Literary Techniques

Adage
Generally based on fact, an adage is a short and memorable saying that is considered to
be the absolute truth by the majority of people.
Some examples include –
“The world’s a stage” – As You Like It, William Shakespeare.
“Slow and steady winds the race” – The Tortoise and the Hare, Aesop.

Allegory
An allegory is a narrative with one obvious, literal meaning, and another ‘hidden’
meaning, intended to teach a moral lesson. These ‘lessons’ are often a commentary on
real life events, or an issue specifically related to the theme of the story.
A classic example is George Orwell’s Animal Farm, where one of the rules of the farm is
– “All animals are created equal, but some animals are more equal than others.” This
story is an allegory of the Communist Revolution in Russia, right before WWI, and the
animals represent sections of Russian society post-revolution.

Alliteration
Derived from “latira”, a Latin word meaning “letters of the alphabet”, alliteration is a
stylistic device where a number of words with the same consonant sound are placed
close together. Alliteration is dependent on the sounds, rather than the letters, so nine
knocks is alliterate, but charred cords is not.
There are obvious examples, like –
“Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.”
or much less pointed, literary examples, such as the following passage from James
Joyce’s “The Dead”, where alliteration is used on s’s and f’s –
“His soul swooned slowly as he heard the snow falling faintly through the universe and
faintly falling, like the descent of their last end, upon all the living and the dead.”

Allusion
An allusion refers to a quick, indirect reference to an event, moral or character from
another time, place or story. Time is not spent explaining the reference, but rather it is
merely a passing comment, where the author relies on the reader’s assumed knowledge
to understand the meaning.
The Harry Potter series is packed full of allusions, some obvious, and some disguised…
and J.K. Rowling LOVES referring to mythology. For example, the character Remus Lupin
is a werewolf, and his name alludes to this. Remus refers to Romulus and Remus,
brothers from Greek Mythology, who were raised by wolves. Lupin also isn’t without
meaning – in Latin, “lupus” means “wolf”.
Alter-ego
A character that is used by the author to speak the author’s own thoughts; when an
author speaks directly to the audience through a character.
On many occasions, an alter-ego is used to allow the character to explore feelings and
situations they normally wouldn’t. Take Youth in Revolt, the main character is shy and
withdrawn and uses his alter ego to fulfil his outrageous and rebellious needs.

Analogy
When two unlikely things are compared to one another, this is called an analogy. The
things are often quite different from one another, and their comparison aims to explain
the idea by likening it to something more familiar to readers.
Probably the most famous example comes from Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet –
“What’s in a name? That which we call a rose
By any other word would smell as sweet.
So Romeo would, were he not Romeo called.”

Caricature
Much like the well-known caricature drawings, the caricature literary device plays on
exaggerating particular aspects of a subject for comic effect. This is often used to give a
humorous edge to a narrative, or in political satire pieces.
A great example is a piece by the great Charles Dickens –
“Mr. Chadband is a large yellow man, with a fat smile, and a general appearance of having
a good deal of train oil in his system. Mrs. Chadband is a stern, severe-looking, silent
woman. Mr. Chadband moves softly and cumbrously, not unlike a bear who has been
taught to walk upright. He is very much embarrassed about the arms, as if they were
inconvenient to him.”

Cliché
“Happily ever after” is probably the most obvious and overused cliche in the English
language. It refers to a saying that has been used to an extent of exhaustion, so it loses
its original meaning and loyalty. Unless they are used ironically, it is generally
considered unimaginative to use them.
Some examples include, “he ran like the wind”, “a matter of time” and “frightened to
death”.
Climax
The climax refers to the pinnacle of a stories arch, when the conflict, tension or
excitement reaches the highest point. It is generally the turning point of a narrative,
when the rising action becomes falling action, after a narrative resolution has been
found. It is an essential plot device.
A great example is when the clock strikes twelve in Cinderella, and she must make it
home before her carriage becomes a pumpkin, her dress becomes rags and her secrets
are discovered.

