Winona

 Fautré  

COMMUNICATION  SCIENCE  

Lesson  1  –  introduction  

Introduction  

The  word  “communication”  comes  from  Latin  and  means:  to  make  common  to  many.  It  was  
a   mode   of   action.   Then,   at   the   end   of   the   15th   century   it   referred   to   the   object   made   in  
common  :  a  communication  (this  remained  the  main  use).  At  the  end  of  the  17th  century,  the  
word  “communication”  came  to  be  used  in  order  to  talk  about  the  means  of  communication  
and  also  to  refer  in  the  abstract  to  «  line  of  communication  »  such  as  roads,  railways,  canals.  
In   the   20th   century,   it   designated   ways   of   passing   on   information   and   maintaining   social  
contact.  Only  now,  the  notion  of  communication  came  to  be  used  synonymously  with  media  
(television,  newpaper,  radio)  in  the  modern  sens  (earlier  in  the  US  than  in  the  UK).  Nowadays,  
there  is  a  tension  between  “communication”  as  transmitting  and  communication  as  sharing.  

The  word  «  media  »  comes  froms  Latin  and  means  :  the  middle.  In  the  early  17th,  it  had  the  
sense  of  an  intervening  or  intermediate  substance.  Then,  from  the  17th  Century  on,  it  was  
used   in   relation   with   newspapers.   This   meaning   continues   in   the   20th   where   it   became  
common  to  think  the  Journal  as  a  medium  for  advertising.  Broadcasting  or  mass  media  had  
become  ever  more  important  in  ‘commnications’.  Since  1950,  the  word  «  media  »  is  often  
treated  as  a  singular  à  The  media  is  a  powerfull  entity.  

What  is  a  paradigm  ?  «  A  paradigm  is  a  coherent  system  of  models  and  theories  that  offers  a  
farmework   in   which   reality   can   be   investigates.   In   additon,   it’s   a   model   that   is   almost  
universally  shared  within  the  discipline’s  research  community  giving  direction  to  their  scientific  
research  or  ‘puzzle  solving’  »  -­‐  Loisen  and  Joye    

Thomas  S.  Kuhn’s,  The  structure  of  scientific  revolutions,  1962  :  For  him,  science  doesn’t  
accumulate   or   evolve   gradually.   The   history   of   science   is   marked   by   revolutions   or  
paradigm  shifts.  Kuhn  described  the  cyclic  nature  of  paradigm  shifts  in  science.  

Paradigm   in   Social   Science   :   understood   as   underluying   and   guiding   world   views   of  

particular  research  communities.  Conflicting  paradigms  exist  in  S.S.  They  rarely  replace  
one  another  but  they  may  become  more  or  less  dominant.  Conflicting  paradigms  shape  
scientific  discussion.  

Paradigm  in  communication  science  :  Political  world  view  seen  as  liberal  and  pluralist.  
Human  beings  is  seen  as  individualist,  functionalist,  utilitarian  and  behaviourist.  Media  
and  society  are  seen  functionalist.  The  view  on  scientific  knowledge  is  usually  positivist.  
à   This   perspective   still   governs   communication   sciences   at   a   global   level.   It’s   also  
called  the  functionalist  positivist  and/or  liberal-­‐pluralist  paradigm.  

Our  paradigm  and  theory  impact  on  the  type  of  questions  we  ask.  

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five  types  of  theories  McQuail  

à  Everyday  theory    

Our   common   sense   about   the   media   use   often   based   on   personal   experiences.   Everyday  
theories  help  us  to  make  sense  about  what  is  going  on.  This  means  that  they  are  not  neutral.    
It  support  the  ability  to  make  critical  judgement.  

à  Normative  theory    

Normative   theories   prescribe   and   discuss   how   the   media   should   function   ?   It’s   often   derived  
from  social  and  political  philosophies/ideologies  of  the  society.  Normative  theories  are  not  
objective  but  can  be  studied  objectively.  

à  Operational  theories    

Operational  theory  serves  to  guide  solutions  to  fundamental  tasks.  For  example,  how  is  an  
interview  done  properly  ?    How  to  select  news  ?  This  theory  is  mostly  found  in  professional  
and  organizational  contexts.  At  some  points  this  theory  may  overlap  with  normative  theory.    

à  Social  scientific  theory    

This   theory   offers   general   statements   about   the   nature,   working   and   effects   of   mass  
communication,  and  it  is  based  on  systematic  and  objective  observations  of  media.  There  are  
different   paradigms,   different   scientific   disciplines,   different   theoretical   models,   different  
methodological  schools,  different  objects  of  investigation  and  different  goals.    

à  Cultural  theory
  

Cultural   theory   is   sometimes   evaluative   or   it   seeks   to   challenge   such   hierarchical  

classifications  as  irrevelant  to  the  true  significance  of  culture.  The  purpose  of  this  theory  can  
be  aesthetic,  ethical,  etc.  It  can  be  applied  to  film,  media,  graphic  art,  etc.  

«  While  cultural  theory  demands  clear  argument  and  articulation,  coherence  and  consistency,  
its  core  component  is  often  itself  imaginative  and  ideational.  It  resists  the  demand  for  testing  
or    validation  by  observation  »  -­‐  McQuail  

What  is  theory  ?  It  is  a  perspective  or  vision  that  enters  upon  specific  topics,  processes  and  
attributes.  They  help  us  to  make  sense  and  simplify  reality.  Often,  they  include  a  narrative  
dimension.  Multiplying  theories  helps  us  understand  better.    

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McQuail  

The  different  theories  give  different  answers  to  those  questions  :  

What  are  social  actors  like  ?    

Where  does  social  change  begin  ?  (1)  

     Media  centric  theories  :  media  are  the  causes  of  social  change  (for  better  or  worst).    

   Society  centric  theories  :  media  are  merely  expressions  of  a  wider  social  reality.


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Where  does  social  change  begin  ?  (2)  

How  are  social  relationship  organised  in  the  public  sphere  ?  

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Four  phases  of  research  and  theory  of  media  effects  on  audience  members  McQuail  

Outline  of  the  course  

Phase  1      All-­‐powerful  media  ?  

Turn  of  the  20th  C.  Strong  belief  in  the  power  of  ‘new’media  such  as  film,  radio  and  newpapers  
to   effect   change   in   opinions,   beliefs,   behavios.   This   view   wasn’t   based   on   scientific  
observation.  The  use  of  media  by  governments  and  businesses  contributed  to  the  belief  in  
media  power.  

Phase  2    The  emergene  of  the  limited  media  effects  thesis  

Studies  focused  on  the  effect  of  different  types  and  contents  of  media  on  audiences.  After  
WWII   media   effects   research   became   more   sophisticated   (variables   of   the   audience   were  
taken  into  account).  The  more  vriable  added,  the  more  difficult  it  became  to  identify  straight  
forward  effects  of  media  on  individuals.  Emerging  attention  for  the  role  of  mediating  social  
contacts  in  the  process  of  media  influence.  

Phase  3    Powerful  media  rediscovered  

By  the  end  of  the  ’50  the  idea  that  media  had  no  influence  couldn’t  be  supported  either.  The  
idea  of  limited  influence  of  the  media  may  have  been  the  result  of  a  limitation  of  scientific  
attention  to  short-­‐term  effects.  On  the  long  term  run,  media  have  an  effect  on  the  culture,  
the  climate  of  opinion,  the  definition  of  social  reality,  etc.    

Phase  4    Negociated  media  influence  

End   of   the   ’70.   Emergence   of   social   constructivism   (media   as   affecting   the   construction   of  
meanings).   Media   construct   social   formations   and   history   by   forming   image   of   reality   in  
predictable  ways.  The  audience  construct  his  own  version  of  reality  in  interaction  with  the  
symbolic   resources   offered   by   the   media.   The   media   system   offers   ready-­‐made   meanings.  
Audience’s   members   can   enter   in   a   process   of   ‘negotiation   of   meanings’   when   they   don’t  
adopt  the  meanings  offered  by  the  media.  

à  Media  power  can  vary  with  the  time.  Mass  media  are  often  given  more  responsability  in  
times   of   crisis.   In   time   of   crisis,   media   provide   information   and   explanation   and   can   be   used  
by  the  governement  and  by  private  agencies  

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PART  1:  Media  effect  and  impact  

Phase  1  :  Masses,  mass  culture  and  mass  society  :  all-­‐powerfull  media  ?  

 
Lesson  2  –  Anxiety  about  the  masses  ans  mass  media  

Introduction  

The   theories   that   we’re   going   to   study   are   quite   old.   They   treat   the   media   as   something  
powerful  in  a  larger  system.  These  theories  are  most  of  the  time  pessimistic.    

Any  theory  of  the  media  is  always  also  a  theory  of  social  actors  and  relationships.  Early  theory  
of  the  mass  media  were  embedded  in  theories  of  mass  society  and  mass  culture.  Early  theory  
of  the  mass  media  weren’t  based  on  systematic  empirical  research.  Mass  society  theory  would  
have  a  big  impact  on  the  development  of  early  media  studies.  

The  masses  

In  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century,  industrialization  created  a  growing  urban  uneducated  
underclass.   New   inventions   such   as   the   radio   and   the   cinema   were   able   to   reach   these  
audiences.  Strong  belief  in  the  power  of  the  new  media.  This  view  wasn’t  based  on  scientific  
observation  but  on  these  media  that  inserted  themselves  in  all  walks  of  life  (politics,  economy,  
culture).  The  use  of  media  by  the  governments    contributed  to  the  belief  in  media  power.  Plus,  
there  was  political  unrest.  Elites  were  often  fearful  of  the  influence  of  the  new  mass  media  
and  feared  democracy  as  a  dictatorship  of  the  majority.  That  is  why  the  new  theories  were  so  
negative.    WWI  and  WWII  would  constitue  a  serious  blow  to  optimism  and  progress.  

Early   19th   century   sociology   also   focused   on   this   shift.   According   to   Tonnies,   society   went  
from  Gemeinschaft  (community)  to  a  Gesellschaft  (society):    

Gemeinschaft  :  
  

Society  with  strong  affective  ties
.    

There  is  a  will  to  connect  with  others  as  memeber  of  a  group.  
Inter-­‐personal  social  interactions  as  the  dominant  form  of  communication.  
Close  knit  families,  small  convivial  communities
  
Organic  community  (Durkheim)    

Gesellschaft  :
  

Society  with  strong  economic  ties  marked  by  intense  competition
.  

Impersonal  roles,  formal  values  and  beliefs
.  
Large  scale  organisations,  labour  relationships,  urban  environments.  

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Inorganic  form  of  society  marked  by  «  functional  differentitation  »  (Durkheim)    

McQuail  points  out  that  the  notion  of  «  mass  »  when  applied  to  people  tends  to  have  rather  
negative  implications.  It  referred  to  the  multitude,  the  common  people,  usually  uneducated  
and  ignorant  people  who  were  seen  as  irrational  and  violent.  But  it  could  also  be  used  in  a  
positive  sense,  especially  in  the  socialist  tradition,  where  it  could  be  seen  as  strong  united  
group.    

The  notion  of  mass  when  applied  to  people  is  often  used  in  a  negative  sense  :    

Large  aggregate  of  people
  

The  mass  is  undifferentiated  in  its  composition
  
Mass  is  viewed  as  a  negative  entity    
Mass  is  seen  as  lacking  terminational  order  or  structure  

In   the   second   half   of   the   19th   century,   «   crowds   »   seemed   to   threaten   the   status   quo   in  
Europe.  Moscovici  identified  3  types  of  crowd  behaviour  :    

-­‐   People  engaging  in  crowd  behaviour  are  mentally  deranged  

-­‐   integrated  into  society  :  disintegrated  social  elements  
-­‐   People  born  with  criminal  tendencies  

Gustave  Lebon  

Gustave  Lebon  said  that  these  explanations  are  not  sufficient  and  that  crowds  are  made  up  by  
normal   individuals   who   get   transformed   in   a   psychological   process   proper   to   the   crowd.  
Lebon  was  very  much  part  of  the  elite.  He  witnessed  violent  strikes  and  thus  feared  crowds  
and   the   potential   of   a   popularly   based   democracy   for   the   future   of   France.   He   wanted   to  
develop   a   collective   psychology   that   would   allow   politicians   to   better   lead   and   control  
crowds.  Lebon  rejected  the  idea  that  the  individuals  in  a  crowd  were  mad  or  criminals  but  he  
did   stress   that   people   in   a   crowd   act   highly   irrational.   In   a   crowd,   there   is   a   collective   mind,  
people   do   not   think   for   themselves   anymore.   The   conscious   personality   disappears   under  
conditions  of  anonymity,  a  belief  in  individual  unaccountability  and  a  sense  of  invincibility.  
Crowds   are   marked   by   increased   suggestibility   :   «   impulsiveness,   irritability,   incapacity   to  
reasonate,   the   absence   of   judgement,   the   exaggeration   of   sentiments   ».     People   get  
hypnotized  by  crowds  in  a  process  of  contagion  that  makes  people  under  the  influence  of  a  
leader.  For  Lebon,  the  diffuse  crowd  and  the  proximate  crowd  are  generically  similar.  

Park  and  Trade  

Park   (Chicago   school   sociologist   interested   in   collective   behavior)   and   Tarde   made   a  
distinction  between  the  public  and  the  crowd.  The  crowd  has  always  existed.  Whereas  the  
public  is  a  modern  concept.  Members  of  the  public  are  dispersed  and  only  share  cohesion  
because  they  share  ideas.  The  public  does  not  have  to  be  together  (a  newspaper  audience  is  

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dispersed).  Plus,  people  can  be  part  of  several  publics  but  only  in  one  crowd  at  a  time.  The  
public   is   marked   by   critical   discussion   and   tends   to   be   heterogenous   while   the   crowd  
stimulates   uncritical   homogeneity.   The   public   coul   not   exist   without   the   19th   century’s  
newspapers.  Trade  rejected  Lebon’s  idea  that  we  live  in  an  area  of  crowds.  Instead,  we  live  in  
an  area  of  publics.  

Herbert  Blumer  

Herbert   Blumer   (Chicago   school   sociologist)   tried   to   understand   social   interactions.   His   idea  
is   that   people   have   common   understandings   and   expectations   which   form   the   basis   of  
routine   interpretative   interaction.   But   when   the   routine   is   disturbed,   behaviour   becomes  
erratic,   random   and   uncoordinated.   This   result   in   a   «   circular   interaction   »   leading   to  
«   collective   behavior   ».   Like   Le   Bon   and   Park,   he   believes   individuals   to   undergo   (subir)   a  
transformation   in   the   crowd.   Blumer   distinguished   publics   from   groups   and   crowds.  
According   to   him,   the   public   is   larged,   dispersed   and   enduring.   It   is   based   on   rational  
discourse.  It  included  the  better  informed  sections  of  the  population.  The  rise  of  the  public  is  
characteristic  of  modern  liberal  democracies.

Lang  and  lang  believed  that  the  notion  of  mass  can  serve  as  a  useful  concept  as  long  as  it  is  
stripped  from  its  ideological  connotations.  

«  Transformation  theorists  argued  that  it  was  necessary  to  eliminate  individual  consciousness  
and  rationality  in  order  for  a  number  of  people  to  act  in  common  or  in  concret.  Their  argument  
was  and  is,  upon  careful  scrutiny,  without  logical  or  empirical  foundation  »  McPhails  

Some  critics  (McPhail)  have  been  made  to  the  transformation  theories:    

•   Participants  in  crowds  are  usually  neither  alone  nor  anonymous.    

•   Human  beings  in  problematic  situations  rarely  lose  control  even  if  they  are  scared.    
•   Circular  reasoning  :   a  problematic  gathering  is  studied  and  then  explained:  the  fact  
that   people   behave   collectively   is   attributed   to   underlying   reasons   that   are   derived  
from  that  collective  behavior  
•   Suggestibility  and  hypnosis  suggest  a  hypodermic  needle  (une  aiguille  hypodermique)  
which  is  a  metaphor  of  communication.  
  
•   Rational  discussion  can  be  found  in  crowds.  
  
•   If  crowds  are  so  manipulable,  it  is  important  to  understand  the  effects  that  the  media  
can  have  on  the  public.    

Most  empirical  research  into  large-­‐scale  gatherings  (crowds)  reaches  a  similar  conclusion  :  
«the   range   and   variation   of   individual   and   social   behaviors   in   which   people   engage   in  
temporary  gathering,  and  the  ongoing  alternation  between  the  different  forms  of  behavior,  
require  a  full  measure  of  conscious,  purposive,  and  intelligent  effort  by  participants».  McPhails    

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Mass  media  

The  term  «  mass  communication  »  came  into  use  in  the  late  1930’s.  Mass  media  are  designed  
to  reach  the  many  and  the  sender  is  often  an  organisation  of  professional  communicator.  
Potential   audiences   are   anonymous   consumers.   It   is   an   asymmetrical   communicative  
relationship.  Mass  media  are  mainly  commercial  media,  they  try  to  spread  out  their  trends.  
The  communicative  relationship  is  asymmetrical  (one-­‐direction  :  sender  à  mass)  and  there  
is  a  social  and  physical  distance  beteween  sender  and  receiver.  The  content  is  manufactured  
in  standardization  ways.  Messages  are  marked  by  a  lack  of  uniqueness  and  originality.  

Even  in  the  beginning,  media  were  more  diverse  than  theories  of  mass  media  suggest.  Plus,  
mass  communication  theories  tend  to  ignore  the  use  people  make  of  media.    

«   Mass   communictaion   was,   from   the   beginning,   more   of   an   idea   than   a   reality.   The   term  
stands  for  a  condition  and  a  process  that  is  theoretically  possible  but  rarely  found  in  any  pure  
form.   (…)   Where   it   does   not   seem   to   occur,   it   often   turns   out   to   be   less   massive,   and   less  
technologically  determiner,  than  it  appears  on  the  surface  »  McPhails  

With  the  rapidly  growing  popularity  of  film,  radio  and  later,  television,  the  notion  of  «  mass  »  
(audiance)  would  gain  in  importance.  For  McPhail,  the  term  ‘mass’  captured  several  features  
of  the  new  audience  for  cinema  and  radio  that  weren’t  covered  by  any  of  the  three  concepts  
of   blumer   (group,   crowd,   public).   New   mass   audience   was   typically   much   larger   than   any  
group.  It  was  widely  dispersed  and  its  members  were  usually  unknown  to  each  other.  

Mass  society  is  inherently  chaotic  and  will  decline.  Mass  media  are  the  anti-­‐thesis  of  hight  
culture  (cultural  decline).  

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Lesson  3  –  Propaganda  and  Democracy  

Propaganda  and  Democracy  

Propaganda   is   a   derived   from   the   latin’s   term   ‘propagare’   :   which   means   ‘to   spread   or   to  
propagate’.  The  notion  of  propaganda  started  to  develop  a  negative  connotation  from  the  
middle  of  the  19th  century  on.  During  WWI,  Germany,  UK  and  the  US  created  institutions  to  
shape  public  opinion  in  support  of  the  war.  Until  WWII  the  ‘neutral’  understandings  of  the  
term  were  still  used  but  died  after.  

Two  competing  notions  of  propaganda  ?  

 
Education  /  Information     Manipulation  /  Disinformation    
 
Communication  serving  the  general   Communication  serving  interest  
interest.       groups.    

Construction  on  (informed)     Construction  of  (uninformed)  

consent.     consensus.  
 

