnances. Now, ed Temp/, and Istolist the new directory The-p optionis what enables the mkircommand to.reate the sub-directory as well as the parent directory. n Linux, commands always Follow the same structure ‘Command, Option, and Argument. In the previous step example, command (mkdir), option (p), and argument (Temp/finances). File Edit View Search Terminal Help PEPER you want to drill down into the various options available forthe mkdir command, you can enter mkdir --help into the Terminal, This will provide a quick help ‘Quide detailing the options and how the command structure works. wr dmpublcationscom Creating and Removing Directories 4 Now tat weve createdsome decries ets see sus about removing them. Start by entering the testdir folders. txt && especk -F folders. txt. Ths wil have Mint, read back the contents oe command ew Search Terminal Hep Eee AD 4 02ring ASCH Fire isn't the most useful command tohave at your disposal, bt i's Fun. instal t with sudo apt-get install Libaa-bin, then when installed use: afire. i's not exactly warming but you get the idea. To expand the above, enter: sudo apt-get install bb caca-utils, then, cacafire. ru wn bdmpublcationscom More Fun Things to do in the Terminal M Used as must demo from the od Amiga and eusny DOS days, the bb command reminds us of getting hold ofthe and ahalFinch floppies crammed with al manner oF demoscene goodies Weve beady instaled Bb rome previous Step, ao jst ener bb, Foto the orseen nto and tun UP yourvolume get install. Libcursessperl when thats done ener-cd Bowntoads/ 8& wget http://search.cpan.org/CPAN/ tuthors/id/K/KB/KBAUCOW/Tern-Anination-2-4. tar.gz ik tar xf Term-Anination-2,4,tar.gz 8& cd Term ‘Animation-2.4/.Then: perl Makefile.PL && make && make test && sudo make install. This entryisin two parts, First you need to get BED 01 ve necessary packages: suo apt eh that ite ot done, ont the ned Ener: ed Sua . && wget http://www. robobunny. com/ projects/asciiquariurvascii quarium. tar.gz 88 tar ef aseliquariam.tor gz 8& cd oscliquarun1.1/ Ab chod x asc quorum Provangal went wel, ener «/ acl tquariumand enjoy your very own ASCH based aquarium, flackOogTechSeries-2ndestion (63A Using the Terminal. ) Linux Tips and Tricks As you've seen, the Linux Terminal is quite an exceptional environment. With a few extra apps installed, and a smidgen of command knowledge, incredible, and often quite strange, things can be accomplished. TAKING COMMAND There are countless Linux tips, secrets, hacks and tricks out there. Some are very old, originating from Linux's Unix heritage, while others are recent additions to Linux lore. Here's our Favourite ten tips and tricks. Emacs thetext dor isa ret pec of eases software, however, did you know it also contains a hidden Easter Egg? With Emacs installed (sudo apt-get install emacs25), drop toa Terminal session and enter emacs -batch -1 dunnet Dunnet is a text adventure written by Ron Schnell in 1982, and hidden in Emacs since 1994, PUTT cera {25ec on the cassic 1982 arcade game, Moon Patrol, Moon Buggy appeared on the home computers of 1985 amid much praise. l's cracking Atari ‘game, and t's available inthe Linux Terminal by entering sudo apt-get install moon-bugay Then: rmoon-buggy Enjoy. MRNAS AEIND 5 orcedbeinaable to the Terminal While not particulary useful is quite a Fascinating thing to behold. Todo so, enter sudo opt-get install elinks elinks Enter the website you wantto vst. Saat Sowing in the Terminal console isn’t something you come across every day. IF you're interested, however, enter: get https://gist.githubusercontent con/sontek/ 1805483/raw/7d0247160aS7e69Fb52632Fee09F42 753361c4a2/snowjob.sh chmod +x snowjob..sh -/snowjob.sh GA) sick Dog ech series 2nd tonLinuxTips and Tricks @@Y PVA Tele ("vou need to see what apps are consuming the most memory on Linux, simply enter: PS oUx | Sort =pnk 4 This sorts the output by system memory use BESSA Wenyou delete a le, her'sa chance of ARS, someone with the right software being able toretraveit However, tosecurel and permanently delete ae, use sired shred -zvu NAMEOFFILE. txt Replace NAMEOFFILE with the name of the fie to delete. PCa cap 88! acccan be quite striking when applied to some images. However, it's often dificuleto ‘get ust right. You can create some great ASCII art from the images you have by using ima2bxt: ‘img2txt NAMEOFIMAGEFILE..png Replace NAMEOFIMAGEFILE with the actual name