Conflict
Conflict is a literary element, where two opposing forces struggle against one another in
the fight for their own desired outcome. The conflict can be between a protagonist and
antagonist, or the protagonist can face resistance from a much broader force.
For example, in the movie Castaway, the main characters conflict is that he is stranded
on a deserted island and must find a way to survive. The conflict is between him, and
the fight to survive.

Dramatic Irony
Dramatic Irony works to increase suspense or comedic effect by letting the audience
know something important, while the characters are kept in the dark.
Imagine a scene where the character walks into a house and only the audience knows
the killer is in the house. Or in comedy when a character is imitating or ridiculing a
protagonist while they are unknowingly standing behind them.
One clear example is Hamlet’s decision to test the guilty conscience of King Claudius by
orchestrating the ‘play with the play’.

Epiphany
Originating from the Greek word epipaneia, an epiphany describes the moment when a
character suddenly achieves realisation or awareness that brings clarity to a particular
situation.
Isaac Newton had one of the most famous epiphanies of our time, when an apple fell
from a tree onto his head, causing him to develop his Universal Law of Gravity.

Euphemism
An idiomatic expression used to veil a perhaps unpleasant or impolite meaning behind a
phrase. It is a less offensive way of saying something that could be deemed harsh. A
euphemism can also be used to exaggerate correctness and add a touch of humour.
For example, the term “vertically challenged” can be used in place of “short”, or you can
tell someone that they’re “thinning a little on top” when they are going bald.
Flashback
Used to create a background to the present situation, place or person. Effective at giving
the reader any extra information to understand an event or character motivation better.
It is important to use flashbacks carefully or they can easily become cliché.
Harry Potter is another perfect example. The many flashbacks to Harry’s parents and
traumatic events help build empathy in the reader and increase emotional investment
in the plot.

Foreshadowing
Foreshadowing is used to give readers a hint of the events that will unfold later in the
story. Chekhov’s Gun is perhaps the most famous example of this technique. It says, “if
in the first act you have hung a pistol on the wall, then in the following one it should be
fired”.
Shakespeare used foreshadowing to warn of Romeo and Juliet’s fate in Act II –
“Life were better ended by their hate, than death prorogued, wanting of thy love.”

Hyperbole
A hyperbole is a figure of speech, which uses specific words or phrases to exaggerate a
statement for dramatic effect and emphasis. We also use hyperboles frequently in our
day to day language.
Some examples include “I haven’t seen you in ages”, “Something weighs a tonne” and “I
am dying of shame”.

Hypophora
A hypophora, also known as an antipophora or an anthypophora, is a rhetorical device
where the writer poses a question, and then immediately answers it.
One example comes from Henderson the Rain King, by Saul Bellow –
“What made me take this trip to Africa? There is no quick explanation. Things got worse
and worse and pretty soon they were too complicated”.

Imagery
Imagery uses rich, figurative language to describe characters, settings and scenes to
build a mental image for the reader, appealing to their senses. It could be said that
imagery is the writer’s way of painting a picture in the readers’ minds.
J.R.R Tolkien is a master of imagery, as shown in the following passage from the Lord of
the Rings –
“It was in appearance a tall spacious tree of graceful form, with thin unwrinkled bark over
white wood.”
Imagery doesn’t always appeal only to our ability to visualise. Imagery can also appeal
to other senses, e.g. sound (auditory imagery), smell (olfactory imagery), taste
(gustatory imagery) and touch (tactile imagery).

Inference
Inferences are used not only throughout literature, but also in everyday life. An
inference is when you draw a conclusion based on logical deductions and facts.
For example, if your best friend were to walk out of an exam looking dejected, you
would assume that the exam was not a success for them – this is an inference.