Early  20th  C.,  pessimistic  ideas  about  the  crowds  and  masses  in  industrial  societies  led  to  a  
concern  with  mass  media.  Elites  in  governments  and  business  were  interested  in  using  mass  
media  in  order  to  manage  the  masses  à  Fear  of  social  disorder.  

Mass   society   theories   worked   in   tandem   with   early   psychological   theories.   Freudian  
psychoanalysis   and   psychological   behaviorism   offer   radically   different   accounts   and  
explanations  of  the  human  psyche  but  support  a  stimulus-­‐response  on  mass  communication  
and  propaganda.  

Early   thinkers   about   propaganda   and   mass   media   conceptualized   communication   as   a  

‘stimulus’  triggering  similar  responses  across  an  undifferentiated  mass  of  biologically  similar  
individuals.   Combined   with   the   idea   that   individuals   in   mass   society   are   isolated,   media  
messages   are   often   thought   about   in   terms   of   ‘magic   bullets’   or   ‘hypodermic   needles’  
inserting  messages  directly  into  the  brain.  Freud’s  theory  of  the  subconscious  Suggested  that  

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human   can   be   easily   manipulated.   He   believed   that   society   results   out   of   the   attempts   to  
suppress  and  check  innate  drives,  needs  and  desires.  The  human  sub-­‐conscious  can  be  divided  
into  three  different  parts  (Id,  Ego  and  Superego).  

Psychoanalysis  and  behaviorism  sketch  an  image  of  passive  individuals  barely  able  to  control  
themselves.  Both  approaches  suggest  that  media  messages  addressing  basic  needs  and  urges  
can  have  immediate  and  powerful  effects.  

US  propagande  during  WWI  

During   WWI   the   US   developed   an   enormous   propaganda   apparatus.   President   Wilson  

charged   the   CPI   to   sway   a   rather   pacifistic   and   isolationist   public   opinion   into   favoring   US  
involvment  in  European  War.  G.  Creel,  a  former  progressive  journalist  critical  of  corporate  
America  would  head  the  CPI.    He  called  the  CPI  ‘house  of  truth’  that  promoted  propaganda  
based   on   facts,   not   feelings.   But   in   practice,   things   looked   different.   Creel   claimed   to   not  
censur  or  distort  and  to  base  is  propaganda  on  facts.  Nevertheless,  the  sediction  act  of  1918  
and  other  laws  made  criticizing  the  wilson  administration  illegal.  

CPI  divisions  :    

•   Division  of  News  channeling  thousands  of  press  releases  with  ‘official  war  news’  via  
telegraphy  24/7.  
•   Foreign   section   :   Officers   in   30   countries   using   radio   to   pour   a   steady   stream   of  
American  information  into  international  channel  of  communication.  
•   Publication  of  ‘official  bulletin’  aimed  at  public  officials,  other  newspapers  etc.  
•   Advertising  division  
•   Division  of  pictoral  publicity  
•   Division  of  films  

The  division  of  4  Minute  Men  à  Local  leaders  got  detailed  instructions  to  appeal  to  movie  
audiences  ‘rationally’  but  also  by  talking  emotional  pictures.  They  received  a  «  4  Minute  Men  
Bulletin   »   with   topics   like   :   why   are   we   fighting   ?   unmasking   german   propaganda.   Etc.  
They  were  monitored  by  the  CPI  and  boring  speakers  were  removed  from  the  system.  A  junior  
version  of  the  ‘4  minute  men’  also  existed  for  students  and  teachers.  Last  but  not  least,  they  
also  did  a  ‘colored  four-­‐minute  men  of  Brunswick’.  

Randolph  Bourne  criticized  ‘progressives’  involved  in  the  CPI.  «  It  has  been  a  bitter  experience  
to  see  the  unanimity  with  which  the  American  intellectuals  have  thrown  their  support  to  the  
use  of  the  war  technique  »  «  Intellectuals  who  once  advocated  the  powers  of  fertile  reasons  
were   now   treating   the   public   as   slugglish   masses   »   «   The   CPI   deals   with   public   opinion   as  
something  to  be  managed  and  manufactured  rather  than  reasoned  with  »  

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Walter  Lippman  

Walter  Lippman  started  as  a  progressive  journalist  who  became  increasingly  conservative.  He  
advised   Wilson   to   create   the   CPI   and   was   leaning   heavily   on   psychoanalysis   and   the   ideas   of  
Lebon.  Lebon  believed  crowds  could  be  manipulated  through  symbols  and  Lippman  applied  
this  theory  to  the  media  system.  Lippman  ideas  circulated  well  in  elite  circles  and  inspired  
Bernays  to  translate  these  ideas  into  PR  practice.  

Lippman’s  basic  ideas  

Democratic   liberalism   ?   He   was   an   advocate   of   the   ‘democratic   realism’   and   rejected   the  
enlightenment  ideal  of  participatory  democracy.  Democratic  realists  of  the  ’20  did  not  belief  
in  the  capacity  of  ordinary  men  for  rational  political  action  and  participation.  For  Lippman,  the  
elites   need   to   be   able   to   govern   without   democratic   participation   of   ordinary   men   and  
women.   For   him,   it   was   imperative   for   elites   to   manipulate   ‘symbols’   for   the   purpose   of  
‘manufacturing  consent’  and  what  he  understood  by  democracy.  

Manufacturing   consent.  Lippman   believed   that   human   beings   engage   with   the   world   on   the  
basis  of  the  ‘pictures  in  our  heads’.  These  images  in  our  heads  come  to  us  via  media  and  create  
a   ‘pseudo-­‐environment’,   a   virtual   reality.   We   act   upon   the   world     by   means   of   ‘habitual   way  
of  seeing’  or  ‘stereotypes’  stamped  into  us  through  conditioning.  He  abandoned  the  idea  of  a  
meaningful  public  dialogue  shaping  public  opinion.  Symbols  can  be  used  to  short-­‐circuit  the  
inconvenience  posed  by  critical  reason  and  public  discussion.  

Edward  Bernays  

Edward  Bernays  was  considered  as  the  father  of  ‘public  relations’  and  worked  with  the  CPI.  
He   is   the   author   of   “Crystallising   public   opinion”   and   he   led   a   number   of   highly   controversial  
campaigns.   Bernays   was   a   double   nephew   of   Freud   and   based   his   propaganda   and   Public  
relation   efforts   on   Freudian   ideas.   Through   his   different   campaign   he   make   it   acceptable   for  
women  to  smoke  in  public  and  invent  the  ‘american  breakfast’  (in  order  to  improve  the  sales  
of  a  bacon  company).  

Bernays’  key  ideas  «  Propaganda  is  a  consistent,  enduring  effort  to  create  or  shape  events  to  
influence  the  relations  of  a  public  to  an  entreprise,  idea  or  group  »  

He  started  to  use  the  term  «  public  relations  »  as  a  substitute  for  propaganda  becaus  eof  the  
negative   connotations   of   the   term   developed   during   WWI.   Propaganda   and   PR   agents   as   :  
Creators   of   circumstance,   creator   of   news   and   experts   in   using   symbols.   .   For   him,   public  
relations  is  the  same  as  propaganda  but  without  the  negative  connotation.  

The  counsel  in  Public  Relations  should  :  

1-­‐  Be  a  careful  student  of  media  and  organized  networks  of  communication  from  which  
people  get  the  pictures  in  their  heads.  

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2-­‐  Be  versed  in  sociology  and  anthropology  in  order  to  study  the  impact  of  social  structure  in  
order  to  understand  networks  of  influence.  
3-­‐  Be  students  of  the  human  psyche  and  of  the  ‘thought  buying  habits’  through  which  public  
opinion  operates.  

Harold  Lasswell  

Harold   Lasswell   is   a   political   scientist   known   for   his   study   of   propaganda   during   WWI   and  
WWII.  He  developed  the  method  of  ‘content  analysis’  and  a  linear  model  of  communication.  
Transmission  model  of  communication  and  propaganda  :  

Lasswell’s   definition   of   propaganda   :   He   described   how   propaganda   understood   as   the  

attempt  to  control  public  opinion  through  ‘signifiant’  symbols…  Or  by  stories,  rumors,  pictures  
and   other   forms   of   social   communication.   On   the   one   hand   he   used   a   stimulus-­‐response  
model  to  describe  how  message  impact  on  the  masses.  But  one  message  alone  isn’t  sufficient.  
Lasswell  believed  that  propaganda  can  be  used  for  democratic  good  :  

•   Eco  and  political  crisies  can  make  people  susceptible  to  crude  forms  of  propaganda.  
•   When  debates  escalate,  it  can  result  in  social  disorder  :  He  believed  that  debate  can  
be  replaced  by  propaganda.  
•   Long  term  campaigns  are  necessary.  
•   Master  or  colletive  symbols  must  created  by  propagandist  and  specific  emotions  must  
be  attached  to  them.  
•   Successful  social  movements  gain  power  by  propagating  master  symbols  over  months  
and  year  across  media.  
•   These  masters  or  collective  symbols  must  be  used  wisely  by  an  ethically  responsible  
elite.  

Lasswell   puted   his   idea   into   practice   in   the   WWIU   US   wartime   propaganda.   He   used   content  
analysis  to  analyze  the  nazi  popaganda  and  predict  military/political  decisions.  During  the  cold  
war,  Lasswell’s  model  served  as  the  basis  of  many  propaganda  efforts  to  counter  /  combat  
communism.   Propaganda   is   powerful   because   of   the   vulnerable   state   of   mind   of   average  
people.  Economic  and  political  crises  make  people  susceptible  to  crude  forms  of  propaganda.  
Laswell  believed  that  public  debate  should  be  replaced  by  democratic  propaganda.    

Is  propaganda  inherently  anti-­‐democratic  or  can  it  also  be  used  as  a  force  for  good  ?  

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à  For  John  Dewey  the  use  of  propaganda  and  public  relation  in  order  to  ‘manufacture  public  
opinion’  is  inherently  anti-­‐democratic  and  hostile  to  an  authentic  public  opinion.  

•   Media  should  serve  the  interests  of  communities.  

•   If   media   manipulate   the   ‘image’   in   people’s   head,   they   will   stop   functioning   as  
guardians  of  the  public  debate.  
•   Lasswell-­‐style  propaganda  potentially  harms  public  sphere  and  democracy.  

Critical   propaganda   studies   between   WWI   and   WWII   :     After   WWI   many   progressive   voices  
warned  the  people  about  propaganda.  Strong  presence  of  these  voices  in  the  American  public  
sphere  between  1919  and  1937.  

•   Researching  and  documenting  manipulative  communication.    

•   Identifying  interests  served  by  the  media.    
•   Porposing  reforms  against  manipulation  via  propaganda.  
 
Institute  for  Propaganda  Analysis    

IPA   –   Fighting   Propaganda   with   Education   :   US   1930   is   market   by   economic   crisis   and   rise   of  
mass  media.  Teachers  started  to  worry  about  the  impact  of  propaganda  on  students.  In  1937,  
the  Institute  for  propaganda  analysis  was  cerated  in  order  to  help  the  public  to  recognize  and  
resist  propaganda.  They  created  educational  materials  for  schools,  they  published  magazine.  
Critics  of  the  institute  argued  that  teaching  about  propaganda  contribute  to  student  cynicism,  
alienation   and   the   anti-­‐democratic   feeling   that   you   can’t   trust   the   media   and   political  
speakers.  The  institute  stoped    its  activities  at  the  start  of  the  US  involvement  in  WWII.  

IPA’s  7  propaganda  devices  :  

•   Name  calling  :  A  trick  to  make  us  accept  a  conclusion  without  full  consideration  of  
essential  facts.  
•   Band-­‐Wagon  :  Trick  used  to  seize  our  emotions  in  order  to  make  us  follow  politics.  
•   Glittering  generalities  :  Attempt  to  sway  emotions  through  the  use  of  shining  ideals  
or  virtues  (such  as  freedom,  justcice,  truth)  in  a  large,  general  way.  
•   Flag  waving  :  Tick  in  which  propagandist  holds  up  a  symbol,  such  a  s  a  flag  that  we  
recognize  and  respect.  
•   Pain  folks  :  Trick  in  which  the  propagandist  demonstrates  they  are  like  the  rest  of  us.  
•   Testimonial   :   Working   with   business   or   communities   leaders   who   endorse   your  
project.  
•   Stacking  the  cards  :  Trick  in  which  the  propagandist  intentionally  or  not  cherry  picks  
facts  while  ignoring  others.  

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The  ABC’s  propaganda  analysis  :  «  merely  to  detect  propaganda  and  go  no  further  may  be  
worse  than  useless  »  -­‐  Miller.  Critical  reflection  is  essential.  The  ABC’s  propaganda  analysis    is  
basically   an   early   attempt   to   develop   some   kind   of   ‘media   literacy’.   Miller   believed  
propaganda  analysis  was  a  key  in  combating  hitler.  It  got  lost  in  obscurity.  

The  ABC  of  propaganda  analysis  :  

•   Ascertain  the  conflict  element  of  the  propaganda  you’re  analyzing.  

•   Behold  your  own  reaction  to  the  element  of  conflict.  
•   Concern  yourself  with  today’s  propaganda.  
•   Doubt  that  your  opinions  are  your  own.  
•   Evaluate  your  own  propaganda’s.  why  do  you  believe  what  you  believe  ?  
•   Find  the  facts  before  your  reach  a  conclusion.  
•   Guard  against  ‘omnibus  words’  by  determining  specific  and  concrete  definitions  of  
words  and  symbols.  What  does  ‘security’  mean  precisely  ?  

Propaganda   today   :   The   word   ‘propaganda’   has   been   pelaced   by   other   such   as   ‘political  
communication’,  ‘public  relation’  or  ‘public  democracy’.  

Lesson  4  –  Critical  theory  and  mass  communication  

 

The  ‘critical’  paradigm  :  

•   Political  world-­‐view  :  Often  left-­‐wing,  ethically  progressive  and  emancipatory  politics.  

•   View  on  human  beings  :  Social  entities  overdetermined  by  their  environments.  
•   View  on  media  and  society  :  Focus  on  manipulation,  repression  and  power.  
•   View  on  (critical)  social  science  :  An  emancipatory  and  politicizing  project.  
•   Research  :  Often  includes  an  interpretive  dimension,  focus  on  inequalities  and  power  
related  issues,  is  open  to  qualitative  methods.  
 

Capitalist  mode  of  production  :  

•   Means  of  production  :  Raw  materials  of  labor  such  as  capital,  equipment  or  natural  
resources  are  concentrated  in  the  hands  of  industrial  elites.  
•   Labor  :  Mental  and  physical  capacities  of  people  deployed  in  creation  of  products  with  
use  value,  is  exploited  in  capitalism  to  create  surplus  value.  
•   Relations  of  production  :  Marked  by  structural  inequalities  whereby  a  capitalist  class  
exploits  the  working  masses  and  the  proletariat.  

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Orthodox/Classic   Marxism   :   Karl   Marx   à   The   archetypical   critical   theory   –   other   types   of  
critical   theory   include   anarchism,   neo-­‐marxism,   post-­‐marxism,   poststructuralism…  
Focuses  primarily  on  the  role  of  labor  in  society  but  his  views  have  implications  for  concepts  
of  (mass)  culture  and  (mass)  media  

For   Marx,   the   goal   oh   critical   theory   was   «   to   overthrow   all   conditions   in   which   man   is   a  
degraded,  enslaved,  neglected,  contemptible  being  ».  

The  superstructure  consists  of  a  political-­‐level  organizing  the  state  and  the  justice  system  on  
an  ideological  level  structuring  forms  of  social  awareness  that  legitimize  the  dominant  mode  
of   production.   The   superstructure   reflects   dominant   production   relationships.   The   type   of  
knowledge  and  awareness  of  society  reproduces  in  the  superstructure  will  be  generally  in  line  
with  the  ideals,  values  and  interests  of  the  ruling  class.  

Marxist   thought   there   is   a   considerable   disagreement   over   the   precise   relationship   between  
base  and  superstructure.  

Critical   approaches   to   Media   à   Media   are   just   one   part   of   the   superstructure   providing  
ideological  support  for  the  base.  Ideology  is  a  ‘false’  consciousness  when  it  presents  the  social  
order   as   a   fixed   and   hides   the   exploitative   dimension   of   capitalism.   Media   can   be   studied  
critically  at  the  level  of  ideological  contents  and  communicative  process  (FF  school)  or  from  
perspectives   of   political   economy   (the   way   production,   distribution,   etc.   of   the   media   is  
organized  in  political  and  economic  systems)  and  cultural  studies.    

Ideology  critique  (néo-­‐marxiste  theory)  wants  «  to  remind  us  that  everything  that  exists  in  
society   is   created   by   humans   in   social   relationships   and   that   social   relationships   can   be  
changed  ».    

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Franckfurt  School  and  Authors  

Socio-­‐political  climate  

The   interbellum   in   Germany   was   marked   by   a   great   deal   of   social,   economic   and   political  
tensions.  Marxist  didn’t  predict  the  emergence  of  fascism  across  EU.  As  the  horror  of  WWII  
became   increasingly   clear,   the   autors   homes   in   on   the   question   :   «   How   ‘reason’   and  
‘enlightenment’   could   turn   into   their   destructive   opposites   ?   ».   Fascism   emerged   in   many  
European   countries.   Marxists   never   predicted   this.   According   to   the   Marxist   theory,  
everything   that   has   to   do   with   production   is   the   base   of   society.   The   rest   is   called   the  
superstructure  (religion,  family,  education)  and  legitimizes  the  base.    

The   Institute   for   Social   Research,   also   known   as   the   Frankfurt   School,   is   Germany’s   first  
research  centre.  It  is  known  for  the  development  of  “critical  theory”,  which  is  a  neo-­‐marxist  
framework  for  analysing  capitalism,  art,  culture,  and  society.  It  is  interdisciplinary.  It  is  headed  
by  Max  Horkheimer  since  1931.  Lost  of  the  intellectuals  working  at  the  institute  were  Jewish,  
when  Hitler  came  to  power,  the  institute  had  already  transferred  most  of  its  assets  to  Geneva.  
After  a  brief  period  in  Austria,  the  centre  re-­‐established  itself  at  the  University  of  Colombia  in  
New   York.
   After   the   school   moved   to   the   United   States,   the   authors   were   faced   with   an  
emerging   consumer   culture   and   with   the   use   of   propaganda   for   commercial   purposes  
(advertising).  After  WWII,  some  members  (e.g.  Herbert  Marcuse)  stayed  in  the  US  whereas  
others  would  return  to  Germany  where  the  centre  was  re-­‐established.  Their  ideas  became  
very  popular  in  the  1960’s  (hippies).  

What  is  meant  by  critical  theory  ?  It  is  a  theory  that  understands  abstract  notions  such  as  “the  
masses”   or   “communications”   in   their   social,   political   and   historical   context.   It   seeks   to  
identify   discrepancies   between   the   way   a   society   claims   to   function   and   how   it   actually  
functions  (contradictions).  For  instance,  culture  industry  claims  diversity  but  all  media  are  the  
same.  And  mass  culture  is  not  produced  by  the  masses  but  rather  for  the  masses.    

Max  Horkheimer’s  inaugural  speech  as  the  president  of  the  institute  :  Technology,  industry  
and  science  seemed  to  promise  an  end  to  material  scarcity  and  to  the  unequal  distribution  of  
material   means   of   existence.   Mass   production   held   the   promise   of   ending   poverty   for   the  
masses.  à  Yet,  none  of  these  hopes  have  been  realized.  