of the image file on your system. F lmg2txt instal installed, use: sudo apt-get install caca-utils, wr dmpublcationscom ‘Back in the days of diatup connections, the online world was made up of Bulletin Board Systems. These remote servers provided hang-outs for users to chat, swap code, play games ‘and more, Using telnet in Linux, we can stillconnect to some active Ses: telnet battLestarbbs.dyndns.org There are countless operational BBSes available, check out https:// www.telnetbbsguide.com/bbs/list/detaly, for more you wantto create an entire pI Ses MSLES directory (or folder) tree with a single command, you anuse ikdir =p New-Dir/ {subfolder1, subfolder2, subfolder, subfoldera} This creates a NewDir with four sub folders within CDK Seating ‘avaliable Linux commands. Thankfully, we can use apropos to help Us. Simply use i, along with a description ofthe command ‘apropos “copy files” ‘apropos “rename files” fackOog Tech Series-2ndestion (G8wv Je a) 1S a oO x =) = eywn bmpublcatonscom DID YOU KNOw.. that Linux is at the heart of the science behind the Large Hadron Collider? Using a combination of Red Hat Linux and CentOS (an ultra-stable distro built From the Red Hat core) as the ba: distributions of choice, scienti developers and engineers have created SL - Scientific Linux. Using SL as the base, the clever people at CERN have developed several different versions of their ‘own custom Linux distro to help with all aspects of the LHC. Most notable is SLC, or Scientific Linux CERN, also known as CERN6. According to reports, there are over 36,000 systems running SL, and over 15,000 running SLC. acs Setes ninZ¥) Using the Terminal > Creating Bash Scripts Ore Eventually, as you advance with Linux Mint, you'll want to start creating your own automated tasks and programs. These are essentially scripts, Bash Shell scripts. to be exact, and they work in the same way as a DOS Batch file does, or any other Programming language. GET SCRIPTING ‘ABash script is simply a series of commands that Mint will run through to complete a certain task. They can be simple or remarkably complex, it all depends on the situation, ESTER ED Youll be working within the Terminal and with a ESTED Tobeain with, and before you start to waite any text editor throughout the coming pages. There scripts, you need to create a folder where you can are alternativesto the text editor, which we'lllook at inamoment put allourscripts into. tart with mkdir scripts, and enter the bbutfor the sake of eace, we'llbe doing our examples inXed. Before folder cd scripts/. This will be our working Folder and from here you begin, however, run through the customary update check sudo you can create sub-folders you want ofeach script you create. ‘apt-get update && sudo apt-get upgrade. Fle Et View Seach Tena Hep le £8¢ view Search Terminal Hep PEPER) There are several text editors we canuseto create [SSAIB windows users willbe aware that in order For a a Bash script: Xed, i, Nano, Vim, GNU Emacs and batch file to work a in be executed and follow the soon. Inthe end itll comes down to personal preference. Our programming within, tneedsto have a.GAT Fle extension Linux se of Xed is purely due to making t easier to read the scriptinthe _is an extension ess operating system but the convention isto give screenshots you see below. scripts a sh extension, Fle Edt View Search Tein Hep BBY) sch Dog ech series 2nd tionCreating Sah scints—rot EE This will aunch Xed and create aie called helloworld.sh. InXed, _white to green, meaning that it'snow an executable file. To run enter the following: #! /bin/bash, then on anew line: echo the script, in other words make't do the things you've typed into it Hello World! enter: /heLLoworld. sh File St View Search Terminal Hep Fle de View search Terminal He Fle ES View Search Tools Documents He AOealn~/xeojag stench n/oach echo Hetto wortd! TD vtriveesnincrinesremsnat stat RED) san ote en, was Heo (#) denotes acommentline, ne thatis ignored by the system, the ‘The echo commandis responsible for outputting the words after ‘exclamation mark () means that the comment is bypassed and will __itinthe Terminal, as we move on you can make the echo command Force the script to execute the line asa command. Thisisalso known output to other sources. asaHash-Bang, Fle dt View Search Toole Document Help Doeales xenljaa Fle Edt View Search Tools Documents. Help poole» yen ag (Bm