Irony
There are actually two types of irony, rather different from one another. Verbal Irony is
a figure of speech, where words are used in a way that implies their meaning is vastly
different from the actual, literal meaning. Situational Irony describes a scenario that
ends in a way different than what would be anticipated.
For example, Verbal Irony would describe a moment when you exclaim “Oh, great!”
after dropping your ice cream, whereas Situational Irony would be, as described by the
great Alanis Morrissett, rain on your wedding day, or a free ride when you’ve already
paid…

Juxtaposition
Juxtaposition occurs when a number of characters, ideas or places are presented side by
side, to highlight and develop contrasts and comparisons. This is often used by writers
to achieve greater detail in a narrative, by highlighting particular aspects of something,
by placing it with the opposing ideal.
The opening lines of Charles Dickens’ A Tale of Two Cities provide the perfect example –
“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age
of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity…”

Litotes
Another word with Greek origins, this one is derived from the Greek word for “simple”.
Litotes employ two double negatives to create a positive ideal, but leaving it entirely
understated.
For example, replying “not bad” when you’re good is the most common example of this.
Another example if saying “I am not as young as I used to be” in order to communicate
that you are old without explicitly stating it.
Metaphor
A metaphor is a figurative comparison between two entirely unrelated things, used in
order to draw attention to a similarity between them. The resemblance between the
two differing things is made possible based on a single similarity. Basically, it is when a
writer portrays a place, thing, person or action are being something, even though it isn’t
actually.
For example, if you describe your brother as the “black sheep” of the family, this is
entirely metaphorical as your brother is neither black, nor a sheep (we assume). It
instead describes the similarities between your brother and a black sheep.

Moral
This device is derived from the Latin word ‘morā lis”, and describes a lesson learned or
message conveyed through a story, poem or event, that may either be expressed
explicitly or simply inferred. They originate from the late 1700s and early 1800s, when
literature was seen as something that need to serve a purpose, particularly to children.
A great example of this is the classic boy who cried wolf – if you cry wolf falsely, then
nobody will believe you when you are actually telling the truth and in need of help.

Motif
A motif is a repetitive element that occurs rather obviously throughout a story, such as a
reference, concept or symbolism. They are used to present and reinforce an overall
theme within a narrative, and help readers identify and understand an underlying
message.
For example, the recurring motif throughout To Kill a Mockingbird is the suggestion that
you cannot truly understand the plight of another person unless you try and see things
from their perspective.

Non Sequitur
Derived from a Latin phrase meaning “it doesn’t follow”, non-sequiturs are statements
that ignore the fundamental principles of reason, to form outlandish conclusions that
make no logical sense. They are often used to inject humour into a piece.
An example would be – Sarah is a good surfer. Sarah is Australian. Therefore, all
Australians must be good surfer.

Nostalgia
The term nostalgia originates from a Homeric word, nostos, which means homecoming.
It refers to a feeling that is often a mix of pleasure and sadness in the remembering of
past events and longing to experience them again.
An example of nostalgia would be – Oh how I miss the summer holidays. The days spent
in the sun at the beach.
Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia is a form of auditory imagery that somewhat recreates the sound of the
thing that it describes, allowing readers to ‘hear’ the action, immersing them further
within a narrative.
For example, a writer could describe “a gushing river flowing through the valley”, which
paints a much clearer image of the action, as opposed to “a river flowing through a
valley” – you can ‘hear’ the sound of a river gushing.

Oxymoron
An oxymoron draws together two opposing ideas to create a dramatic effect. The union
of the two contradictory terms is used to provoke the reader, leaving them pondering
on the meaning of the phrase, creating a paradox.
Shakespeare’s famous oxymoron, “sweet sorrow” is a great example of this, along with
the terms “a deafening silence”, an “honest thief” and a “mini jumbo jet”.

Paradox
A Paradox describes a seemingly illogical or contradictory statement that may include
something that is sound to be true, upon further investigation. It can also be used to
highlight something that is contrary to traditional beliefs, generally used to lure the
readers into thinking of something in a new light.
Shakespeare provides the best example of this in Hamlet – “I must be cruel to be kind”.