Why  should  we  care  about  the  Frankfurt  School  in  media  studies  ?  They  were  among  the  first  
thinkers  to  systematically  examine  the  relationship  between  mass  media,  mass  culture  and  
mass  society.    

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Winona  Fautré  

Walter  Benjamin  

Walter  Benjamin  was  a  Jewish  intellectual.  He  was  loosely  affiliated  with  the  Frankfurt  School.  
He   was   also   an   artist,   he   wrote   several   plays.   He   wrote   an   article   called   «   The   Work   of   Art   in  
the  Age  of  Mechanical  Reproduction  »  (1935),  he  wrotes  this  during    a  context  of  rising  fascism  
and  mass  production  of  new  forms  of  art  and  entertainment.  He  wanted  to  see  how  the  media  
could  be  used  for  social  progress.  According  to  him,  new  forms  of  mass  communications  may  
transform  consumers  into  active  participants.  For  him,  the  good  thing  about  mass  produced  
cultural  products  was  that  they  became  less  exclusive.  However,  mass  culture  creates  a  cult  
of  celebrity.  Contrary  to  Adorno  and  Horkheimer,  Benjamin  still  believed  in  the  revolutionary  
potential  of  the  «  masses  »  and  the  «  new  technologies  »  on  condition  that  the  intellectuals  
would  align  themselves  with  the  interests  of  the  masses.  Benjamin  was  thus  one  of  the  first  
radical   cultural   critics   to   look   carefully   at   the   form   and   technology   of   media   culture   in  
appraising  its  complex  nature  and  effects.  

Key  Ideas  articulated  in  his  essay  :    

Works  of  art  loose  their  aura  when  reproduced  mechanically  in  mass  media,  but  this  
is   not   a   bad   thing   for   Walter   Benjamin.   Indeed,   works   of   art   could   be   reproduced  
manually  in  the  past  but  this  did  not  alter  the  uniqueness  –  the  ‘aura’  of  the  ‘original’  
work.  Around  1900  the  repoductive  capacities  of  new  media  (such  as  photography)  
were  so  vast  that  they  impact  on  art  in  its  tradictional  form  –  its  aura  withers.  The  loss  
of   aura   implies   that   the   power   of   traditional   sources   of   authorities   over   art   also  
diminishes.   Art   is   not   only   a   thing   for   the   elite   anymore   :   The   destruction   of   the   aura  
allows  a  democratization  of  Art.  When  art  is  dis-­‐embedded  from  tradition  and  ritual  it  
becomes   the   domain   of politics.
New   media   forms   change   human   perception   of  
space  and  time  and  change  the  relationship  the  artist  have  with  himself  or  others.  

Benjamin  on  the  ‘aura’  :  «  It  substitutes  a  plurality  of  copies  for  a  unique  existence.  And  
in  permitting  the  reproduction  to  meet  the  beholder  or  listenet  in  his  own  particuar  
situation,  it  reactivates  the  object  reporduced  »    

Benjamin  on  ‘Fascism’  :  Fascism  attempts  to  organize  the  newly  created  proletarian  
masses  without  affecting  the  property  structure  which  the  masses  strive  to  eliminate.  
Fascism  sees  its  salavtion  in  giving  these  masses  not  their  rights,  but  instead  a  chance  
to  express  themselves.  The  logical  result  of  Fascism  is  the  introduction  of  aesthetics  
in  political  life.  The  violation  of  the  masses,  whom  Fascism,  with  its  Führer  cult,  forces  
to  their  knees,  has  its  counterpart  in  the  violation  of  an  apparatus  which  is  pressed  into  
the  production  of  ritual  values.     All  efforts  to  render  politics  aesthetic  culminate  in  
one  thing:  war.  War  and  war  only  can  set  a  goals  for  mass  movements  on  the  largest  
scale  while  respecting  the  traditional  property  system.    

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Winona  Fautré  

Adorno  and  Horkheimer  

Adorno  and  Horkheimer  were  more  pessimistic  about  the  emencipatory  potential  of  the  mass  
media.  Their  theory  of  the  mass  media  ,  the  «  culture  industries  »  -­‐  was  part  and  parcel  of  a  
wider   analysis   of   history   and   society.   They   wrote   a   book   called   ‘The   dialectics   of  
Enlightenment’   (wrote   in   LA,   in   exile   from   EU).   It   contains   a   chapter   entitled   ‘The   Culture  
Industry’.  A  key  idea  is  that  reason  has  turned  against  itself  and  against  the  legacy  of  the  
Enlightenment.  The  work  of  Horkheimer  is  mainly  based  on  marxism.    

“Culture  industries”,  discussed  by  Adorno  and  Horkheimer  in  the  1960’s,  is  a  very  important  
concept.  According  to  it,  media  empires  are  governed  by  commercial  and  financial  interests  
and   do   not   always   have   general   interest   in   mind.   Movies   and   radio   do   not   need   to   pretend  
to  be  art  anymore.  The  directors  earn  a  huge  amount  of  money.  All  television  channels  show  
the  same  thing,  for  example.  

What   was   meant   by   «   critical   theory   »   ?   Theory   that   is   not   merely   abstract   but   that  
understands  abstract  notions  such  as  «  the  masses  »  or  «  communication  »  in  its  social,  politics  
and  historical  context.  

It  seeks  to  identify  discrepancies  between  the  way  a  society  claims  to  function  and  how  it  
actually   functions   (contradictions).   Critical   theory   points   at   the   culture   industries   as  
responsible  for  the  fact  that  revolution  and  emancipation  did  not  take  place  as  predicted  by  
classic  Marxist  theory.    

‘The  dialectics  of  Enlightenment’  and  ‘The  Culture  Industry’  

Adorno  and  Horkheimer  were  not  against  Enlightenment’s  self-­‐destruction  but  believed  that  
the   Enlightenment   was   turning   into   its   opposite.   They   wanted   to   understant   the  
Enlightenment’s   self-­‐destruction   in   order   to   redeem   its   promises   of   freedom   and   equality.  
Kant   saw   ‘the   courage   to   use   your   own   reason’   as   the   motto   of   the   Enlightenment.   Two  
centuries  later  it  seemed  that  human  reason  led  to  the  first  global,  fully  technological  war.  
Adorno   and   Horkheimer   saw   WWII   as   the   final   outcome   of   the   dialectic   of  
[Link]   believed   that   modern   instrumental   reason   has   become   a   dominant  
force.  Modernity  i  s  marked  by  a  rational  pursuit  of  irrational  ends.  Instrumental  rationality  is  
intertwined  with  capitalism  and  turns  elightenment  values  such  as  freedom  or  individuality  
on  their  heads.  Mass  culture  and  its  culture  industries  are  held  responsible.  

«  The  total  effect  of  the  culture  industry  is  one  of  anti-­‐Enlightenment.  L'effet  total  de  l'industrie  
de  la  culture  est  celui  de  l'anti-­‐illumination,  dans  lequel,  comme  l'ont  noté  Horkheimer  et  moi-­‐
même,  l'illumination,  c'est-­‐à-­‐dire  la  domination  technique  progressive  de  la  nature,  devient  
une  tromperie  de  masse  et  se  transforme  en  un  moyen  d'entraver  la  conscience.  Cela  entrave  
le  développement  d'individus  autonomes  et  indépendants  qui  jugent  et  se  rendent  sérieux  pour  
eux-­‐mêmes  »  -­‐Adorno  

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The  Culture  Industries    

Homogenization  and  standardization  of  Culture  :  Adorno  and  Horkheimer  blame  the  culture  
industries  of  capitalism  for  the  homogenization  of  culture.  

Media  as  cogs  in  the  capitalist  system  :  Adorno  and  Horkheimer  hold  technological  rationality  
and   the   capitalist   social   system   responsible   for   alienation   and   domination.   Technological  
rationality   homogenizes   the   product   created   by   the   culture   industries.   Mass   culture   only  
allows  for  marginal  differences  between  its  products.  

(Mass)  culture  and  work  :  Adorno  and  Horkheimer  claim  that  culture  produced  by  culture  
industries   undermine   critical   thought.   Mass   culture   offers   an   escape   and   makes   ‘another  
world’  unimaginable.  

Manufactured  needs  :  FF  school  theorists  argue  that    mass  media  manufacture  (false)  needs.  

Marcuse  claims  that  commodities  are  sold  to  us  through  the  manufacturing  of  false  
needs  and  tried  to  distinguish  between  ‘true’  and  ‘false’  needs  .  «  We  may  distinguish  
between  true  and  false  needs:  «  false  »  are  those  which  are  superimposed  upon  the  
individual  by  particular  social  interest  in  his  repression...  Their  satisfaction  might  be  
most  gratifying  to  the  individual  but  this  happiness...serves  to  arrest  the  development  
of  the  ability...  to  recognize  the  disease  of  the  whole  and  grasp  the  chances  of  curing  
the  disease.  The  result  then  is  euphoria  in  unhappiness  »  -­‐Marcuse  1964  

Pseudo-­‐individuality   :   Adorno   and   Horkheimer   accuse   the   culture   industries   of   turning  

individuality  into  its  opposite.  

Critiques  of  ‘The  dialectics  of  Enlightenment’  :  

•   ‘The  dialectics  of  Enlightenment’  was  first  and  foremost  a  philosophical  project.  
•   No  empirical  evidence  for  the  claims  on  media-­‐impact  was  produces  by  the  school  
-­‐  a  highly  speculative  theory.  
•   Elitism  ?  How  come  theorists  alone  are  able  to  escape  the  assimilatory  effects  of  
the  cultures  industries  ?  
•   What  are  false  needs  ?  How  do  you  distinguish  ?  
•   No  analysis  of  audience  responses.    
•   A  strong  normative  component.  
  
•   An  overgeneralised  dismissal  of  popular  culture  ?  Might  the  pursuit  of  money  also  
lead  to  differentiation  and  creativity  ?  
 

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Winona  Fautré  

Key  words  used  in  the  (neo-­‐)Marxist  Frankfurt  School  

•    ’Alienation’      

It  is  a  typical  marxist  word.  Marx  believed  that  in  capitalist  conditions,  workers  are  necessarily  
alienated   from   their   work.   Usually,   workers   in   factory   only   produce   one   piece   of   the   final  
product.   Factory   products   do   note   express   the   worker’s   humanity   or   his   relationship   with  
others.   FF   school   theorists   would   focus   how   mass   media   and   mass   culture   support   the  
alienation  process  described  by  Marx.  

A  non-­‐alienated  worker  expresses  his  own  individuality,  he  has  the  satisfaction  that  he  has  
gratified  a  human  need  in  his  labour.  The  work  is  a  source  of  social  recognition  and  respect.    

An  alienated  worker  commodifies  himself  by  selling  his  time.  He  becomes  an  instrument  to  
the  capitalist  will.  He  has  no  control  over  the  terms  and  conditions  of  his  work.  There  is  no  job  
satisfaction  or  pleasure.  The  product  is  not  property  of  the  man  who  made  it,  it  belongs  to  the  
capitalist   who   sells   it   for   profit.   The   labor   process   is   antagonistic   and   anti-­‐social.   The   worker  
becomes  a  stranger  to  himself,  alienated  from  :  the  products  he  made,the  others  whose  needs  
they  are  (not)  fulfilling  and  from  humanity  in  general.  

•   ’Commodity  fetishism’    

A  fetish  is  an  object  endowed  with  magical  properties.  Fetishism  is  the  worship  of  things  with  
magic  properties.  For  Marx,  ‘commodity  fetishism’  is  the  worship  (culte)  of  things  abstracted  
from   the   human   about   what   went   into   it.   Fetichized   commodities   hide   the   work   and  
exploitations  that  went  into  their  manufacture,  devaluing  human  labor.  Commodities  have  an  
exchange  value  in  addition  to  a  use  value.  It  is  a  social  hieroglyph.    

It   devalues   human   labour   and   social   life   (products   come   from   low-­‐waged   countries).  
commodity   fetishism   devalues   human   labour   and   social   life
-­‐those   who   produced   the  
commodity   derive   little   benefit   except   (minimal)   wages   when   commodities   are   exchanged  
through  money.  

•    ’Instrumental  reason’  

Weber   distinguished   ‘Instrumental   rationality’   from   ‘value   rationality’.   Both   forms   of  

rationality  play  a  role  in  social  action.    

•   ‘Instrumental  rationality’  refers  to  reasoning  about  means,  the  ‘how’  of  things  is  the  
object  of  rationality.  
•   ‘Value  rationality’  refers  to  reasoning  about  (moral)  ends.  

Weber  claims  that  institutions  in  modern  societies  are  marked  by  instrumental  rationality.  The  
modern  world  is  a  bureaucratically  administered  world,  a  technical-­‐rational,  dis-­‐enchanted  

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Winona  Fautré  

world   à   a   direct   consequence   of   Enlightenment   thinking   hostile   to   religion   and   the  

irrational.  The  efficiency  of  a  bureaucratic  organization  depends  on  a  rationally  calculated  
division  of  labour  in  a  hierarchic  and  monitored  environment.
  

•   ’Reification’  (Lukacs)  

It  can  also  be  called  ‘thingification’  or  ‘ojectification’    :  Treating  persons,  processes  and  social  
relations   as   ‘things’.   The   process   of   commodification   (Marx)   and   instrumental   rationality  
(Weber)  lead  to  a  reification  of  work.  Human  products  are  seen  as  things  without  any  thought  
about  how  it  was  made,  who  made  it.  Instrumental  rationality  lead  to  this  problem.  Reification  
of  work  is  clearly  expressed  in  Taylorism  :  Taylor  is  responsible  for  splitting  the  production  
process  into  small  acts.    

According  to  Lucas,  the  fate  of  the  worker  becomes  the  fate  of  society  as  a  whole.  He  claims  
that  reification  makes  it  difficult  to  understand  the  world  as  it  stop  us  from  thinking  in  terms  
of  social  relations  and  processes.  

FF  school  thinkers  criticize  reifications  because  they  operate  as  barriers  for  critical  thought  
and  for  the  realization  of  enlightenment  values  such  as  freedom  and  equality.  

Herbert  Marcuse’s  ‘One-­‐Dimensional  Man’  

Marcuse  criticizes  ‘the  system’  and  the  way  it  absorb  all  posibilities  for  resistance  (in  other  
books  -­‐  e.g.  «  Counter-­‐revolution  and  revolt  »,  Marcuse  did  focus  more  on  alternatives).  He  
offers  a  total  critique  of  advanced  industrial  capitalist  and  communist  societies.  He  rejects  
Cold   War   capitalist   demonology   of   communism.   Marcuse   criticises   deshumanisation   and  
alienation   in   capitalist   affluence,   fetishism   in   consumerism.   The   book   nevertheless   helped  
the   activists   of   the   New   Left   (the   68’   generation)   to   identify   what   was   ‘wrong   with   the  
system’.  

1.  Dimensional  (repressive)  society  

It  is  a  totally  administered  society  dominated  by  technological/  instrumental  rationality.  This  
society   is   irrational   as   a   whole.   Its   productivity   is   destructive   of   the   free   development   of  
human  needs  and  faculties.  Change  is  only  allowed  when  it  already  fits  into  the  system.  «  
Technology   serves   to   institute   new,   more   effective,   and   more   pleasant   forms
of   social  
control  and  social  cohesion.  The  totalitarian  tendency  of  these  controls  seems  to  assert  itself  
in  still  another  sense  -­‐  by  spreading  the  less  developed  and  even  to  the  pre-­‐  industrial  areas  of  
the  world,  and  by  creating  similarities  in  the  development  of  capitalism  and  communism...  the  
traditional  notion  of  the  «  neutrality  »  of  technology  cannot  be  maintained  »  -­‐Marcuse    

Technological  rationality  has  become  political  rationality  and  Change  is  only  allowed  when  

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it  already  fits  into  the  system  (this  is  why  the  system  is  one-­‐dimensional).  

2.  One  dimensional  man  

He  (l’homme  en  général)  has  lost  individuality  and  freedom.  He  does  not  know  his  true  needs  
because  they  are  administered/superimposed.  He  lacks  the  power  of  authentic  self-­‐activity.    

Nevertheless,  Marcuse  is  an  individualist  who  believes  that  individuality  and  resistance  are  
real  possibilities.  In  one  dimensional  society,  ‘Freedom’  is  turned  into  its  opposite  :      

-­‐  the  freedom  to  sell  one’s  labor    

-­‐  political  freedom  to  vote  for  undistinguishable  representatives    
-­‐  freedom  of  expression  is  ineffective.  


False  needs  VS  true  needs  :  Media  are  not  responsible  for  the  flattering  out  of  alternatives  
alone,   but   they   do   play  a  role  in  the  creation  of  false  needs   that   serve   the   system.   The   fact  
that   everyone   (of   different   classes)   consume   the   same   products   does   not   mean   equality   but  
rather  globalization  (no  one  can  act  outside  of  the  system).  

Marcuse’s  False  needs  include  :
  

•   The  need  for  stupefying  work  where  it  is  non  longer  a  real  necessity.
  
•   The  need  for  modes  of  relaxation  which  soothe  and  prolong  this  stupefaction.    
•   The  need  for  maintaining  such  deceptive  liberties  as  free  competition  at  
administered  prices.
  
•   A  free  press  which  censors  itself.
  
•   Free  choice  between  brands  and  gadgets.    

Marcuse  about  true  needs  : Does  not  specify  precisely  what  they  are  but  they  can  only  
be  identified  when  Man  is  liberated  from  the  System.    

Jurgen  Habermas  and  the  public  sphere  

 
Habermas   provides   an   ‘immanent’   critique   of   the   public   sphere.   In   the   tradition   of   the   FF  
school  he  takes  a  key  value  in  society  (public  debate)  and  confronts  it  with  capitalist  reality.  
The  public  sphere  is  a  metaphor  for  the  deliberative  formation  of  public  opinion.  A  true  public  
sphere  is  marked  by  :  Equality  of  access  for  all  citizens  –  Unrestricted  communication  about  
matter   relevant   to   the   general   interest   –   Open   debates   over   the   rules   governing   social  
relations.  à  Habermas  claims  such  a  sphere  briefly  existed  but  in  coffee  houses,  mahazines  
and  newspapers  of  an  emerging  bourgeois  elite.  

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A  public  sphere  in  appearance  only  ?  Fuchs  argues  the  notion  of  a  public  sphere  is  a  spatial  
metaphor  for  a  specific  type  of  communicative  processes.  Habermas  argues  that  the  «  world  
fashioned  by  the  mass  media  is  a  public  sphere  in  appearance  only  ».  Individuals  do  not  have  
the   same   resources   for   participating   in   public   debate   (education,   social   capital,   economic  
capital)  –  a  de  facto  limitation  on  freedom  of  speech.  
 