Petoworssh > 1 /oinvvach heloncrsh ¥ os /osnyach dearer leche Hello World! This is my first script im Linux Mil PEPTIED) You cansave thisfile, clicking File> Save, andexit_ IIMB think of echo as the old BASIC Print command. It back to the Terminal Entering Ls, willreveal the clsplays either text, numbers or any variables that scriptin the folder. To make any script executable, and able to {are stored in the system, such asthe current system date. Try this ‘un, you need to modify its permissions. Do thiswith chnod +x example: echo Hello World! Today is $(date 4XA).The helLoworld.sh. You need to do this with every script you create. ${date +) iscalling the system variable that stores the current day Fle Edt View Search Terminal Help 7 smn auaoesiteseies-insesin GIUsing the Terminal 8 Creating Bash Scripts —Part 2 Previously we looked at creating your first Bash script, Hello World, and adding a system variable. Now you can expand these and see what you can do when you start to play around with creating your own unique variables. VARIABLES Just as in every other programming language a Bash script can store and call certain variables from the system, either generic for user created. Let's start by creating a new script called hello sh; TEP 1 echoHeLlo $1. Save the file and exit Xed, Back n the Terminal ‘make the script executable with: chmod +x helo. sh. xeolag peo FER tc scpissonccsannntoan,/ ‘Hella’ is displayed in the Terminal. However, f you then isue the ‘command with a variable, itbegins to get interesting. For example, uy ./hetlo.sh David Fle elt Yew Search Terminal Help FB) skckDop ech series 2nd ton which are then held and passed to the script, So the variable '$1" now holds ‘David. You can change the variable by entering something different: ./heLlo.sh Mint. Fle Edit View Search Terminal Help rary Peer careers FETIP DM You caneven rename variables, Modify the hell, shscrint with the following: frstname=$1, surnames$2, echo Hello $firstname $surname. Putting each statement on anew line, Save the script and ext back nto the Terminal Fle Est Ven Search Tools Documents Help noo xonjag 1/oin/bashhen yourun the script now you can se two Suse custom variables: ./hello. sh David Hayward. Natural change the wo variables wth your own name; unless, you're abo caled David Rayuard atthe moment wee st printing the contents soles expand the twowarble we ite Fle Edt View Search Terminal Help ESTED reate anew script called addition. sh, using the same format as the helo sh script, ut changing the variable names. Here we've added firstnumber and ‘secondnunber,, and used the echo command to output some simple arithmetic by placing an integer expression, echo The sum is $(($firstnunbers$secondnunber)). Save the script, and ‘make itexecutable (chmod +x addition. sh). Fe Ee View Search Tools Documens Help aoa ¥o0/ag Bu stonah 1 /osn/bash firstnumber=$2 ‘the sum is $((Sfirstnunbersssecondnumber)) when younow run the adtion sh script we can eUerY, enter two numbers: ./addition.sh 1 2. The reste hopefully be vith the ermina paying Te sum is3. Ty Ruth afew diferent numbers andsee what happens See aso Fyou can alter the script and rename o mutation and subtraction View Search Terminal Help wn dmpublcationscom Creating Sahin ron Let's expand things Further. Create a new script Ss} HS called greetings..sh. Enter the scripting as below in the screenshot, save it and make it executable with the chod ‘command. You can see that there area Few new additions to the script now. Fle lt View Sareh Tole Oocumers Help aoa xo0jag rend surnane Jacke Hello stirst Weve addeda-nto the eco commandhere Bu which will leave the cursor on the same line as the question nstesd of a newline, The read command soresthe Users inputasthe variables stare ad surname, tothe ead Dacklaterinthe lat echo ine. nd the clear command dears thescren, Fle Eat View Search Terminal Help FETTSETR) 22 Final addition, let's include the date variable ‘we used in the last section. Amend the last ine ofthe script toread: echo Hello Sfirstnane $surnane, how ‘are you on this fine $(date +KA)?. The outputshould display the current day ofthe week, calling it from a system variable. fle Et View Search Tools Documents Help poo eojaga Bu reeungssh x s1ybinybash echo /dev/nult ) 44 UL 2m “soutput” 105 then fe ~SoutputFETTER When executed the script waits for input from the User, inthis case the file extension, such as