As one historian has noted, America

was born on the farm and moved to the city.

In 1860, most Americans lived in rural areas,
with only 16 percent living in towns or cities
with a population of 8,000 or more. By 1900,
that percentage had doubled, and nearly
15 million Americans lived in cities with
populations of more than 50,000. Migration IH88S
to urban areas during this time changed the
demographics, or statistical characteristics,
of the population of the United States. This
period was the beginning of an upsurge in
urbanization that both reflected and fueled
massive changes in the way Americans lived. Midwestern cities such as Chicago
expanded ra idly in the late nineteenth
century.

Interactive Flipped Video

A Nation of Cities TEKS

Americans Migrate to Cities » Objectives

In the late nineteenth century, America experienced a eriod of Analyze urban growth in the late 1800s.
urbanization in which the number of cities and people living in them Explain how technology improved city life.
increased dr matically. Still, numbers nd statistics do not tell the Evaluate the problems caused by rapid
whole story of how Americans became city folk. Urban people lived urban growth and ways that city dwellers tried
to solve them.
differently from rural people.
People in the country lived and worked on farms, either owned
by their family or rented from a larger l ndowner. Their work was » Key Terms
driven by the growing cycle. They did a lot of their work outside when urbanization
rural-to-urban
weather permitted. In contrast, many eople in cities worked for large
migrants
com anies inside factory buildings or sweatshops, rode trolley cars skyscrapers
or walked to work, and lived in apartment buildings. Unlike farming, Elisha Otis
factory work was a year-round, daily grind, and workers had no control mass transit
suburbs
over their schedules. Over time, this structured scheduling, combined
Frederic Law
with the urban w y of life, bec me part of Americ n culture. Olmsted
tenements
City Life Beckons to Immigrants and Migrants America s major cholera
cities were manufacturing and transportation centers clustered in
the northeast, on the Pacific coast, and along the waterways of the
midwest. Connected by the new railroad lines, cities became magnets
for immigrants and rural Americans. The newcomers were attracted
by jobs in factories or the service industries. Those with a little money

PEARSON www.PearsonTexas.com
93 realize Access your Digital Lesson.
opened shops. The educated increasingly joined the ex nsion, some migrants moved from city to city,
new middle-cl ss professions, working in downtown trying to improve their fortunes.
offices.
Women s opportunities, in articular, were Cities Attract Immigrants The demographics of
dramatically expanded in urban areas. In addition to many cities changed very quickly as leg l immigrants
factory work, they could take in boarders, do iecework, came to the country. By 1900, some urban areas had a
or become domestic servants. Educated women found population that was more than 40 percent foreign born.
work as teachers or in offices as secretaries and typists. Some immigrants found their way to a city through
While many city jobs offered only hard work for little happenstance, while others joined family members or
rew rd, cities offered variety, promise, and even a bit were recruited by companies needing labor. In this
of glamour. By saving part of their wages, city workers way, neighborhoods, cities, regions, and industries
might attain some comforts or perhaps even move often acquired a majority of workers from a particular
into the growing middle class. At the le st, they could locale. For example, employees at the steel mills of
incre se their children s opportunities by sending western Pennsylvania were predominantly Polish,
them to school. While some laborers were tra ped in while the textile factories of New York became a center
an endless cycle of poverty, only the very poorest were for eastern European Jewish peo le. Domestic servants
unable to enjoy a somewh t higher standard of living in in the Northeast were primarily Irish women, while
the late nineteenth century. Scandinavians worked in the fish-packing industry of
Life was hard in the city, but many Americans still the Pacific Northwest.
loved it. Horace Greeley, politician and New York City
newspaper editor, wrote in the 1860s, We cannot all Farmers Migrate to Urban Areas Demographic
live in cities, yet nearly all seem determined to do so. patterns also changed in response to the many rural-
City churches, theaters, social clubs, and museums to-urban migrants who moved to cities in the
offered companionship a d entertainment. 1890s. For many rural Americans, making a living on

ransportation out of the city and to other cities a farm had become increasingly difficult. In addition to
was easily accessible. In this period of growth and unpredictable weather conditions, isolation, and limited
op ortunities, farmers faced economic struggles th t
hindered their livelihoods. New technologies enabled
f rmers to produce more crops, but the greater supply
caused prices to drop. These factors, combined
with the excitement and variety of city life, sparked
widespread rural-to-urban migration. However, the
move from farm to factory could be wrenching. Former
agricultural workers often found themselves working in
dim light and narrow confines. The ace of work was
controlled by rigid schedules, with no slow seasons.
However, factory work paid wages in c sh, which w s
sometimes scarce on f mily farms.
Midwestern cities such as Minneapolis-St. Paul
and Chicago exploded in the decade between 1880
and 1890. Many of the newcomers were immigrants or
migr nts from the rural West. They were attracted by
land but also by economic opportunities.
African Americ ns moving out of the rural South
were also p rt of the migr tion, although on a smaller
scale. The m jority of the migr ting Afric n Americans
stayed in southern cities, but the few bl ck migr nts to
northern and western cities paved the way for a much
larger migration after World War I.