Personification
Personification is a device used to give human-like characteristics or attributes are
given to inanimate objects, phenomena or animals.
For example, when we say that the “sky weeps”, we are giving the sky the human ability
to cry, or when the “sun hides its face behind the clouds”, the sun is given human
characteristics.

Red Herring
A Red Herring is a something introduced into a narrative under the guise of relevance,
but is actually a fallacy used to detract the reader from the actual issue. It is often used
throughout crime stories to mislead both characters and readers into drawing false
conclusions.
In Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s Sherlock Holmes: Hound of the Baskervilles, readers are
introduced to an escaped convict early in the story, so that they will assume he is guilty
given his past, detracting attention from the real killer.
Repetition
Repetition refers to act of using the same word, or words over and over again, to
reinforce its importance or build suspense. While stylistically appealing, especially
within poetry and theatre, this device also stresses the significance of a specific
message.
S.T. Coleridge employs this device is his poem, Rime of the Ancient Mariner – 
I looked upon the rotting sea, 
And drew my eyes away;
I looked upon the rotting deck, 
And there the dead man lay.

Satire
Satire employs the use of humour, irony and exaggeration to ridicule or ironically
commentate on a serious subject or group. It often sorts to initially expose, and then
criticise acts of foolishness and corruption through the use of a fictional situation that
mirrors real life events.
In modern times, most examples of satire are pointed toward political figures. Popular
TV shows such as The Daily Show and The Colbert Report rely on satire as the
cornerstone of their content.

Setting
Setting refers to the time and place in which a narrative takes place. The setting can be
as particular as a tiny cottage in the countryside, or as broad a region or time period.
Different aspects of setting can also include weather conditions, social conditions and
environment, historical time period, geographical location and timing. Setting is often
vital to a narrative.
For example, Emily Bronte’s Wuthering Heights relies heavily upon its setting, as the
surroundings directly reflect the mood of the characters and their actions, lending to the
overall atmosphere of the narrative.

Simile
A simile is a figure of speech that draws vivid and often dramatic comparison between
two very different things. It differs from a metaphor in that is draws resemblance
between the two things using words such as “like”, “as” or “than”.
In Vladimir Nabokov’s Lolita, he employs the following simile –
“Elderly American ladies leaning on their canes listed toward me like towers of Pisa.”
Solecism
Another word derived from Greek, Solecism originates from the word soloikismos,
meaning to speak incorrectly. It is a stylistic device which deviates from conventional
grammar, syntax or pronunciation for dramatic effect. It is often used to add
authenticity to a setting or character.
For example, Hagrid, from the Harry Potter series, has solecism employed in his
dialogue –
“I’m a what?” gasped Harry. 
“A wizard, o’ course,” said Hagrid, sitting back down on the sofa, which groaned and sank
even lower, “an’ a thumpin’ good’un I’d say, once yeh’ve been trained up a bit. With a mum
an’ dad like yours, what else would yeh be?”

Soliloquy
A soliloquy is used to reveal a character’s innermost thoughts to the reader, often
portrayed as the character talking to themselves without the presence of another
person. It is often used to create a revelation or manifestation to the reader.
The most famous soliloquy, without question is from Shakespeare’s Hamlet –
“To be, or not to be – that is the question.”

Symbolism
Symbolism refers to a character, object or action that is concealing a different meaning
that is generally much deeper and more significant to the narrative.
Examples of every day symbolism include the use of red roses, or the colour red in
general, to symbolise love, and the dove as a symbol of peace.

Tone
Tone often refers to the attitude that a writer has towards a particular subject or
audience, made obvious through the delivery, figurative language and organisation.
Tone can vary from formal to informal, playful to serious or sad to cheerful. While every
narrative contains a central theme, the way in which the writer approaches this theme
provides the overall tone of the piece.
For example, in Robert Frost’s poem The Road Not Taken, the last stanza begins with “I
shall be telling this with a sigh”, setting the tone as unhappy, or perhaps leading the
reader to thinking that the speaker had to make a difficult choice.