Optimists  on  the  impact  of  social  media  on  the  public  sphere  :    Optimistic  media-­‐determinists  
welcome  social  media  as  facilitators  of  democracy  and  public  debate.  Papacharissi  argues  
that  social  media  allow  people  to  practice  politics  online  from  safety  of  the  private  sphere.  
Critical  authors  point  at  the  dangers  of  ‘slacktivism’  or  ‘clicktivism’  for  a  healthy  public  sphere.  
Morozov  defined  ‘slacktivism’  as  follows  :  «  Feel-­‐good  onlie  activism  that  has  zero  political  or  
social  impact.  It  gives  those  who  participate  an  illusion  of  having  a  meaningful  impact  on  the  
world  without  demanding  anything  more  than  joining  a  facebook  group  …  slacktivism  is  the  
ideal  type  of  activism  for  a  lazy  generation  …  »  
 
Fuchs  counters  that  this  ‘clicktivism’  can  easily  be  ignored  by  power.  Physical  space  presence  
allow  an  agglomeration  of  individuals  to  have  a  visibility  which  can  be  perceive  as  a  threat  for  
the  power.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
To  conclude  the  First  phase  -­‐  A  summary  
-­‐Strong  belief  in  Media  Power-­‐  
 
Turn   of   the   20th   C.   (early   30).   Strong   belieg   in   the   power   of   ‘new’   media   such   as   film,   radio,  
newspapers  to  effect  change  in  opinions,  beliefs,  behavior  of  individuals.  
A   belief   not   based   on   scientific   observation   but   linked   to   theories   of   mass   society,   emerging  
propaganda  techniques.  
The  use  made  of  media  by  governments  and  business  contributed  to  a  belief  in  media  power  
(propaganda,  PR,  advertising).  
This   phase   includes   the   development   of   educational   programs   warning   people   about   the  
dangers  of  propaganda.  
An  often  implicit  stimulus/response  model  of  communication  is  often  said  to  lie  at  the  basis  
here.  
 
 
 

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Winona  Fautré  

Phase  2  :  The  emergene  of  the  limited  media  effects  thesis  

 
Lesson  5  :  Research  into  media  effects  and  the  limited  effects  thesis  
 
Context  
 
After   WWII   there   was   a   widespread   belief   in   the   power   of   mass   media   having   powerful  
effects.  Univerisities,  politics  and  business  wanted  to  understand  this  power.  This  lead  to  a  
‘boom’  in  scientific  research  carried  out  in  a  largely  positivist  frameworks.    
 
A  dominant  (non-­‐critical)  paradigm  emerged  :    
Empirical  studies  focusing  on  the  effect  of  different  types  and  contents  of  media  on  audience.  
A   concern   with   persuasion   and   information   informed   many   studies.   Media   effects   research  
became  more  sophisticated  after  WWII  (audience  variable  taken  into  account)  àThe  more  
variables   were   added,   the   more   difficult   it   became   to   identify   straightforward   effects   on  
individuals  beliefs/opinions/practices.  Attention  was  being  paid  to  mediating  social  contacts.  
 
 
New  insights  ?  
 
•   Media  do  have  effects,  but  no  direct  link  between  media  message  and  audience  
response  could  be  identified.  
•   Media  message  are  no  hypodermic  needles  or  magic  bullets.  
•   The   effect   of   a   media   message   often   depends   on   ‘mediating   factors’   (opinion  
leaders,  contextual  dimension)  
•   Media  function  in  a  pre-­‐existing  social  and  cultural  context  that  has  to  be  taken  
into  account.  Social  and  cultural  context  are  keys  to  understand  effects.  
•   The   media   environment   is   extremely   complex   that   it   is   difficult   to   identify  
individual  effects.    
•   It   is   perfectly   possible   to   receive   media   information   without   changing   one’s  
opinion  or  behaviour.    
 

Early   effects   research   would   culminate   in   a   ‘limited   effects’   thesis.   Media   effects   were  
observed   and   did   occur   but   these   effects   were   way   less   predictable   and   unilateral   than  
expected.  By  the  early  ’60  researchers  like  Klapper  wondered  if  media  influence  was  actually  
as  big  as  originally  thought.  

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Winona  Fautré  

Variations  in  beliefs  in  media  power  may  be  historically  grounded  :  

-   Between  WWI  and  II  :  a  period  of  massive  upheaval  and  crisis.  Strong  belief  in  media  
power  among  intellectuals.  
-   ’50  in  UE  and  USA  :  a  relatively  stable  period  and  the  emergence  of  a  limited  effect  
thesis.  
-   ’60  –  ’70  :  soial  and  political  unrest  and  the  return  of  critical  theory.  

(Mass)  media  are  often  seen  as  powerful  in  time  of  crisis  but  they  may  very  well  be  more  
powerful  in  such  times  for  a  varie.  People  often  rely  on  message  in  order  to  know  about  critical  
events.  

The  dominant  paradigm  

It  combines  a  view  of  powerful  mass  media  in  a  mass  society  with  research  practices  from  the  
social  sciences.  Research  methods  tend  to  be  quantitative  rather  than  qualitative.    

-­‐   View  on  human  beings  :  individualist,  functionalist,  utilitarian,  behaviorist.  

-­‐   Political  world-­‐view  :  liberal  and  pluralist.  
-­‐   View  on  media  and  society  :  functionalist.  
-­‐   View  on  sciencentific  knowledge  :  usually  positivist.  
-­‐   Research  :  Often  effect-­‐oriented  and  focusing  on  use  and  gratifications.  

Empirical  tradition  ?    

The   empirical   tradition   is   often   contrasted   with   the   critical   tradition   but   this   distinction  
doesn’t  really  make  sense.  But  boundaries  between  the  two  are  not  as  clear  as  we  expect.  
Collaborations   between   the   two   do   exist.   Interpretive   and   critical   research   can   also   be  
empirical  (based  on  observation  rather  than  speculation).  

The   ideal   society   in   liberal   perspectives   in   media   studies   :   A   normative   concern   with   the  
proper   functioning   of   society   underlies   its   research   questions   characteristics   of   this   ‘good’  
society  include  :  democracy,  liberal  values,  pluralistic  organisation  of  society,  consensual  and  
orderly  resolution  of  conflict,  well-­‐informed  citizens  and  an  informative  media.  It  is  an  ideal  
view  of  Western  society.    

According   to   Shannon-­‐Weaver’s   communication   model,   when   something   goes   wrong   in  

communication,  it  is  because  of  “noise”.  This  model  refers  to  technological  communication  
but  it  can  also  be  used  as  a  metaphor.  It  is  an  idealised,  uni-­‐linear,  sequential  model  focused  
on  transmission  of  information.  It  was  developed  in  order  to  account  for  differences  between  
messages  as  sent  and  as  received  in  a  technological  [Link]  were  accounted  for  
in  terms  of  «  noise  »  or  «  interference  »  affecting  channels  of  communication.    

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Human  communications  hardly  ever  function  as  depicted  in  this  model.    

Nevertheless,  this  kind  of  communication  model  was  what  many  people  wanted  (government,  
industry)  :  a  device  for  getting  messages  across  and  influencing  people  through  advertising,  
political  agenda  or  public  information.    

Most  researches  conducted  in  phase  2  tried  to  measure  intended  and  unintended  effects  of  
the   media.   Some   research   also   focuses   on   the   improvement   of   the   effectiveness   of  
communication  for  legitimate  ends.  Other  research  tried  to  asses  whether  mass  media  were  
a  cause  of  social  problems.    

The  failure  to  find  systematic,  direct,  unilinear  and  predictive  effects  actually  legitimates  the  
status  quo  of  the  media  system.    

Paul  Lazarsfeld  

Was   a   Jewish   sociologist.   His   research   institute   did   commercial   assignments   for   local  
industries.   In   Vienna   he   suggested   to   Karl   and   Charlotte   Butler   to   fund   their   Institute   of  
Psychology   with   commercial   contract   research   conducted   for   businesse.   The   commercial  
data  and  money  gathered  would  then  be  re-­‐used  for  academic  modes  of  research.  Via  Robert  
Lynd  he  got  in  touch  with  the  Frankfurt  School  in  the  US.    

Lazarsfeld   would   become   director   of   the   Princeton   Radio   Research   Project   that   would  
become  the  Columbia  Office  of  Radio  Research,  renamed  as  the  Bureau  of  Applied  Social  
research  at  Columbia.  He  Pioneered  many  empirical  research  methods  in  the  field  of  media  
studies   and   in   the   social   sciences   more   broadly.   He   was   initially   interested   in   ‘effects’   and  
research  into  mediating  factors.    

When   they   were   working   together   on   the   Princeton   Radio   project,   Lazarsfeld   asked   Adorno  
to  bring  in  a  critical  and  theoretical  «  European  »  approach  in  the  Radio  Project.  the  project  
should  involve  actual  fieldwork  and  empirical  research.  Lazarsfeld  asked  Adorno  a  list  of  «  
key  issues  »  but  a  sketch  of  a  «  dialectical  theory  of  broadcasting  »  instead.  The  main  question  
was  «  how  to  widen  the  appeal  of  good  music  on  radio  ?  ».    Lazarsfeld  told    that  Adorno  did  

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Winona  Fautré  

not   consider   any   other   views   except   for   his   own,   much   of   what   he   wrote   was   wrong,  
unfounded   or   unbiased.   perhaps   the   problem   was   that   a   question   such   as   «   how   can   the  
appeal  of  goof  music  be  widened  on  radio  ?  »  did  not  make  sense  in  Adorno’s  way  of  thinking.  
Adorno  had  not  much  knowledge  on  experience  with  empirical  research  but  pretended  to  
be  an  authority  on  it.  

Lazarsfeld  still  acknowledged  critical  theory,  and  Adorno  was  not  really  against  administrative  
research  either.  For  Adorno,  people  listen  to  the  radio  to  relax.    

Lazarsfeld  makes  a  distinction  between  :    

Critical   research   aspires   to   a   general   theory   of   contemporary   social   trends.   It  

presumes  a  set  of  basic  human  values  against  which  to  evaluate  such  trends    and  
their   effects.   It   concentrates   on   negative   interpretations   rather   than   fact   finding  
suggestions.   Critical   research   questions   include   :   How   are   media   organized   and  
controlled  ?  How  is  teh  trend  towards  centralization,  standirzation  and  promotional  
pressure   expressed   ?   How,   in   what   form   and   in   what   disguise   do   media   threaten  
human  values  ?  

Administrative  research  :  academic  work  in  the  service  of  external  private  or  public  
agencies.  It  consists  in  organising  surveys,  making  graphs...  
  

«  the  War  of  the  Worlds  »  

It  is  a  science  fiction  book  and  movie.  It  was  adapted  in  the  1930’s  as  a  radio  program  by  
Orson  Wells.  It  is  about  a  martian  invasion.  After  this  broadcast,  a  lot  of  people  in  the  US  were  
afraid  that  it  was  true.  1  million  people  were  seriously  disturbed  by  the  broadcast.  At  the  end  
of  the  broadcast,  Wells  said  :  «  Remember  the  terrible  lesson  you  learned  tonight  ».  People  
have  to  be  more  critical  about  the  stuff  they  hear  on  the  radio.    

The   response   of   the   audience   were   investigated.   The   study   showed   the   following  
determinants  to  play  a  role  among  those  who  did  panic  :  tuned  in  after  the  programme  began,  
were   not   paying   attention   in   the   beginning,   stopped   listening   before   the   end.   The   critical  
ability  of  listeners  is  linked  to  level  of  education,  economic  status,  income,  job  security.    

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Winona  Fautré  

Lazarsfeld  and  Herzog  pioneered  the  uses  and  gratifications  approach  

Their  research  in  “Radio  and  the  Printed  Page”    seeks  to  determine  ‘which  people  under  what  
conditions,   and   for   the   sake   of   what   gratification   choose   radio   or   print   as   a   source   of  
communication  for  comparable  subject  matter’.  Media  seen  as  tools  for  mass  education.  The  
study   showed   that   people   from   lower   classes   do   not   listen   to   “serious”   radios.   Their  
conclusion  was  that  it  is  useless  for  upper  classes  to  try  to  convince  lower  classes  to  listen  to  
serious  radios  because  they  are  not  adjusted  to  their  point  of  view.  


Lazarsfeld  and  Merton  

Functionalism  

The  empirical  tradition  focuses  to  a  large  extent  on  the  (social)  functions  of  the  media.  One  of  
the   main   functions   of   the   media   is   social   integration.   Functionalist   theories   are   often  
considered  to  be  apolitical  but  they  are  rather  compatible  with  the  liberal  status  quo.  

(Lasswell’s  functionalism)  The  main  functions  of  the  media  are:    

•   Surveillance  of  the  environment  
  

•   Correlation  of  the  parts  of  society  in  responding  to  the  environment  (socialising,  co-­‐  
ordinating  activities).  
  
•   Transmission  of  cultural  heritage  
  
•   Entertainment  
  
•   Mobilization    

A   lot   of   functionalist   empirical   media   research   focuses   on   the   uses   and   the   gratifications  
people  get  out  of  media  usage  àTakes  an  actor-­‐  centered  approach  focusing  on  individual’s  
needs,   uses   and   gratifications.   Example:   what   are   functions   of   FB   from   a   «   uses   and  
gratifications  perspective  »?  -­‐information  -­‐networking  -­‐countering  boredom  -­‐entertainment    


The  empirical  tradition  is  often  contrasted  with  the  critical  tradition  Boundaries  between  «  
empirical  »  and  «  critical  »  or  even  «  interpretive  »  approaches  are  often  less  clear  than  one  
might  expect    

collaborations  between  critical  scholars  and  empirical  research  did  exist  (e.g.  
Lazasfeld  and  Frankfurter  School)
  
Functionalist  scholars  have  often  been  highly  critical  of  the  functions  performed  by  
mass  media.  

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Winona  Fautré  

The  term  «  empirical  »  might  be  misleading  :  interpretive  and  critical  research  can  also  be  «  
empirical  »  in  the  sense  of  «  based  observation  »  rather  than  speculation.
The  notion  «  
empirical  »  is  often  used  to  designated  the  fact  that  use  is  made  of  (usually  quantitative)  
research  methods    

Structural  functionalism  

It  has  the  idea  that  the  media  is  a  sub-­‐system  in  a  large  social  system.  Media  fulfils  key  
needs  of  the  system.  Media  are  often  seen  a  conformist  rather  than  critical  of  the  system  :  
  

•   Avoidance  of  fundamental  criticism
  

•   Differential  access  for  different  categories  of  social  actors  :  gate-­‐keeping  function    
•   Providing  social  cement  
  

Attention  goes  to  social  functions  and  dysfunctions  of  media.  What  is  functional  or  
dysfunctional  is  a  highly  subjective  matter.    

Merton  was  one  of  the  most  influential  sociologists  of  his  generation  he  studied  at  Harvard  
but  moved  to  New  Work  in  1941.  The  structuralist  functionalism  of  Merton  would  be  the  
dominant  sociological  tradition  in  the  US  until  the  seventies.  At  Columbia  University,  he  met  
Paul  Lazarsfeld  who  asked  hem  to  collaborate  in  the  analysis  of  another  CBS  media  event  :  an  
all-­‐day   campaign   to   persuade   Americans   to   buy   government   war   bonds.   Together,   they  
wrote  the  book  “Mass  persuasion”.    It  was  a  content  analysis  of  the  Kate  Smith  war  bond  
rally.  The  analysis  showed  that  different  themes  were  involved:    

•   Facilitation  theme
  
•   50%  of  the  messages  dealt  with  the  wartime  sacrifice  affecting  all  Americans.  
•   Informal  conversational  tone.  
•   Listeners  felt  they  were  witnessing  or  eve,  participating  in  an  extraordinary  event.    
•   The  broadcast  had  to  be  seen  as  a  whole  (people  standing  by  Kate  Smith’s  side)    
•   They  felt  a  sense  of  collectivity    

Merton  explains  the  power  of  the  broadcast  through  the  function  it  performed  for  listeners  in  
society.  He  sees  the  US  as  a  money  focused  society.  What  did  people  get  out  of  listening  to  
that   programme   ?   Kate   Smith’s   authenticity   came   as   something   new.   There   is   also   the  
background  of  skepticism  makes  people  want  to  believe  someone  who  seems  to  incarnate  
values.    

If  media  are  to  be  used  for  educational  purposes  one  needs  to  understand  how  they  operate  :  

1.   Monopolisation   :   media   monopolises   the   definition   of   an   issue   to   the   exclusion   of  

alternative  definitions  and  frames.  
2.   Canalization   :   media   channel   do   not   transform   but   rather   channel   existing   social  

  30  
Winona  Fautré  

attitudes.  
3.   Supplementation  :  media  do  not  act  alone  but  have  a  supplementary  function,  they  
supplement  organized  violence,  and  work  best  when  used  together  with  interpersonal  
communication.  

Merton  and  Lazarsfeld  discuss  three  media  functions  :  

Madia  do  create  and  informed  citizens  but  this  does  not  mean  that  they  have  an  actual  say  in  
politics  –  this  is  why  Merton  talks  about  a  pseudo-­‐public  sphere.  

1.   Legitimisation   :   media   confer   authority   and   statut   to   public   issues,   persons,  

organizations  and  social  movements  –  If  you  are  in  the  media  you  are  important.  
2.   Enforcement  of  social  norms  :  media  enforce  prevailing  social  attitudes  and  values  and  
bestow  negative  publicity  on  deviations  from  the  norm.  
3.   Narcotization  :  a  negative  disfunction  of  the  media  –  media  induce  political  apathy  in  
mass  audiences  by  creating  the  illusion  of  participation  in  the  democratic  process.  

Lazarsfeld’s  collaboration  with  Merton  shows  that  the  positivist  tradition  is  not  necessarily  
uncritical.  This  may  remind  us  of  the  way  FF  school  talk  about  the  capitalist  system.  

Presidential  campaign  

Lazarsfeld,  Berelson  and  Gaudet  analysed  how  the  voter  makes  up  his  mind  in  a  presidential  
campaign.  A  representative  panel  of  600  votes  was  chosen  and  interviewed  repeatedly  about  
voting  intentions  in  the  run-­‐up  to  Election  Day.  

The  voting  behaviours  were  largely  predictable  :  the  poor,  Catholic  and  urban  resident  would  
vote  democratic  and  the  rich  and  Protestants  would  vote  republican.  
So  the  study  focused  
on   the   undecided.   The   study   showed   the   importance   of   personal   influence   and   so   called  
opinion  leaders.  It  was  as  if  ideas  flow  from  radio  and  print  to  opinion  leaders  and  from  them  
to  the  less  active  sections  of  the  population.  He  conducted  a  study  on  how  personal  influence  
functioned.  People  were  discovered  between  the  media  and  the  mass.  Depending  on  the  topic  
different  categories  of  people  were  opinion  leaders.    

The  limited  effects  thesis  was  developed  under  the  influences  of  insights  into  the  audience’s:    

•   Selective  attention,  selective  retention  and  selective  exposure    

•   Phenomena  of  reinforcement  and  confirmation  bias    

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Winona  Fautré  

Phase  3  :  Powerful  media  rediscovered  

 
Lesson  6  :  Powerful  media  rediscovered  :  agenda  setting  and  framing  

Within  the  mainstream  paradigm,  the  idea  was  that  the  media  had  very  limited  effects.  the  
idea  of  «  limited  media  influence  »  may  have  been  the  result  of  a  focus  on  a  specific  type  of  
short-­‐term   effects   studied   between   WWII   and   the   early   sixties.   Some   researchers   started   to  
focus  on  long  term  effects  of  the  media  rather  than  short  term  effects.    Powerful  media  were  
rediscovered  from  the  late  sixties  –  early  seventies.  

•   The  power  of  media  to  determine  «  what  we  talk  about  ?  »  :  Agenda  setting  
•   Effects   of   long-­‐term   media   exposure   on   climates   of   opinion   and   definitions   of  
social  reality  :  Cultivation  theory  and  spiral  of  silence  theory  
•   The  power  of  media  to  select  and  shape  media  contents  :  Gate-­‐keeping  and  
framing  research  

Noelle   Neuman   coined   the   phrase   ‘the   return   of   the   concept   of   powerful   mass   media’  
suggesting  that  media  environments  characterized  by  ‘consonant’  media  messages  are  likely  
to  have  significant  long-­‐term  effects.  
 