pa, ‘mp4 and so on t's not very friendly though. Let's make it alte friendlier. Add an echo, with:echo -n “Please enter the extension of the file you’re looking for: “just before the read command, Here's an interesting, Fun kin of script using the app espeak. Install espeak with sudo apt-get install espeak, then enter the text below into anew script called ‘speak. sh. As youcan seeit'sa rehash ofthe ist greeting script \we ran, Only this time, it uses the variables in the espeak output ESTED We briefly looked at putting some coloursin the ‘output For our scripts. Whilst it's too long to dig a little deeper into the colour options, here's a script that outputs what's avallable, Create anew script called colours. sh and enter the text (see below) intoit wr dmpublcationscom Creating Bash Scripts Part 5 Ci The output From colourssh can, ofcourse, be ELEM mixed together, bringing different effects. depending on wat you vart othe ouput toa, Forearpe white text ina red bsexground sin or linking) Say te blinking effect doesn’t work on all Terminals, so you may need change toa different Terminal bara aan Whilst we're on making Fancy scripts, how about using Zenity to output a graphical interface? Enter what you see below intoa new script, menu sh, Make it ‘executable and then runit You should have a couple of dialogue boxes appear, Followed by 2 final message, While gaming ina Bash script isn't something that's often touched upon, itis entirely possible, albeit, little basic. Fyou Fancy playing a game, enter wget hetp://bruxy. regnet .cz/linux/housenka/housenka. sh, make the script executable and runit,I’sin Polish, written by Martin Bruchanov but we're sure you can modify Hint: the title screen isin Bases aucioegiteeier-insesin GUEPExtainux= The Perfect Combination When the Raspberry Pi was in its developmental stages its designers needed to ensure that they were creating a piece of hardware that could offer much more than simply being a cheap, but small, computer. ‘The Pi needed to be Flexible with what it could do, it needed to have as Toamto gow nto ote anblious projec concep andl and itneededtadosoinaseasytouse fashion as posse The galas tote unersalloming platform, that students of ay 09e Could expand on and ker ath wearing new concepts such szprogranming, electrons and computing, tural once , the hardware was developed the only rea choice of aa“ ‘operating system was of course, Linux ‘The verstilty of Linuxis legendary. This incredible core OSis so malleable that can be steered toward near any aspect of computing, from supercomputing to robotic, the space industry to ‘more terrestrial engineering; education and science, manufacturing and the Internet. Think ofan industry, and you wil ikely find a Linux installation somewhere inthe background keeping itall together. Raspbian i the recommended operating system for the Raspberry Pi. a customised Debian-based distribution that comes packed with ‘collection of useful tool that cater For coding, electranics, and ‘general desktop computing duties. Alongside the apps are pre loaded modules to help get the mast from each ofthe programming languages you decide to learn and use, as well as software to hardware modules that will enable you to power and use the hardware speci items unique to the Pi. For example, there are Python modules that interact withthe Raspberry P's 40-pin GPO, allowing youto create content For any ofthe Hardware Attached on Top devices ‘This combination is what makes the Raspberry Pian excellent base ‘of operations to learn not only cading on, but also Linuxin general RRaspbian, being Debian-based, willbe ableto run any ofthe Terminal commands listed in this book, as Linux Mint and even buntu are also Debian based. And since the Raspberry is so all, and costs very litte setup, you're able to have both your regular, Windows or macOS computers, and have a Raspberry Plas headless (a powered device that doesnt needa keyboard, mouse or monitor attached, as you connect ta it remately) computer from which you can connect to and learn how to use Linux and how to codeWHICH PI? ‘There are several Raspberry Pi models available, with each ‘offering something slightly different from the others. The ‘most recent Pi released is the Raspberry Pi 3 Model B+, and while this model is slightly more expensive than some of the ‘other examples, itis the most powerful and feature-rich Pi BEYOND RASPBIAN ‘The Flexibility of the Raspberry Pi's ARM processor means that it’s capable of running other operating systems beyond Raspbian. Stil keeping with Linux, you can instead install ‘Ubuntu MATE, Pidora (a Fedora-based distribution), Lakka, iPlay (@retro emulation distribution) and Arch Linux ARM. ‘There are also systems based loosely on the Linux kernel, such {as Android, Minibian, and Chromium OS, There's Windows 10 loT Core, FreeBSD, RISC 0S PI, Plan 9 and, ‘remarkably, AROS an Amiga OS clone. Needless to say, that ‘once you've Finished experimenting with one version of Linux, justas you would with a desktop version of Linux, you can hop to another on the Raspberry Pi and see how that one works, wn dmpublcationscom 4 Pix Linux = The Perfect Combination available. Overall, it’s probably best to start experimenting ‘with the Pi using the PI3 Model B+, then moving on to one ofthe other models as you develop your skills and Focus on a particular project, such as the need to use one of the Pi Zero models, with a smaller Footprint and WiFi enabled connectivity. PI, LINUX AND CODING ‘As previously mentioned, the Raspberry Plis an excellent code base, and with Linux as the backbone you're able to start learning how to code in a multitude of different programming languages. Bash scripting works perfectly, since Raspbian is Linux, and Debian-based, and you can easily expand your scripts to ‘encompass much of the P's functionality, Aside from creating backup scripts, you can also create scripts that can access the GGPIO pins on the Pi, and in so be able to control LEDs, and even ‘more complex HATS. Pythonis by Far the most popular choice For beginners, and. Raspbian comes pre-installed with everything you will need to ‘get the most from your Python experience, There are countless preloaded modules, as well as the most recent stable release of the language. ‘C#+is one of the most powerful programming languages to lean. t's used for games, apps, and even entire operating systems. The Raspberry Picomes witha great C++ ‘editor that’s easy to use ‘and canhelp you develop ‘amazing content. Whichever ‘way you decide to take your ‘coding and Linux adventure, the Raspberry Piis an ‘excellent platform from ‘which to begin on, anaestion Black og Tech Seriesof Using the Terminal.) Command Line Quick Reference TOP 10 COMMANDS ‘These may not be the most common commands used by everyone but they will certainly Feature Frequently for many users of Linux and the command line. ‘The ed command is one of the commands you will use the most at the command line in Linux. t allows you to change your working directory. You seit to move around within the hierarchy of your filesystem. You can also use chair. The 1s command shows you the files in your current directory, Used with certain options it ets you ee file sizes, when Files where created and file permissions. For example, 1s ~shows you the files that ae in your home directory, The cp commandis used to make copies of files and directories. For example, cp file sub makes an exact copy of the file whose name you entered and names the copy sub but the ist ile wil tl exist with ts orginal name. The pad command prints the Full pathname of the current working directory (pwd stands For “print working directory’). Note thatthe GNOME terminal also displays this information in the ttle bar ofits window. ‘The clear command clears your screen if this 's possible. t looks the environment forthe terminal type and then in the terminfo database to figure out how to clear the screen. This is equivalent to typing Control when using the bash shell ‘Themy command moves a file toa different location or renames file. For example my file sub renames the original fle to sub. mv sub ~/Desktop moves the file'sub' to your desktop directory but does not rename it. You must specify ‘anew filename to rename afi. ‘The chown command changes the user and/ ‘or group ownership of each given file. IFonly an ‘owner (auser name or numeric user IO) s given, that users made the owner of each given file, and the files’ group isnot changed. The chmod command changes the permissions on the files sted, Permissions are based on a fairly simple model. You can set permissions For user, ‘group and world and you can set whether each can read, write and or execute thet ‘The rm command removes (deletes) files or directories. The removal process unlink aflename ina