Q CHECK UNDERSTANDING Why did many people

choose to move to cities?
» City streets became crowded as more and more
people of various incomes and classes sought their
fortunes in big cities.

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Industry and Immigration 94 1.5 A Nation of Cities

Comparison of Rural and Urban Populations

26% 28% 35%

80% 74% 65%

1860 1870 1880 1890

SOURCE: U.S. Census Bureau

1900 1910 1920
» The percentage of the population living in urban areas increased relative to those
living in rural areas over several decades. Analyze Graphs What factors account for
the demographic shift from rural to urban areas over these decades?

because of other new technology. In the 1850s, Elisha

Technology Improves City Otis developed a safety elev tor that would not f ll if
Life the lifting rope broke. Central heating systems were
As cities swelled in size, politicians and workers also improved in the 1870s. Technological innovations
struggled to keep up with the demands of growth to like these, dramatically improved the standard of living
provide water, sewers, schools, and safety. Americ n in the United States.
innovators stepped up to the task by developing new In these years, architecture emerged as a speci lized
technologies to improve living conditions. The middle career. The American Institute of Architecture was
and upper cl sses benefited most from the innovations, established in 1857 to professionalize the practice. Its
but every city dweller was affected. Electric trolleys members encouraged specific education and official
and subways, building codes, and other innovations licensing in order to become an architect. These
increased the pace of urbanization and economic professionals designed the buildings that were quickly
development in cities across the country. becoming hallmarks of urban life: public schools,
libraries, train stations, financi l institutions, office
Engineers Build Skyward with Steel The cities of buildings, and residences.
the late nineteenth century began to take their modern
form. For the first time, skylines became recognizable Electricity Powers New Industries and Economic
by their skyscrapers. Steel was first mass-produced Development In 1888, Richmond, Virginia, introduced
to create railroad rails, but architects and engineers a revolutionary invention: streetcars owered by
realized the possibilities of using this strong and overhead electric cables. Within a decade, every major
resilient metal for the construction of buildings. city followed. It w s the beginning of a transportation
Skyscrapers of ten stories and taller had steel frames revolution. New industries revolving around mass
and used artistic designs to magnify their imposing transit public systems that could c rry large
height. Inside, they rovided office space in cities that numbers of people f irly inexpensively resha ed the
had no room left on the ground. Increased office s ce in n tion s cities. Commuter rail lines had carried peo le
turn allowed more businesses to establish themselves to reas in and around cities since the 1870s. However,
nd more people to live in closer roximity to each they were owered by coal-driven steam engines,
other, which further stimulated economic development making them slow, unreliable, and dirty. Some cities
in urban areas. But tall buildings were only realistic used trolleys ulled by horses, which were slower and

Industry and Immigration 95 1.5 A Nation of Cities

 left horse waste all over t e streets. Electricity, on the
other h nd, was quiet, clean, and efficient.
Electric cars also ran on a reliable schedule and
could carry many more people than horse-drawn
carts. These advances in trans ortation were all made
ossible by the free enterprise system, which a lied
technological innovation to the needs of daily life.
Electric cable cars were not practical in every city,
however. Cables strung in narrow streets could block
fire trucks, and tr ffic congestion often prevented
streetcars from running on schedule. In 1897, Boston
solved this problem by running the c rs underground
in the nation s first subway system. New York City
followed in 1904. Electric cable cars and subways
allowed urban economies to expand even faster. These
new industries efficiently moved people in and around
cities, making it possible for urban populations to grow
t an increasingly rapid pace.
Middle and up er class people who could afford
transit fares moved away from the noise and dirt of
the industrial city. They built housing in the cleaner,
quieter erimeter, known s streetc r suburbs. From
there, they rode mass transit into the center of the city
to work, shop, or be entert ined, returning to their
homes in the evening. Poorer people remained in city
centers so that they could walk to work.

City Planners Lay Out Cities As cities grew larger

and more com lex, architectural firms expanded
to offer city-planning services designed to make
cities more functional and beautiful, even as their
populations skyrocketed. Architect Daniel Burnham
designed his version of the ideal city for Chicago s
1893 World's Fair Columbian Exhibition, a fair held to
commemorate Columbus's arrival in the Americas on
the event s 400th anniversary. Called the White City,
the integrated design included boulevards, arks,
buildings, and even electric streetlights.
Mass transit allowed city planners to segreg te
arts of the city by zoning, or design ting certain
areas for articular functions. Through the 1890s,
cities embraced designs that had separate zones for
heavy industry, financial institutions, and residences.
They also built public spaces, such as public libraries,
government buildings, and universities.
Parks and recreational s aces were one of the
most important aspects of city planning. Since the
1850s, cities had built arks as a solution to some of
» Architect Daniel Burnham designed the White
the roblems of urban growth. Philadelphia urchased
City for the 1893 World s Fair Columbian Exhibition in
Chicago, Illinois.
areas along the Schuylkill River to protect the city's
w ter supply from industri l pollution. They hired
landsc pe engineer Frederick Law Olmsted to
design Fairmount Park. Olmsted had also designed
New York City s Central Park and similar arks in

Industry and Immigration 96 1.5 A Nation of Cities

Detroit, Michigan; Was ington, D.C.; and Palo Alto,
California.