Concepts  

 
Agenda-­‐setting  theory  
 
 
Agenda   setting   represents   a   step   towards   studying   a   different   type   of   media   effect   than  
classic  phase  2  studies  that  focus  on  changes  of  attitudes,  opinion  and  behaviour.  One  of  the  
functions  of  mass  media  is  to  determine  what  to  think  about.  The  mass  media  force  attention  
to  certain  issues.  They  have  the  power  to  structure  issues.    
 
Key  claims  of  Agenda-­‐setting  research  (Dearing  and  Rogers  1987)  :  

•   Different   media   tend   to   agree   about   the   relative   salience   of   a   set   of   issues   (news  
agendas  often  resemble  each  other)  
•   Media  agendas  do  not  closely  match  «  real-­‐world  »  indicators  
•   Agenda-­‐setting  research  should  focus  on  how  issues  are  structures  in  relation  to  each  
other.  
•   The  position  of  an  issue  in  the  media  agenda  often  determines  that  issues’s  salience  
in  the  public  agenda.    

Agenda   setting-­‐effects   cen  be  linked  to  a  variety  of  other  effects:  bandwagon  effects,  spiral  
of  silence  effects,  diffusion  of  news  and  mechanisms  of  gate-­‐keeping.    

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Winona  Fautré  

McCombs  gave  Five  stages  of  agenda  setting  theory  and  research  :  

Phase  1  :  Basic  agenda-­‐setting  effects  

McCombs   and   Shaw’s   Chapel   Hill   study   was   a   study   of   the   1968   presidential   election  
campaign.  In  order  to  investigate  the  agenda-­‐setting  capacity  of  the  mass  media  the  study  
attempted  to  match  what  Chapel  Hill  voters  said  were  key  issues  of  the  campaign  with  the  
actual  content  of  the  mass  media  used  by  them  during  the  campaign.  Put  differently,  it  aimed  
to   identify   correlations   between   the   media   agenda(s)   and   the   public   agenda.   Research  
Question   of   the   study   :   Is   the   amount   of   media   attention   devoted   to   certain   «   objects   »  
reflected  in  the  importance  attached  to  these  «  objects  »  by  the  public?    

Method   :   A   ranked   list   of   the   most   important   topics   in   the   media   agenda   and   in   the   public’s  
agenda  was  made.  They  analysed  the  9  most  important  new  sources.  They  interviewed  100  
undecided  voters  about  what  they  considered  to  be  the  most  important  topics  of  the  day.  
Their  answers  were  coded  into  15  categories  representing  the  key  issues  and  other  kinds  of  
campaign  news.  Media  contents  were  divided  into  major  and  minor  issues.  Major  issues  were  
:   on   television   it   was   any   story   which   lasted   for   45   seconds   or   more,   any   cover   of   magazine,  
stories  appearing  in  the  lead  at  the  beginning  of  the  news  section  etc…  Minor  items  are  those  
stories  which  are  political  in  nature  and  included  in  the  study  but  which  are  smaller  in  terms  
of  space,  time,  or  display  than  major  items.    

Conclusions  à  Yet  the  evidence  in  this  study  that  undecided  voters  tend  to  share  the  media’s  
composite  definition  of  what  is  important  strongly  suggest  an  agenda-­‐setting  function  of  the  
mass  media.  The  authors  did  point  out  that  the  political  world  is  reproduces  imperfectly  by  
individual  news  media.  

«   The   existence   of   an   agenda-­‐setting   function   of   the   mass   media   is   not   proved   by   the  
correlations  reported  here,  of  course,  but  the  evidence  is  in  line  with  the  conditions  that  must  
exist  if  agenda-­‐setting  by  the  mass  media  does  occur  »  -­‐McCombs  and  Shaw  1971  

Critics  :  

•   Correspondences  and  similarities  between  agendas  are  not  necessarily  «  effects  »    

•   The  study  did  not  determine  the  direction  of  effect
  
•   It  was  unclear  wether  the  audience  studied  had  been  in  touch  with  specific  media    
•   Topics  /  issues  were  aggregated  (grouped  together)    

It  is  only  possible  to  speak  about  agenda-­‐setting  effects  if  the  correspondence  between  both  
agendas   cannot   rest   on   coincidence.   On   the   basis   of   these   and   other   critiques,   agendas-­‐
setting  research  would  be  continually  refined.  

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Winona  Fautré  

Agenda  setting  in  the  digital  age  :    

«  This  often-­‐documented  transfer  os  salience  from  the  news  media  to  the  public  is  a  key  early  
step  in  the  formation  of  public  opinion.  Now  the  internet  is  the  new  frontier  for  research  on  
these  traditional  agenda-­‐setting  effects.  There  are  many  agendas  in  contemporary  society  and  
many  more  of  these  are  now  readily  abvailable  to  a  large  segment  of  the  public  »  -­‐McCombs  

Some  authors  argue  that  the  internet  heralds  the  end  of  agenda-­‐setting  research  because  of  
‘the  environment  problem’  :  

•   Idiosyncratic  public  agenda’s  

•   A  scattering  of  public  attention  
•   A  fragmentation  of  publics  

Research  shows  a  high  degree  of  homogeneity  between  the  agenda’s  on  newspaper  website  
and  their  offline  versions.  At  the  same  time,    new  phenomena  linked  to  the  emergence  of  new  
publics,   filter   bubbles,   algorithmic   news   selection   programs   on   social   media   etc…   warrant  
further   research.   Inter-­‐media   agenda   setting   is   also   extremely   important   as   social   media  
agendas  increasingly  succeed  in  setting  the  mainstream  agenda.  Consequently,  it  becomes  all  
the  more  important  to  link  agenda-­‐setting  effects  with  research  on  online  media-­‐use.  

Phase  2  :  attribute  agenda  setting  (or  framing?)  

What  is  attribute  agenda  setting  ?  

Traditional   agenda   setting   research   (Phase   1)   focused   on   the     ‘salience’   of   ‘objects’   (usually  
public  issues)  in  different  agendas.  Objects  are  conceived  of  as  ‘attitute  objects’  :  That  what  
we  have  an  attitude  or  opinion  about.  

Attribute  agenda  setting  (Phase  2),  focuses  also  on  the    ‘attributes’  or  characteristics  of  these  
objects  :  «  For  each  object  on  the  agenda,  there  is  an  agenda  of  attributes  that  influences  our  
understanding  of  the  object.
… The  media  not  only  can  be  successful  in  telling  us  what  to  
think  about,  they  also  »    -­‐McComb  

The  array  of  attributes  in  the  media  are  compared  to  the  attributes  in  the  public’s  pictures  
of  the  world.  

Attribute  agenda  setting  =  framing  ?  

For   McCombs   attribute   agenda   setting   and   framing   converge.   To   frame   is   to   select   some  
aspects  of  a  perceived  reality  and  make  them  more  salient  in  a  communicating  text,  in  such  a  
way  as  to  promote  a  particular  problem  definition,  causal  interpretation,  morale  evaluation  
or  treatment  recommendation  for  the  item  described.    

  34  
Winona  Fautré  

McCombs  define  a  frame  as  a  ‘dominant  attribute  in  a  message’.  Both  framing  and  agenda  
setting  research  focus  on  issues  of  selection.  A  frame  is  seen  as  a  special  kind  of  attribute  in  
agenda  setting  theory.  Attributes  provide  compelling  arguments.    

For  McCombs  there  is  a  direct  link  between  agenda  setting  effects  and  Lippmann’s  idea  of  
media  inserting  ‘pictures  in  our  heads’.  

Attributes  as  compelling  arguments  :  Where  second-­‐level  or  attribute  agenda  setting  effects  
occurs,  attributes  can  become  ‘compelling  arguments’  for  behavior.  Compelling  arguments  
are  frames,  certain  dominant  ways  of  organizing  and  structuring  the  picture  of  an  object  that  
enjoys  high  success  among  the  public.  

Phase  3  :  Investigating  the  process  and  the  psychology  of  agenda-­‐setting  effects  

In  the  beginning  researches  were  not  interested  in  explaining  why  and  how  agenda-­‐setting  
effects  took  place.  

There  are  significant  differences  in  the  responses  to  the  media  agenda,  differences  explained  
in  large  measure  by  the  concept  of  need  for  orientation.  The  more  need  for  orientation,  the  
more  people  follow  public  affairs  and  accept  the  news  agenda.  The  need  for  orientation  is  
explained  through  ‘uncertainty’  and  ‘relevance’.    

agenda  setting  function  of  the  media  is  more  than  a  simple  adoption-­‐process.  Nevertheless,  
most   studies   claim   that   media   coverage   mechanically   leads   to   political   attention   without  
taking  the  mechanism  of  ‘need  for  orientation’  into  account.    

Phase  4  :  Sources  of  the  media  agenda

If  the  press  sets  the  public  agenda,  who  sets  the  media  agenda  ?    

•   Norms  and  traditions  of  journalism  

•   Daily  interactions  among  news  organisations  (intermedia  agenda-­‐setting)  
•   Interactions  between  news  sources  and  their  agendas    
•   Social  media  (facebook,  twitter)  

Intermedia  agenda  setting  at  both  the  first  and  second  level  is  likely  to  remain  high  on  the  
journalism  research  agenda  for  a  very  long  time.  

  35  
Winona  Fautré  

Phase  5  :  Consequences  of  agenda-­‐setting  effects

Agenda-­‐setting  has  different  effects  :  forming  an  opinion,  priming  opinions  and  shaping  an  
opinion.  McCombs  argues  that  one  needs  to  reconsider  the  minimal  effects  thesis  by  taking  
insights  about  agenda-­‐setting  and  the  psychology  of  «  need  for  orientation  »  into  account.    

Critiques  and  difficulties  

It  is  easy  to  determine  correlations  but  effects  are  trickier.  

In  order  to  measure  agenda  effects  in  an  electoral  campaign  you  need  to  conduct  :    

•   content  analysis  of  all  party  programmes  

•   determine  changes  of  opinion  over  a  period  of  time  
•   content  analysis  of  media  attention  to  different  issues  in  the  selected  period  
•   content  analysis  of  media  use  by  the  public.    
 
à  Such  data  are  hardly  ever  proceeded  simultaneously.    

The  questions  ‘who’  is  important,  ‘where’  things  happen  and  ‘why’  things  happen  are  mostly  
neglected.  

The   direction   of   effect   between   the   agendas   of   «   the   media   »,   «   the   public   »   and   «   policy   »  
can  be  extremely  complex  and  is  hard  to  determine.  

Credibility  and  trust  in  media  have  an  unexamined  tole  to  play  in  the  agenda-­‐setting  process  
as  well.    

Different   mass   media   tend   to   share   the   same   set   of   news   priorities.   Online   news   services  
therefore  pose  a  challenge  to  the  agenda-­‐setting  function  of  mass  media.    

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

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Winona  Fautré  

 
Framing  
 
 

To  frame  is  to  select  some  aspects  of  the  perceived  reality  and  make  them  more  salient  in  a  
communicating   text,   in   such   a   way   as   to   promote   a   particular   problem   definition,   causal  
interpretation,  moral  evaluation  or  treatment  recommendation.    

There  are  3  main  types  of  framing  studies  :  

1.  Sociological  and  communication  studies  :    

They   tend   to   focus   on   frames   in   communication   :   words,   images,   forms   of  

communication.    

According   to   Goffman,   frames   provide   us   with   schemes   that   allow   us   to   interpret  

events  that  do  not  have  an  independent  meaning.  

Framing   is   about   how   you   define   your   reality.   According   to   Entman,   framing   involves  
the  identification  of  problems  causal  relationships  and  answers  the  question  :  what  to  
do  ?    

à  Most  but  not  all  research  of  this  kind  are  quantitative  and  involves  some  sort  of  
content  analysis.  

2.  Cognitive  psychology  and  cognitive  linguistics  frames  :
    

They  are  conceptualised  as  cognitive  rather  than  textual  or  visual  constructs.    

3.  Political  science  :    

One  tends  to  talk  about  collective  action  frames.    

Framing  –  Four  definitions  

Ervin  Goffman    

Goffman  was  an  interactional  sociologist  and  was  the  author  of  ‘frame  Analysis’  :  an  essay  on  
the  organization  of  experience.  According  to  Goffman  ‘frames’  provide  us  with  ‘schemes’  that  
allow  us  to  interpret  events  that  do  not  have  independent  meanings.  the  question  is  how  we  
define   our   reality:   the   notion   of   ‘frame’   as   developed   by   Goffman   aims   to   answer   this  
question.  for  Goffman,  frame  are  not  simply  about  media  messages  but  more  fundamentally  
about  the  way  we  organize  our  everyday  experiences.  
  

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Winona  Fautré  

Robert  Entman    

Entman   was   a   communication   scientist   who   sees   framing   as   a   process   of   selection   and  
emphasis.  

«  to  frame  is  to  select  some  aspects  of  perceived  reality  and  make  them  more  salient  in  a  
communication   text,   in   such   a   way   as   to   promote   a   particular   problem   definition,   causal  
interpretation,  moral  evaluation  and/or  treatment  recommendation  for  the  item  described  »  
-­‐  Enteman  

One   may   identify   frames   at   the   level   of   the   message,   the   text,   the   recipient,   or   the  
surrounding  culture.  

Gitlin  

Gitlin  defines  frames  as  ‘persistent  patterns  of  cognition,  interpretation  and  prevention  of  
selection,  emphasis  and  exclusion  by  which  symbol  handlers  routinely  organise  discourse’.    

Symbol  handler  may  include  :  

•   Propagandists  
•   Journalists  
•   Advertisers  

Gitlin   stresses   that   frames   are   part   of   routine   journalistic   practices.   They   allow   them   to  
recognize,  categorize  and  produce  typical  stories.  

Gamson  and  Modigliani  

Gamson   and   Modigliani   consider   frames   in   terms   of   interpretive   packages.   A   ‘frame’   can  
organize   multiple   communications   (textes,   statements,   media   messages).   It   provides  
coherence   to   information.   Frames   operate   through   interpretive   packages   consisting   of  
multiple  framing  devices.  

Gamson  and  Modigliani  mention  five  framing  devices  :  

•   Metaphors  
•   Exemplars  
•   Catchphrases   à  Fram  shoul  not  be  reduced  to  story  topic  or  issues.  
•   Depictions  
•   Visual  images              

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Winona  Fautré  

Determine  what  sort  of  frames  you  want  to  identify  ?  

1.  Generic  Frames  
2.  Issue  Specific  Frames  

The  approach  chosen  impacts  on  the  methodology  

 

1.  Generic  frames  

Frames   that   can   be   re-­‐used   irrespective   of   the   specific   characteristics   of   the   research   topic,  
medium,  genre.    

E.G.   :   Capella   and   Jamieson   identified   a   generic   ‘strategic’   frame   in   news   about   election  
campaign  :    

•   Focuses  on  winning  and  losing  

•   Game,  competition  and  war  metaphors  
•   Focuses  in  style  and  perception
  
•   Importance  attached  to  polls  and  candidacies    

E.G.  :  Noelle  Neumann  developed  the  following  generic  frames  :    

-­‐   Human  impact  frame :  The  human  impact  of  an  event  is  emphasized  
-­‐   Powerlessness  frame :  the  operation  of  dominant  forces  over  weak  individuals  and  
group  is  emphasized.  
-­‐   Economic  frame  :  The  emphasis  is  on  bottom-­‐line  gains  and  losses.  
-­‐   Morale  values  frames  :  References  to  social  norms  (often  indirect).  
 

2.  Issue  specific  frames  

Issue   specific   frames   allow   for   detail   and   provide   insight   into   the   thematic   under  
investigation.    

Comparisons  and  generalisations  with  other  topics  may  be  difficult.    

For   example,   in   the   Clinton-­‐Lewinsky   scandal,   three   big   frames   tath   framed   the   scandal  
differently  :    
-­‐Clinton  behaviour  scandal  frame    
  -­‐  Conservative  attack  frame
  
-­‐  Liberal  response  frame    
 
 
 

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Methodological  choices  :  There  are  two  methodological  strategies  for  identifying  frames    

1.  Inductive  strategy  analysis  :    

It  is  useful  for  avoiding  pre-­‐formulated  frames  in  the  analysis  of  (mediated)  messages.  
If   we   use   this   strategy,   we   have   to   stick   as   closely   to   the   original   terminology  
observable  in  data  –  one  codes  from  the  bottom  up.  It  is  laborious  process  because  all  
aspects  of  the  problem  have  to  be  studied.  It  allows  more  creativity.  There  is  room  for  
unexpected  conclusions.    

2.  Deductive  strategy  analysis  :    

It  is  useful  if  you  already  know  what  to  look  for.  You  need  to  determine  your  ‘frame’  
beforehand  and  check  whether  they  are  present  in  a  texte  and  in  what  way  they  are  
used.  

You  do  need  a  number  of  conditions  in  order  to  work  deductively  :  

•   You  need  to  specify  the  criteria  in  order  to  identify  frames  
•   You  have  to  make  sure  the  frames  you  want  to  identify  occur  in  your  data  
•   It  should  be  possible  to  distinguish  frames  from  each  other  
•   Minimize  the  possibility  of  projection.  
 
 

framing  devices  

Any  empirical  investigation  of  frames  requires  an  identification  of  ‘framing  devices’(these  are  
always  concrete  and  visual)  :    

•  Headers  and  sub-­‐headers    

•  Pictures  and  picture  comments  
•  Selected  sources  and  quotes
   à  This  goes  both  for  inductive  and  
•  Terminology,  metaphors,  and  arguments     for  deductive  approaches  to  framing.  

•  Statistics  and  charts
    

•  Conclusions  and  introductions    

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Winona  Fautré  

Example    

hot  falls  and  summers  in  Belgium    

What  frames  were  used  in  order  to  problematize  unions  and  the  right  to  strike  ?    

Framing  the  union  as  a  conservative  anachronisme  :  claiming  realism  
  

Psychological  framing  of  unions  as  unreasonable,  irresponsible  and  child-­‐like  actors
  

Criminalizing  frames  :  unions  as  vandals,  hostage  takers  and  terrorists  
  

Framing   unions   as   opposed   to   the   general   interest   :   Unions   vs   job   creating,   unions   as  
nuisance...  
  

Meta-­‐communicative   frames   :   “use   talents   in   order   to   engage   in   a   dialogue,   in   a   fun,  

inspiring,   and   positive   way,   instead   of   fencing   with   anger   shouts   that   do   not   mean  
anything”  -­‐Wambacq  

Depoliticising  frames  :  The  primacy  of  the  political  and  unions  as  under  democratic  actors.  
Unions  are  not  supposed  to  play  a  political  role.  
  

Some  conclusions  

the  debate  on  unions  and  their  right  to  strike  is  not  ‘merely’  about  unions  and  strikes.  An  
entire  mode  of  conceptualizing  and  doing  politics  is  at  stake.    

Meta-­‐political  debates  have  the  potential  to  re-­‐structure  the  face  of  the  public  sphere  and  
the  entities  and  processes  that  shape  it.    

Meta-­‐political  debates  are  debates  in  which  competing  political  ‘fantasies’  and  ‘imaginaries’  
clash.    

The   neoliberalism   that   underlies   contemporary   union-­‐critical   statements   is   radically   meta-­‐  

political  in  a  Belgian  context  marked  by  powerful  labour  unions.    

 
 

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Lesson  7  :  gatekeeping,  spiral  of  silence  and  cultivation  theory  

 
 
Gatekeeping  
 
 
Gatekeeping  research  focuses  on  the  question  :  what  factors  impact  on  whether  an  event  
will  or  will  not  be  covered  by  the  news  ?    