filesystem from data on the storage device ‘and marks that space as usable by Future writes n ‘other words, removing files increases the amount of available space on your disk Short for ‘make directory”, mkdir is used to ‘reate directories ona ile system, ifthe specified directory does not already exist. For example, mnkdirr work creates a work directory. More than ‘one directory may be specified when calling mkUSEFUL HELP/INFO COMMANDS The following commands are useful for when, yyou are trying to learn more about the system or program you are working with in Linux. You might. not need them every day, but when you do, they willbe invaluable ‘The Free command displays the total amount ‘of free and used physical and swap memory in the system. For example, free -mgives the information using megabytes. free The dt command dspays filesystem disk space «usage forall partitions. The command df-h GF isprobably the most useful the-h means human-readable). The top program provides a dynamic realtime view oF a cunning system, te can display system summary information, as well asa list of processes top ‘The uname command with the -o option prints allsystem information, Including machine name, kernel name, version and a few other details. unmame-a The ps command allows you to view all the [processes running on the machine, Every Ps ‘operating system's version of ps is slightly different butaall do the same thing ‘The grep command allows you to search inside a ‘number of files for a particular search pattern and grep then print matching ines. An example would be: grep blah file wn bmpublcationscom Command Line Quick Reference (/¥ ‘The sed command opens stream editor. ‘A stream editors vsed to perform text transformations on an input stream: afile or input From a pipeline. sed The adduser command adds a new user to the system, Similarly, the addgroup command adds a new group tothe system, adduser ‘The deLuser command removes a user from the system. To remove the user's files and home directory, you need to add the -renove deluser home option. The del group command removes a group From the system. You cannot remove a group thats the delgroup primary group of any users Theman man command brings up the manual man man. entry forthe man command, whichis 2 great place tostart when using it ‘Theman intro command is especially useful. I-displaythe introduction to User Commands, man intro ‘which isa well written, fairly brief introduction to the Linux command line. flackOog Tech Series-2nastion (87of Using the Terminal) A-Z of Linux Commands A ‘adduser arch nk B be GC cat chdir charp chroot ccksum @ crontab csplit cut D date de ‘Add anew user Print machine architecture Find and replace text within Files) ‘An arbitrary precision calculator language Concatenate files and print con the standard output ‘Change working directory ‘change the group ownership of files Change root directory Print CRC checksum and byte counts Compare two files Compare two sorted files tne by tine Copy one or more files to another location ‘Schedule a command to runatalater time ‘Split afile into context. determined pieces Divide a fieinto several parts Display or change the date & time Desk calculator da diff dirname du E echo ed earep env expand expr F factor fdisk farep find fit fold format fsck Data Dump, convert and copyatile Display the differences between two files Convert a full path name tojusta path Estimate file space usage Display message on screen Aline oriented text editor (edn) Search file(s forlines that match an extended expression Display, set orremove environment variables Convert tabs to spaces Evaluate expressions Print prime Factors Partition table ‘manipulator for Linux Search ile) for lines that match fixed string Search for files that meet adesired citeria Reformat paragraph text Wrap text to fita specified width Format disks or tapes Filesystem consistency check and repair gawk arep ‘groups gzip head hostname id info install J join K kilt EE less. in Locate Find and Replace text within Files) Searchles for tines that ‘match a given pattern Print group names a user Compress or decompress framed file(s) Cutputthe First part of Files) Print or set system name Print user and group ids Help info Copy files and set attributes Jointines ona ‘common field Stop a process from running Display output one screen atatime ‘Make links between files Find filesA-Z of Linux Commands