El IDENTIFY CENTRAL IDEAS How did public

transportation change urban areas?

ELPS ELPS 1.C.1 Read the section titled Electricity

Powers New Industries and Economic Development with a
partner. Create a concept map toget er that organizes the
text s key ideas and vocabulary.

Urban Living Creates

Social Issues
Urbanization led to many social issues caused by
overcrowding and poverty. In 1890, New York s Lower
East Side had a population of more than 700 people per
acre. As immigrants and rural migrants arrived, they
crowded into neighborhoods that already seemed to be
overflowing.

Housing Conditions Worsen As newcomers moved » Most immigrants and rural migrants could only afford
into urban areas, those who could not afford to ride to live in poorer urban neighborhoods. Infer Why would
mass transit had to live within walking distance of life in an urban setting be both a blessing and a curse
for new arrivals?
the industrial plants and factories where they worked.
Housing in densely populated neighborhoods was often Interactive 3-D Model
aging and usually overcrowded. Most urban workers
lived in tenements: low-cost multifamily housing
designed to squeeze in as many families as possible. letting out foul stenches . . . that it has
Sometimes, several families lived in one apartment or no time to earn its name by bringing
even one room. They used the space for sewing clothes
down fresh air.
or doing other piecework to earn money. For those
Jacob Riis, How the Other Half Lives
who had moved from rural areas, adapting to city life
could be difficult. T ical rural areas had small town
or village with several small family f rms located in Public Health Concerns Cities in the late 1800s
the surrounding few miles. People had little contact were filthy. Unpaved streets were snarled with ruts and
with others from outside the community, but had daily littered with trash and even dead horses that were left
access to acres of land and open air. to rot. Alleys between tenements were clogged with
Tenement owners usually lived in the suburbs or in food waste and trash. Only the newest urban dwellings
fashionable downtown areas, away from the industrial had indoor toilets, and the shared toilets in tenements
grime. However, they built apartments for desperate often overflowed. These conditions were perfect for
people who had little choice about where they lived. breeding epidemics, osing danger to everyone. For
With few windows and little sanitation, tenements ex mple, cholera, a particularly dangerous illness,
were unhealthy and dangerous. In 1890, journalist reached epidemic proportions several times in the
J cob Riis drew attention to the plight of New York United States in the 800s, killing thousands.
tenement dwellers: Cholera spreads when people drink contaminated
water. Fresh water supplies and less burdened sanit ry
Go into any of the respectable systems in rural reas often prevented these epidemics
tenement neighborhoods . . . you shall from h ppening. In urban areas, governments and

come away agreeing [that] . . . life there city planners began to take steps to improve living
conditions.
does not seem worth living. . . . [T]
During the 1880s, planners attempted to regulate
he airshaft . . . seems always so busy housing, sanitation, sewers, nd public health. They

Industry and Immigration 97 1.5 A N tion of Cities

 century drew to a close, many cities developed
professional firefighting teams.
At night, the streets were dangerous, yet many
factory workers had to travel to and from work in
the dark. In response to this challenge, professional,
uniformed city police forces replaced the lone
constable and the decentralized neighborhood watch.
The new officers were civil servants who took exams
and regularly patrolled city neighborhoods. They were
aided in their task of ensuring safety by new electric
streetlights.
However, the police were unable to o ercome the
challenge of tension between urban groups. In every
big city, communities clashed along ethnic and racial
fault lines. Police allowed immigrants to sleep in the
station houses to avoid the violence in the streets. Even
very young boys joined neighborhood gangs for safety.
Race, class, and neighborhood loyalties nd
conflicts continued to define neighborhood life for
many generations.

8 IDENTIFY SUPPORTING DETAILS What issues

» The Great Chicago Fire blazes across land and water.
created by urban living made life difficult for many city
dwellers?

began to take water from reservoirs that were sep rate ASSESSMENT
from the polluted rivers and lakes. In the next decade,
urban standards of living im roved as a new filtration 1. Support Ideas with Examples Use examples to
system im roved water quality even more. Private support the claim that women had a number of
companies competed for lucrative contracts to manage options for work in cities.
water distribution. Es ecially in the Southwest, where
2. Identify Central Ideas What factors encouraged
water was in short supply, questions of who should
the rural-to-urban migration of farmers in the
rofit from water delivery sent city planners into a
frenzy.
1890s?
3. Draw Conclusions Why was it important for
Safety in Cities In addition to public health concerns, architecture to become a specialized, professional
cities also faced the dangers of re, crime, and career in the late 1800s?
conflict. Even one c reless act could have dev st ting
consequences in crowded housing. 4. Generate Explanations Why w s public health a
Open fireplaces and gas lighting started fires that major concern in large cities during the 1880s?
quickly swept through a city. A fire destroyed Chicago
5. Analyze Information How did urban gangs that
in 1871, killing between 200 to 300 people. It lso left
were such a source of tension in the late 1800s
more than 100,000 people homeless. As the nineteenth
reflect wider social problems?

Industry and Immigr tion 98 1.5 A Nation of Cities