The  gatekeepers  controls  whether  information  passes  through  the  channel.  Gatekeepers  take  
many   forms   :   People   -­‐   Professional   codes   of   conduct     -­‐   Company   policies
-­‐   Computer  
algorithms  -­‐  …  

Gatekeepers  make  decisions  with  varying  degrees  of  autonomy.  In  early  studies,  the  gate  was  
seen   as   an   in-­‐out   decision/access   points.   However,   gatekeepers   can   also   take   other  
decisions,  such  as  the  time/space  allotted  to  a  news  item.    

 
The  ‘gatekeeper’  :  A  case  study  in  the  selection  of  news  –  1950  -­‐  Martin  R.  White  

A  study  of  the  way  ‘Mr  Gates’  selected  news  items  from  the  telegraph  feed.  He  was  a  40  years  
old  man  working  for  a  30.000  issue  newspaper  and  had  25  years  of  experience  as  a  journalist.  
The   key   question   was   :   What   are   the   criteria   used   for   selecting   news   items   offered   by  
national  and  international  press  agencies  ?  During  one  week  all  the  news  items  were  kept  
and  Mr.  Gates  was  asked  to  keep  notes  on  why  he  did  or  did  not  use  them.  Results  was  that  
90%  of  the  information  didn’t  pass  ‘the  gatekeeper’.  Some  of  the  selection  criteria  had  nothing  
to  do  with  the  content  of  news  messages  themselves  (e.g.  :  no  space).  Mr  Gates  acknowledged  
that  he  tried  to  vary  between  news  categories.  He  believed  that  human  interest  news  could  
stimulate   exemplary   behaviour.   He   considered   his   public   to   be   averagely   intelligent   and  
entitled  to  pleasant  as  well  as  informing  news.    

White  concluded  that  gatekeepers  base  their  decisions  on  highly  subjective  and  idiosyncratic  
criteria.  These  criteria  are  highly  individual.  His  transmission  model  of  news  selection  explains  
the  gatekeeping  function  first  and  foremost  in  terms  of  a  need  for  selecting  information.  

Some  critiques  :  

•   White  did  not  focus  on  the  fact  that  values  are  the  product  of  primary  (culture,  class)  
and   secondary   (profession)   socialisation.   Values   are   never   purely   individual  
constructs.    
•   Political  and  economic  agendas  also  play  a  role  in  the  selection  process.    
•   There  are  always  multiple  gatekeepers  active  in  different  parts  of  the  construction  of  
news.    

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Winona  Fautré  

News  values  

‘The  structure  of  foreign  news’  -­‐  Mari  Roge  and  Johan  Galtung  1965  

The  main  question  is  :   How  do  media  of  countries  in  the  periphery  of  the  first  world  report  
on  major  crisis  in  the  third  world  periphery  ?  

A   content   analysis   of   reports   join   crises   in   Congo,   Cuba   and   Cyprus   in   four   Norway  
newspapers.  Results  :  

-­‐   all  news  came  from  a  very  small  number  of  press  agencies
  
-­‐   twelve  factors  make  an  event  ‘newsworthy’
  
-­‐   the  more  these  criteria  are  met,  the  more  likely  that  the  event  becomes  news    
-­‐   newsworthy  factors  will  be  highlighted  over  other  features  of  the  event  covered    

The  criteria  of  what’s  worthy  are  :  

•   Frequency    

Is  the  time-­‐span  (laps  de  temps)  of  the  event  compatible  with  the  time-­‐frame  of  the  
medium   ?   Immediacy   and   recently   also   play   a   role   in   many   news   media.    
Criminal  and  violent  incidents  and  natural  disasters  are  ideal  because  they  can  play  
themselves   out   in   a   single   newspaper   bulletin   or   text.   Climate   change   or   gradual  
economic  transition  are  less  likely  to  be  covered.    

•   Amplitude    

How   extreme   or   dramatic   is   an   event   ?   Does   it   stand   out   ?   The   more   extreme   or  
dramatic  an  event  is,  the  more  likely  it  is  to  receive  prominent  coverage.  

•   Clarity    

The  more  clear,  accessible  and  one  dimensional  an  event  is,  the  more  appealing  it  will  
be  for  news  providers.  Stories  with  clear  distinction  between  ‘good’  and  ‘bad’.  

•   Predicability  

Newsworthy  stories  often  fit  with  our  expectations  and  cohere  with  the  way  in  which  
we  believe  the  world  to  work.  It’s  link  to  clarity.  Predictability  often  goes  hand  in  hand  
with  stereotyping.  

•   Unexpectedness  

The  importance  of  ‘predictability’  and  ‘clarity’  do  not  mean  that  new  items  prioritize  
the   mundane.
Rather,   these   values   tend   to   function   hand   in   hand   with  

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Winona  Fautré  

unexpectedness  à  does  not  happen  frequently.    

•   Composition  

News  media  tend  to  have  a  specific  composition  that  may  lead  to  the  selection  of  news  
in  conformity  with  a  general  theme.  But  items  can  also  be  selected  simply  because  a  
variety  of  issues  need  to  be  covered.    

•   Elitism  (nation  and  person)  

Events  that  relate  to  the  most  powerful  nations/people  in  the  world  are  seen  to  have  
more   consequences   and   are   more   likely   to   be   covered   than   those   taking   place   in  
poorer  less  influential  countries.  This  can  be  easily  linked  to  ohter  issues  such  as  racism,  
sexism,  ethnocentrism,  etc.  

•   Continuity    

Once  an  issue  is  on  the  agenda  this  fact  may  guarantee  newsworthiness  in  the  future.    

•   Personification  

The  extent  to  which  a  news  item  can  be  represented  by  focusing  on  the  intentions,  
actions,  or  emotions  of  individuals  increases  its  news  value.    

•   Negativity    

Negative  news  stories  are  likely  to  dominate  the  news  agenda.  Especially  when  they  fit  
in  with  the  other  news  selection  criteria.    

A  consequence  of  negativism  is  that  certain  areas  of  the  world  get  depicted  as  eternal  
problem  areas.  consequently,  big  part  of  the  world  appears  on  television  as  if  they  are  
in  constant  need  of  aid.    

•   Ideological  implication  

Taken   together,   these   news   criteria   can   have   serious   distorting   effects   that   may  
explain  the  differences  between  public  and  media  agendas.    

In   the   long   run   these   selection   mechanisms   inform   ideological   effects.   This   can   be  
illustrated  cleraly  with  reference  to  negativism  and  personification.  

§   Ideological  implication  of  personification  

The  focus  on  persons  offers  possibilities  for  identification,  (dis)agreement  

and   (dis)approval.   Social   groups   and   movement   get   reduced   to   their  
leaders. In   the   long   term   run   this   may   lead   to   a   simplistic   good   guy   /   bad  

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Winona  Fautré  

guy  frame.  

§   Ideological  implication  of  negativism  

Negative   events   often   require   a   little   amount   of   time   to   develop  

themselves.  By  covering  negative  events  in  this  way  –  taking  the  criterion  
of  cultutral  proximity  into  account  –  Certain  areas  of  the  world  get  depicted  
as  eternal  problem  areas.  

 
Spiral  of  Silence  
 
 

Spiral  of  silence  is  a  theory  of  mass  media,  interpersonal  communication,  social  relations  and  
individual   expression   of   opinion.   It   states   that   the   perception   individuals   have   of   public  
opinion  will  impact  on  their  willingness  to  voice  their  personal  opinions.  So,  if  you  think  that  
everyone   else   has   a   different   opinion   than   you,   you   will   be   less   likely   to   voice   it.   The  
perception  we  have  of  public  opinion  is  constructed  by  the  media.  This  theory  was  developed  
by  Elisabeth  Noelle  Neumann.  

The  theory  is  based  on  the  following  assumptions:    

•   Society  threatens  deviant  individuals  with  isolation.  
  

•   Individuals  experience  fear  of  isolation  continuously.    
•   People  are  not  rational  but  let  themselves  be  guided  by  fear  of  isolation.  
  
•   This  fear  causes  individuals  to  assess  the  climate  of  opinion  continuously.  
  
•   The   result   of   this   assessment   affects   public   behaviour   and   the   willingness   to  
expression  opinions  publicly.  
  
•   People  are  inclined  to  conform  themselves  to  the  dominant  opinion.  
  

People   tend   to   conceal   their   views   when   they   think   that   they   are   in   the   minority   and   speak  
out  when  they  think  they  are  not.  Views  that  seem  dominant  become  ever  more  dominant,  
views  that  seem  to  be  losing  ground  will  spiral  down  into  silence.  The  theory  does  not  talk  
about   changing   opinions,   only   about   people’s   willingness   to   speak   out.   It   has   been  
empirically  tested  on  a  number  of  occasions  with  mixed  results  (does  media  coverage  really  
impact  the  will  to  speak  out?).  
  

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Winona  Fautré  

In  order  to  assess  whether  we  are  dealing  with  a  spiral  of  silence  Noelle  Neumann  argued  that  
5  hypothesis  needed  to  be  tested  :  

    1.  The  perception  hypothesis    

Out  of  fear,  people  create  a  quasi-­‐statistical  distribution  of  opinions  in  their  heads  in  
order  to  answer  the  following  questions  about  the  climate  of  opinions  :  
  

-­‐   What  opinons  are  being  articulated  ?
  

-­‐   How  strong  are  these  different  opinions  ?
  
-­‐   Are  these  options  growing  more  or  less  popular  ?  
  

2.  The  speak-­‐out  hypothesis    

The   willingness   of   people   to   speak   out   depends   on   :   people’s   estimation   of   the  

distribution  of  opinions  and  their  estimation  of  the  way  public  opinion  evolves.    

3.  Media  effect  hypothesis  

If  the  estimated  distribution  is  not  in  line  with  the  actual  distribution  of  opinions,  this  
will  be  because  the  perceived  dominant  opinion  has  been  more  present  in  the  public  
sphere  (via  the  mass  media)    

4.  The  assessment  of  future  trend  hypothesis  

The  way  you  perceive  public  opinion  is  often  in  line  with  the  way  you  think  the  situation  
will  evolve.    

5.  The  assessment  of  future  trend  hypothesis  

If   there   is   a   difference   between   your   own   opinion   and   the   estimated   future  
development   of   public   opinion,   it   will   be   expected   future   development   that   will  
impact  your  will  to  speak  out.    

Elisabeth  Noelle  Neumann  attributed  great  power  to  the  media  and  wrot  an  article  :  ‘Return  
of  the  concept  of  powerful  media’  :  
 
§   Most  people  get  confronted  with  media  messages  either  directly  or  through  two-­‐step  
flow.  
  
§   The  media  work  through  cumulation  :  media  messages  are  repeated  over  multiple  
channels  several  times.  Chances  of  selective  exposure  are  therefore  limited.  
  
§   Consonance  of  media  messages  :  news  values,  commercial  motivations,  professional  
competition  lead  to  a  reduction  of  contradictory  messages  and  increases  the  chance  
of  perceiving  a  homogenous  public  opinion.  
  

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Winona  Fautré  

§   Publicness  :  people  use  their  personal  observations,  social  network  and  media  in  order  
to  construct  an  image  of  public  opinion.  
  

The  power  of  the  medium  depends  on  the  question  whether  you  can  use  it  selectively  (e.g.  
how   many   channels   do   you   have   at   your   disposal).   The   influence   of   the   mass   media   is  
considered  to  be  largely  negative  (stimulating  conformity  and  fear  for  social  isolation  while  
undermining  rational  thought).    

Spiral   of   silence   theory   does   not   talk   about   changing   opinions,   only   about   people’s  
willingness   to   speak   out.   It   has   been   tested   on   a   number   of   occasions   with   mixed   results.   It  
may  say  more  about  the  figure  of  the  author  than  about  the  nature  of  public  opinion  itself.  
The  validity  of  the  theory  depends  on  the  extent  to  which  alternative  reference  groups  and  
views  are  available  to  media  users.  It  also  bears  resemblances  with  mass  society  theory  in  the  
pessimism  attributed  to  the  nature  of  social  relations.  There  is  strong  evidence  that  media  
coverage   largely   determines   the   way   people   perceive   public   opinion   (opinion   about  
opinion).  There  is  also  strong  evidence  that  fear  of  isolation  impacts  on  willingness  to  speak  
out  on  controversial  issues.  But  here,  it  is  mostly  the  micro-­‐climate  of  friends  and  family  that  
matters.    

Some  critiques  of  the  ‘spiral  of  silence’  theory  :  

•   Not   all   issues   can   be   linked   to   fear   for   social   isolation.   This   goes   mostly   for   highly  
sensitive  subjects  where  this  threat  might  be  real.  
•   Are  mediaas    consonant  as  Noelle  Neumann  claims  ?  Dos  this  go  for  every  countries  ?  
•   Is  this  really  such  a  thing  as  a  ‘social’  skin  ?  
•    If  people  do  not  express  their  true  opinions  when  they  are  part  of  the  minority,  how  
can  they  be  so  sure  about  their  opinions  ?    
•   How  can  a  spiral  of  silence  be  stopped  ?  Circular  reasoning.  
•   The   research   only   asks   people   whether   they   speak   out   and   does   not   take   actual  
behavior  into  account.  
•   The   opinion   of   a   limited   peer   group   may   matter   more   to   an   individual   than   public  
opinion  in  general.  
•   Political   interest,   emotion,   and   conviction   in   one’s   own   opinion   also   have   proven   to  
impact  on  the  willingness  to  articulate  opinions.  

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Winona  Fautré  

 
Cultivation  theory  
 
 

Cultivation   theory   tries   to   determine   to   what   extent   a   dominant   medium   (in   this   case,  
television)  contributes  to  people’s  definitions  of  reality.  It  focuses  on  the  long  term  effects  of  
massive   media   exposure.   Individual   short-­‐term   media   effects   may   be   small   but   taken  
together  they  add  up  in  the  long  run.  It  was  developed  by  George  Gerbner  and  was  one  of  
the  most  quoted  media  theories  between  1958  and  2000.    

Cultivation   is   not   only   a   theory,   it   includes   an   elaborate   methodology   for   analyzing   the  
process   of   cultivation.   The   theory   was   developed   in   order   to   understand   the   cultural  
influence  of  massive  television  exposure  but  can  be  extended  to  other  screen-­‐based  media  
as  well.  The  approach  was  born  out  of  preoccupation  with  the  effects  of  televised  violence  on  
the  US  population  in  the  sixties.  Like  many  others  thories  it  has  to  be  reworked  and  updated  
under  the  time  and  media  evolution.  

According   to   Gerbner,   it   is   the   constant   exposure   to   the   screen   that   has   an   influence   in   the  
long   term   on   culture   in   general   and   on   people’s   notion   of   culture.   Gerbner   developed   his  
theory   as   a   theory   about   television   but   today   televised   images   come   to   us   through   a  
multiplicity   of   technology.   This   does   not   necessarily   alter   the   main   claims   of   cultivation  
theory.   Cultivation   research   asks   if   people   who   watch   more   television   have   views   that   are  
more   reflective   of   what   they   see   on   television   than   people   who   have   similar   demographic  
characteristics  but  watch  less  television.  

Gerbner  saw  culture  as  ‘a  system  of  messages  and  images  that  regulates  and  reproduces  
social  relations’.  In  other  words,  culture  is  a  system  of  mass-­‐produced  stories  ‘that  mediates  
between,   existence   and   consciousness   of   existence,   and   thereby   contributes   to   both’.   As   a  
result,  the  mediated  messages  and  images  that  surround  us  both  reflect  and  reproduce  the  
way  we  think  about  the  world.  

Gerbner  on  cultivation  :  

•   Culture  is  a  shared  system  of  messages  that  makes  use  of  symbols.  
•   Mass  media  have  become  the  main  source  of  shared  symbols  and  stories  in  modern  
societies.  
•   Media  cultivate  their  audiences  through  their  ‘public  making  ability’  and  through  the  
stories  they  tell.  
•   They  have  a  public  making  ability,  this  means  that  their  public  does  not  preexist.    
•   Individuals  are  transformed  into  a  public  by  the  distribution  of  symbols  and  stories.    
§   Media  can  make  certain  voices,  issues,  images  and  information  publicly  
accessible.  

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Winona  Fautré  

§   They   can   also   transform   individuals   into   a   public   by   distributing   its  

symbols  and  stories  among  them.  
§   Through  stories  knowledge,  norms,  values  and  experiences  are  being  
cultivated  in  communities.  
•   Mass   media   have   replaced   the   storytellers   of   the   past   :   answering   existential  
questions,   establishing   priorities,   establishing   values,   establishing   relationships  
(what  is  linked  to  what  in  what  way).  Television  has  absorbed  story  telling  functions  of  
traditional   storytellers.   It   is   a   centralised   system   of   story   telling.   Plus,   television   is  
more  pervasive:  it  has  entered  all  houses  disregarding  class,  ethnicity,  religion...  and  
it  accompanies  people  from  the  cradle  to  the  grave.    
•   Gerbner  also  claims  that  use  of  television  in  non  selective  :  it  is  used  so  massively  that  
people  do  not  really  choose  and  most  viewers  watch  by  the  clock  and  not  really  by  
the  program.    

Real  world  and  TV’s  pseudo-­‐reality  

The  images  that  we  see  on  television  are  not  a  lie  but  rather  a  mix  of  a  simplified  reality  and  
fiction.  They  are  referred  to  as  a  «  pseudo  reality  ».    The  more  people  immerse  themselves  in  
tv’s   pseudo-­‐reality,   the   more   they   will   interpret   real   reality   in   tv   terms   (=cultivation   through  
television).  

Cultivation   effects   are   not   triggered   by   serious   news   programmes   alone,   they   are   the   result  
of   cumulative   media   exposure.   Gerbner   is   not   interested   in   the   direction   of   cultivation  
effects.  Communication  is  not  uni-­‐linear.  Media  messages  can  also  originate  within  the  public.  
Media  messages  have  a  kind  of  gravitational  effect,  they  pull  society  together  with  a  common  
message.    

Today,  content  reaches  us  through  many  channels  but  the  content  itself  does  not  change.  
There   are   more   and   more   channels   but   less   companies   are   responsible   for   creating   the  
content.  New  technologies  (internet)  do  not  necessarily  invalidate  cultivation  as  an  important  
way  to  explain  impact.  Internet  has  actually  increased  the  cultivation  effect  by  making  the  
access  to  information  much  easier.    

Methodology  :  the  cultural  indicators  approach  

Gerbner’s  cultural  indicators  approach  covers  three  research  domains  :  

1.  The  analysis  of  factors  that  determine  the  production  of  media  messages  :  institutional  
process  analysis  

It  focuses  in  the  institutional  processes  that  underlie  the  production  and  distribution  
of  media  contents.  Gerbner  identifies  9  entities  that  may  influence  the  production  of  
messages.   Government,   investors,   managements,   providers   of   contents   and   data,  

  49  
Winona  Fautré  

media  workers  themselves,  competition,  expert,  interest  group  and  organisation,  the  
public.    

2.  The  analysis  of  the  media  messages  themselves  :  media  system  analysis    

Cultivation  research  starts  with  message  system  analysis.  The  goal  is  to  identify  the  
most  recurring  and  stable  patterns  in  television  content.  It  is  also  a  search  for  images  
and   values   that   cut   accros   different   media   genres   and   programs.   It   amounts   to   an  
investigation   of   television’s   pseudo   reality.   Gerbner   didn’t   believe   in   the   impact   of  
isolated  messages.  M.S.A.  is  an  investigation  of  the  television  package.    