é YY ognane Print currentloginname rep Copy files between U two machines ipe Line printer control program rm Remove files ee aie Unni 8 cevice ipr Offline print rmdir Remove Folders) ener ioe Iprm Removejobs fromthe rpm Remote Package manager. UNA Uotaoiy Me print queue ata RB aecay units Convert units rom ane (synchronise file trees) sce nano M tinghar’ "Unpack shel archive scripts oa tigre S useradd Greate ew user account mkdir Create new folder(s) screen Terminal window manager _ ¥S®! Macy usar aocaunt nikffo —“MalerrOs(necpnes) aiff Mersetuofiesnacey USES SL UrScurenty iknod ‘Make biockorcharacter” Select Accept keyboard input pores seq Brntoumeriseavences J more Dispay output one screen Se atatime EAE SOSA gece Verbosely ist directory end routines sleep Delay fora specified time contents (151-0) sort Sot tet ies N split Spit fle into WwW Fiedsie pieces watch Execute or display a nies Settheptontyofs Subsite wserideniy program peridialy = ee sun Brine achecisum fora file | we Print byte, word, and write files symlink Make @ new name for ee afie whereis Report all knovin nh” funacommandimmne ner Aen Ao eohanguns syne Sinchronze data on disk wth memory which Locate a program fein the user's path P T who Print all usernames: passwd Modify user password currently logged in iste” ergelnes cffes” #8 Sencatenateandwike ea” inthe ae ti and name pathchk Chedktienomeporabity Gai aca aca pr Convert textes of fle frog i Tes oar X printcap Prntercapablity database 4 aaa xargs Execute utility, passing printenv Print environment variables multiple fites Spnstricted sapene ei. printf Formatandprintdata test Eialuatea condtionatexpresion tine ‘Measure Program yes Print sting Resource Use nélinterrupted quota Display disk usage touch Change fie timestamps aie ‘top List processes running on ‘@iitacheck Scan filesystem for the system diskusage traceroute Trace Route to Host quotacti “set disk quotas vmnbdnetoncam suaoesiteseier-insesin GENtees rere) creer) NASA Linuxpowered eer a Bngubcab0%S comPY ndex ) =~ = Guido van Rossum (Developer of the Python programming language) — ’ BlackDop MTech eres ~2nd Eatonwn dmpublcationscom Python isa fantastic programming language, combining ease of use with a generous helping of power to allow the user to create both minor utilities or performance-heavy computational tasks. However, there’s more to Python than simply being another programming language. thas vibrant and lively community behind it that shares knowledge, code and project ideas, as wellas bug Fixes For Future releases. We've used a Raspberry Pi for this section of the book, as it’s Linux based and one of the best coding platforms available. The Pi's Features and Functions make it the perfect Python programming partner, so let's get started. 88 WhyPython? 90 How to Set Up Python in Linux 92 Starting Python for the First Time 94 Your First Code 96 Saving and Executing Your Code 98 Executing Code fromthe Terminal 100 Did You Know...Space Invaders 102 Numbers and Expressions 104 Using Comments 106 Working with Variables 108 User Input 110 Creating Functions 112 Conditions and Loops 114 Python Modules 116 Did YouKnow...Debugging Y =Why Python? There are many different programming languages available for the modern computer, Pause oR Cacrhhaiseduticterescutadae sd chet are designed For scientific work, others For mobile platforms and such. So why choose farereuketaeieltees PYTHON POWER Ever since the earliest home computers were available, enthusiasts, users and professionals have toiled away until the wee hours, slaving over an overheating heap of circuitry to create something al ‘These pioneers of programming carved their way into a new Frontier, Forging small routines that enabled the letter’ to scroll ‘across the screen It may not sound terribly exciting to a generation {that’s used to ultra high-definition graphics and open world, mut player online gaming, However, Forty-something years ago it was biindinaly brillant. [Naturally these bedroom coders helped form the Foundations for, ‘every piece of digital technology we use today. Some went on to become chief developers for top software companies, whereas ‘others pushed the available hardware to its imits and Founded the billion pound gaming empire that continually amazes us. to magi Regardless of whether you use an Android device, iOS device, PC, Mac, Linux, Smart TV, games console, MP3 player, GPS device builtin to car, settop box ora thousand other connected and smart’ appliances, behind them alis programming. ‘Allthose aforementioned distal devices need instructionsto tell. them what to do, and allow them to be interacted with, These instructions form the programming core ofthe device and that core ‘canbe built using a variety of programming languages. ‘The languages in use today differ depending an the situation, the platform, the device's use and how the device wil interact with ts The [per Wax winder (i i Ham Roms OAS Gen tot te Xe [ot = [wenaoeey] @|S/G Hse # > 7@ Sxtcursor(p-y)z Sareea vod arraycert::chitdLostrocu() sf eurgor a= 0) repost cureor cxrtirehstalastfocus(}! Finca” [Ghaterwnae || void _arrayctrt::peinttorave w) ¢ Stoner Sms ‘cintnet Paine fSuweiee — Siavso cersize() fSecsace | omcimacan a Eanes Gaetano Ssnanace ew Freres Bern Siewraes | Strce wen | Srance se JS rrclops & e Rewoun. Grr vertgrid's {je = colum.cetcoune() - 1)) > 0) Eicon mes Seencs Camas Stamens piace ) [Sowa ran Exton fe = elend(scoloraisabled, Scoloreapa Soca,” (raat Eat Sse Brew Mast catcaunt()) ( Same Brews Titop Sestciner) = sb eset Agee Lites staecey) reeks gemece, [Smeans {bottom = ep ntingoyi: a sera |8 ose Ties coumamcneds i) ( a0 eee by header cetvabindth(3)3 ecarmich | |Gchewrne nen = columi5 is nergis ui Hf reves brie A et = header Tab )) .cethargin); Greene hoa 6G sizeren) bresey ern Scone se te Bierioen Grasse EIRhCSL + ox = vetorid 6 (1 a eolum.catcauntt) = 12 ET) 2: ocean ationenvironment or users. Operating systems, such as Windows, macOS {and such are usually a combination of C++, C#, assembly and some Form of visual-based language. Games generally use C++ whilst web pages can use a plethora of avalable languages such as HTML, Java, Python and so on, ‘More general-purpose programming is used to create programs, apps, software or whatever else you want to cll them. They/re widely used across all hardware platforms and sult virtually every conceivable application. Some operate faster than others and some are easier to lear and use than others. Python is one such general purpose language. Python is what's known as a High-Level Language, in that it ‘talks’ to the hardware and operating system using a variety of arrays, variables, objects, arthmetic, subroutines loops and countless ‘more interactions. Whilst i's not as streamlined asa Low-Level Language, which can deal directly with memory addresses, cal stacks and registers, its benefits that it's universally accessible {and easy to learn, /FiTe? val [spore java. lang. reFlect.*; Jiass rnvoke { mae ete void main( string [] args ) { lass c = Class. forvane( args(0] ): fathog'n =‘Cigethechodt argSil), tex class TC} 5 Sbjeck hit = minyokeC null, mull >; Systen.out.princinc Sejvoked)stacte method: * + argsL] oof class: © + args(Ol 3 with no args\nresules: " + ret); catch ¢ ClassnotFoundexception e ) { 77 Class: fornane(.-) can‘e. find the class Caxeh’ C wosuchwethodexception e2") { 77 that method doesn't exist, Gaveh ( Tllepalaccesstxception 3 ) { 77-we don't have permission to invoke that inethod } Catch C tnvocationtargetexception e4 ) { 77'an exception ocurred while invoking that inethod bi System.out.princin yeeStethod threw an: " + ef getTargetexception( ")"); Javaisa powerful language that's used in ‘web pages, settop boxes, ‘TWsand even cas. wn bdmpublcationscom - (why Python? GH Python was created over twenty six yeas ago and has evolved to become an ideal beginner's language for learning how to programa ‘computer. Is perfect for the hobbyist, enthusiast, student, teacher ‘and those who simply need to create their own unique interaction between either themselves or a piece of external hardware and the ‘computeritself, Python i free to download, install and use and i avallable or Linux, ‘windows, macOS, MS:DOS, 05/2, 80S, IBM iseries machines, and ‘even RISCOS. Ithas been vated one of the tap five programming languages in the warld andis continually evolving ahead of the hardware and Internet development curve. ‘So to answer the question: why python? Simply put, it's Free, easy to lear, exceptionally powerful, universally accepted, effective and a| superb learning and educational tool. BASIC was once the starter language that early ‘&-bit home computer users learned. Python isa more modern take on BASIC, i's easy to learn and makes for an ideal beginner's programming language. duck one ndn