It  is  a  content  analysis  whereby  one  identifies  indicators  of  the  four  functions  of  story  
telling  :  what  exists,  prioritisation,  evaluation  (values),  structure  (connections  made).  
Numerous  elements  of  programming  are  examined:  sex  roles,  violence,  race,  health.    

Results   are   used   for   generating   questions   about   people’s   views   on   social   reality  
(surveys).    

3.  The  analysis  of  cultivation  effects  :  cultivation  analysis.    

So   technically   speaking,   cultivation   analysis   is   just   one   part   of   the   wider   cultural  
indicators  approach.  Nevertheless,  the  term  cultivation  analysis  often  designates  the  
overall  approach.    

There  are  two  sets  of  questions  that  are  asked  in  surveys:    

1.  questions  about  social  reality    

2.  questions  about  media  use    

cultivation  studies  have  shown  that  heavy  viewers  in  the  US  :
  

§   Are  more  likely  to  believe  that  they  will  be  involved  in  violence  
§   Have  exaggerated  conceptions  of  danger,  mistrust  and  victimization.  
§   Heavy  viewers    are  often  different  demographic  profiles  than  light  tv  viewers 
  
§   Hold  inaccurate  beliefs  about  crime  and  law  enforcement
  
§   Say   that   ‘you   can’t   be   too   careful’,   that   ‘most   people   are   just   looking   out  
themselves’  or  ‘cannot  be  trusted’
  
§   Say  that  there  are  more  people  involved  in  law  enforcement  than  in  reality    
 
à    This  pattern  of  beliefs  is  called  ‘the  mean  world  syndrome’    

Cultivation  analysis  typically  generates  small  effect  sizes.  However,  even  people  who  
watch   little   television   still   watch   a   consequent   amount   of   it.   And   heavy   viewers   do  
interact   with   those   who   watch   less   television.   Nevertheless,   small   differences  

  50  
Winona  Fautré  

between  light  and  heavy  viewers  can  have  huge  consequences.    

Critiques  and  problems  :  

•   We   have   to   distinguish   between   first-­‐order   and   second-­‐order   effects   in   cultivation  

analysis  :    
§   First   order   questions   ask   about   how   likely   it   is   that   something   will  
happen  in  the  future.  It  does  not  deal  with  opinions.    
§   Second  order  questions  have  to  do  with  attitude  and  value  judgements  
about  social  reality.    

This  distinction  is  important  because  learning  about  factual  things  does  not  mean  that  
you  change  your  opinion  about  them.    

•   ‘Perceived  realism’  :    The   question   how   people   define   what   is   realistic   or   not   may  
have  to  be  taken  into  account.  
 
•   International   research   :   Research   conducted   across   the   globe   shows   that   when  
television   exposure   is   less   repetitive   and   homogenous   than   what   is   seen   in   the   US,  
cultivation   theory   results   might   be   predictable   and   consistent.     When   programming  
is   less   diversified   and   more   dominated   by   commercial   interests,   cultivation   is   more  
often  found.  
 
•   The   issue   of   genre   :   Gerbner’s   classic   approach   focuses   on   long   term   effects   of  
television   in   general.   Others   researchers   have   asked   if   one   should   not   take   the  
consumption   of   specific   genres   of   messages   into   account   (crimes,   action,   current  
affairs,  sit-­‐com,  family,  drams,  etc.).  But  the  problem  with  focusing  on  genre  is  that  
one  might  find  all  sorts  of  messages  in  any  genre.  ‘Genre  specific  studies’  have  become  
the   most   common   form   of   ‘cultivation   studies’……………………………………………………….    
 
•   One   the   coding   process   :   It   is   important   to   keep   in   mind   that   the   issue   of   defining  
categories  is  key.  
 
There  are  differences  in  how  cultivation  works  :      

•  Resonance  :    

Sometimes   television   provides   a   dose   of   messages   that   resonate   with   personal  

experiences.  It  can  be  observed  when  the  following  conditions  are  met  :  differences  
between  light  and  heavy  viewers,  and  differences  between  two  categories  are  even  
bigger  (for  example,  men  and  women).    

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Winona  Fautré  

•  Mainstreaming  :    

Sometimes   there   are   differences   between   the   definitions   of   reality   among   light  
viewers   that   disappear   among   heavy   viewers.   This   means   that   the   views   of   heavy  
viewers   are   more   diversified   than   the   views   among   light   viewers.   Mainstreaming  
erases  the  boundaries  of  age,  class  and  religion.    

 
Lesson  8    :  The  power  of  interpretation  –  Cultural  studies  and  audience  studies  
 
PART  2  :  Media  content  and  the  power  of  interpretation  

Phase  4  :  Negotiated  media  influence  

Social  constructivism  emerged  at  the  end  of  the  1970’s.    

Media   themselves   do   not   have   independent   meanings.   They   help   us   construct   our   own  
versions   of   reality.   The   media   system   offer   ready-­‐made   (often   stereotypical)   meanings   :   a  
preferred  view  of  social  reality.  They  help  us  to  define  what  is  normal  ?  

Audience  members  do  not  necessarily  adopt  meaning  offered  by  the  media  but  can  enter  in  a  
process  of  negotiation  of  meaning.    

The  idea  of  negotiated  media  influence  was  developed  largely  in  the  context  of  a  new  field  of  
inquiry  called  cultural  studies.  Cultural  studies  deal  with  issues  of  meaning  representation,  
ideology,   hegemony   and   power.   Qualitative   and   ethnographic   methods   are   used   to  
understand  this  process.    

Where   did   the   idea   of   negotiated   media   influence   come   from   ?   The   question   of   the   meaning  
is  essential  when  talking  about  the  media.  There  are  many  questions  about  meanings  that  can  
be   asked   :   Where   do   we   find   meaning   ?   How   is   meaning   shaped   ?   Do   meanings   exist  
independently  of  people/groups  ?  Is  meaning  something  we  have  or  not  have  ?  How  is  meaning  
linked   to   different   layers   of   context   ?   These   questions   are   rather   complex   but   are   extremely  
relevant  if  we  want  to  understand  meaning.    

What  is  a  sign  and  how  does  it  signify  ?    Signs  acquire  meaning  because  they  are  part  of  a  
system  of  signs  :  by  contrast  with  other  signs.  Some  systems  are  limited,  which  makes  the  
signs  clearer.  What  principles  do  we  rely  on  in  order  to  understand  signs  ?  We  rely  on  culture,  
class,  education...    

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Winona  Fautré  

CULTURALISM  
 

What  are  cultural  studies  ?  

Cultural   studies   is   more   than   mere   media   studies.   It   includes   the   study   of   social   identities   in  
other  domains  of  culture  as  well.  Cultural  studies  moved  in  the  direction  of  concerns  with  sub-­‐
cultures.  Culture  is  thereby  treated  as  a  material  everyday  practice  (differences  exist  in  the  
way  this  practice  is  conceptualized).  

In   the   first   phase   of   ‘cultural   studies’,   culture   was   re-­‐conceptualized   as   an   everyday   and  
common  (as  opposed  to  ‘high’  culture).  In  the  second  phase  Stuart  Hall  would  re-­‐think  this  
notion   of   ‘culture’   on   the   basis   of   structuralist   insights.   In   the   field   of   media   studies,   cultural  
studies  would  lead  to  audience  studies  and  tot  he  concept  of  negotiated  media  influence  and  
active  audiences.  

 
Birmingham  Centre  for  Contemporary  Cultural  Studies  and  its  key  author  Stuart  Hall  

The  BCCCS  was  inaugurated  in  1964  by  R.  Hoggart  (  succeeded  by  Stuart  Hall).  In  the  classical  
period  of  British  Cultural  Studies  (1960-­‐80),  it  drew  on  :  insights  into  the  study  of  ideology  and  
culture   developed   by   Gramsci   and   Althusser   ;   Insights   from   structural   linguistics   and  
structuralism  ;  culturalism.  

Cultural  studies  contibuted  to  debates  about  representation  and  ideology  related  to  question  
of   class,   race,   gender,   ethnicity   and   nationality   in   cultural   texts   with   special   attention   for  
media  ‘texts’.  

The  center  was  also  among  the  first  to  study  the  way  messages  and  meanings  constructed  in  
popular  media  were  decoded  by  different  types  of  audiences.  It  was  the  idea  of  an  active  
audience   that   appeared   then.   Cultural   studies   generateds   key   insights   fo   reception   and  
audience  studies  in  the  wider  field  of  media  studies.  

Culturalism  in  early  cultural  studies  

It  was  a  new  way  of  thinking  about  culture  that  emerged  in  Britain  in  the  works  of  Richard  
Hogarth  and  Raymond  Williams  in  1950-­‐60s.    

•   Working  Class  Culture  as  a  common,  ordinary  and  everyday  thing  rooted  in  everyday  
practice.    
•   Culture  is  no  longer  exclusively  a  matter  of  ‘high’  bourgeois  culture  and  art.    

Why  did  a  culturalist  perspective  emerge  in  post-­‐war  England  ?    

Critics   of   mass   culture   in   the   1930’s   existed   but   were   mostly   formulated   in   the   context   of  
English  studies.    

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England  was  a  society  marked  by  strong  class-­‐division  operating  everything.  After  WWII  an  
increasingly  affluent  working  class  emerged.  Authors  such  as  Hoggart  and  Williams  would  
realize   that   working   class   culture   is   not   shallow   or   depth-­‐less.   They   discovered   that   the  
masses  didn’t  really  exist  and  instead,  people  emerged  (much  as  in  the  US).  

Richard  Hoggart  

He  had  a  working  class  background  and  experienced  social  mobility.  He  became  an  English  
literature  professor.    

He   wrote   a   book   called   ‘The   uses   of   literacy’.   It   is   an   account   of   the   everyday   lives   of   the  
majority  of  British  people  in  the  fifties.  It  is  about  the  working  class  people  who  were  not  
particularly  politically  active.  It  reveals  that  the  working  class  culture  is  rooted  in  generations  
long  experience  of  exploitation.    

In  the  seventies,  Hoggart  would  be  considered  as  overtly  optimistic  and  romantic  but  he  did  
play  a  role  in  taking  ‘culture’  out  of  the  grip  of  upper  class  elites.    

The  book  also  identifies  the  way  working  class  people  distinguished  ‘us’  from  ‘them’:  ‘they’  
have  the  power  

Hoggart  criticised  mass  produced,  pulp  literature  and  culture.  Nevertheless,  he  did  value  a  
genuine  popular  culture  of  the  working  classes  distinguishing  it  from  mass  culture.  

Raymond  Williams  

He  also  had  a  working  class  background  and  experienced  social  mobility.  For  him,  there  is  a  
distinct  working  class  way  of  life,  which  he  values.  He  focused  on  the  links  between  literature,  
politics  and  an  industrialized  class-­‐based  society.  He  didn’t  agreed  with  orthodox  marxism.  

Communication   is   either   :   authoritative,   paternal   or   commercial.   A   fourth   alternative   is  

democratic  communication.    

Stuart  Hall  on  culturalism  

Hall   drew   on   Gramsci   as   well   as   structuralists   such   as   Saussure   and   Althusser   in   order   to  
challenge   culturalism   and   its   disregard   for   the   way   culture   experiences   and   practices   get  
structured   through   discursive   codes   and   ideologies.   Culture   is   a   key   category   for   Hall.   He  
refused   the   economics   reductionism   of   orthodox   marxism.   He   also   acknowledges   that   there  
is  always  room  for  agency.  

He   continued   the   investigation   of   everyday   culture   but   provided   this   study   with   a   more  
‘critical’  spin.    

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Stuart  Hall  ?  The  main  figure  of  the  BCCCS  

 
He  was  a  cultural  theorist,  sociologist,  left-­‐wing  activist  and  co-­‐founder  and  main  editor  of  
‘New   Left   Review’.   He   was   born   in   1932   in   Jamaica   where   he   received   a   ‘very   classical’  
education  modeled  after  the  British  school  system.  He  became  director  of  the  BCCCS  in  1968  
and   quit   in   1974.   According   to   Hall,   cultural   studies   is   more   than   mere   media   studies.   It  
includes  the  study  of  social  identities  in  other  domains  of  culture  as  well.    

Hall   is   most   known   for   his   encoding/decoding   model   of   communication.   There   are   two  
versions  of  the  text  published  in  1973  and  1980.  The  first  version  was  a  critiques  of    Shannon  
and  Weaver  model  of  communication  based  on  structuralist  semiotics  of  De  Saussure  and  R.  
Barthes.  The  second  version  is  more  on  structuralist  Marxism.  These  texts  have  been  written  
as  part  of  an  attempt  to  integrate  semiotic  and  neo-­‐Marxist  insights  for  the  analysis  of  media  
messages  and  their  reception.  These  texts  partially  explain  the  preference  for  qualitative  and  
interpretive   research   methods   in   cultural   and   audience   studies.   The   key   to   understanding  
these  texts  is  to  understand  how  the  processes  of  encoding  and  decoding  developed  by  Hall  is  
different  for  what  these  terms  meant  in  the  communication  model  of  Shannon  and  Weaver  ?  

Hall’s  concept  of  encoding  and  decoding  

 
 

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The   whole   point   of   the   encoding/decoding   model   was   to   apply   it,   the   1973   texte   is   a  
provisional   programmatic   text.   The   main   question   posed   by   hall’s   model   was   weather   TV  
audiences  decoded  TV  messages  as  intended  or  not.  The  encoding/decoding  model  would  
inform  the  first  qualitative  audience  and  reception  studies  of  the  BCCCS.  The  1973  text  is  
higly   inspired   by   semiotic   analysis   and   demonstrates   a   clear   concern   with   the   question   of  
agency  and  actively  interpreting  audiences  rely  on  semiotic  ‘codes’  to  understand  the  world.  
The   text   argues   in   favor   of   a   semiotic   approach   to   the   production   and   reception   of   popular  
culture.    
 
Structuralist  semiotics  as  a  source  for  Hall’s  cultural  sutdies  à  Hall  relies  on  the  semioticians  
R.  Barthes  and  U.  Eco  in  his  1973  text.    
 
 
STRUCTURALISM  
 
A  note  on  structuralism  and  cultural  studies  
 
It   is   particular   way   of   thinking   based   on   abstract   assumptions.   It   is   a   transdisciplinary  
category  in  social  sciences.  A  structuralist  analysis  consists  in  identifying  the  underlying  rule.  
It’s  not  a  coherent  theory  rather  an  analytical  or  theorical  perspective  with  vast  implications.  

Alison  Assiter  identified  four  characteristics  of  structuralism  :  

•   The  structure  determines  the  meaning  of  the  elements  in  a  whole.  
•   Every  system  has  a  structure.  
•   Structural  laws  deal  with  co-­‐existence  rather  than  change.  
•   Structures  are  the  real  things  that  lie  under  the  surface  of  appearance.    

Structuralism  allows  little  room  for  human  agency  and  reflexivity.  Structuralism  provides  an  
important   background   for   the   development   of   cultural   studies.   Cultural   studies   oscilate  
between  culturalism  and  different  types  of  structuralism  

Structuralist  Linguistics  –  A  source  of  inspiration  for  Stuart  Hall  

A.  Ferdinand  de  Saussure  

Ferdinand  de  Saussure  was  a  structuralist  linguist  who  wanted  to  develop  a  ‘science  of  signs’  
=  semiology  :  It  would  investigate  the  nature  of  signs  and  the  laws  governing  them.  Today  
the  science  of  signs  is  usually  called  semiotics.  Saussure’s  structuralist  approach  to  signs  and  
meaning  continues  to  resonate  in  many  disciplines  in  spite  of  the  critiques.    

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Saussure  saw  linguistics  as  one  branch  of  semiology.  He  makes  a  distinction  between  langue  
and  parole  :    

§   Langue   :   system   of   rules   and   convention   that   exists   before   individual   use   of   a  
language.  
  
§   Parole  :  speech/concrete  utterances.  
  

Signs   make   sense   within   a   wider   structure   marked   by   a   syntagmatic   and   paradigmatic   rules  
or  structures  :    

§   Syntagmatic  poles  :  rules  for  combining  signifiers
  

§   Paradigmatic  poles  :  determines  the  range  of  choices  we  can  make.    

Saussure  and  semioticians  are  mostly  interested  in  the  underlying  structures  and  rules  of  a  
semiotic  system  as  a  whole  rather  than  specific  performances  or  practices  which  are  merely  
instances  of  its  use.    

For  Saussure,  a  linguistic  sign  is  not  a  link  between  a  thing  and  a  name,  but  between  a  concept  
(signified)   and   a   sound   pattern   (signifier).   Every   word   is   a   signifier,   which   means   that   the  
sound  pattern  is  not  really  a  physical  sound  but  more  the  hearer’s  psychological  impression  
of   a   sound.   
This   sound   pattern   may   be   called   a   ‘material’   element   only   in   that   it   is   a  
representation   of   our   sensory   impressions.   The   sound   pattern   may   thus   be   distinguished  
from   the   other   element   associated   with   it   in   a   linguistic   sign.   This   other   element   is   generally  
of  a  more  abstract  kind  :  the  concept.    

Saussure’s  notion  of  the  sign  :    

 
sign  =  signifier,  signified  +  the  unity  of  both  (3  elements)
  

§   Signifier:  a  sound  pattern  /  image  (writing  being  a  sort  of  derivative)  -­‐  today  usually  
interpreted  as  the  material  or  physical  form  of  the  sign
  
§   Signified:  the  concept,  a  mental  construct,  not  a  thing  but  a  ‘notions  of  a  thing’    
§   The  sign  consists  of  the  unity  to  signifier  and  signified  (both  can  only  be  distinguished  
analytically)    

A   sign   consists   in   the   unity   of   a   signifier  and   the   signified.   It   only   makes   sense   as   part   of   a  
formal,   generalised   and   abstract   system.   What   distinguishes   a   sign   from   another   sign   is  
what  constitutes  it  :  language  is  a  differential  system.  No  sign  makes  sense  of  its  own  but  
only  in  relation  to  other  signs  in  the  paradigmatic  structure  of  the  system.  

The  link  between  the  signifier  and  the  signified  is  arbitrary  and  based  on  mere  convention.  
Lacan  argued  that  signifieds  slide  under  signifiers  and  the  link  is  merely  a  temporary  social  

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fixation   of   meaning.   The   arbitrariness   is   ontological,   not   social   or   historical.     It   helps   to  

explain  why  signs  have  multiple  rather  than  single  meanings  and  why  signifiers  may  have  
many  signifieds  even  in  a  single  language.    


Remarks  on  Saussure  today  :  

The  prioritization  of  structure  over  usage  fails  to  account  for  changes  in  structure.  Plus,  the  
meaning  of  a  sign  has  to  be  understood  in  the  context  of  its  use  rather  than  in  relation  to  
other  signs  of  the  system.  

Today,  language  is  no  longer  treated  as  the  closed,  static  and  stable  system  envisioned  by  
Saussure,  but  many  post-­‐structuralists  do  work  with  his  idea  that  signs  acquire  meaning  
through  difference    

The  work  of  Saussure  has  become  outdated  in  linguistics  but  notions  such  as  the  signifier  
and  the  signified  remain  relevant.  His  work  also  played  a  big  role  in  the  development  of  
constructivism.   For   instance,   the   poststructuralist   political   theory   of   Ernesto   Laclau   is  
based  on  Saussure’s  work  :  politics  is  a  struggle  over  empty  signifiers  such  as  democracy,  
freedom...  
Different  actors  try  to  slide  their  own  preferred  signified  under  these  signifiers  
in  order  to  make  their  definition  of  reality  the  dominant  one.  

B.  Roland  Barthes  

Roland  Barthes  was  a  French  literary  critic  and  cultural  commentator.  He  was  a  key  author  
in  the  development  of  semiology/semiotics  and  an  important  author  for  structuralism  and  
postructuralism.  

One  of  his  most  famous  books  is  Mythologies  (1957)  which  is  a  collection  of  essays  on  cultural  
phenomena  analysed  by  him  in  terms  of  signs,  language  and  code.  Bartes  wrote  the  book  with  

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two  goals  in  mind  :    An  ideological  critiques  of  the  language  of  so-­‐called  mass  sulture  and  an  
attempt  at  a  semiological  analysis  of  the  mechanisms  of  this  language.  It  was  highly  innovative  
because   it   focuses   on   contemporary   cultural   phenomena   that   were   considered   not   worthy  
of   study.   It   was   also   an   early   attempt   to   apply   structuralist   principles   to   the   domain   of  
everyday  culture.    

He  refused  to  call  himself  a  marxist.  He  was  very  much  opposed  to  communism  in  the  USSR.  
Nevertheless,  he  was  interested  in  the  notion  of  inequality  as  well  as  the  notion  of  normality.  
For  him,  the  enemy  was  the  bourgeois  norm  distributed  through  mass  culture.    

He  reserved  the  notion  of  myth  for  the  specific  form  that  ideology  can  take.  He  is  interested  
in  the  myths  of  the  ‘petit  bourgeois’  culture.  Myth  is  a  language  in  the  semiological  sens,  it  
is  a  mode  of  signification.  It  can  be  studied  through  semiology.  Myth  transforms  history  into  
nature  :  it  is  a  depoliticised  speech  (speech  that  presents  social  reality  as  natural).  An  example  
of   this,   is   that   pink   means   female   and   blue   means   male.   myth   is   a   ‘language’   in   the  
semiological  sense:  it  may  make  use  not  only  of  speech,  but  also  of  photography,  cinema,  
reporting,  shows  or  publicity    

Barthes  writes  that  myths  can  be  read  in  three  different  ways:    

•   The  sign  is  taken  to  stand  for  a  specific  concept  :  there  is  no  ambiguity  involved  in  this  
reading.  
  
•   You  can  also  distinguish  meaning  and  form,  undoing  the  signification  of  the  myth  :  this  
is  a  reading  of  people  who  understand  the  distortion  taking  place  in  myth.  
  
•   An  ambiguous/innocent  reading  :  myth  is  read  as  a  factual  system.  
  

In   a   later   phase   of   his   writings,   Barthes   moved   towards   post-­‐structuralism.   Declaring  

‘the   death   of   the   author’,   he   would   claim   that   meaning   doesn’t   reside   in   the   author.   The  
author  doesn’t  have  final  authority  over  the  meaning  of  his  work.
The  death  of  the  author  
is  therefore  a  polemical  death  goes  hand  in  hand  with  the  re-­‐birth  of  the  active  reader    

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Hall  drawing  on  structuralist  semiotics  in  his  1973  text  

Before   a   message   can   have   an   effect   it   must   be   ‘meaningfully   decoded’.   Hall   points   out   that  
the   codes   used   for   ‘encoding’   media   message   at   the   production   end   are   not   necessarily   the  
same  codes  audiences  use  for  decoding.  He  takes  issue  with  the  historical  focus  on  effects  in  
media  studies  and  the  lack  of  reflection  on  ‘meaning’  in  positivist  and  behavioral  research.  
For  Hall,  media  message  are  polysemic  ‘signifiers’  that  only  acquire  meaning  when  embeded  
in  ‘codes’.  

For   Hall   the   question   of   semiotics   is   closely   intertwined   with   questions   of   ideology,  
interpretation  and  resistance.  

Hall’s  critique  of  structuralist  semiotics  :  

Hall  relies  on  semiology  but  criticises  it  for  having  neglected  the  interpretive  work  carried  out  
by   the   ‘consumers’   /   decoders   of   media   message.   There   is   non   ’correct’   way   to   decode   a  
media  message  but  there  is  a  preferred  reading  suggested  by  the  designers  of  the  message.  
Reading   or   decoding   a   media   message   at   the   level   of   connotation   or   ideology   is   rather   a  
matter   of   inserting   signifiers   into   an   alternative   code.   Decoding   media   messages   and   the  
code   in   which   they   are   embedded   can   be   a   creative   and   critical   activity   practiced   by   the  
audience(s).  

For  Hall,  misunderstanding  at  the  level  of  denotation  is  often  a  matter  of  clashing  codes.  It  
is  not  merely  a  matter  of  selective  attention/retention  of  information.  It  is  an  indication  of  
structural  conflicts,  contradictions  and  negotiations  of  economic,  political  and  cultural  life.    

Hall  distinguishes  between  :    

§   Decoding   according   to   the   hegemonic   code   (as   it   is   intended   by   the   people   who  
encoded  the  message).  
  
§   Decoding   according   to   a   negotiated   code   (a   mixture   of   adaptive   and   oppositional  
elements).  
  
§   Oppositional  decoding  that  is  antagonistic  to  the  hegemonic  code.  
  

The  way  you  decode  messages  and  signs  depends  on  the  codes  at  your  disposal  and  these  
codes  differ  depending  on  the  culture  or  reference  group  you  identify  with.    

Hall  and  (structuralist)  neo-­‐marxism  –  encoding/decoding  in  1980  text  

A  partially  new  text  of  only  ten  pages  without  references  to  the  debate  with  Halloran  and  his  
communications  department.  The  new  texte  is  more  heavily  placed  within  a  marxist/class-­‐
based  problematic.  Encoding/decoding  was  also  a  model  developed  in  order  to  conceptualize  
resistance  and  struggles  against  hegemonic  structures  of  meaning.  

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Winona  Fautré  

Antonio  Gramsci  

On  ideology  and  hegemony  

Antonio   Gramsci   was   an   Italian   un-­‐orthodox   marxist   and   died   long   before   cultural   studies  
were   developed   (he   was   imprisoned   for   10   years   by   mussolini   and   died   the   year   after   his  
release).  He  helped  to  create  the  Italian  marxist  party.  His  ideas  were  translated  to  English  in  
the  late  1960’s.  He  wanted  to  understand  why  it  was  the  fascist  party  that  gained  power  in  
Italy  ?  

British  Cultural  Studies  reengaged  Gramsci’s  ideas.  It  wanted  to  move  away  from  the  idea  of  
a  passive  audience  (frankfurt  school).  It  developed  in  a  period  marked  by  active  protests  and  
oppositional  movements  in  the  1960’s  and  1970’s.  British  cultural  studies  were  developed  to  
understand   how   people   were   controlled   ideologically   but   also   how   they   could   resist  
dominant  ways  of  thinking  (ideologies).  

Gramsci   broadened   the   notion   of   hegemony   beyond   the   idea   of   leadership.   He   used   this  
notion  to  refer  to  the  ways  in  which  a  governing  power  wins  consent  to  its  rule  from  those  it  
subjugates,  and  sometimes  to  cover  both  consent  and  coercion  together.  Hegemony  includes  
ideology   but   is   not   reducible   to   it.   Hegemony   is   not   just   exercised   through   the   state,   but  
mostly   through   civil   society   institutions   (TV,   scouts,   church,   media,   family,   schools).   It  
operates  through  the  construction  of  common  sense  for  a  whole  social  order.    

Different  ideologies  can  compete  for  hegemonic  status.  Ideology  is  a  matter  of  lived  everyday  
practice,  it  operates  through  self-­‐government.  It  is  essential  that  individuals  must  feel  free  if  
they   are   to   consent.   Ideology   is   determined   by   time   and   space   :   it   is   a   form   of   historical  
consciousness.   A   dominant   ideology   is   not   always   the   ideology   of   the   dominant   class.   For  
Gramsci   ideologies   can   operate   relatively   independently   from   the   economic   base   of   the  
society.  

Gramsci  points  at  the  importance  of  intellectuals.  There  are  traditional  intellectuals  :  doctors,  
priests,  professors,  who  reproduce  ideologies.  There  are  also  organic  intellectuals  who  are  not  
free-­‐standing  intellectuals  who  emerged  from  a  social  class,  they  give  class  self-­‐consciousness  
:   writers,   philosophers,   lawyers.   They   engage   in   the   praxis   of   organising,   constructing   and  
persuading.   Organic   intellectuals   help   to   unify   theory   and   practice   and   therefore   have   to  
combat  contradictory  and  politically  backward  ‘common  sense’.  They  also  need  to  construct  
a  new  common  sense  that  informs  a  democratic  solidarity
  

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Louis  Althusser  

On  ideology  and  ideological  state  apparatuses  

Louis   Althusser   (1918-­‐1990)   was   a   structuralist   marxist.   He   developed   his   own   version   of  
marxism.  He  was  originally  a  left-­‐wing  catholic  and  then  became  communist.  He  had  physical  
and  mental  problems  and  murdered  his  wife.  Key  notion:  ISA’s  (ideological  state  apparatus),  
RSA’s  (repressive  state  apparatus),  interpellation,  subject  position,  ideology,  subjectivity.
  

According  to  him,  ideology  is  a  representation  of  the  imaginary  relationship  of  individuals  to  
their  real  conditions  of  existence.    

Althusser  and  cultural  studies  :    

Althusser’s  framework  is  a  rather  good  example  of  structuralism  in  Marxist  theory.  Its  model  
of  subjectivity  doesn’t  leave  a  lot  of  room  for  resistance  and  freedom.  Students  of  cultural  
studies  aren’t  so  much  inspired  by  his  bleak  vision  of  man,  but  rather  by  his  theory  of  ISA.  
Also,   the   idea   that   ideology   is   an   imaginary   phenomenon   that   shapes   subjectivity   and  
identity  is  key  to  cultural  studies.  Authors  in  cultural  studies  are  usually  not  economically  
deterministic  and  pay  attention  to  many  different  types  of  identity  formation.  Cultural  studies  
is  interested  in  mainstream  messages  and  process  of  interpellation  but  also  in  the  process  of  
(critical)  de-­‐coding  of  messages.  

Althusser  on  Ideology  :    

Man  is  an  ideological  animal  by  nature.  Ideology  is  always  already  there  (even  before  birth).  
You  and  I  are  always  subjects.  We  are  shaped  by  forces  that  we  have  little  control  over.  All  
ideology  works  through  the  process  of  hailing  and  (mis)-­‐recognition  :  it  is  what  helps  us  to  
recognise   ourselves   in   a   particular   way.   Ideology   speaks   to   you   in   order   to   single   you   out   :   it  
interpellates  subjects.    

Ideology  always  exists  in  an  apparatus  (=dispositif)  and  its  practice.  Its  existence  is  material.  
  

ISA’s  and  RSA’s  :  

Althusser   makes   a   distinction   between   Repressive   State   Apparatuses   RSA   and   Ideological  
State   Apparatuses   ISA.   RSA   works   massively   and   predominantly   through   violence   or  
repression  (prisons,  courts,  army).  ISA  works  massively  and  predominantly  through  ideology  
(religion,   family,   trade   unions,   culture,   school),   they   are   multiple,   distinct,   relatively  
autonomous,  marked  by  contradictions.    

For   Althusser,   the   key     functions   of   RSA   and   ISA   is   to   reproduce   the   dominant   ideology.    
There  is  always  a  dominant  ISA  (the  Church  in  the  middle  ages,  for  example).  He  describes  the  
school  as  an  ISA.  

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Some  remarks  :    

Althusser  was  revelant  to  Hall  because  he  was  interested  in  the  way  media  messages  were  
encoded   with   ideological   meanings.   At   the   same   time,   Hall   criticizes   Althusser   for   his  
structuralist   view   on   human   subjectivity.   Althusser   does   not   give   us   an   account   of   what  
happens   if   we   fail   to   recognise   ourselves   in   a   dominant   ideology.   And   what   about  
interpretation  ?  There  is  no  account  of  why  we  would  accept  this  particular  type  of  subjectivity  
and  ideology  over  another  ?  What  about  non-­‐class  ideologies  ?    

Also,   ideological   subject   is   too   coherent   and   stable,   and   the   Subject   is   too   unitary   and  
commanding.   Subjectivity   is   way   more   split   and   multiple   :   interpellation   is   therefore   less  
predictable  than  Althusser  lets  on.    

CULTURAL  AND  AUDIENCE  STUDIES  

 
Audience  studies  :  applying  encoding/decoding  

Audience  studies  reacted  to  structruralist  approaches  to  meaning  and  communication.  Like  
cultural   studies,   they   take   an   intermediate   position   between   agency   and   structure   oriented  
approaches  to  interpretation.  

The  audience  studies  of  Hall  and  Morley  was  a  reaction  against  the  structuralist  approach  to  
film  and  television  in  the  magazine  screen.  Many  authors  publishing  in  screen  believed  media  
construct  identities  or  subject  positions  that  are  bound  to  be  taken  up  by  viewers  who  seek  
to  make  a  sense  of  these  cultural  texts.  In  contrast  to  this  structuralist  approach,  audience  
studies   did   empirical   research   into   the   interpretations   of   audience   members   inspired   by  
Hall’s  encoding/decoding  model.  

Morley  contextualized  audience  studies  as  follows  :  

Morley  

Encoding/decoding   was   also   a   model   developed   in   order   to   conceptualise   resistance   and  

struggles  against  hegemonic  structures  of  meaning.  The  context  is  England  in  the  late  1970’s  
with   Margaret   Thatcher   as   Primer   Minister.   The   workers   were   showing   resistance   to   the  

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austerity  of  the  regime.    

It   was   originally   applied   to   empirical   analysis.   According   to   Morley,   the   relation   of   an  

audience  to  the  ideological  operations  of  television  remains  in  principle  an  empirical  question.  
The  challenge  is  the  attempt  to  develop  appropriate  methods  of  empirical  investigation  of  
that  relation.    

The  Study  Nationwide  (1978)  

The   boom   of   audience   studies   in   the   1980’s   was   a   reaction   against   overly   structuralist  
approaches  to  meaning  and  communication  if  the  seventies.  The  Study  Nationwide  (1978)  
was   carried   out   within   the   Birmingham   Centre   for   Contemporary   Cultural   Studies   by  
researchers  such  as  David  Morley  in  order  to  apply  the  encoding/decoding  model.  The  Study  
of   Nationwide   has   to   be   understood   as   a   response   to   structuralism   and   to   the   so   called  
disappearance  of  the  public.    

Cultural  studies  approaches  to  audience  takes  an  intermediate  position  between  agency  and  
structure  oriented  approaches  to  interpretation.    

Nationwide   was   a   TV   programme.   In   his   study,   Morley   investigated   the   way   audience  
members  decoded  the  current  affairs  of  the  programme.  His  study  is  based  on  qualitative  in-­‐
depth  interviews  with  viewers  of  different  social  and  economic  backgrounds  (ethnography  of  
reading  of  media  messages).    

Morley’s  family  television  (1986)  

He   showed   fragments   of   the   ‘budget   special’.   Different   categories   decoded   the   message  
differently.  Managers  tended  to  decode  the  message  following  the  hegemonic  code,  teachers  
and   students   engaged   in   negotiated   decoding,   and   unionists   engaged   in   oppositional  
decoding.  But  economic  class  and  occupation  did  not  predict  all  different  types  of  decoding.  
For  example,  black  university  students  were  not  really  interested  into  the  budget.    

Morley   also   analysed   the   way   the   different   members   of   the   nuclear   family   watch   television  
(Family  Television  1986).  It  is  an  analysis  of  gendered  television  viewing  habits  in  the  UK  from  
a  cultural  studies  perspective  based  on  interviews  and  observations.  The  study  showed  that  
me,   and   women   related   differently   to   television   and   had   different   viewing   styles.   Wives  
watched  less  attentively  combining  TV  with  other  activities  such  as  talking  or  household  tasks.  
Husbands  preferred  viewing  attentively  in  silence,  without  interruption,  in  order  not  to  miss  
anything.    

Morley  does  not  reduce  these  differences  to  essential  or  natural  differences  between  men  
and   women.   He   does   not   explain   these   differences   with   respect   to   needs   or   processes   of  
socialisation  either.  TV  is  treated  as  a  domestic  cultural  form  with  different  meanings  for  men  
and  women.    From  a  CS  perspective,  the  question  is  why  these  gendered  differences  take  the  

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Winona  Fautré  

form  they  do  ?  

For   men,   it   has   become   the   central   symbol   of   relaxation,   for   women   there   is   a   more  
contradictory  relationship  involved.  For  example,  it  is  ok  for  men  to  impose  their  choice  of  TV  
programme  to  the  whole  family  while  women  do  not.  So  women  have  developed  all  sorts  of  
strategies  to  cope  with  television  viewing  that  they  don’t  like.    

TV   viewing   habits   prove   to   be   bound   up   with   issues   of   power   in   the   family   and   in   society   in  
general.    Ang    points  out  that  viewing  practices  are  not  mere  expressions  of  different  needs,  
uses   or   readings   but   connected   to   the   way   social   subjects   are   structurally   positioned   in  
society  and  to  each  other.  This  type  of  analysis  isn’t  neutral,  is  decidedly  feminist.  From  a  CS  
perspective,  all  research  is  always  political.  

On  critical  audience  studies  

Ien   Ang   wrote   an   article   on   the   politics   of   empirical   audience   research  (1993),   reflecting   on  
the  differences  between  Critical  Cultural  Studies  and  the  Uses  and  Gratification  approach  to  
audience  activity.  Ang  argues  that  every  approach  can  be  critical  but  that  differences  between  
the  audience  is  dealt  with  in  CS  and  U&G  remains.    

Ang  clarifies  her  use  of  the  term  ‘critical’  as  follows  :    

•   Being   critical   implies   that   one   acknowledges   that   the   production   of   knowledge   is  
bound  up  with  the  establishment  of  power  relations.  
  
•   Being  critical  also  implies  a  self-­‐reflective  attitude.  
  
•   Being  critical  is  not  tied  up  with  a  specific  tradition.  
  
•   Critical  and  empirical  research  are  not  necessarily  incompatible.    

Ang  argues  that  U&G  and  the  type  of  ethnographic  audience  research  proposed  in  cultural  
studies   converge   only   in   part.   Epistemological,   theorical   and   political   differences   remain.  
There  are  also  an  epistemological  and  ontological  difference   between  Critical  studies  and  
U&G  approach.  Even  if  these  two  studies  are  inspired  by  cultural  studies  and  share  the  same  
object   of   investigation   (audience),   there   are   significant   tensions   between   both   approach.  
These  differences  are  linked  to  ideological  approaches  to  and  assumptions  about  society  and  
individuality.  

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Winona  Fautré  

U&G   researchers   generally   operate   within   a   liberal   pluralist   conception   of   society   where  
individuals  are  seen  as  free,  unhindered  from  external  powers.   
In  cultural  studies,  people  
are   conceived   as   already   implicated   in,   and   necessarily   constrained   by,   the   web   of  
relationships   and   structures   which   constitue   them   as   social   subjects.   From   a   cultural   studies  
point   of   view,   audiences   are   active,   but   not   powerful   or   free   as   conceived   by   U&G  
researchers.  These  differences  are  deeply  political  and  ideological.  No  theory  is  value  neutral.  

  

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